VESTED NI TERESTS

CROSS-DRESSING & CULTURAL ANXIETY

 VESTED INTERESTS
CROSS-DRESSING & CULTURAL ANXIETY

MARJORIE GARBER
This edition published 2011 by Routledge:

Routledge Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group
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Routledge Paperback Edition 1997

Originally published in 1992 by

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Copyright © 1992 by Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc.

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any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Garber, Marjorie
Vested interests : cross-dressing and cultural anxiety / Marjorie
Garber.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-415-92034-5 (pbk)
1. Transvestism. 2. Transvestites. I. Title.
HQ77.G37 1991
306.77-dc20 91-20171
FOR BARBARA
 CONTENTS

Picture Credits
ix

Acknowledgments
xi

Introduction: Clothes M a k e t h e M a n
1

I. TRANSVESTITE LOGICS

1. Dress C o d e s , o r t h e Theatricality o f D i f f e r e n c e
21

2. C r o s s - D r e s s f o r Success
41

3 . T h e Transvestite's Progress
67

4. Spare Parts: T h e Surgical C o n s t r u c t i o n o f G e n d e r

93

5. Fetish E n v y
118

6. B r e a k i n g t h e C o d e : Transvestism a n d G a y Identity
128
 CONTENTS

II. TRANSVESTITE EFFECTS

7. Fear o f F l y i n g , o r W h y Is Peter P a n a W o m a n ?
165

8. C h e r c h e z la F e m m e : C r o s s - D r e s s i n g i n Detective F i c t i o n
186

9. Religious Habits
210

10. P h a n t o m s o f the O p e r a : A c t o r , D i p l o m a t , Transvestite, Spy

234

11. B l a c k a n d W h i t e T V : C r o s s - D r e s s i n g the C o l o r L i n e
267

12. T h e C h i c o f A r a b y : Transvestism a n d the Erotics o f C u l t u r a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n

304

13. T h e Transvestite C o n t i n u u m : L i b e r a c e - V a l e n t i n o - E l v i s
353

Conclusion a tergo: R e d R i d i n g H o o d a n d the W o l f i n B e d

375

Notes
391

Index
427

viii
 PICTURE CREDITS

A d d i t i o n a l credits appear beside illustrations.

Black-and-white illustrations following page 162:

Make-Up for Beginners, c o p y r i g h t Joost V e e r k a m p 1987; w o o d c u t f r o m title page o f Hic

Mulier: Or The Man-Woman: Being a Medicine to cure the Coltish Disease of the Staggers in the
Masculine-Feminines of our Times ( L o n d o n : J.T., 1620); Venetian woman with moveable skirt,
55.503.30, engraving, Italian, ca. 1590, 5 1/2" X 7 1/2", the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f
A r t , the Elisha W h i t t e l s e y C o l l e c t i o n , the Elisha W h i t t e l s e y F u n d , 1955; Some Like It Hot,
courtesy o f the M u s e u m o f M o d e r n A r t , N e w Y o r k ; Tootsie, Bringing Up Baby, Yentl, a n d
Bedazzled courtesy o f the M u s e u m o f M o d e r n A r t , N e w Y o r k ; G e o r g e H . Earle, I V , as the
D o v e Q u e e n i n Come Across, 1937, p h o t o by Joe Steinmetz, Town and Country M a y 1937;
advertisement f r o m the magazine TV Personals', D i v i n e i n Female Trouble, courtesy o f the
M u s e u m o f M o d e r n A r t , N e w Y o r k ; W A C a p p l y i n g m a k e - u p to G I , courtesy o f the
N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , p h o t o #111 - S C - 2 0 4 6 3 7 ; O l i v i e r being fitted f o r a
drag role, c o p y r i g h t T e r r y O ' N e i l l ; R e n é e V i v i e n as page, f r o m the N a t a l i e Barney
C o l l e c t i o n , Bibliothèque littéraire Jacques D o u c e t , Paris; Julie A n d r e w s i n Victor/Victoria,
courtesy o f the M u s e u m o f M o d e r n A r t , N e w Y o r k ; R o m a i n e B r o o k s , Peter (A Young
English Girl), 1970.70, o i l o n canvas, 1 9 2 3 - 1 9 2 4 , 36 1/4" X 24 1/2" (91.9 X 62.3 cm),
the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m o f A m e r i c a n A r t , Smithsonian Institution, gift o f the artist; G r e t a
G a r b o i n Queen Christina, courtesy o f the M u s e u m o f M o d e r n A r t , N e w Y o r k ; M a n R a y ,
Marcel Duchamp as Rrose Sélavy, 5 7 - 4 9 - 1 , p h o t o g r a p h , ca. 1 9 2 0 - 1 9 2 1 , 8 1/2" X 6 13/16",
the P h i l a d e l p h i a M u s e u m o f A r t , the Samuel S. W h i t e III a n d V e r a W h i t e C o l l e c t i o n .

Color illustrations following page 226:

M a d o n n a , Express Yourself, p h o t o g r a p h by A l b e r t o T o l o t , p r o p e r t y o f W a r n e r B r o s .
R e c o r d s ; R o m a i n e B r o o k s , Una, Lady Troubridge, 1966.49.6, o i l o n canvas, 1924, 50 1/8"

ix
 PICTURE CREDITS

X 30 1/8" (127.3 X 76.4 c m ) , the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m o f A m e r i c a n A r t , Smithsonian

Institution, gift o f the artist; Elvis i n g o l d lame, courtesy o f Jane a n d M i c h a e l S t e r n ; F r i d a
K a h l o , Self-Portrait with Cropped Hair, o i l o n canvas, 1940, 15 3/4" X 11", the M u s e u m o f
M o d e r n A r t , N e w Y o r k , gift o f Edgar K a u f m a n n , Jr.

Black-and-white illustrations following page 290:

O s c a r W i l d e as Salome, courtesy o f R o g e r - V i o l l e t , Paris; A u b r e y Beardsley d r a w i n g

f r o m : O s c a r W i l d e , Salome, a Tragedy in One Act, trans. A l f r e d Douglas, illus. A u b r e y
Beardsley ( L o n d o n : J o h n Lane, T h e B o d l e y H e a d , 1907); engravings o f A n n e B o n n y a n d
M a r y R e a d f r o m : [ D a n i e l D e f o e ] , pseud. C a p t a i n Charles J o h n s o n , Historie der engelsche
zee-roovers, beginnende met de geschiedenisse van capiteyn Avery, en zyne makkers [The History of
the Pirates], trans. R o b e r t H e n n e b o ( A m s t e r d a m : H e r m a n u s U y t w e r f , 1725); E r n e s t T o r -
rence as C a p t a i n H o o k , courtesy o f the M u s e u m o f M o d e r n A r t , N e w Y o r k ; B e t t y B r o n s o n
a n d M a r y M a r t i n as Peter P a n , courtesy o f the M u s e u m o f M o d e r n A r t , N e w Y o r k ; all
images o f James B a r r y courtesy o f the R o y a l A r m y M e d i c a l C o r p s , A l d e r s h o t , Hants.,
G r e a t B r i t a i n ; B e t t y G r a b l e i n Mother Wore Tights a n d H e l m u t B e r g e r i n The Damned
c o u r t e s y o f the M u s e u m o f M o d e r n A r t , N e w Y o r k ; M a r l e n e D i e t r i c h , p o r t r a i t f o r Morocco
(1930); V a l e n t i n o a n d A y r e s i n The Sheik, courtesy o f the M u s e u m o f M o d e r n A r t , N e w
Y o r k ; Elvis Presley i n Harum Scarum, courtesy o f Jane a n d M i c h a e l S t e r n ; Isabelle E b e r h a r d t
dressed as an A r a b f r o m R e n e - L o u i s D o y o n , Au Pays des Sables (Paris: F e r n a n d Sorlot,
1944); D e b r a W i n g e r i n The Sheltering Sky c o p y r i g h t 1990, 1991 by M i m m o C a t t a r i n i c h ,
all rights reserved, courtesy o f R a m Studio Snc, R o m e ; T . E . L a w r e n c e i n A r a b c l o t h i n g ,
courtesy o f the Imperial W a r M u s e u m , L o n d o n , p h o t o g r a p h # Q 59314; photograph of
Elvis a n d L i b e r a c e r e p r o d u c e d by p e r m i s s i o n o f the Liberace F o u n d a t i o n f o r the C r e a t i v e
a n d P e r f o r m i n g A r t s ; illustration o f R e d R i d i n g H o o d by F e l i x L o r i o u x , f r o m Les Contes
de Perrault (Paris, 1927).

Jacket: P a u l W u n d e r l i c h , Hermaphroditenhemd, 1973. R e p r o d u c e d by p e r m i s s i o n o f the

artist.

Back Cover: Androgyny, courtesy o f F P G International A r c h i v e s , catalogue # H 0 0 4 8 6 .

x
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T h e w r i t i n g o f this b o o k has been i m m e n s e l y facilitated by the generosity o f friends,

colleagues, institutions, a n d interested strangers, w h o k i n d l y a n d regularly p r o v i d e d
instances o f cross-dressing i n literature a n d c u l t u r e f r o m t h e i r r e a d i n g a n d personal
experience, m a n y t h o u g h not all o f w h i c h have f o u n d t h e i r w a y i n t o these pages.
O v e r - t h e - t r a n s o m c o n t r i b u t i o n s came f r o m u n e x p e c t e d places: the C h a i r o f the H a r -
v a r d D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h r o p o l o g y described to m e his o w n transvestic adventures a m o n g
the baboons, w h o s e preference f o r female h u m a n c o m p a n y l e d h i m o n at least one
occasion to cross-dress i n the hopes o f f o o l i n g t h e m i n t o amiability. ( T h e y w e r e n o t
deceived.) A f t e r a n article appeared i n the New York Times Magazine that m a d e b r i e f m e n t i o n
o f m y w o r k o n cross-dressing, I received several h e l p f u l letters, i n c l u d i n g a m a n u s c r i p t
a n d photographs f r o m a m a n w h o h a d entered a monastery i n N e w Y o r k as a w a y o f
channeling his impulses t o dress i n w o m e n ' s clothes. H e later left the m o n a s t e r y a n d
began f o r a t i m e to dress o p e n l y as a w o m a n .

M y m a i l was regularly e n r i c h e d by clippings, c u t o u t o f magazines a n d newspapers,

about P h i l D o n a h u e i n a s k i r t , o r the gang o f transvestite u n d e r w e a r thieves i n S o u t h
F l o r i d a , o r the B i l l y T i p t o n affair, o r the W a l t h a m - b a s e d International F o u n d a t i o n f o r
G e n d e r E d u c a t i o n , o r the t w e n t y - s i x year o l d m a n i n C o l o r a d o Springs w h o e n r o l l e d i n
a h i g h s c h o o l as a g i r l a n d m a d e the a l l - g i r l cheerleading squad. T o all o f those w h o m a d e
m y m a i l b o x a constant source o f surprise a n d delight, m y very w a r m thanks.
T w o p e o p l e i n p a r t i c u l a r deserve gratitude a n d r e c o g n i t i o n i n the m a k i n g o f this b o o k .
O n e is Barbara J o h n s o n , to w h o m the b o o k is dedicated, w h o read a n d c o m m e n t e d o n
every draft, t a k i n g t i m e away f r o m her o w n w o r k to d o i t ; the o t h e r is Jennifer C a r r e l l ,
m y research assistant, student, a n d f r i e n d , whose indefatigable labors, acute insights a n d
lively interest i n the o d d twists a n d turns o f an e v e r - e x p a n d i n g t o p i c m a d e the w r i t i n g
easy a n d pleasant. W i t h o u t J e n n y a n d Barbara this b o o k c o u l d n o t have been w r i t t e n .
M a n y o t h e r friends a n d collaborators s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d by n a m e : Stephen O r g e l ,
w h o s e f r i e n d s h i p a n d l e a r n i n g w e r e b o t h invaluable i n the crafting o f the Renaissance
p o r t i o n s o f the b o o k , a n d w h o s e o w n w o r k o n E n g l i s h transvestite theater i n the

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Renaissance was an i n s p i r a t i o n ; M i c h a e l C o o p e r a n d N a n c y Bauer, w h o t o o k m e to

transvestite night clubs a n d i n d o c t r i n a t e d m e i n t o the delights o f D i v i n e ; N a n c y V i c k e r s ,
t o w h o m I a m i n d e b t e d n o t o n l y for whatever I have c o m e to k n o w about M a d o n n a a n d
G e o r g e M i c h a e l , b u t also f o r sharing w i t h m e the e x t r a o r d i n a r y e x c i t e m e n t o f the m o v e
f r o m Renaissance Studies to p o p u l a r c u l t u r e ; the evening w e w e n t to M a d o n n a ' s Blond
Ambition c o n c e r t i n L o s Angeles, identifiable m i d d l e - a g e d academics i n the m i d s t o f teenage
frenzy, w i l l live f o r a l o n g t i m e i n m y m e m o r y .

A t an early stage Jane G a l l o p r e s p o n d e d w i t h w a r m t h a n d strong e n c o u r a g e m e n t to

the theoretical basis o f the project; T e r r y Castle a n d D i a n e M i d d l e b r o o k b o t h s h o w e d
w e l c o m e interest, a n d offered m u c h - n e e d e d s u p p o r t , at the t i m e the b o o k was b e i n g
w r i t t e n ; Peter Stallybrass a n d A n n R o s a l i n d Jones gave enthusiastic assent t o some o f the
b o o k ' s theoretical claims at an i m p o r t a n t m o m e n t i n the w r i t i n g , a n d have been w o n d e r f u l
friends t h r o u g h o u t ; E v e S e d g w i c k , M i c h a e l M o o n , a n d Jonathan G o l d b e r g r e m i n d e d m e ,
i n a w a y b o t h t i m e l y a n d w e l c o m e , that transvestism a n d gay i d e n t i t y w e r e i n m a n y ways
the same t o p i c ; R e b e c c a F o l k m a n i n t r o d u c e d m e to the story o f M i c h e l V i e u c h a n g e ;
J u d i t h Z e i t l i n k i n d l y s h o w e d m e her o w n w o r k o n Chinese transvestite theater a n d fiction;
D e b o r a h C a r l i n , Susan G i l l m a n , a n d A m y K a p l a n all generously shared materials about
slave narratives, g e n d e r a n d c u l t u r e i n A m e r i c a n literature; a t i m e l y c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h
H e n r y F i n d e r about The Silence of the Lambs l e d m e to realize that H a r r i s ' s b o o k m a d e the
perfect e n d - p i e c e t o a discussion o f transvestism, transsexuality, a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y fiction
a n d film. Sally a n d R i c h a r d P r i c e e n r i c h e d m y k n o w l e d g e o f a n t h r o p o l o g y , as d i d B i l l
B e e m a n . D a v i d K a s t a n , Barbara Packer, C y n t h i a Chase, R a c h e l Jacoff, Joe B o o n e , D e b o r a h
N o r d , K a t h e r i n e R o w e , K a t e Schwarz, C a r o l y n D e v e r , D o u g B r u s t e r a n d D a v i d H i r s c h
also gave generously o f their t i m e , thought, a n d clippings, o n topics as diverse as s u m p t u a r y
laws, A m a z o n s , detective fiction, F l o r a T r i s t a n , the K i n k s a n d J o h n L y l y .

N a o m i Schor and Elizabeth W e e d were enormously helpful i n their editorial comments

o n "Spare P a r t s , " w h i c h appeared i n a special issue o f differences; J u l i a E p s t e i n a n d K r i s
Straub w e r e s i m i l a r l y careful, caring editors o f the shortened version o f " T h e C h i c o f
A r a b y " that is being p u b l i s h e d i n their anthology, Body Guards, a n d I a m l i k e w i s e grateful
t o Jean M a r s d e n f o r her c o m m e n t s o n " R o s a l i n d the Yeshiva B o y , " t o appear i n h e r
c o l l e c t i o n , The Appropriation of Shakespeare. " F e t i s h E n v y , " first presented at the M o d e r n
Language A s s o c i a t i o n a n d t h e n p u b l i s h e d i n October, benefited f r o m the g o o d e d i t o r i a l
advice o f J o a n C o p j e c . T h e editors o f Nationalisms and Sexualities, A n d r e w P a r k e r , M a r y
R u s s o , D o r i s S o m m e r , a n d Patricia Yaeger, offered generous responses t o " T h e O c c i d e n t a l
T o u r i s t " w h e n it was g i v e n as a conference talk, a n d later w h e n the essay was revised f o r
p u b l i c a t i o n ; at the conference itself G a y a t r i Spivak's c o m m e n t s w e r e especially i l l u m i n a t i n g
a n d h e l p f u l . T h e chapter o n Liberace, V a l e n t i n o a n d Elvis, n o w called " T h e Transvestite
C o n t i n u u m , " was presented as a paper at the Stanford conference o n " G e n d e r at the
C r o s s r o a d s " a n d again at the U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n - M i l w a u k e e conference o n " T h e
E m o t i o n s , " b o t h i n the s p r i n g o f 1990; I a m grateful to the audiences at b o t h events f o r

xii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

t h e i r c o m m e n t s , as I a m to the u. C . B e r k e l e y M u s i c D e p a r t m e n t seminar o n g e n d e r that

also heard a n d r e s p o n d e d to this talk.
Jeanne N e w l i n a n d Joseph K e l l e r o f the H a r v a r d T h e a t e r C o l l e c t i o n a n d R i c h a r d
W e n d o r f o f the H o u g h t o n L i b r a r y p r o v i d e d expertise, assistance a n d enthusiasm i n the
process o f selecting a n d r e p r o d u c i n g illustrations. Jennifer C a r r e l l e x p e r t l y managed the
c o m p l e x process o f o b t a i n i n g permissions for the r e p r o d u c t i o n o f the m a n y p i c t o r i a l
images i n c l u d e d here.
I a m grateful to the S t a n f o r d H u m a n i t i e s C e n t e r a n d to the A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l o f
L e a r n e d Societies f o r F e l l o w s h i p s u p p o r t i n 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 . T h e year I spent at the S t a n f o r d
H u m a n i t i e s C e n t e r was notable n o t o n l y f o r the appeal o f its intellectual (and m e t e o r o l o g i -
cal) c l i m a t e , b u t also f o r the several i m p o r t a n t a n d c o n t i n u i n g friendships that h a d
occasion t o d e v e l o p i n that t i m e a n d place. Some o f those friends have already been
m e n t i o n e d i n the list above; to these I w a n t to a d d Bliss C a r n o c h a n , D i r e c t o r o f the
S t a n f o r d C e n t e r , w h o s e thoughtfulness a n d generous s p i r i t w e r e a m o d e l o f hospitality
and f r i e n d s h i p .
T h e H y d e r E . R o l l i n s F u n d p r o v i d e d generous financial s u p p o r t that has enabled the
p u b l i c a t i o n o f some o f the p i c t o r i a l images i n this book. I a m grateful to the H a r v a r d
E n g l i s h D e p a r t m e n t that administers this f u n d , to P h i l i p Fisher, the D e p a r t m e n t C h a i r ,
and also to the m a n y colleagues i n that department w h o have s h o w n interest i n , a n d
s u p p o r t of, m y w o r k .
B i l l G e r m a n o ' s c o m m i t m e n t to a n d encouragement o f this project f r o m first to last
has been remarkable. I w a n t t o take this occasion to thank h i m b o t h as a n e d i t o r a n d as
a f r i e n d . D i a n e G i b b o n s p e r f o r m e d the herculean task o f c o p y - e d i t i n g w i t h care a n d
grace. M i c h a e l E s p o s i t o , Charles H a m e s , K a r e n Sullivan, a n d Seth D e n b o v i g i l a n t l y
oversaw the book's p r o d u c t i o n . C h e r y l N i x o n , C a r e y M o n s e r r a t e , L i z Scala, Scott Stevens
and Susan T h o r n b e r g h e l p e d o u t w i t h research at the project's e n d , as S h u m a C h a k r a v a r t y
d i d at the beginning. C a r o l K o u n t z gave generously o f h e r t i m e a n d talent t o the thankless
job of proofreading. Rebecca M o n r o e Novak, H e r r i c k Wales and K a r e n Friedland, m y
assistants at the C e n t e r f o r L i t e r a r y a n d C u l t u r a l Studies, have been a constant source o f
support.
R h o d a G a r b e r s p o t t e d the P a u l W u n d e r l i c h image that appears o n the c o v e r o f this
b o o k i n a shop i n St. P a u l de V e n c e ; to her I a m grateful, as always, f o r an infinity o f
things. M y debt to Barbara J o h n s o n , w h o s e w o r k a n d life t o u c h m i n e at every t u r n , is
inexpressible. L i k e all o u r debts, as she k n o w s , this one w i l l take a l o n g t i m e to pay back.

xiii
 INTRODUCTION:
CLOTHES MAKE THE MAN

Although the logic of anatomy might suggest otherwise, skirts are the
traditional garb of women and pants the traditional garb of men—harem
bloomers and kilts, the exceptions that prove the rule.
Boston Globe Magazine, August 28, 1988

When you meet a human being, the first distinction you make is
"male or female?" and you are accustomed to make the distinction with
unhesitating certainty. Freud, "Femininity" 1

Dressed as I am in jeans and a sweater, I have no idea to which sex

the policemen will suppose me to belong, and must prepare my responses
for either decision. I feel their silent appraisal down the corridor as I
approach them, and as they search my sling bag I listen hard for a "Sir"
or a "Ma'am" to decide my course of conduct.
Jan Morris, Conundrum: An Extraordinary
Narrative of Transsexualism 2

M a n y readers o f the New York Times w e r e startled recently to learn that one o f t h e i r
m o s t cherished assumptions about c l o t h i n g a n d g e n d e r was, apparently, w i t h o u t g r o u n d .
Baby clothes, w h i c h since at least the 1940's have been r o u t i n e l y d i v i d e d a l o n g g e n d e r
a n d c o l o r lines, p i n k f o r girls, blue f o r boys, w e r e , said the Times, once just the o t h e r w a y
about. In the early years o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , before W o r l d W a r I, boys w o r e p i n k
("a stronger, m o r e d e c i d e d c o l o r , " a c c o r d i n g to the p r o m o t i o n a l literature o f the t i m e )
w h i l e girls w o r e blue ( u n d e r s t o o d to be " d e l i c a t e " a n d " d a i n t y " ) . O n l y after W o r l d W a r
II, the Times r e p o r t e d , d i d the present alignment o f the t w o genders w i t h p i n k a n d b l u e
c o m e i n t o being.
F e w articles i n the Times occasioned as m u c h casual astonishment, at least a m o n g
people o f m y acquaintance. It was generally k n o w n that infants a n d s m a l l c h i l d r e n h a d
f o r h u n d r e d s o f years been dressed alike, i n f r o c k s , so that f a m i l y portraits f r o m p r e v i -
ous centuries m a d e it d i f f i c u l t t o tell the y o u n g boys f r o m the girls. " B r e e c h i n g , " as a
rite o f passage, was a sartorial d e f i n i t i o n o f maleness a n d i n c i p i e n t a d u l t h o o d , as, i n
later p e r i o d s , was the a l l - i m p o r t a n t m o v e f r o m short pants t o l o n g . G e n d e r d i f f e r e n t i a -

I
 INTRODUCTION

t i o n g r e w increasingly desirable to parents as t i m e w e n t o n . B y the c l o s i n g years o f the

4

t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y the sight o f little boys i n frilly dresses has b e c o m e u n u s u a l a n d s o m e -

w h a t risible; a c h i l d h o o d p h o t o g r a p h o f m a c h o a u t h o r Ernest H e m i n g w a y , aged almost
t w o , i n a w h i t e dress a n d large hat festooned w i t h flowers, was itself the focus o f m u c h
a m u s e d c r i t i c a l c o m m e n t a r y w h e n r e p r o d u c e d i n a best-selling b i o g r a p h y — e s p e c i a l l y
w h e n it was disclosed that H e m i n g w a y ' s m o t h e r h a d labeled the p h o t o g r a p h o f h e r s o n
"summer girl." 5

D e s p i t e this general awareness o f the m u t a b i l i t y o f infant style, the p i n k - b l u e reversal

came as s o m e t h i n g o f a shock. In a society i n w h i c h even disposable diapers h a d n o w
been g e n d e r - c o l o r - c o d e d ( p i n k for girls, blue for boys, w i t h anatomically c o r r e c t e x t r a
absorbency i n the f r o n t o r m i d d l e ) the idea that p i n k was f o r boys was p e c u l i a r l y
destabilizing. N o t i c e that it is the connotations o f the colors, a n d n o t the p e r c e p t i o n o f
the genders, that has changed. B u t w h a t was so p a r t i c u l a r l y fascinating about this detail
f r o m the recent h i s t o r y o f taste? I t h i n k , perhaps, the fact that it reversed a b i n a r i s m —
that it d i s c o n c e r t e d n o t o n l y feelings o f t r a d i t i o n , c o n t i n u i t y , a n d naturalness (rather t h a n
arbitrariness) o f association, b u t also a w a y o f reading.
T h e same k i n d o f slightly c o m i c consternation, still o n the level o f the g e n d e r - c o d e s
o f the c h i l d , was p r o d u c e d by the recent discovery o f a cross-dressed " K e n " doll
( " B a r b i e " 's l o n g - t e r m boyfriend) i n a sealed b o x s o l d by the M a t t e l c o r p o r a t i o n . N a t t i l y
a t t i r e d i n a p i n k t u t u w i t h lace flounces, a handbag slung over his s h o u l d e r , K e n stares
c h e e r f u l l y o u t f r o m the plastic w i n d o w o f a b o x labeled " M y first K e n — H e ' s a h a n d s o m e
p r i n c e ! " A b o v e his head appears the legend, " S o easy to dress!" O f f e r e d a regular K e n i n
exchange, the c o n s u m e r , w h o collects Barbies a n d K e n s , d e c l i n e d because she t h o u g h t
the cross-dressed v e r s i o n w o u l d be m o r e valuable. A r t i c l e s o n w h a t Fortune magazine
c a l l e d " t h e k i n k y K e n " m a d e headlines i n newspapers a n d magazines across the c o u n t r y . 6

N o r , needless t o say, are the gender ambiguities o f c o l o r - c o d e d dress l i m i t e d t o

c h i l d r e n . In the 1990s, n o w that television has made the r e d necktie de rigueur f o r m a l e
politicians a n d c u s t o m decrees it as a standard accessory for male p r o f e s s i o n a l s — l a w y e r s ,
professors, a n d television a n c h o r m e n — i t is s o m e w h a t startling t o learn that r e d ties n o t
all that l o n g ago declared t h e i r wearers to be homosexuals. T h e C h i c a g o V i c e C o m m i s s i o n
o f 1909 r e p o r t e d that male homosexuals r e c o g n i z e d each o t h e r by w e a r i n g r e d neckties,
a fact that h a d already been n o t e d i n the streets o f N e w Y o r k a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a b y the
sexologist H a v e l o c k E l l i s . 7

W h e n I was i n grade s c h o o l i n the 1950s it was green, n o t r e d , w h i c h was f o r some

reason c o n s i d e r e d t o be the " h o m o s e x u a l " c o l o r ; t o w e a r g r e e n i n a d v e r t e n t l y o n a
T h u r s d a y was to be the b u t t o f jokes all the m o r e tiresome f o r n o t b e i n g f u l l y u n d e r -
s t o o d . T h e s e days it is lavender, o r p u r p l e , that is the c o l o r that p r o c l a i m s gay self-
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n — l a v e n d e r , a n d also p i n k , i n the p i n k triangles used by the N a z i s t o label
a n d stigmatize h o m o s e x u a l m e n , n o w defiantly " i n v e r t e d " by gay activists o n T - s h i r t s
a n d buttons as a sign o f gay p r i d e . In the p e r i o d o f less t h a n a c e n t u r y the s e l f - i d e n t i f i -

2
 INTRODUCTION

c a t i o n o f gays a n d lesbians t h r o u g h w h a t Ellis called " t h e badge o f all t h e i r t r i b e " 8

has
m o v e d f r o m a c o v e r t a n d l o c a l i z e d practice a i m e d at m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n to a g l o b a l
p h e n o m e n o n w i t h encompassing p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . P i n k , that " s t r o n g , d e c i d e d "
c o l o r f o r boys, n o w i d e n t i f i e s — w h e n they choose it t o — g a y m e n a n d lesbians. W h a t
goes a r o u n d , comes a r o u n d .

THE CULTURAL POLITICS OF TRANSVESTISM

T h i s b o o k is an a t t e m p t t o e x p l o r e the nature a n d significance b o t h o f the " f a c t " o f

cross-dressing a n d o f the h i s t o r i c a l l y r e c u r r e n t fascination w i t h it. In the chapters that
f o l l o w I w i l l e x p l o r e s u c h v a r i e d topics as the relationship b e t w e e n cross-dressing a n d
theatricality; the ways i n w h i c h c l o t h i n g constructs (and deconstructs) g e n d e r a n d g e n d e r
differences; transvestism, p o w e r relations, a n d career paths; c u l t u r a l m i s p e r c e p t i o n s o f
g e n d e r e d c o s t u m e ; transvestism a n d r a c i s m ; a n d the role o f cross-dressing i n p o p u l a r
c u l t u r e , h i g h (and l o w ) fashion, a n d the a r t s — a s w e l l as i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c u l t u r e
itself.

M y w o r k o n this project has b r o u g h t m e i n t o contact w i t h transvestism i n m a n y

historical a n d c u l t u r a l configurations, f r o m D a v i d B o w i e , B o y G e o r g e , a n d L a u r i e A n d e r s o n
to m e d i e v a l cross-dressed female saints, f r o m the C h e v a l i e r d ' E o n de B e a u m o n t , w h o s e
name p r o v i d e d H a v e l o c k Ellis w i t h his p r e f e r r e d t e r m f o r transvestism, " e o n i s m , " t o the
T i f f a n y C l u b o f W a l t h a m , Massachusetts, a g r o u p o f some 350 transvestites, m o s t l y m a l e ,
m i d d l e class, a n d n i n e t y percent m a r r i e d . " O u r largest g r o u p is c o m p u t e r e n g i n e e r s , "
reports a T i f f a n y spokesperson, " a n d o u r second largest is t r u c k drivers. O u r biggest
contingent is f r o m M I T . " 9

I have also spent a considerable a m o u n t o f t i m e e x a m i n i n g m e d i c a l discourses about

cross-dressing a n d t a k i n g note o f t h e i r i m p l i c i t a n d sometimes e x p l i c i t g e n d e r biases.
M e d i c a l discourses about transvestism, even those advanced by the establishment w i t h i n
g e n d e r i d e n t i t y c l i n i c s , are o f t e n d i a m e t r i c a l l y at odds w i t h the p o l i t i c a l discourses o f the
transvestite-transsexual c o m m u n i t y . F o r w h i l e d o c t o r s find it necessary to d i s t i n g u i s h
a m o n g transvestic s y n d r o m e s , a n d especially b e t w e e n transvestites a n d transsexuals, i n
o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e an a p p r o p r i a t e course o f treatment, transvestites a n d transsexuals
o f t e n resist s u c h diagnostic taxonomies f o r p o l i t i c a l reasons.
A d o c t o r wants to k n o w w h e t h e r to p e r f o r m surgery o n the patient, a l t e r i n g the b o d y
to c o n f o r m to an i n n e r sense o f gender i d e n t i t y — t h e m o s t e x t r e m e t r e a t m e n t o f f e r e d
f o r t r a n s s e x u a l s — o r w h e t h e r , b y contrast, the patient is a transvestite o r transvestophile
w h o s e pleasure comes f r o m w e a r i n g the clothes o f the o t h e r sex rather t h a n i n p h y s i c a l l y
b e c o m i n g a m e m b e r o f that sex. If, f o r example, the patient is a male transvestite, w h o s e
erotic pleasure comes f r o m the "reassurance" o f being a p h a l l i c w o m a n , o f h a v i n g a penis
and dressing i n w o m e n ' s clothes, his m o s t reassuring s y m p t o m , a c c o r d i n g to clinicians, is

3
 INTRODUCTION

the e r e c t i o n itself; surgery w o u l d be a catastrophic, a n d n o t a therapeutic, p r o c e d u r e f o r

s u c h patients, since it w o u l d r e m o v e , n o t the cause o f distress, b u t the source o f pleasure.
F o r the transvestite-transsexual c o m m u n i t y , h o w e v e r — a significant p o p u l a t i o n w i t h
an active i n t e r n a t i o n a l organization a n d dozens o f local branches f r o m P o u g h k e e p s i e t o
N e w S o u t h W a l e s — c l i n i c a l distinctions are divisive rather t h a n h e l p f u l . U n i t e d a r o u n d
issues l i k e the right to s h o p — a c c e s s to dresses a n d n i g h t g o w n s i n large sizes a n d h e l p f u l ,
c o u r t e o u s sales p e r s o n n e l — t h i s g r o u p p o l i t i c a l l y elides s u c h c l i n i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s i n favor
o f effective o r g a n i z a t i o n as a neglected m i n o r i t y g r o u p . Needless t o say, m e m b e r s o f the
T V - T S c o m m u n i t y d o n o t t h i n k o f themselves as " p a t i e n t s , " n o r d o they p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e
the w o r d " t r a n s v e s t i t e , " w h i c h seems to i m p l y a c o m p u l s i v e d i s o r d e r ; they p r e f e r " c r o s s -
dresser," w h i c h suggests a choice o f lifestyle.

A l t h o u g h some p r o m i n e n t m e d i c a l experts f r o m F r e u d t o the present have d e n i e d the

existence o f e r o t i c transvestism i n w o m e n , m a n y transvestites a n d transsexuals a f f i r m the
reality o f pleasure, sexual as w e l l as c u l t u r a l , i n female-to-male as w e l l as m a l e - t o - f e m a l e
cross-dressing. W h a t I discuss later o n u n d e r the r u b r i c o f " f e t i s h e n v y , " the desire t o
be i n c l u d e d w i t h i n F r e u d ' s psychoanalytic d e s c r i p t i o n o f fetishism, assumes a c o m p e l l i n g
force f o r people w h o s e c u l t u r a l identity a n d visibility is so regularly a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y
d e n i e d . " W e have m e n w h o collect lingerie, like f u l l slips; w e have w o m e n w h o c o l l e c t
j o c k straps," says Y v o n n e C o o k , a spokesperson f o r the International F o u n d a t i o n f o r
G e n d e r E d u c a t i o n , a m a n w h o considers h i m s e l f to be a lesbian a n d w h o dates a w o m a n
w h o cross-dresses as a m a n . B y the foundation's c a l c u l a t i o n , six percent o f this nation's
p o p u l a t i o n are cross-dressers, a n d (only) one percent transsexuals. 10

P o l i t i c s is a relational exercise, h o w e v e r , a n d i f the T V - T S c o m m u n i t y finds itself at

variance w i t h m u c h o f the m e d i c a l c o m m u n i t y o n the q u e s t i o n o f rights a n d r e c o g n i t i o n
f o r cross-gender issues, it has also been c r i t i q u e d by gay activists w h o r e g a r d s o m e T V -
T S g r o u p s as h o m o p h o b i c , a n d voice serious reservations about statistics that suggest that
m o s t transvestites are heterosexual. C r u c i a l concerns have been raised by gay theorists
a b o u t assimilation, stigmatization a n d the i m p l i e d desire to erase o r scapegoat g r o u p s at
risk—especially i n the age o f A I D S .
T h e s t o r y o f transvestism i n w e s t e r n c u l t u r e is i n fact, as m u c h o f this b o o k w i l l attest,
b o u n d u p w i t h the story o f h o m o s e x u a l i t y a n d gay i d e n t i t y , f r o m " d r a g " a n d " v o g u i n g "
t o f a s h i o n a n d stage design, f r o m the boy actors o f the E n g l i s h Renaissance stage t o
G e r t r u d e Stein a n d D i v i n e . N o analysis o f " c r o s s - d r e s s i n g " that wants t o interrogate the
p h e n o m e n o n seriously f r o m a c u l t u r a l , p o l i t i c a l , o r even aesthetic vantage p o i n t c a n fail
t o take i n t o a c c o u n t the f o u n d a t i o n a l role o f gay i d e n t i t y a n d gay style. Y e t as i m p o r t a n t
as gay c u l t u r e is t o t r a n s v e s t i s m — a n d transvestism t o gay culture-—there are o t h e r m a j o r
areas i n w h i c h transvestism has also been a d e f i n i n g , a n d d i s c o n c e r t i n g , e l e m e n t , a n
e l e m e n t largely u n d e r t h e o r i z e d , even i n the c u r r e n t climate o f interest i n a n d r o g y n y ,
unisex style, h i s t o r i c a l cross-dressers, a n d Tootsie. Just as to ignore the r o l e p l a y e d b y
h o m o s e x u a l i t y w o u l d be t o r i s k a radical m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the social a n d c u l t u r a l

4
 INTRODUCTION

implications o f cross-dressing, so t o restrict cross-dressing t o t h e c o n t e x t o f an e m e r g i n g

gay a n d lesbian i d e n t i t y is t o risk i g n o r i n g , o r setting aside, elements a n d incidents that
seem t o belong t o quite different lexicons o f self-definition a n d p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l
display.
I w i l l r e t u r n again a n d again t o t h e relationship b e t w e e n transvestism a n d gay i d e n t i t y
t h r o u g h o u t this study. T h e c u l t u r a l fascination o f cross-dressing, h o w e v e r — a s t h e t r i v i a l
instance o f the cross-dressed K e n d o l l suggests—is n o t always consciously related t o
h o m o s e x u a l i t y , a l t h o u g h h o m o s e x u a l i t y , itself taboo i n m a n y contexts, m i g h t be v i e w e d
as the repressed that always returns.

W h y have c u l t u r a l observers today been so p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h cross-dressing? W h y is

it v i r t u a l l y impossible t o p i c k u p a newspaper o r t u r n o n t h e television o r g o t o t h e
movies w i t h o u t e n c o u n t e r i n g , i n some guise, the question o f sartorial g e n d e r bending?
O n A m e r i c a n television, talk shows have h a d a field day w i t h the t o p i c . I n t h e last t w o
years, P h i l D o n a h u e has broadcast at least sixteen programs o n cross-dressing a n d
transsexualism a n d G e r a l d o R i v e r a m o r e than seven, a n d t h e q u e s t i o n has also been
discussed at l e n g t h b y Sally Jessy R a p h a e l a n d O p r a h W i n f r e y .

In t h e movies, as w e l l , t h e 1980's n o t o n l y p r o d u c e d several n e w cross-dressing classics

(Tootsie, Victor/ Victoria, Yentl, Torch Song Trilogy) b u t also seemed t o insert a n episode o f
cross-dressing even i n t h e m o s t u n l i k e l y o f cinematic contexts: i n t h e sex-and-baseball
s u m m e r h i t Bull Durham ( w h e r e t h e r o o k i e p i t c h e r wears a garter belt u n d e r his u n i f o r m ) ,
i n White Mischief ( w h e r e c o l o n i a l decadence is figured as a transvestite party), o r i n
Fatal Attraction (where little E l l e n cross-dresses t o play the part o f J o h n — " s p e a k - f o r -
y o u r s e l f " — A l d e n ) , t o p i c k three r a n d o m examples.
A c a d e m i c studies have l i k e w i s e s h o w n a m a r k e d fascination w i t h cross-dressing. P r i n t e d
circulars a n n o u n c i n g conferences o n the t o p i c ( " W e e k e n d C o n f e r e n c e o n L i m i n a l i t y , i n
H i s t o r y , i n F i c t i o n , a n d o n t h e Stage: Crossdressing, crosscasting, transvestism, b o y actors,
castrati, hermaphrodites. . . .") have a r r i v e d i n m y m a i l almost w e e k l y . W i t h t h e rise o f
n e w i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y studies u n d e r the general r u b r i c o f " c u l t u r a l c r i t i c i s m , " literary
scholars, historians, anthropologists, a n d others have f o u n d i n s u c h topics a n ideal site
f o r the study o f c u l t u r a l discourses about gender a n d sexuality.
W h a t are w e t o m a k e o f this evidence o f w h a t F r e u d m i g h t have called a n " o v e r e s t i m a -
t i o n " o f cross-dressing, i n h i g h c u l t u r e a n d l o w , as a p h e n o m e n o n o f o u r time?

TOOT-TOOT-TOOTSIE G O O D B Y E

O f all the cross-dressing films o f t h e eighties i t was Sydney P o l l a c k ' s Tootsie (1982),
starring D u s t i n H o f f m a n , that m o s t c a p t u r e d the p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n — a s w e l l as t h e
i m a g i n a t i o n o f literary critics. Indeed, " T o o t s i e " has b e c o m e s h o r t h a n d i n some circles
f o r a m a n w h o puts h i m s e l f o n parade as a feminist, w h i l e retaining, u n s e l f - c r i t i c a l l y , a

5
 INTRODUCTION

male-centered view of w o m e n . 1 1
I w o u l d l i k e here to take a closer l o o k at Tootsie i n o r d e r
t o focus o n some o f the issues that have surfaced a r o u n d cross-dressing i n recent l i t e r a r y
criticism.
A s m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s have suggested, the overt "message" o f Tootsie is that w o m e n
are better t h a n m e n . D o r o t h y M i c h a e l s , H o f f m a n ' s female character, is m u c h m o r e
sensitive, p e r c e p t i v e , sisterly, a n d professionally successful t h a n M i c h a e l D o r s e y , the o u t -
o f - w o r k actor w h o i n desperation assumes the role o f D o r o t h y . B u t the subtext, as a r g u e d
by E l a i n e S h o w a l t e r a n d others, is that m e n are better t h a n w o m e n . A m a n dressed as
a w o m a n c a n beat o u t " r e a l w o m e n " f o r a part. A s S h o w a l t e r points o u t , the success o f
the film comes p r i m a r i l y " f r o m the masculine p o w e r disguised a n d v e i l e d by the f e m i n i n e
c o s t u m e . P h y s i c a l gestures o f m a s c u l i n i t y p r o v i d e Tootsie's c o m i c m o t i f o f female i m p e r s o n -
a t i o n . D o r o t h y M i c h a e l s d r o p s her voice to call a t a x i , lifts heavy suitcases, a n d shoves
a b u r l y c o m p e t i t o r o u t o f the w a y . D o r o t h y ' s ' f e m i n i s t ' speeches t o o are less a response
t o the o p p r e s s i o n o f w o m e n t h a n an instinctive situational male reaction t o b e i n g treated
l i k e a w o m a n . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is that w o m e n m u s t be taught by m e n h o w t o w i n t h e i r
rights." 12
"Tootsie d o e s , " says Showalter, "have a message f o r w o m e n , a l t h o u g h n o t the
one the filmmakers i n t e n d e d . It says that feminist ideas are m u c h less t h r e a t e n i n g w h e n
they c o m e f r o m a m a n " (139). F o r this reason, she maintains, "I s h o u l d m a k e it clear . . .
that, to m y m i n d , Tootsie is n o t a feminist film" (136).

In m a k i n g this argument, Showalter is her usual w i t t y a n d clear-sighted self. She is

o n e o f feminist c r i t i c i s m ' s m o s t articulate a n d d e e p l y - r e a d spokespersons, a n d I m e a n n o
disrespect t o her w h e n I say that she is here, to c o i n a phrase, seeing less t h a n the w h o l e
p i c t u r e . F o r Tootsie is i n d e e d n o t a feminist film. N o r is it a film about a w o m a n , o r a m a n
p r e t e n d i n g t o be a w o m a n . It is a film about a transvestite. Its cross-dressed c e n t r a l figure,
M i c h a e l D o r s e y / D o r o t h y M i c h a e l s / D u s t i n H o f f m a n , is w o r k i n g w i t h i n the established
H o l l y w o o d codes o f female i m p e r s o n a t i o n , but f o r feminists to see Tootsie as a film about
m e n ' s views o f w o m e n (and o f feminism) is to erase o r repress any awareness o f that
w h i c h the m e t a d r a m a t i c nature o f the film constantly stresses: the fact that " D o r o t h y ' s "
p o w e r inheres i n h e r b l u r r e d gender, i n the fact o f her cross-dressing, a n d not—
despite the stereotypical r o m a n t i c e n d i n g — i n either o f her g e n d e r e d identities. In Tootsie
transvestism is a n enabling fantasy, not m e r e l y a j o k e o r a p a r o d y , w h e t h e r the l a u g h is
t h o u g h t t o be o n m e n o r o n w o m e n .
Perhaps because o f the t i m e w h e n it appeared, w h i c h c o i n c i d e d w i t h a n interesting
upsurge i n feminist c r i t i c i s m a m o n g m e n as w e l l as w o m e n , Tootsie became a c o n v e n i e n t
nexus f o r readings of, a n d critiques of, m a i n s t r e a m f e m i n i s m i n film. Teresa de L a u r e t i s
sees it as one o f a recent c r o p o f films w h o s e " ' p o s i t i v e ' images o f w o m e n " (the i n n e r
q u o t a t i o n m a r k s are hers) suggest " t h e social l e g i t i m a t i o n o f a certain f e m i n i s t discourse,
a n d the consequent viability o f its c o m m e r c i a l a n d ideological e x p l o i t a t i o n . " 13
T h e last
page o f V i t o Russo's b o o k The Celluloid Closet: Homosexuality in the Movies laments the fact
that " H o l l y w o o d is w h e r e a t i m i d rehash o f Some Like It Hot called Tootsie c a n successfully

6
 INTRODUCTION

p r e t e n d to have s o m e t h i n g t o say about sex roles." 14

. F i l m c r i t i c P a u l i n e K a e l proposes a
possible reading that accords w i t h Showalter's ("It w o u l d be easy t o say that the m o v i e
was itself being c o n d e s c e n d i n g to w o m e n — t h a t it was suggesting that it t o o k a m a n t o
be t o u g h a n d f o r t h r i g h t e n o u g h to speak u p for w o m e n ' s r i g h t s " ) b u t finally c o n c l u d e s
that H o f f m a n ' s t r i p l e p o r t r a y a l o f D o r s e y , D o r o t h y , a n d the T V character E m i l y K i m b e r l y
was c a r r i e d o u t i n g o o d f a i t h . 15

Some feminist critics have seen H o f f m a n ' s star t u r n as an e x a m p l e o f the p r e e m p t i n g

o f w o m e n ' s roles by m e n i n a H o l l y w o o d w h e r e there are f e w e n o u g h g o o d parts f o r
actresses. T h i s is very s i m i l a r to Showalter's argument about male literary critics w h o
w a n t e d to get i n o n the a c t i o n a n d " r e a d like a w o m a n , " n o w that f e m i n i s m h a d
become respectable a n d i n d e e d theoretically e x c i t i n g . In fact, R e b e c c a B e l l - M e t e r e a u , l i k e
Showalter, notes that i n the film M i c h a e l D o r s e y d i r e c t l y suggests an allegorical r e a d i n g
o f the actor as w o m a n : p u t t i n g o n m a k e u p , t r y i n g to m a k e h i m s e l f attractive, sitting by
the p h o n e w a i t i n g f o r that a l l - i m p o r t a n t call.

W h a t is s t r i k i n g t o m e about all o f these readings o f the film is that they erase o r l o o k

t h r o u g h the cross-dresser, w i s h i n g instead to redistribute his/her p o w e r : D u s t i n / M i c h a e l /
D o r o t h y / E m i l y is a m a n ; o r a n " i m a g e o f a w o m a n " ; o r an image o f an actor, so that the
final d e c e p t i o n is lack o f d e c e p t i o n . A l l actors are l i k e w o m e n i n that they d e p e n d u p o n
t h e i r subordinate positions i n H o l l y w o o d as w o m e n d o i n society. T r u e e n o u g h . B u t i f
H o f f m a n is presented, subtextually, as an actor i n Tootsie, he is also presented, f u l l f r o n t a l l y ,
as a cross-dresser. O n e w h o dresses f o r success.
T o see the o l d e r m e n w h o are attracted to D o r o t h y as fools is to d e n y the audience's
attraction to her; she is m o r e attractive, even seductive, i n some ways, t h a n any o t h e r
character i n the film. Les the farmer's interest i n D o r o t h y is not finally t u r n e d i n t o a c r u e l
j o k e o n b o t h o f t h e m b u t rather allows t h e m to indulge i n a b r i e f spate o f h o m o s o c i a l
b o n d i n g ( w i t h D o r o t h y as m u c h as Julie the w o m a n - i n - t h e - m i d d l e ) , w h i l e the m e n w h o
stop D o r o t h y o n the street o r the dance floor to c o m p l i m e n t her o n h e r l o o k s o f f - c a m e r a
illustrate s o m e t h i n g about the p o w e r o f representation, not about the ludicrousness o f
g e n d e r - m i s r e a d i n g . Showalter's resistance to b l u r r e d gender, w h i c h is one o f h e r c o n s i d e r -
able strengths as an ideological c r i t i c o f a n d for f e m i n i s m , manifests itself i n a resistance
to D o r o t h y ' s charms. B u t w e m i g h t i n d e e d r e m e m b e r Some Like It Hot (1959), w h e r e
O s g o o d (Joe E . L e w i s ) is u n d e t e r r e d by Jerry/Daphne's revelation that he is a m a n .
O s g o o d ' s rejoinder, " N o b o d y ' s p e r f e c t , " has become a c l i c h e i n the c r i t i c i s m o f transvestite
theater, 16
b u t this does not m e a n that O s g o o d looks f o r w a r d to life w i t h J e r r y . O n the
c o n t r a r y , he blissfully contemplates life w i t h D a p h n e , w h o s e m e t a m o r p h i c n a m e suggests
her nature. T o t h i n k that D a p h n e w i l l cease to exist because J e r r y has d e s c r i b e d h e r
situation is to w i s h away cross-dressing a n d transvestism as i f they h a d n o p o w e r i n the
present. D a p h n e , l i k e D o r o t h y , is infinitely m o r e appealing t h a n the male entertainer
(Jerry; M i c h a e l D o r s e y ) w h o s e place she has taken. A n d w h i l e it is palpably t r u e — a n d
self-evident to anyone w h o looks at b o t h films c o n s e c u t i v e l y — t h a t H o f f m a n p a t t e r n e d

7
 INTRODUCTION

m a n y o f his m a n n e r i s m s o n J a c k L e m m o n ' s , so that his p o r t r a y a l is n o t so m u c h that o f

a m a n p l a y i n g a w o m a n as o f a m a n playing a m a n p l a y i n g a w o m a n , this s h o u l d n o t i n
itself be a cue f o r feminist outrage, n o r yet f o r specifically gay protest.
M i c h a e l D o r s e y , l i k e Joe a n d Jerry i n Hot, protests that his cross-dressing is c o m p e l l e d
by e c o n o m i c necessity: "I o n l y d i d it f o r the w o r k , " he says p l a i n t i v e l y t o b o t h J u l i e a n d
h e r father. T h i s is a p h e n o m e n o n o f rationalization w h i c h I w i l l discuss later as " t h e
progress n a r r a t i v e . " B u t w i t h M i c h a e l as w i t h Jerry, the evidence o f the film says o t h e r w i s e .
Tootsie, w h i c h begins w i t h the camera p a n n i n g an assorted c o l l e c t i o n o f stage m a k e u p ,
becomes q u i c k l y obsessed w i t h the paraphernalia o f m a l e - t o - f e m a l e cross-dressing—as
does M i c h a e l D o r s e y . W e see M i c h a e l shaving his legs, t w e e z i n g his e y e b r o w s , a p p l y i n g
mascara a n d nail p o l i s h , fussing w i t h his w i g . W h e n Julie asks h i m w h y he wears s u c h
heavy m a k e u p , he explains that he has " a little moustache p r o b l e m — t o o m a n y m a l e
h o r m o n e s . " I n v i t e d o v e r t o Julie's u n e x p e c t e d l y f o r d i n n e r , he stands i n f r o n t o f his closet
i n a n agony o f i n d e c i s i o n , dressed i n a g i r d l e a n d pantyhose, flipping t h r o u g h his w a r d r o b e :
y o u can't, he tells his r o o m m a t e w i t h exasperation, w e a r w h i t e t o a casual d i n n e r . A f t e r
a successful s h o p p i n g spree he displays his b o o t y : "See this l i n g e r i e — y o u k n o w w h a t it
c o s t ? — a n d the m a k e u p ? . . . I have t o get u p at 4:30, d o a close shave . . . " . H i s o n l y
regret is that he h a d t o surrender a " b e a u t i f u l h a n d b a g " o n sale, because he was " t o o
f r i g h t e n e d t o fight f o r it. N o w I haven't got a h a n d b a g . "
D o r s e y ' s usually equable r o o m m a t e , the p l a y w r i g h t Jeff Slater, reads the c o m p l e x i t y o f
M i c h a e l ' s interest i n cross-dressing better t h a n the critics: "It is just f o r the m o n e y , isn't
it? It's n o t just so y o u c a n w e a r these little outfits?" A t the e n d o f the film w e hear a
chastened M i c h a e l say t o Julie that he's still D o r o t h y : "I just have to l e a r n t o d o w i t h o u t
the d r e s s . " B u t i n the final sequence M i c h a e l / D o r o t h y a n d Julie are still discussing clothes:

Julie: (relenting) Will you lend me that little yellow outfit?

Michael: Which one?

Julie: The Halston.

Michael: (teasing) The Halston? O h , no, you'd ruin it.

T h i s m a y be b o y - a n d - g i r l - t a l k o f the eighties, b u t it is also m o r e t h a n a little r e m i n i s c e n t

o f the m a n y recent articles a n d books o n the wives o f transvestites. 17
Julie's stages o f
r e a c t i o n , f r o m d e n i a l t o hostility to an interest i n M i c h a e l / D o r o t h y ' s clothes, are paralleled,
t h o u g h o b v i o u s l y w i t h m o r e anguish a n d anxiety, b y the experience o f s o m e T V w i v e s .
F o r J u l i e , o f course, this bantering conversation is o n l y a flirtatious g a m e — b u t games
have t h e i r o w n significance, a n d there is n o sense as Tootsie closes that M i c h a e l ' s h e i g h t e n e d
interest i n w o m e n ' s clothes is o n l y a ploy.
Just as i n Shakespeare's Twelfth Night O r s i n o a n d O l i v i a b o t h fall i n love n o t w i t h V i o l a
b u t w i t h the artifact " C e s a r i o " ( V i o l a — p l a y e d originally b y a b o y — d r e s s e d i n m a l e
c l o t h i n g i n i m i t a t i o n o f h e r t w i n brother), so it is D o r o t h y M i c h a e l s w h o attracts b o t h

8
 INTRODUCTION

characters w i t h i n the film a n d audiences w h o w a t c h it. T h e T o o t s i e " r o l e " is that o f

transvestite. T h e film rings the (costume) changes o n its cross-dressing t h e m e e v e n i n the
credits, w h e r e Franke Piazza is listed as being responsible f o r " m e n ' s c o s t u m e s , " a n d
J e n n i f e r N i c h o l s f o r " w o m e n ' s c o s t u m e s . " W h o , w e m a y ask, does Dorothy's clothes?
M e a n w h i l e , t h r o u g h o u t the film, the refrain o f the title song, " R o l l , tootsie, r o l l . Sweet
tootsie r o l l , " seems t o refer t o the i n s u l t i n g , all-purpose d i m i n u t i v e f o r w o m e n e m p l o y e d
by the male chauvinist soap-opera d i r e c t o r , a n d specifically addressed, t w i c e , t o D o r o t h y .
B u t any fan o f blues o r jazz w o u l d recognize "tootsie r o l l " as a t e r m f o r the phallus. So
that " T o o t s i e " ( D o r o t h y ) is again c o d e d as a transvestite, i n Freud's d e s c r i p t i o n , a " p h a l l i c
'woman.' " 1 9

T h e e i t h e r - o r s p i r i t o f a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l response to Tootsie ( g o o d f o r w o m e n ; b a d f o r
w o m e n ) has been a c c o m p a n i e d by a certain tendency t o w a r d dismissiveness: the film, say
detractors, is slick, m a i n s t r e a m , unthreatening, n o t really a c r i t i q u e o f g e n d e r roles,
o p p o r t u n i s t i c a n d e x p l o i t a t i v e , a c o p - o u t . It is also, t o m y m i n d , a very g o o d film, even
r i c h e r i n detail o n r e v i e w i n g t h a n it is the first f e w times a r o u n d . If it is n o t a c r i t i q u e
o f gender roles, that m a y be because it is a c r i t i q u e o f gender itself as a category. A n d
i f it is slick, u n t h r e a t e n i n g , m a i n s t r e a m , etc., that m a y be because Tootsie, l i k e M i c h a e l /
D o r o t h y , successfully passes, a n d , i n passing, has b o t h its secret pleasure a n d its c u l t u r a l
effect.

CLOTHES ENCOUNTERS OF T H E THIRD KIND

It is curious t o note h o w m a n y literary a n d c u l t u r a l critics have r e c e n t l y s t u d i e d the

p h e n o m e n o n o f cross-dressing i n literature f r o m the Renaissance t o h i g h m o d e r n i s m . T h e
appeal o f cross-dressing is clearly related to its status as a sign o f the constructedness of
g e n d e r categories. B u t the t e n d e n c y o n the part o f m a n y critics has been t o l o o k through
rather t h a n at the cross-dresser, t o t u r n away f r o m a close e n c o u n t e r w i t h the transvestite,
a n d t o w a n t instead t o subsume that figure w i t h i n one o f the t w o t r a d i t i o n a l genders. T o
elide a n d e r a s e — o r t o appropriate the transvestite f o r p a r t i c u l a r p o l i t i c a l a n d c r i t i c a l aims.
T h u s b o t h Sandra G i l b e r t a n d Susan G u b a r , i n separately w r i t t e n articles o n m a l e a n d
female transvestism i n m o d e r n i s t literature a n d c u l t u r e (later c o m b i n e d i n a c h a p t e r o f
t h e i r j o i n t l y a u t h o r e d b o o k ) , describe the transvestite as i n effect a figure f o r w o m a n :
G u b a r finds that "cross dressing [ i s ] . . . a d r e a m o f p r o p h e c y a n d p o w e r " f o r w o m e n l i k e
G e r t r u d e Stein a n d D j u n a Barnes, as w e l l as f o r W o o l f s O r l a n d o , w h i l e G i l b e r t argues
that male m o d e r n i s t s l i k e J o y c e , L a w r e n c e , a n d E l i o t v i e w transvestism as u n s e t t l i n g a n d
degrading. G i l b e r t is i n t r i g u e d by the idea o f a " t h i r d s e x " as it manifests itself i n Barnes's
Nightwood, i n the w r i t i n g s o f U r s u l a L e G u i n , a n d i n the w o r k s o f E d w a r d C a r p e n t e r , a
h o m o s e x u a l g e n d e r theorist w h o w r o t e i n 1908 a b o o k called Intermediate Sex: A Study of

9
 INTRODUCTION

Some Transitional Types of Men and Women. B u t the " t h i r d s e x " turns o u t , f o r G i l b e r t , to be
largely a w a y o f securing p o w e r for (and c o p i n g w i t h the anxieties of) m o d e r n i s t women. 20

G i l b e r t ' s candidates for the t h i r d sex are not just any o l d h u m a n subjects b u t m i d d l e -
class W e s t e r n w o m e n , w h a t she calls " p o s t - m o d e r n i s t w o m e n " : the readers, i n fact, o f
p o s t - m o d e r n i s t c r i t i c i s m . B u t i f the t h i r d sex is made u p exclusively o f w o m e n , it w i l l g o
the w a y o f the f o r m e r l y m u c h - d i s p u t e d t e r m " M s . , " w h i c h denies the c r i t e r i o n o f m a r i t a l
status as a socially d e t e r m i n a n t label, b u t w h i c h is u t i l i z e d , largely, b y the already
c o n v e r t e d , the educated, middle-class, liberal w o m a n . In o r d e r to be m a x i m a l l y effective,
" t h e t h i r d s e x " m u s t be o p e n to m e n .

W h i c h is n o t the same as saying that critics s h o u l d appropriate the " t h i r d sex"for

m e n . T h i s is t o some extent w h a t Stephen Greenblatt does i n his reading o f cross-dressing
o n the Renaissance stage. Greenblatt's essay called " F i c t i o n a n d F r i c t i o n " argues that
"characters l i k e R o s a l i n d a n d V i o l a pass t h r o u g h the state o f being m e n i n o r d e r t o b e c o m e
w o m e n . Shakespearean w o m e n are i n this sense the representation o f Shakespearean m e n . "
A n d since the actors i n these plays are all m e n , G r e e n b l a t t discovers here a " f i n a l , "
" a u t h e n t i c " transvestism, c o n f i r m i n g the playfulness o f the idea o f t w o sexes a n d the
essential, o r essentialized, " f a c t " o f there being o n l y o n e . 21
A s W a l t e r C o h e n has p o i n t e d
o u t , i n Greenblatt's reading o f these plays " w o m e n " have d i s a p p e a r e d . 22
Rosalind and
V i o l a w e r e always already m e n : boys w i l l be boys. Indeed, the w o r d " b o y , " c o n v e n t i o n a l l y
u s e d t o describe the players w h o t o o k the parts o f w o m e n o n the p u b l i c stage i n the
E n g l i s h Renaissance, becomes a code w o r d f o r the " t h i r d s e x " — h e r e a t h i r d sex m a d e
u p o f males, h o m o e r o t i c a l l y attractive to male spectators, rather t h a n a t h i r d sex m a d e
u p o f m o d e r n i s t w o m e n i n trousers.

T h e " t h i r d s e x " c a n be thus assimilated to either the male o r the female p o l e o f the
h y p o t h e t i c a l g e n d e r b i n a r i s m : i n either case, it disappears. T o argue as G i l b e r t a n d G u b a r
do that " l i t e r a r y w o m e n generally persist i n seeking . . . a t h i r d sex b e y o n d g e n d e r "
(Sexchanges, 365) w h i l e " l i t e r a r y m e n " "express a nausea associated w i t h the b l u r r i n g o f
g e n d e r b o u n d a r i e s " is once again t o d i v i d e i n t o t w o camps, by b i o l o g i c a l g e n d e r rather
t h a n by sexual o r i e n t a t i o n o r any o t h e r c u l t u r a l d e t e r m i n a n t , that c o m p l e x r e a l m that is
a r t i c u l a t e d a n d d e c o n s t r u c t e d by transvestism i n literature a n d c u l t u r e .
T h i s t e n d e n c y t o erase the t h i r d t e r m , to appropriate the cross-dresser " a s " o n e o f the
two sexes, is e m b l e m a t i c o f a fairly consistent c r i t i c a l desire to l o o k away f r o m the
transvestite as transvestite, not to see cross-dressing except as male o r female m a n q u e ,
w h e t h e r m o t i v a t e d by social, c u l t u r a l , o r aesthetic designs. A n d this t e n d e n c y m i g h t be
called a n underestimation o f the object.
F o r m e , therefore, one o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspects o f cross-dressing is the w a y i n
w h i c h it offers a challenge t o easy notions o f binarity, p u t t i n g i n t o q u e s t i o n the categories
o f " f e m a l e " a n d " m a l e , " w h e t h e r they are c o n s i d e r e d essential o r c o n s t r u c t e d , b i o l o g i c a l
o r c u l t u r a l . T h e c u r r e n t p o p u l a r i t y o f cross-dressing as a t h e m e i n art a n d c r i t i c i s m
represents, I t h i n k , an u n d e r t h e o r i z e d r e c o g n i t i o n o f the necessary c r i t i q u e o f b i n a r y

10
 INTRODUCTION

t h i n k i n g , w h e t h e r p a r t i c u l a r i z e d as male a n d female, black a n d w h i t e , yes a n d n o ,

R e p u b l i c a n a n d D e m o c r a t , self a n d other, o r i n any o t h e r w a y .
T h i s c r i t i q u e o f t e n takes shape, as w e have already seen, as the c r e a t i o n o f w h a t l o o k s
l i k e a t h i r d t e r m . C e r t a i n l y n u m e r o u s literary texts speculate o p e n l y about the " t h i r d
s e x . " In his 1835 n o v e l , Mademoiselle de Maupin, for e x a m p l e , Théophile G a u t i e r has his
sexually ambivalent T h e o d o r e w r i t e i n her (or his) diary: " I f ever the fancy takes m e t o
g o a n d find m y skirts again i n the d r a w e r w h e r e I left t h e m , w h i c h I very m u c h d o u b t ,
unless I fall i n love w i t h some y o u n g beau, I shall find it h a r d to lose this habit, a n d
instead o f a w o m a n disguised as a m a n , I shall l o o k l i k e a m a n disguised as a w o m a n . In
t r u t h , neither sex is really m i n e ; . . . I belong to a t h i r d sex, a sex apart, w h i c h has as yet
„23

n o name.
M a n y names have been g i v e n to this " t h i r d s e x " o r " t h i r d t e r m . " C a r r o l l S m i t h -
R o s e n b e r g talks about the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the concept o f the " i n v e r t " i n the n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y . Renaissance d r a m a t i c c r i t i c s , l i k e Greenblatt a n d Stephen O r g e l , are interested
i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the category o f the " b o y . " W e c o u l d argue that J o a n o f A r c
articulates a " t h i r d " category called " m a i d , " o r that M a x i n e H o n g K i n g s t o n establishes a
" t h i r d " as " w a r r i o r . " 2 4

T h e " t h i r d " is that w h i c h questions binary t h i n k i n g a n d i n t r o d u c e s c r i s i s — a crisis

w h i c h is s y m p t o m a t i z e d by both the overestimation and the u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n o f cross-
dressing. B u t w h a t is c r u c i a l h e r e — a n d I can h a r d l y underscore this strongly e n o u g h —
is that the " t h i r d t e r m " is not a term. M u c h less is it a sex, certainly n o t an instantiated
" b l u r r e d " sex as signified by a t e r m l i k e " a n d r o g y n e " o r " h e r m a p h r o d i t e , " a l t h o u g h these
w o r d s have c u l t u r a l l y specific significance at certain historical m o m e n t s . T h e " t h i r d " is
a m o d e o f a r t i c u l a t i o n , a w a y o f d e s c r i b i n g a space o f possibility. T h r e e puts i n q u e s t i o n
the idea o f one: o f i d e n t i t y , self-sufficiency, self-knowledge.
L e t m e offer three examples o f w h a t I m e a n by " t h i r d " here. T h e y are: the T h i r d
W o r l d , the t h i r d actor, a n d the Lacanian S y m b o l i c . T h e T h i r d W o r l d is o n l y a " t h i r d "
i n that it does n o t belong to one o r another o f t w o c o n s t r u c t e d regions, the d e v e l o p e d
W e s t a n d w h a t used t o be d e s c r i b e d as the C o m m u n i s t bloc. W h a t the s o - c a l l e d T h i r d
W o r l d nations have i n c o m m o n is t h e i r p o s t - c o l o n i a l status, t h e i r relative p o v e r t y , t h e i r
largely t r o p i c a l locations, t h e i r largely n o n - C a u c a s i a n p o p u l a t i o n , a n d the fact that they
w e r e once subjected t o W e s t e r n rule. V e r y little else makes the T h i r d W o r l d an
aggregation; the n e w nations that came i n t o being as a result o f d e c o l o n i z a t i o n have i n
o t h e r respects little s i m i l a r i t y to one another. " T h i r d W o r l d " is a p o l i t i c a l t e r m , w h i c h
simultaneously reifies a n d dismisses a c o m p l e x c o l l e c t i o n o f entities.
A s for the t h i r d actor, it w i l l be recalled that this was Sophocles' remarkable c o n t r i b u t i o n
t o the d e v e l o p m e n t o f G r e e k classical d r a m a . A t h i r d speaker was a d d e d to the protagonist
a n d antagonist, enabling a freer, m o r e d y n a m i c dramaturgy. Y e t the " t h i r d a c t o r " d i d n o t
play a single part, b u t rather several different roles w i t h i n a g i v e n play. O n l y three speakers
conversed o n the stage at a time, b u t the n u m b e r o f characters, the n u m b e r o f parts, was

11
 INTRODUCTION

n o t c o n f i n e d t o three. A messenger f r o m C o r i n t h disrupts the p l a c i d d o m e s t i c life o f

O e d i p u s a n d Jocasta. A h e r d s m a n is c o m p e l l e d t o t e l l t h e m u n w e l c o m e n e w s . T h e t h i r d
deconstructs the binary o f self a n d o t h e r that was itself a c o m f o r t a b l e , because c o m m u t a b l e
a n d thus c o n t r o l l a b l e , fiction o f c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y . B u t — o r a n d — i t is n o t itself a t h i r d
one; it is rather s o m e t h i n g that challenges the possibility o f h a r m o n i o u s a n d stable b i n a r y
symmetry.

T h e " t h i r d " d i m e n s i o n i n Lacanian psychoanalysis, the Symbolic, is, l i k e w i s e , n o t a r e a l m

apart, b u t the transference o n t o the level o f the signifying c h a i n o f those b i n a r y structures
that, i n the Imaginary d i m e n s i o n , relate e v e r y t h i n g back t o a fictional " o n e . " Jacques
L a c a n identifies three d i m e n s i o n s ; o r orders, i n the structure o f the h u m a n psyche: the
R e a l (that w i t h w h i c h , b y v i r t u e o f the fact that w e are speaking animals, w e have n o
u n m e d i a t e d relation), the Imaginary, a n d the S y m b o l i c . T h e Imaginary is a d i m e n s i o n i n
w h i c h the h u m a n subject's relation to himself, a n d t o o t h e r people, is s t r u c t u r e d l i k e ,
a n d b y , his r e l a t i o n t o his m i r r o r image: a d y a d i c , s y m m e t r i c a l c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y ( w h e t h e r
b e t w e e n c h i l d a n d m i r r o r o r b e t w e e n c h i l d a n d m o t h e r ) based o n the fiction o f a stable
i d e n t i t y , a wholeness, w h i c h the m i r r o r instates by equating the self w i t h a n image. T h e
S y m b o l i c o r d e r , w h a t I have been calling the " t h i r d , " is the register o f language, h i e r a r c h y ,
l a w , a n d p o w e r — t h e w o r l d " o u t t h e r e " to w h i c h the h u m a n subject m u s t c o m e t o relate
n o t o n l y t h r o u g h o n e - t o - o n e o r face-to-face dyads ( t h o u g h these r e m a i n inescapable) b u t
t h r o u g h i m m e r s i o n i n the codes a n d constraints o f c u l t u r e . W i t h respect t o the m o t h e r -
c h i l d d y a d , this " t h i r d " is represented by the father a n d by the p r o h i b i t i o n o f incest. " T h e
S y m b o l i c o r d e r (or language itself)," writes F r e d r i c Jameson, " r e s t r u c t u r e s the Imaginary
b y i n t r o d u c i n g a t h i r d t e r m i n t o the h i t h e r t o infinite regression o f the d u a l i t y o f the
latter's m i r r o r images." 25

A l l three o f these e x a m p l e s — t h e T h i r d W o r l d , the t h i r d actor, a n d the S y m b o l i c —

i n v o l v e m o v i n g f r o m a structure o f c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y o r s y m m e t r y t o a c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n ,
i n w h i c h w h a t o n c e s t o o d as an exclusive d u a l r e l a t i o n becomes an e l e m e n t i n a larger
c h a i n . T h u s the U n i t e d States a n d the Soviet U n i o n o n c e saw one another, i n effect, as
rivals d i v i d i n g u p the w o r l d , each invested i n the fantasy that o n l y the o t h e r was i n the
w a y . T h e s o - c a l l e d " T h i r d W o r l d , " w h i c h was always " t h e r e , " b u t was invisible t o C o l d
W a r m y o p i a e x c e p t as a potential sphere o f influence against the e n c r o a c h m e n t o f the
" o t h e r " s u p e r p o w e r , paradoxically c o n t r i b u t e d to the lessening o f C o l d W a r tensions b y
b e c o m i n g m o r e p o l i t i c a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y v i s i b l e — b y (to use a o n c e p o p u l a r t e r m )
" e m e r g i n g . " T h e C o l d W a r focus o n one " o t h e r " was thus r e n d e r e d b o t h i m p r a c t i c a l a n d
impossible. L i k e w i s e the binary, often rivalrous structure o f protagonist/antagonist, hero/
v i l l a i n , o r even husband/wife i n early d r a m a c o u l d be d i s r u p t e d by the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f
a " t h i r d " : the c h i l d , the w o r l d — i n Oedipus the locus o f h i s t o r y , o f " f o r g o t t e n " k n o w l e d g e ,
o f the u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e i n t e r r u p t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l events, o r o f events f r o m the p a s t — a n
oracle, a n u n k n o w n h e r d s m a n w i t h " n e w s " — t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n , that is, o f things that
" e x i s t " i n a theatrically c o n c e i v e d space a n d t i m e b u t w e r e not present onstage as agents

12
 INTRODUCTION

before, reconfigures the relationships b e t w e e n the original p a i r , a n d puts i n q u e s t i o n

identities previously c o n c e i v e d as stable, unchallengeable, g r o u n d e d , a n d " k n o w n . "
T h i s i n t e r r u p t i o n , this d i s r u p t i v e act o f p u t t i n g i n question, i s — a s I w i l l be c o n t e n d i n g
t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k — p r e c i s e l y the place, a n d the role, o f the transvestite. F o r all three
o f these illustrative examples ( d r a w n f r o m the c o n t e x t o f w o r l d p o l i t i c s — a n d , since the
" T h i r d W o r l d " is a largely " n o n - w h i t e " w o r l d , f r o m race r e l a t i o n s — f r o m theater, a n d
f r o m psychoanalysis a n d the s t r u c t u r e o f language) are, as w e w i l l see, n o t just analogies,
b u t also inextricable f r o m the f u n c t i o n i n g o f transvestism as s u c h . In fact, the very e x a m p l e
L a c a n uses to demonstrate his n o t i o n o f the S y m b o l i c , o f the signifying c h a i n , is a n
e x a m p l e w h i c h is d i r e c t l y p e r t i n e n t t o transvestite/transsexual e x p e r i e n c e as w e l l as t o
the c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f g e n d e r difference.

"URINARY SEGREGATION"

L a c a n illustrates the translation o f (Imaginary) identities i n t o signifiers i n his d i s c u s s i o n

o f " u r i n a r y segregation," the triage o f bodies p e r f o r m e d b y the t w o i d e n t i c a l d o o r s labeled
"men" a n d " w o m e n " (or, i n one N e w H a v e n restaurant, " p o i n t e r s " a n d "setters") i n
p u b l i c a c c o m m o d a t i o n s . " T h e image o f t w i n d o o r s , " says L a c a n , " s y m b o l i z [ e s ] , t h r o u g h
the solitary c o n f i n e m e n t o f f e r e d W e s t e r n M a n f o r the satisfaction o f his natural needs
away f r o m h o m e , the i m p e r a t i v e that he seems t o share w i t h the great m a j o r i t y o f
p r i m i t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s , b y w h i c h his p u b l i c life is subjected to the laws o f u r i n a r y
segregation." 26
Lacan's masculinist vocabulary ( " W e s t e r n Man'' " t h e i m p e r a t i v e that he
seems to share") a n d his colonialist c u l t u r a l bias ("Western M a n , " "primitive c o m m u n i t i e s " )
f r a m e his tacit a s s u m p t i o n that t h o u g h these signs m a y be arbitrary, they are not
meaningless. H e is n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h anatomical specifications f o r g e n d e r - t r a c k i n g . T h e
signs o n the doors d o n o t c o n t a i n pictures o f sex organs; they satisfy a desire f o r c u l t u r a l
b i n a r i s m rather t h a n f o r b i o l o g i c a l certainty. (Indeed, at a recent l i t e r a r y conference i n
Lausanne, S w i t z e r l a n d , I was a m u s e d to find that the t w o d o o r s w e r e m a r k e d w i t h
cartoons d e p i c t i n g male a n d female faces that w e r e so difficult t o d e c i p h e r — a n d so
suggestive i n t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e — t h a t they h a d t o be e x p l a i n e d to the conferees i n a special
a n n o u n c e m e n t f r o m the p o d i u m . )
T h e c h a r m i n g little anecdote L a c a n tells to a c c o m p a n y his a r g u m e n t , o f t w o c h i l d r e n ,
a b o y a n d a g i r l , seated facing each o t h e r i n a t r a i n as it arrives i n the station, maintains
this o p p o s i t i o n a l a n d binary s t r u c t u r e : " ' L o o k , ' says the b r o t h e r , ' w e ' r e at Ladies!'; ' I d i o t ! , '
replies his sister [ w h o is facing the o t h e r side o f the station], ' C a n ' t y o u see w e ' r e at
G e n t l e m e n ? ' " ( L a c a n , 152). T h a t the t w o sexes i n this story each r e a d the sign o f the
o t h e r is n o t w i t h o u t interest here. W h a t they see is difference, w h e t h e r they are conscious
o f that difference o r not.
It is w o r t h p o i n t i n g o u t that, as p u b l i c a c c o m m o d a t i o n s m o r e a n d m o r e often serve

13
 INTRODUCTION

a m u l t i l i n g u a l clientele, the w o r d s " m e n " a n d " w o m e n " o r " l a d i e s " a n d " g e n t l e m e n " have
b e e n r e p l a c e d b y signs s h o w i n g a figure dressed i n male c l o t h e s — t r o u s e r s — a n d a figure
dressed i n female c l o t h e s — a skirt o r dress. Y e t n o one (except perhaps transvestites a n d
transsexuals) interprets these signs literally o r m i m e t i c a l l y . A w o m a n i n pants w o u l d n o t
o r d i n a r i l y g o t h r o u g h the d o o r m a r k e d w i t h a figure i n pants, n o r w o u l d a p r i e s t i n a
soutane o r a H a r e K r i s h n a advocate i n robes head f o r the d o o r w i t h the s k i r t .

F o r transvestites a n d transsexuals, the " m e n ' s r o o m " p r o b l e m is really a challenge to

the w a y s u c h c u l t u r a l b i n a r i s m is read. Cross-dressers w h o w a n t to pass prefer t o read
the stick figures literally: those i n pants, i n there; those i n skirts, i n here. T h e p u b l i c
r e s t r o o m appears repeatedly i n transvestite accounts o f passing i n part because it so
d i r e c t l y posits the b i n a r i s m o f gender (choose either one d o o r o r the other) i n a p p a r e n t l y
inflexible t e r m s , a n d also (what is really part o f the same p o i n t ) because it m a r k s a place
o f taboo. O n l y little boys ( w h o , as w e have seen, have historically i n s o m e W e s t e r n
cultures been dressed as girls, u n t i l they w e r e " b r e e c h e d " o r p u t i n y o u n g m e n ' s clothes
as a sign o f i n d e p e n d e n t m a t u r i t y ) are p e r m i t t e d to " b r e a c h " this gender d i v i s i o n , i n o r d e r
to a c c o m p a n y t h e i r m o t h e r s i n t o the w o m e n ' s r o o m . W i t h the advent o f m o r e active
p a r e n t i n g b y fathers it is conceivable that little girls m a y occasionally find t h e i r w a y i n t o
the m e n ' s r o o m , b u t the presence o f the u r i n a l (and o f the consequent e x p o s u r e o f m a l e
genitals) makes this less likely. T h u s D u s t i n H o f f m a n , i n Tootsie, reports t o his agent that
i n his cross-dressed persona as " D o r o t h y M i c h a e l s , " "I w e n t t o the ladies' r o o m — I almost
pissed i n the sink. I ' m i n t r o u b l e . "

In fact, the u r i n a l has appeared i n a n u m b e r o f fairly recent films as a m a r k e r o f the

u l t i m a t e " d i f f e r e n c e " — o r s t u d i e d indifference. E a r l y i n the film Cabaret (1972), M i c h a e l
Y o r k , as a n i n n o c e n t E n g l i s h m a n abroad i n B e r l i n i n the early thirties, visits the m e n ' s
r o o m (clearly m a r k e d "Herren") o f the K i t - K a t C l u b , a n d finds h i m s e l f s t a n d i n g n e x t t o
a b l o n d c h o r i n e at the u r i n a l . W e have seen her before i n a l o n g shot p u l l i n g o n h e r w i g .
In h e r f u l l m a k e u p , w i g , a n d l o w - c u t stage costume " s h e " impassively stares ahead, w h i l e
Y o r k makes a business o f seeming matter-of-fact, visibly concealing his v e r y evident
d o u b l e - t a k e . T h e j o k e is repeated w h e n the cross-dressed c h o r i n e , E l k e , is i n t r o d u c e d b y
L i z a M i n n e l l i to a fat-cat at one o f the n i g h t c l u b tables. M i n n e l l i has e x t r i c a t e d herself
f r o m his attentions by w h i s p e r i n g that she has "just a little t o u c h o f s y p h i l i s " ; n o w she
a n d Y o r k c h o r t l e o v e r the substitution: " W a i t till he sees w h a t Elke's g o t . " Cabaret, a film
w h i c h uses cross-dressing t h r o u g h o u t as b o t h a historically accurate a n d a theatrically
effective sign o f G e r m a n p r e w a r decadence a n d the ambivalence o f N a z i p o w e r , situates
this i n i t i a t o r y scene o f i n s t r u c t i o n quite deliberately i n the m e n ' s r o o m . Y o r k plays a
character w h o ekes o u t a l i v i n g by g i v i n g E n g l i s h lessons, b u t his G e r m a n l e a r n i n g
e x p e r i e n c e , i n w h i c h all his u p - t i g h t verities a n d c u l t u r a l assumptions are finally c a l l e d
i n t o q u e s t i o n , starts b e h i n d the d o o r m a r k e d " H e r r e n . "
In the case o f female impersonators, w h o w a n t to m a i n t a i n b o t h the audience's
conscious k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i r identities as m e n a n d the o v e r p o w e r i n g i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e i r

14
 INTRODUCTION

femaleness a n d f e m i n i n i t y , the m e n ' s r o o m " t e s t " can g o the o t h e r w a y , as i n a recent

f i l m called The Female Impersonator Pageant (1985) d o c u m e n t i n g the c r o w n i n g o f the first
annual Female Impersonator o f the Year. In the film's o p e n i n g m o m e n t s L y l e W a g g o n e r ,
the male actor w h o was s c h e d u l e d t o be the a n n o u n c e r f o r the c o m p e t i t i o n , was h e a r d
l o u d l y p r o c l a i m i n g that a l l beauty contests w e r e alike w h e n the d o o r o f the m e n ' s r o o m
o p e n e d t o let o u t a stream o f s t u n n i n g " w o m e n , " the cross-dressed contestants.

T h e r e s t r o o m as site o f gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n accords w i t h a c h i l d ' s earliest t r a i n i n g i n

the use o f p u b l i c a c c o m m o d a t i o n s , w h e t h e r i n schools, i n airports, o r i n t r a i n o r bus
stations, a n d therefore w i t h some o f his o r h e r earliest p u b l i c declarations o f g e n d e r
difference. Lacan's astringently categorical phrase, " u r i n a r y segregation," is a r e m i n d e r at
least f o r citizens o f the U n i t e d States that n o t too l o n g ago there w e r e separate b a t h r o o m s
f o r " w h i t e " a n d " c o l o r e d " i n the s o u t h e r n parts o f this c o u n t r y . In o t h e r w o r d s , this is
all about binaries. T h e o l d b i n a r i s m , the o l d d i v i s i o n " b e t w e e n the sexes," the u l t i m a t e
grade s c h o o l taboo (boys' room/girls' r o o m ) becomes a gender test.

F o r one recent m a l e - t o - f e m a l e transsexual, the test i n fact became one o f de facto

segregation. B a r r e d f r o m the w o m e n ' s r o o m by l a w s c h o o l classmates w h o h a d k n o w n
" h e r " as a m a n , she was also u n w e l c o m e i n the men's r o o m i n her n e w female persona
a n d b o d y . T h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f the l a w s c h o o l dean, w h o p e r m i t t e d h e r t o use his b a t h r o o m ,
was a t e m p o r a r y a n d unsatisfactory s o l u t i o n , since it l e d t o the crossing o f yet another
taboo b o u n d a r y , that b e t w e e n faculty a n d students. G e n d e r a n d class intersected, w i t h
m u t u a l l y non-beneficial r e s u l t s . 27
It seems p a r t i c u l a r l y i r o n i c , t h o u g h n o t f o r that reason
u n l i k e l y , that this scenario s h o u l d play itself o u t i n a l a w s c h o o l . I d o n o t k n o w w h a t
u l t i m a t e s o l u t i o n , i f any, was f o u n d .
O n e o f the m o s t expressive o f the several p u b l i s h e d m e m o i r s o n the transsexual
experience is Jan ( f o r m e r l y James) M o r r i s ' s autobiographical b o o k , Conundrum, first p u b -
lished i n 1974. M o r r i s n o w believes that the transsexual era m a y be e n d i n g , that c u l t u r a l
change a n d o t h e r things m a y have obviated some persons' n e e d t o seek a surgical s o l u t i o n
to t h e i r gender d y s p h o r i a . B u t i n her pre-operative c o n d i t i o n , w h e n she h a d been t a k i n g
28

h o r m o n e s a n d e x p e r i e n c i n g b o d i l y changes w i t h o u t u n d e r g o i n g the final surgical o p e r a t i o n

that w o u l d c o n s t r u c t h e r a n a t o m i c a l l y — i f n o t b i o l o g i c a l l y — a s a w o m a n , M o r r i s h a d a
n u m b e r o f w h a t m i g h t be c a l l e d "clothes c a l l s . " D u r i n g a t r i p to S o u t h A f r i c a , f o r e x a m p l e ,
M o r r i s was t o l d at l u n c h t i m e that he h a d to w e a r a collar a n d tie i n the d i n i n g r o o m ,
a n d at d i n n e r that she c o u l d n o t enter w e a r i n g trousers. In M e x i c o a g r o u p o f housemaids,
unable t o tell M o r r i s ' s gender f r o m the "sparse traveler's w a r d r o b e " i n the closet, came
t o the d o o r t o ask " W h e t h e r y o u are a lady o r a g e n t l e m a n . " "I w h i p p e d u p m y shirt t o
s h o w m y b o s o m , " M o r r i s recounts, " a n d they gave m e a b u n c h o f flowers w h e n I l e f t . " 29

Transsexualism, i n fact, is one d i s t i n c t l y t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y manifestation o f cross-dressing

a n d the anxieties o f b i n a r i t y , an identifiable site, i n s c r i b e d o n the b o d y , o f the q u e s t i o n
o f the constructedness o f gender. Transsexual surgery has been p e r f o r m e d since 1922,
a n d since the C h r i s t i n e Jorgensen case made headlines i n 1953, d i s r u p t i n g the c o m p l a c e n c y

15
 INTRODUCTION

o f the " L e a v e It t o B e a v e r " generation, a remarkable n u m b e r o f novels, m e m o i r s a n d

films have f o c u s e d o n the transsexual as e m b l e m o f fear a n d d e s i r e — t h e fear a n d desire
o f the b o r d e r l i n e a n d o f technology: Myra Breckinridge, the n o v e l a n d the film; Robert
A l t m a n ' s Come Back to the Five and Dime, Jimmy Dean, jimmy Dean; B r i a n D e Palma's Dressed
to Kill; The World According to Garp (again, b o t h a n o v e l a n d a film); A n g e l a C a r t e r ' s The
Passion of New Eve; the c u l t film The Rocky Horror Picture Show—the list goes o n a n d o n . In
a c h a p t e r c a l l e d " S p a r e Parts: T h e Surgical C o n s t r u c t i o n o f G e n d e r " I w i l l discuss
transsexual surgery a n d the gender inequalities o f its practice i n some detail. L e t it suffice
t o say here that transsexual surgery u p p e d the ante o n the t w o b i g p r o b l e m s obsessively
addressed i n m e d i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l discourses: artifactuality a n d uncertainty. W h a t d i d they
get, w h a t d i d they lose, a n d h o w c o u l d w e k n o w w h a t they really w e r e now? N o t k n o w i n g ,
n o t b e i n g able t o k n o w , became, as w i t h the d i l e m m a o f the transsexual a n d the l a w
s c h o o l r e s t r o o m s , a source o f a n x i e t y — a n d , i n consequence, a b a t t l e g r o u n d f o r c o m p e t i n g
vested interests.

T h e chapters that f o l l o w are d i v i d e d i n t o t w o l o n g sections, Transvestite Logics a n d

Transvestite Effects. T h e reader s h o u l d not regard t h e m as c o m p l e t e l y separate o r separable,
b u t rather as c o m p l e m e n t a r y m i r r o r images o f one another. B r o a d l y speaking, Transvestite
Logics explores the w a y that transvestism creates c u l t u r e , a n d Transvestite Effects, the w a y
that c u l t u r e creates transvestites. Since, as I w i l l argue, one o f the m o s t consistent a n d
effective f u n c t i o n s o f the transvestite i n c u l t u r e is to indicate the place o f w h a t I c a l l
" c a t e g o r y c r i s i s , " d i s r u p t i n g a n d calling attention to c u l t u r a l , social, o r aesthetic disso-
nances, there has been n o attempt here t o p r o d u c e a seamless h i s t o r i c a l narrative o f the
" d e v e l o p m e n t " o f the transvestite figure—indeed, as w i l l q u i c k l y b e c o m e clear, I regard
the a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f the transvestite as a figure for d e v e l o p m e n t , progress, o r a "stage o f
l i f e " as t o a large e x t e n t a refusal t o c o n f r o n t the e x t r a o r d i n a r y p o w e r o f transvestism t o
d i s r u p t , expose, a n d challenge, p u t t i n g i n question the very n o t i o n o f the " o r i g i n a l " a n d
o f stable i d e n t i t y . T h e rest o f this b o o k w i l l be d e v o t e d to the e x p l o r a t i o n o f the logics,
and the effects, o f cross-dressing as a n i n d e x , precisely, o f m a n y different k i n d s o f
" c a t e g o r y c r i s i s " — f o r the n o t i o n o f the "category c r i s i s , " I w i l l c o n t e n d , is n o t the
e x c e p t i o n b u t rather the g r o u n d o f c u l t u r e itself.

By " c a t e g o r y c r i s i s " I m e a n a failure o f definitional d i s t i n c t i o n , a b o r d e r l i n e that

becomes permeable, that permits o f b o r d e r crossings f r o m one (apparently d i s t i n c t )
category t o another: black/white, Jew/Christian, noble/bourgeois, master/servant, master/
slave. T h e b i n a r i s m male/female, one apparent g r o u n d o f d i s t i n c t i o n ( i n c o n t e m p o r a r y
eyes, at least) b e t w e e n " t h i s " a n d " t h a t , " " h i m " a n d " m e , " is itself p u t i n q u e s t i o n o r
u n d e r erasure i n transvestism, a n d a transvestite figure, o r a transvestite m o d e , w i l l always
f u n c t i o n as a sign o f o v e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n — a m e c h a n i s m o f displacement f r o m o n e b l u r r e d
b o u n d a r y t o another. A n analogy here m i g h t be the so-called " t a g g e d " gene that s h o w s
u p i n a genetic c h a i n , i n d i c a t i n g the presence o f some otherwise h i d d e n c o n d i t i o n . It

16
 INTRODUCTION

is not the gene itself, b u t its presence, that m a r k s the t r o u b l e spot, i n d i c a t i n g the l i k e l i h o o d
o f a crisis s o m e w h e r e , elsewhere.
In a similar w a y , I w i l l argue, the apparently spontaneous o r u n e x p e c t e d o r s u p p l e m e n -
tary presence o f a transvestite figure i n a text ( w h e t h e r fiction o r h i s t o r y , verbal o r visual,
imagistic o r " r e a l " ) that does n o t seem, thematically, to be p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h
g e n d e r difference o r b l u r r e d g e n d e r indicates a category crisis elsewhere, a n irresolvable
conflict o r epistemological c r u x that destabilizes c o m f o r t a b l e b i n a r i t y , a n d displaces the
resulting d i s c o m f o r t o n t o a figure that already inhabits, i n d e e d incarnates, the m a r g i n .
T h u s a play l i k e D a v i d H e n r y H w a n g ' s M. butterfly, w h i c h tells the story o f a m a l e F r e n c h
d i p l o m a t a n d his affair w i t h a m a l e - t o - f e m a l e transvestite singer f r o m the C h i n e s e o p e r a
w h o t u r n s o u t t o be a spy, focuses attention o n E a s t - W e s t , O r i e n t - O c c i d e n t , a n d g a y -
straight tensions a n d redefinitions; that H w a n g s h o u l d choose f r o m c u r r e n t h i s t o r y
precisely this story, a n d that readers a n d reviewers o f his play s h o u l d regard transvestism
as its vehicle rather t h a n its tenor, as, once again, s o m e t h i n g t o be l o o k e d through o n the
way t o a story about m e n o r w o m e n , A s i a n o r E u r o p e a n — a l l o f this seems t o m e
s y m p t o m a t i c o f category crisis. A n d w e s h o u l d bear i n m i n d that H w a n g ' s play is based
u p o n a " r e a l " event; that the fantasies unleashed here are c u l t u r a l forces, n o t m e r e l y
" l i t e r a r y " ones.

L i k e w i s e , it is, f o r e x a m p l e , not really s u r p r i s i n g t o find that there are a remarkable

n u m b e r o f transvestite figures i n A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e — n o r is it s u r p r i s i n g t o find
that these figures have been o f t e n i g n o r e d o r m a r g i n a l i z e d i n the c r u c i a l a n d o f t e n b r i l l i a n t
discussions o f the last years c e n t e r i n g o n race conflict, miscegenation, a n d the m u l a t t o /
mulatta.
C a t e g o r y crises can a n d d o m a r k displacements f r o m the axis o f class as w e l l as f r o m
race o n t o the axis o f gender. A s w e w i l l see shortly, the s u m p t u a r y laws that regulated
dress f o r each social class i n m e d i e v a l a n d Renaissance E u r o p e q u i c k l y came as w e l l t o
regulate a n d reify dress codes f o r m e n a n d w o m e n . O n c e again, transvestism was the
specter that rose u p — b o t h i n the theater a n d i n the s t r e e t s — t o m a r k a n d o v e r d e t e r m i n e
this crisis o f social a n d e c o n o m i c change. In texts as various as Peter Pan, As You Like It,
and Yentl, i n figures as enigmatic a n d c o m p e l l i n g as d ' E o n a n d Elvis Presley, G e o r g e Sand
and B o y G e o r g e , the category crisis a n d its resultant "transvestite e f f e c t " focus c u l t u r a l
anxiety, a n d challenge vested interests.
W h a t this b o o k insists u p o n , h o w e v e r , is n o t — o r not o n l y — t h a t c u l t u r a l forces i n
general create literary effects, n o r e v e n — a l t h o u g h I believe this to be the c a s e — t h a t the
opposite is also t r u e , b u t rather that transvestism is a space of possibility structuring and confounding
culture: the d i s r u p t i v e element that intervenes, not just a category crisis o f male a n d female,
but the crisis o f category itself.

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