Calculus( ‫) الحسبان‬

Functions ( ‫) الدوال‬

Definition of function ( ‫) تعريف الدالة‬:

a function is a relation between a set 𝑋 ≠ ∅ ( domain ) and a

set 𝑌 ≠ ∅ ( codomain ) with the property that each input is
related to exactly one output.and denoted by y = f( x ) where x
is independent variable and y is dependent variable

) ‫هي عالقة من مجموعة غير خالية ( المجال ) إلى مجموعة غير خالية ( المجال المقابل‬
‫يقترن فيها كل عنصر من المجال بعنصر واحد من المجال المقابل ويرمز لها بالرمز‬
Y=f(x)

‫ حيث يسمى‬x ‫ المتغير المستقل و‬y ‫المتغير التابع‬

Types of functions ( ‫) أنواع الدوال‬:

Polynomials ( ‫) كثيرات الحدود‬:

𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + … 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
Where an , an – 1 , … are constants) ‫) ثوابت‬ and n , n – 1 , …
are Natural numbers( ‫) أعداد طبيعية‬

Example ( ‫ ) مثال‬: 2 x3 – 5 x + 9 is polynomial ( third degree )

but
7
𝑥 4 − 2 = 𝑥 4 − 7 𝑥 −2
𝑥
and
1
2 𝑥 9 + 6 √𝑥 = 2 𝑥 9 + 6 𝑥 2
 1
are not polynomials because -2 and are not natural
2
numbers
Trigonometric functions: ( ‫) الدوال المثلثية‬

1 – sin x( ‫) دالة الجيب‬ y=1

y=–1
2 – cos x ( ‫) دالة جيب التمام‬

y=1

y=–1
3 – tan x ( ‫) دالة الظل‬
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
4 – cot x( ‫) دالة ظل التمام‬
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 1
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
5 – sec x ( ‫) القاطع‬
 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
6 – csc x ( ‫) قاطع التمام‬
1
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
cos Sin tan cot sec csc
0 , 360ᴼ 1 0 0 ∞ 1 ∞
𝜋
90ᴼ = 0 1 ∞ 0 ∞ 1
2
180ᴼ = -1 0 0 −∞ -1 ∞

π
270ᴼ = 0 -1 −∞ 0 ∞ -1
3𝜋
2
𝜋
45ᴼ = 1 1 1 1 √2 √2
4
√2 𝜋
√2
30ᴼ = √3 1 1 √3 2 2
6
2 2 √3 √3
𝜋
60ᴼ = 1 √3 √3 1 2 2
3
2 2 √3 √3
1 1
Where π = 180ᴼ and 0 = , ∞=
∞ 0

Exponential functions( ‫ ) الدوال األسية‬:

𝑒 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑓( 𝑥 )

x
e

1
where f ( x ) is any function , and a is constant , and
approximately ( ‫ ) تقريبا‬e ≈ 2.718

Logarithmic functions ( ‫ ) الدوال اللوغرثمية‬:

𝑓(𝑥) =𝑏
Where a is base ( ‫) األساس‬and b is exponent ( ‫) األس‬

𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )

ln x

Hyperbolic functions ( ‫) الدوال الزائدية‬:

𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒− 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 =
2
𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒− 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 =
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒−𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = = 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑒−𝑥
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒−𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = = = 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑒−𝑥
1 2
𝑥 = = 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥
 1 2
𝑥 = = 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥
Installation functions( Composite function ): ( ‫) تركيب الدوال‬

Let f ( x ) , g ( x ) are two functions . then

f○g)x(=f)g)x(( , g○f)x(=g)f)x((

example : if f (x) = x2 + 3 x , g(x) = x3 – 1 find(‫)أوجد‬

f ○ g)x( , g ○ f )x(

solution ( ‫ ) الحل‬:

f ○ g ) x ( = f ) g ) x ( ( = ) g ( x ) )2 + 3 ( g ( x ) ) = ( x3 – 1 )2 + 3 (
x3 – 1 )

g ○ f ) x ( = g ) f ) x ( ( = ) f ) x ( (3 – 1 = ( x2 + 3 x )3 – 1

Example : if f ( x ) = x2 + 1 , g ( x ) = cos x find :

1- f ( 1 ) 2- g ( 0 ) 3- f ○ f ) 1 ( 4- f ○ g ) x (

5- f ○ g ) 0 (

Solution :

1- f ( 1 ) = 12 + 1 = 2
2- g ( 0 ) = cos 0 = 1
3- f ○ f ) 1 ( = f ) f ) 1 ( ( = f ) 2 ( = 22 + 1 = 5
4- f ○ g ) x ( = f ) g ) x ( ( = f ) cos x ( = cos2 x + 1
5- f ○ g ) 0 ( = f ) g ) 0 ( ( = f ) cos 0 ( = cos2 0 + 1 = 12 + 1 = 2

Even functions ‫ )) الدوال الزوجية‬:

f ( x ) be even if f(–x)=f(x)

example : If f ( x ) = 3 x2 – cos 5 x prove that f( x ) is even

function
( we know cos ( a x ) = cos ( – a x ) )

Solution :

𝑓 ( −𝑥 ) = 3 ( −𝑥 )2 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 5 ( −𝑥 ))
we know cos ( – a x ) = cos ( a x ) then

𝑓 ( −𝑥 ) = 3 𝑥 2 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 5 𝑥 ) = 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )
Then f ( x ) is even function

odd functions ‫ )) الدوال الفردية‬:

f ( x ) be even if f(–x)= –f(x)

prove that ‫ ) ) أثبت أن‬sinh x is an odd function

proof ( ‫ ) البرهان‬:

𝑒( −𝑥 ) − 𝑒− ( −𝑥 ) 𝑒−𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( −𝑥 ) = =
2 2
−( 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )
= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥
2
Similarly ‫ )) بالمثل‬we can prove that cosh x is an even function

Example : If f ( x ) = x3 + sin ( 2 x ) prove that f( x ) is odd

function

solution :
𝑓 ( −𝑥 ) = ( −𝑥 )3 +𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 ( −𝑥 ) )
we know sin ( – a x ) = – sin ( a x ) then

𝑓 ( −𝑥 ) = −𝑥 3 −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥 = − ( 𝑥 3 +𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥 ) = −𝑓 ( 𝑥 )

Example : Determine even or odd function or neither
1- f ( x ) = 4 x – tan 8 x
2- g ( x ) = 2 x5 sin ( x )

3- h ( x ) = csc ( x4 ) + sinh2 ( 2 x )

4- u ( x ) = 1 – x3

Solution :
1 ) 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) = 4 ( −𝑥 ) –𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 8 ( −𝑥 ) )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( −8 𝑥 )
= −4 𝑥 −
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( −8 𝑥 )

− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (8 𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (8 𝑥 )

= −4 𝑥 − = −4 𝑥 +
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 8 𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 8 𝑥 )

− ( 4𝑥 −𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 8 𝑥 ) = −𝑓 ( 𝑥 )
Then f ( x ) is odd function

2 ) 𝑔 (−𝑥 ) = 2 ( −𝑥 )5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( −𝑥 ) = −2 𝑥 5 ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 )

= 2 𝑥 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑔 ( 𝑥 )
Then g ( x ) is even function ( odd x odd = even )
3 ) ℎ (−𝑥 ) =𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ( ( −𝑥 )4 ) + (𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( 2( −𝑥 ) ) )2
=𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 4 + ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 2𝑥 )2
=𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 4 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 2 𝑥 = ℎ ( 𝑥 )
Then h ( x ) is even function

4 ) 𝑢 ( − 𝑥 ) = 1 − ( −𝑥 )3 = 1 + 𝑥 3
u ( x ) is not even or odd function

Domain of definition of function ( D D F ) ( ‫) مجال تعريف الدالة‬:

1- D D F of polynomials and trigonometric and exponential

and hyperbolic( without denominator ( ‫ =) مقام‬0 ) functions
is all real numbers ( R )
2- D D F of any function contains denominator all R except
denominator = 0 )denominator ≠ 0 (
𝑔(𝑥)
, 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑓(𝑥)
3- D D F of function inside positive even root(‫ )الجذر‬must be
equals or greater than 0 ) ≥ 0 (
1
√𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑜𝑟 ( 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ))𝑛 , 𝑓(𝑥) ≥0

Where n is even natural number

4- D D F of function inside even root in denominator ( negative

even root ) or function inside logarithm for positive base
must be greater than 0 ( > 0 )

𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑜𝑟 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )
√𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) (𝑓(𝑥) )𝑛

𝑓(𝑥)> 0
Where n is even natural number and a is positive base

Example : Find D D F for the following functions :

1) 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
2𝑥 + 3
2) 𝑔 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 5 −
𝑥2 − 4
3) ℎ ( 𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 + √2𝑥 − 6
1
4) 𝐼 ( 𝑥 ) = ( 𝑥 2 + 25 )4
1
5) 𝑝 ( 𝑥 ) =
√4𝑥 + 20
 6) 𝑞 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑙𝑛 ( 12 − 3 𝑥 )
Solution :

1 ) D D F of f ( x ) is all R

2) x2 – 4 ≠ 0 then x2 ≠ 4 , x≠–2 , 2

DDF={ x:x≠–2 ,2 , x Є R } or R–{–2,2}

3) 2x–6≥0 then 2x≥6 , x≥3

D D F = { x : x ≥ 3 , x Є R } or [3,∞)

4 ) x2 + 25 ≥ 0

since x2 ≥ 0 then x2 + 25 ≥ 0 also

D D F is all R

5 ) 4 x + 20 > 0 , 4 x > – 20 , x> –5

DDF={x:x> –5 ,xЄR} or )–5,∞)

6 ) 12 – 3 x > 0 , 12 > 3 x , 4>x

DDF={x:x<4 ,xЄR} or ) −∞ , 4 )
 Exercises( ‫) تمرين‬

1 if f ( x ) = x + sin x , g ( x ) = ln x
find f ○ g ) x ) , g ( 1 ) ( hint ( ‫ ) إرشاد‬ln ( 1 ) = 0 ) , f
○g)1(
Find D D F of the function
𝑥−1
𝑓(𝑥)=
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
and find f ( 1 )

3- is the function

4
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 3
𝑥 +
4 𝑥 5 − 𝑥 7 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 2
Even or odd ?
 Limits( ‫) النهايات‬

Basic concepts ( ‫) مفاهيم أساسية‬:

0 𝑎+ 𝑎− +
0 ×𝑎 = =0 , =∞ , = −∞ , 0𝑎 = 0
𝑎 0 0
∞ ∞ 𝑎 +
∞ × 𝑎+ = + = ∞ , ∞ × 𝑎− = − = −∞ , = 0 , ∞𝑎 = ∞
𝑎 𝑎 ∞
Where a is any number ≠ 0 , a+ is positive number and
a– is negative number

Properties of limits :

𝑓(𝑥) ±𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)

(𝑓( 𝑥 ) × 𝑔( 𝑥 ) ) = 𝑓( 𝑥 ) × 𝑔( 𝑥 )
𝑓( 𝑥 ) 𝑓( 𝑥 )
=
𝑔( 𝑥 ) 𝑔( 𝑥 )
𝑏 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑏𝑓 ( 𝑥 )
( 𝑓( 𝑥 ))𝑛 = ( 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) )𝑛
Example : find the following limit
5 ( 𝑥 2 + 3 ) ( 2𝑥 − 1 )4
Solution :

5 ( ( 1 )2 + 3 ) ( 2( 1 ) − 1 )4 = 20
The following values
0 ∞
, , ∞− ∞ , 0 × ∞ , 1∞
0 ∞

are not defined

0
1)
0
a) If we can analyzed the numerator ( ‫) البسط‬and denominator
and we find a common factor between them ,by canceling
these factors , we get a simplified expression

‫إذا أمكننا تحليل البسط والمقام ووجدنا جزءا من البسط مشابها لجزء في المقام نختصرهما‬
Example : Find the following limits
𝑥2 − 1
1)
𝑥−1
𝑥2 − 2 𝑥
2) 2
𝑥 −𝑥−2
𝑥+1
3)
2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1
Solution :

1 ) by direct substitute ( ‫) بالتعويض المباشر‬

𝑥2 − 1 12 − 1 0
= =
𝑥−1 1−1 0

also another limits

 ( 𝑥 − 1) ( 𝑥 + 1 )
=𝑥+1 =1+1=2
𝑥−1
𝑥(𝑥−2) 𝑥 2 2
2) = = =
( 𝑥 + 1 )( 𝑥 − 2 ) 𝑥+1 2+1 3
𝑥+1 1 1
3) = = = −1
( 2𝑥 + 1 ) ( 𝑥 + 1 ) ( 2𝑥 + 1 ) 2(−1) + 1

2x 1

x 1

b) If we have limit contains squire root we multiply conjugate (

change ( – ) to ( + ) )

‫إذا كانت النهاية تحتوي على جذر نضرب في المرافق ( نغير اإلشارة التي بين الجذر‬
‫) والعدد‬

Example : Find following limits

2 − √𝑥 √𝑥 − 1 − 1
1) 2)
𝑥−4 𝑥−2
Solution :

2 − √𝑥 2 + √𝑥 4− 𝑥
1) × =
𝑥−4 2 + √𝑥 ( 𝑥 − 4 )( 2 + √𝑥 )
−(𝑥−4) −1 −1
= = =
( 𝑥 − 4 )( 2 + √𝑥 ) ( 2 + √𝑥 ) ( 2 + √4 )
−1 √𝑥 − 1 − 1 √𝑥 − 1 + 1
= 2) ×
4 𝑥−2 √𝑥 − 1 + 1
𝑥−1 −1
=
( 𝑥 − 2)(√𝑥 − 1 + 1)
 𝑥−2 1 1 1
= = = =
( 𝑥 − 2)(√𝑥 − 1 + 1) √𝑥 − 1 + 1 √2 − 1 + 1 2

c ) If we have limit in following form :

𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−𝑚
= 𝑎
𝑥 𝑚 − 𝑎𝑚 𝑚
Example : Find following limits :

𝑥3 − 8 √𝑥 − 1
1) 4 2)
𝑥 − 16 𝑥6 − 1
Solution :

𝑥3 − 8 𝑥 3 − 23
1) 4 = 4
𝑥 − 16 𝑥 − 24
a=2 , n=3 , m=4
3 3−4 3 3 1 3
= 2 = 2−1 = × =
4 4 4 2 8
1 1
√𝑥 − 1 −𝑥2 12
2) =
𝑥6 − 1 𝑥 6 − 16
1
𝑎=1 , 𝑛= , 𝑚=6
2
1 1 1 1 1
= ÷ 6 × 12 − 6 = × =
2 2 6 12

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑) = 1
𝑥
Prove that
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎
=
𝑏𝑥 𝑏
Proof :
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎
= = ×
𝑏𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 𝑎
𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥
𝑏 𝑎𝑥
since x→0 then ax→0 so
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎𝑥
= =1
𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥
then
𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑎
= ×1 =
𝑏 𝑎𝑥 𝑏 𝑏

Similarly we can prove that

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎
=
𝑏𝑥 𝑏
Proof :
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 1
= ÷ 𝑏𝑥= ×
𝑏𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏𝑥
𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 1
= × ×
𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 𝑥
from properties of limits
 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 1 1 𝑎
= 𝑎 × =𝑎 ×1 × =
𝑎𝑥 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 𝑏

and we can prove that

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎
= , =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 𝑥 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 𝑥 𝑏
Example :
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 3
=
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 7 𝑥 7
Example : Find the following limits :
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑥 − 2 )
1)
𝑥−2
1
2 ) 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑥
Solution :
1 ( since x → 2 then )x–2(→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑥 − 2 )
= 1
(𝑥−2)
2 ) this limit can be written as( ‫ يمكن كتابة النهاية على الصورة‬: )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
1
𝑥
1
𝑥
1
𝑥 → ∞ 𝑠𝑜 →0
𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
1
𝑥 = 1
1
𝑥
 ∞
2)
∞
Divide by x to the greater exponent

‫ نقسم على‬x ‫مرفوعة ألكبر قوة‬

Example : Find

7 𝑥3 + 3 𝑥
1)
4 𝑥3 − 2 𝑥2 + 1
√𝑥 6 − 2
2)
𝑥4 + 𝑥
Solution :

𝑥3 𝑥 3
7 3+ 3 3 7+ 2
1) 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑥 3 𝑥 2 1 2 1
4 3− 2 3+ 3 4− + 3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
3
7+ 7+0 7
= ∞2 = =
2 1 4−0+0 4
4− + 3
∞ ∞
2 ) we know

𝑥 4 = √𝑥 8
Then

( 𝑥 4 = √𝑥 8 ) > √𝑥 6
We divide x4 or x8 inside the root
 6 1 2
√𝑥 8 − 28 √ 2− 8
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
2) 4 =
𝑥 𝑥 1
+ 1 +
𝑥4 𝑥4 𝑥3

√ 12 − 28
∞ ∞ √0 − 0 0
= = =0
1 1 + 0 1
1+ 3
∞

3) ∞− ∞
Example : Find
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
Solution :
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= − 2 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ( 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 × 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
1 𝜋 1
𝜋 × ( 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 )= × ( 1 − 2 ( 1 )) = ∞ × −1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 0
2
= −∞

4) 0 × ∞
Example : Find

𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥
Solution :
1 𝑥
𝑥 = =1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

5 ) 1∞
1 1 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( 1+𝑥 )𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( 1 + ) = 𝑒
𝑥 → 0 𝑥 → ∞ 𝑥
Example : Find

𝑥+3 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( )
𝑥 → ∞ 𝑥
Solution :

𝑥 3 𝑥 3 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( + ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (1 + )
𝑥 → ∞ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 → ∞ 𝑥
Let x = 3 u then u → ∞ also , we get

3 3𝑢
𝑙𝑖𝑚 (1 + )
𝑢 → ∞ 3𝑢
We know

𝑎𝑚 𝑛 = ( 𝑎𝑛 )𝑚
Then we get
3
1 3𝑢 1 𝑢
𝑙𝑖𝑚 (1 + ) = ( ( 1 + ) ) = 𝑒3
𝑢 → ∞ 𝑢 𝑢
 Exercise

Find following limits

𝑥2 − 8 𝑥 − 9
1)
3 − √𝑥
 1
− 1 𝑥 −2 − 1−2
2) 𝑥2 =
𝑥4 − 1 𝑥 4 − 14
3 ( 𝑥2 − 4 )
3)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑥 − 2 )

1 + √𝑥 9 + 3 𝑥 2
4)
𝑥5 + 2 𝑥
5 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥
2
6 ) ( 1 − 4 𝑥 )𝑥
𝑢
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥=
−4

Continuous and discontinuous functions

‫الدوال المتصلة والغير متصلة‬
f ( x ) is continuous function at x = a if :

‫ تكون الدالة متصلة عند النقطة‬a ‫ إذا‬:

1 ) f ( a ) is exist ( x = a )

2)𝑓(𝑥) , (𝑥 > 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑥) , (𝑥 < 𝑎)

𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
3) 𝑓(𝑎)= 𝑓(𝑥)
Example : prove that the function
𝑥2 − 1
𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) = {2 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥1 , 𝑥 <1 }
𝑥2 − 𝑥

is continuous at x = 1

Proof :

1 ) f ( 1 ) = 2 ( 1 ) = 2 is exist , x=1

2 ) 2𝑥 = 2 ( 1 ) = 2 , 𝑥>1
𝑥2 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥+1 1+1
= = = =2
𝑥2 − 𝑥 𝑥(𝑥−1) 𝑥 1
, 𝑥<1
𝑥2 − 1
2𝑥 = , 2=2
𝑥2 − 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) =2 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1) =2
f ( x ) is continuous function
| 𝑥−1 |
Example : if 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = find
𝑥−1

𝑓( 𝑥 ) and 𝑓( 𝑥 )
Solution :

if 𝑥 > 1 then |𝑥−1|=𝑥−1 then

|𝑥−1| 𝑥−1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(+) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 1 = 1
𝑥 → 1(+) 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 → 1(+)
if 𝑥 < 1 then |𝑥−1| = −(𝑥−1) then
|𝑥−1| −( 𝑥 − 1 )
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(−) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(+) − 1 = −1
𝑥 → 1(−) 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1

Example : Discuss the continuity of following function :

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑓(𝑥)= { , 𝑥 ≠ 0 𝑥, 𝑥=0 }
𝑥
Solution :

1 ) f ( 0 ) = 0 is exist

2 ) ( 𝑥 ≠ 0 ) ≡ ( 𝑥 > 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
= =1
𝑥 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) =1 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
3 ) 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) ≠ 𝑓 ( 0 ) , 1 ≠0
f ( x ) is discontinuous function

example : If

𝑥 3 + 27
𝑓(𝑥)= { , 𝑥 > −3 𝑘 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≤ −3 }
𝑥+3

is continuous function at x = – 3 find value of k

Solution :
 𝑥 3 − (−3)3 3
= × (−3)3−1 = 3 × (−3)2 = 3 × 9 = 27
𝑥 − (−3) 1
𝑘 𝑥 2 = 𝑘 (−3)2 = 9 𝑘
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 , 27 = 9 𝑘 , 𝑘=3
𝑥 → −3(+) 𝑥 → −3(−)

Exercise

1 ) discuss the continuity of

𝑥2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥)= { 𝑥 ≠ 2 4𝑥 = 2}
𝑥−2

at x=2

2 ) discuss the continuity of 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = | 𝑥 − 1 | at x = 1

3 ) is the following function

 𝑥2 − 4 8 𝑥 − 16
𝑓(𝑥)= { 2 𝑥 > 22 𝑥𝑥 = 2 2 𝑥 < 2}
𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2𝑥

continuous function or not ?

2 ) Find value of k if you know

𝑥2 − 1
𝑓(𝑥)= { , 𝑥 < −1 3 𝑥 2 + 𝑘 , 𝑥 ≥ −1 }
𝑥+1

is continuous function

First principle ( definition ) of derivative

‫المبادئ األولية للتفاضل‬
we know that

if y = f ( x ) then
𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑓 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )
∆𝑦 = 𝑓 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) – 𝑦
∆𝑦 = 𝑓 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) – 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )
∆𝑦 𝑓 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) – 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )
=
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
 𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦 𝑓 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) – 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )
= =
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
Example : Find first derivative ( y\ ) using definition if y =
xn

Solution :

𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑓 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) = ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )𝑛
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) – 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )𝑛 – 𝑥 𝑛
= =
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )𝑛 – 𝑥 𝑛
=
( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) − 𝑥
𝑛=𝑛 , 𝑚=1 , 𝑎=𝑥
𝑛 𝑛−𝑚 𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑎 = 𝑥 = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑚 1
Example : find first derivative ( y\ ) using definition if

𝑦 = √𝑥
Solution :
1 1
𝑓(𝑥)= 𝑥2 , 𝑓 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) = ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )2
1 1
𝑑𝑦 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )2 – 𝑥2
=
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥
1 1
( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 –
)2 𝑥2
=
( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) − 𝑥
1
𝑛= , 𝑚=1 , 𝑎=𝑥
2
 1
𝑛 𝑛−𝑚 2 1
−1 1 −1 1
𝑎 = 𝑥 2 = 𝑥2 =
𝑚 1 2 2√𝑥

Example : find first derivative ( y\ ) using definition if

𝑦 = 2 𝑥3 − 𝑥 + 5
Solution :

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 5 , 𝑓 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) = 2(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)3 − (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 5

𝑑𝑦 2( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )3 − (𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) + 5 – [ 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 5 ]
=
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥
2[( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )3 − 𝑥 3 ] − [(𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) − 𝑥 ] + 5 – 5
=
𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑥
( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )3 − 𝑥 3 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) − 𝑥
= −
𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑥
3 1
2 × × 𝑥 3−1 − × 𝑥 1−1 = 6 𝑥 2 − 1
1 1

Exercise :

find first derivative ( y\ ) using definition

𝑦 = 𝑥3
Example : find first derivative ( y\ ) using definition if

𝑦 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
Solution :

𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 , 𝑓 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )

 𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥
We know that
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∆𝑥 –𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∆𝑥 –𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑥 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
∆𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∆𝑥 –𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑚 −
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 →0 ∆𝑥 →0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
( × 1 ) – ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 × 1 ) −
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
Exercise :

and similarly we can prove if y = sin x then y\ = cos x

we know
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) =𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∆𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑥

Example : find first derivative ( y\ ) using definition if

𝑦 =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
Solution :

𝑓( 𝑥 ) =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 , 𝑓( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ) –𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 1 𝑥 + ∆𝑥
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( )
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 →0 𝑥
1 1
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 1 + ) = 𝑙𝑛 ( 1 + )
∆𝑥 →0 𝑥 𝑥
1 1
=𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 =
𝑥
 𝑑
Derivative ( ) ( ‫) التفاضل‬
𝑑𝑥

Properties of derivative :
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑓(𝑥) ±𝑔(𝑥))= (𝑓(𝑥)) ± (𝑔(𝑥))
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑎 𝑓(𝑥))= 𝑎 (𝑓(𝑥))
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
( 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑎 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
 𝑑
(𝑎)=0
𝑑𝑥
Example :
𝑑 2 𝑑 1
( 3 𝑥 4 + √𝑥 + 5 − 7) = ( 3 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 −5 − 7)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 −1
= 12 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 10 𝑥 − 6
3
2

Derivative of trigonometric functions :

𝑑
( 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
( 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ) = −𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Example :
𝑑
( 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) = −2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Derivative of exponential functions :

𝑑
( 𝑎 𝑒𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) ) = 𝑎 𝑓 \( 𝑥 ) 𝑒𝑓 ( 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
Example :
𝑑 3 3
( 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) = 6 𝑥2 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Example : Prove that

 𝑑
(𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 ) =𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Proof :
𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒− 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒− 𝑥
( )= =𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 2
Similarly we can prove that
𝑑
(𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 ) =𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
( 𝑎 𝑏 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) ) = 𝑎 𝑓 \ ( 𝑥 ) 𝑏 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑏
𝑑𝑥
Example :
𝑑 2 2
( 3𝑥 ) = 2 𝑥 3𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 3
𝑑𝑥

Derivative of logarithmic functions :

𝑑 𝑓 \( 𝑥 )
( 𝑎 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )) ) = 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
Example :
𝑑 2 𝑥 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
( 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥 2 −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
 𝑑 𝑓 \( 𝑥 )
( 𝑎 ( 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )) ) = 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑏
Example :
𝑑 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
(𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 4

Multiplication of two functions ( Product rule ) :

𝑑
( 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑔 ( 𝑥 ) ) = 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑔\ ( 𝑥 ) + 𝑔 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑓 \ ( 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
Example :
𝑑 3
(𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Division of two functions ( Quotient rule ) :

𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑓 \ ( 𝑥 ) – 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑔\ ( 𝑥 )
( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑔 ( 𝑥 ) ( 𝑔 ( 𝑥 ) )2

Example :
5 5
𝑑 𝑥2 + 2 2 𝑥 ( 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 ) – ( 𝑥 2 + 2 )( 5 𝑥 4 𝑒 𝑥 + 1 )
( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 5
( 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 )2
Example : Prove that
𝑑
( 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Proof :
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 )(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ) – (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 )( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 )
=
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 )2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
we know that

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1
1
= 2
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
similarly we can prove
𝑑
(𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 ) = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 ) =𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 ) = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
and we can prove following derivatives by using

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 1
we get
𝑑
( 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 ) = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑥 ) = −𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 𝑑
(𝑥 ) = −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Function of function ( Composite function ) :

𝑑
( 𝑓 ( 𝑔 ( 𝑥 ) )) = 𝑓 \ ( 𝑔 ( 𝑥 )) 𝑔\ ( 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
Example :
𝑑
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 5 − ( 𝑥 2 + 2 )3 )
𝑑𝑥
= (− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 5 )(5𝑥 4 ) − 3(𝑥 2 + 2)2 (2𝑥)
The Chain rule :

If y=f(u) , u=g(x)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Example : if y = tan u , u = x2 + 1 find y\

Solution :
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 , =2𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= = ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 )( 2 𝑥 ) = 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ( 𝑥 2 + 1 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑦
( 𝑓 ( 𝑦 )) = 𝑓 \ ( 𝑦 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example : Find y\ if
 𝑦3 − 𝑥 2 = 7
Solution :

3 𝑦2 𝑦\ − 2 𝑥 = 0

3 𝑦2 𝑦\ = 2 𝑥
2𝑥
𝑦\ =
3 𝑦2
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions :

We know

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 ‫ ( ــــــــــــــــ‬1 )

divided by 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 1
+ =
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
we get

1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 ‫ ( ـــــــــــــــــــــ‬2 )

divided equation ( 1 ) by 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 1
+ =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
we get

𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 ‫ ( ـــــــــــــــــــــ‬3 )

and we know

𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 ‫ ( ــــــــــــــ‬4 )

divided by 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥
 ‫𝑥 ‪𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫𝑥 ‪𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2‬‬
‫‪+‬‬ ‫=‬
‫𝑥 ‪𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2‬‬ ‫𝑥 ‪𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2‬‬
‫‪we get‬‬

‫) ‪ ( 5‬ــــــــــــــ 𝑥 ‪1 + 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ2‬‬

‫𝑥 ‪divided equation ( 4 ) by 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2‬‬

‫𝑥 ‪𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫𝑥 ‪𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2‬‬

‫‪+‬‬ ‫=‬
‫𝑥 ‪𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2‬‬ ‫𝑥 ‪𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2‬‬
‫‪we get‬‬

‫) ‪ ( 6‬ــــــــــــــ ‪𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 = 1‬‬

‫‪Example :‬‬

‫𝑥 ‪𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1‬‬
‫وتقرأ‬ ‫‪y‬‬ ‫‪ x‬هي الزاوية التي جيبها‬

‫‪Prove that‬‬
‫𝑦𝑑‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫=‬
‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫‪√1 − 𝑥 2‬‬
‫‪Proof :‬‬

‫يمكن كتابتها في الصورة ‪We can written 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 as‬‬

‫) ∗ ( ـــــــــــــــــ 𝑦 𝑛𝑖𝑠 = 𝑥‬

‫\ 𝑦 ) 𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ( = ‪1‬‬

‫\‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫= 𝑦‬ ‫) ∗∗ ( ـــــــــــــ‬
‫𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑐‬
‫) ‪from ( 1‬‬

‫𝑦 ‪𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2‬‬
‫) * ( ‪from‬‬

‫) ∗∗∗ ( ـــــــــــ ‪𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2‬‬

‫) ** ( بتعويض ( *** ) في) ** ( ‪Substitute ( *** ) in‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫= \𝑦‬
‫‪√1 − 𝑥 2‬‬
‫‪Example : If‬‬

‫𝑥 ‪𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1‬‬
‫‪ x‬هي الزاوية التي قاطع تمامها ‪ y‬وتقرأ‬

‫‪Prove that‬‬
‫‪−1‬‬
‫= \𝑦‬
‫‪𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1‬‬
‫‪Proof :‬‬

‫‪We can written‬‬ ‫𝑥 ‪𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1‬‬ ‫يمكن كتابتها في الصورة ‪as‬‬

‫) ∗ ( ـــــــــــــــــ 𝑦 𝑐𝑠𝑐 = 𝑥‬

‫\ 𝑦 ) 𝑦 𝑡𝑜𝑐 𝑦 𝑐𝑠𝑐‪1 = (−‬‬

‫‪−1‬‬
‫= \𝑦‬ ‫) ∗∗ ( ـــــــــــــ‬
‫𝑦 𝑡𝑜𝑐 𝑦 𝑐𝑠𝑐‬
‫) ‪from ( 2‬‬

‫‪𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑦 = √𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑦 − 1‬‬

‫) * ( ‪from‬‬

‫) ∗∗∗ ( ـــــــــــ ‪𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 − 1‬‬

‫بتعويض المعادلتين(***)و(*)في المعادلة(**)نحصل على‬
Substitute ( * ) and ( *** ) in ( ** ) we get
−1
𝑦\ =
𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1
Example : If

𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ −1 𝑥
Prove that
1
𝑦\ =
1 − 𝑥2
Proof :

we can written 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ −1 𝑥 as ‫يمكن كتابتها في الصورة‬

𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑦 ‫) ∗ ( ـــــــــــــــــ‬

1 = ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑦 ) 𝑦 \
1
𝑦\ = ‫) ∗∗ ( ـــــــــــــ‬
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑦
from ( 6 )

𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑦
from ( * )

𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 ‫) ∗∗∗ ( ـــــــــــ‬

Substitute ( *** ) in ( ** ) we get

‫على نحصل )**( المعادلة في )***( المعادلة بتعويض‬

1
𝑦\ =
1 − 𝑥2
Similarly ‫ بالمثل‬we can prove that
 y 𝑦∖

𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 −1
√1 − 𝑥 2
−1 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 −1
1 + 𝑥2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 1
𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥 1
√𝑥 2 − 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 1
√𝑥 2 + 1
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ−1 𝑥 1
1 − 𝑥2
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ −1 𝑥 −1
𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥 −1
𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 1

Example : Find 𝑦 \ if :

1 ) 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3𝑥
2 ) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ −1 ( 𝑥 2 + 1 )
Solution :
1
1 ) 𝑦\ = × 3
1 + ( 3 𝑥 )2
−1
2 ) 𝑦\ = × 2𝑥
(𝑥 2 + 1)√(𝑥 2 + 1)2 + 1
General examples : Find y\
2𝑥 − 3
1 ) 𝑦 =𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( ) + 𝑥 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
2 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
Solution :
2𝑥 − 3
1 ) 𝑦 \ =𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( )
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
2𝑥 − 3
2𝑥 − 3 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 −
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) ( 𝑥 )
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 (𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )2

− 2𝑥 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

2 ) (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑦 )( 𝑥 𝑦 \ + 𝑦 ) = 1 + 2 𝑦 𝑦 \

𝑦 \ ( 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑦 − 2 𝑦 ) = 1 − 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑦

1 − 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑦
𝑦\ =
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑦 − 2 𝑦

High derivatives :

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
= ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑2 𝑦
= ( )
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

( 𝑛+1 )
𝑑𝑛+1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑛 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑛+1 = ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑛
Example : If
𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑒 2𝑥
find
𝑑3 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 3
Solution :
𝑑𝑦
= 4 𝑥 3 + 2 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
2
= 12 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑3 𝑦
3
= 24 𝑥 + 8 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Example : If
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑦=
√1 − 𝑥 2
prove that

2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(1− 𝑥 ) − 3 𝑥 − 𝑦=0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Proof :
1 −𝑥
( √1 − 𝑥 2 ) − ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑦 √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
=
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2
√1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
= 3
(1− 2
𝑥 )2
𝑑2 𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 2
 3 –𝑥 𝑥
( 1 − 𝑥 2 )2 [ + + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ] + (√1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)(3𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 )
√1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
( 1 − 𝑥 2 )3
3
𝑑2 𝑦 ( 1 − 𝑥2 )2 [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ] + 3 𝑥( 1 − 𝑥2 ) + 3𝑥2 √1 − 𝑥2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 2 ( 1 − 𝑥2 )3
2
𝑑 𝑦
( 1 − 𝑥2 ) 2
𝑑𝑥
3
( 1 − 𝑥 2 )2 [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ] + 3 𝑥( 1 − 𝑥 2 ) + 3𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
= ___( 1 )
( 1 − 𝑥 2 )2

𝑑𝑦 −3 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 − 3 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
−3𝑥 = 3
𝑑𝑥
( 1 − 𝑥 2 )2

−3 𝑥 ( 1 − 𝑥2 ) − 3 𝑥2 √1 − 𝑥2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
= 2
______( 2 )
(1− 𝑥2 )

from (1) , ( 2 ) and 𝑦 we get

𝑑2 𝑦
2
𝑑𝑦
(1− 𝑥 ) − 3 𝑥 − 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
3
( 1 − 𝑥 ) [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ] + 3 𝑥( 1 − 𝑥2 ) + 3𝑥2 √1 − 𝑥2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
2 2
=
( 1 − 𝑥2 )2
−3 𝑥 ( 1 − 𝑥 2 ) − 3 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
+ −
( 1 − 𝑥 2 )2 √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
= − =0
√1 − 𝑥2 √1 − 𝑥2
Example : If 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑎𝑥 prove that 𝑦 ( 𝑛 ) = ( 𝑎 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑏 )𝑛 𝑏 𝑎𝑥

Solution : 𝑦 \ = 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑏 , 𝑦 \\ = ( 𝑎 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑏 )2 𝑏 𝑎𝑥

𝑦 \\\ = ( 𝑎 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑏 )3 𝑏 𝑎𝑥 , … , 𝑦( 𝑛 ) = ( 𝑎 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑏 )𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑥
 Exercise

Find 𝑦 \ for the following

 1 ) 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 − 3

5𝑥 2
2) 𝑦= 3
𝑥 − 2
3 ) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 )

4 ) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥
5 ) 𝑥4 − 𝑦3 = 4 𝑥
2+ 1
6 ) 𝑦 = 4𝑥
4 + 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
7 ) 𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑥

8 ) 𝑦 =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 3 𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥 )
9 ) 𝑦 = ( 4 𝑥3 − 1 )
3 − 2 )3
10 ) 𝑦 = 𝑒 ( 𝑥
11 ) 𝑦 = 5𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
12 ) 𝑦 =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 [ ( 𝑥 2 + 2 )( 1 +𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 )]
13 ) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2𝑥 , 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
1 2
(2− 4 )3 3
(𝑥 + 3𝑥 )5
𝑥
14 ) 𝑦 = 3
( 𝑥2 + 1 )2
15 ) 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝑥 4 + 5 )
16 ) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 4

17 ) 𝑦 =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 2 )

−1 𝑥 2
18 ) 𝑦 = 6𝑐𝑜𝑠
19 ) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 ( 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 )
20 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑦 = 2 𝑥 3
Prove that
𝑑 1
1) ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 1
𝑑
2) (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 ) = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
3 ) 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = ( 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 )𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 ( 𝑛 ) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑛!

Application of derivative :
Critical points :
to find critical points in curve y = f( x ) _____ ( 1 )
we do following steps :
1 ) we find first derivative
𝑑𝑦
2) = 0 __________( 2 )
𝑑𝑥
3 ) Suppose x1 , x2 , x3 are solutions of equation (
2 ) we find
𝑦1 = 𝑓 ( 𝑥1 ) , 𝑦2 = 𝑓 ( 𝑥2 ) , 𝑦3 = 𝑓 ( 𝑥3 )
Then critical points are
( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) , ( 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) , ( 𝑥3 , 𝑦3 )
to classify critical points we find
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
if
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑎𝑡 ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) (−) <0
𝑑𝑥 2
then ( x1 , y1 ) is maximum point
if
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑎𝑡 ( 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ( + ) > 0
𝑑𝑥 2
then ( x2 , y2 ) is minimum point
if
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑎𝑡 ( 𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
we find
𝑑𝑦
𝑎𝑡 𝑎 < 𝑥3 _________( ∗ )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑏 > 𝑥3 ________( ∗∗ )
𝑑𝑥
if ( * ) is ( + ) and ( ** ) is ( + ) , or ( * ) and ( ** ) ( – )
in this two cases the critical point is saddle ( ‫ ) إنقالب‬point
if ( * ) is ( + ) and ( ** ) is ( – ) in this case the critical point is
max point
if ( * ) is ( – ) and ( ** ) is ( – ) in this case the critical point is
min point
Example : Find and classify the critical points of the curve
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 12 𝑥
Solution :
𝑑𝑦
= 3 𝑥 2 − 12 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 4 = 0 , 𝑥 = ±2
if x=2
𝑦 = ( 2 )3 − 12 ( 2 ) = 8 − 24 = −16
( 2 , −16 )
𝑑2 𝑦
=6𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2 = 6 ( 2 ) = ( + ) 12 > 0
𝑑𝑥 2
( 2 , –16 ) is min point
if x=–2
𝑦 = ( −2 )3 − 12 (−2 ) = −8 + 24 = 16
( −2 , 16 )
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −2 = 6 (−2 ) = (− ) 12 < 0
𝑑𝑥 2
( – 2 , 16 ) is max point

Tangent Slope‫ ميل المماس‬of the curve 𝑓( 𝑥 ) at point 𝑥1 is 𝑓 \ (𝑥1 )

Equation of the tangent line of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓( 𝑥 ) at the
point ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 = 𝑓 ( 𝑥1 )) is

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑓 \ (𝑥1 )( 𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
and equation of normal line‫ معادلة العمودي‬is
−1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = ( 𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑓 \ (𝑥1 )
Example : find the equation of tangent and normal lines of the
following at the points as shown
1 ) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2 𝑎𝑡 ( 1 , −1 )

2 ) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 𝑎𝑡 ( 3 , 4 )
Solution :

1 ) 𝑦 \ = 2𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 𝑦 \ = 2( 1 ) = 2
Equation of tangent line
𝑦 − ( −1 ) = 2 ( 𝑥 − 1 )
𝑦 + 1 = 2𝑥 − 2 2𝑥−𝑦−3=0
Equation of normal line
 −1
𝑦 − ( −1 ) = (𝑥−1)
2
2𝑦 + 2 = −𝑥 + 1 𝑥+2𝑦+1=0

2 ) 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 𝑦 \ = 0 𝑎𝑡 ( 3 , 4 ) 2(3) + 2(4)𝑦 \ = 0
−3
𝑦\ =
4
Equation of tangent line
−3
𝑦−4= (𝑥−3)
4
Equation of normal line
4
𝑦−4= (𝑥−3)
3
Exercise : find the equation of tangent and normal lines of the
following curve 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 + 2 at ( 1 , 3 )

Lhopital’s rule ‫قاعدة لوبيتال‬: If

𝑓( 𝑥 ) ∞ 0
= 𝑜𝑟
𝑔( 𝑥 ) ∞ 0

𝑓( 𝑥 ) 𝑓 \( 𝑥 )
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = \
𝑔( 𝑥 ) 𝑔 (𝑥)
Example : Find
1 – 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑥2
Solution :
1 – 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 0
=
𝑥 2 0
 𝑑
( 1 – 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 0
= 𝑑𝑥 = =
𝑑 2𝑥 0
( 𝑥2 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 1
= 𝑑𝑥 = = =
𝑑 2 2 2
(2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Exercise :
Find
1 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
1)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥

𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −3𝑥
2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 1 + 𝑥 )
3)
𝑥

Malklorin series ‫متسلسلة ماكلورين‬:

\(
𝑓 \\ (0) 2 𝑓 \\\ (0) 3 𝑓 ( 𝑛 ) (0) 𝑛
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 0) 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
2! 3! 𝑛!
+ ⋯.
Example : Find Malklorin series of 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
Solution :

𝑓( 0 ) = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑓 \ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 \ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑓 \\ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 \\ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑓 \\\ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 \\\ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1

 𝑓 ( 𝑛 ) (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 ( 𝑛 ) (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1
1 2 1 3 1
𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + (1 )𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 + ⋯
2! 3! 𝑛!

𝑥
𝑥2 2 𝑥3 3 𝑥𝑛
𝑒 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ + ….
2! 3! 𝑛!
Exercise : Prove that
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑛 𝑥𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 =𝑥− + − + … + ( −1 ) +…
3! 5! 7! 𝑛!
using Malklorin series

Integration
We know that
 Y 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑛 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1
sin ax a cos ax
cos ax – a sin ax
tan ax 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥
cot ax −𝑎 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥
sec ax a sec ax tan ax
csc ax −𝑎 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑥
sinh ax a cosh ax
cosh ax a sinh ax
tanh ax 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑎𝑥
coth ax −𝑎 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑎𝑥
sech ax −𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑥
csch ax −𝑎𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑥
𝑒𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑓 \( 𝑥 ) 𝑒𝑓 ( 𝑥 )
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑓 \( 𝑥 )
𝑓(𝑥)
Then
f (x) ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
+ 𝑐 , 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
𝑒 𝑎𝑥 1 𝑎𝑥
𝑒 +𝑐
𝑎
𝑓 ∖ (𝑥) 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐

𝑓(𝑥)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 1
− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥 1
− 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑥 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑥 1
− 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑥 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑎𝑥 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑎𝑥 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑎𝑥 1
− 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑎𝑥 1
− 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑥 1
− 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎

Properties of integral :

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Example :

2 1
1) ∫ 𝑥3 − 2
+ √𝑥 − 4 + 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

𝑥
2) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 2 − 5

Solution :

3 −2
1 1
1) ∫ 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 4𝑥 0 + 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
 1
𝑥 3+1 2 −2+1
𝑥2 + 1 4 0+1
6
= − 𝑥 + − 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 +
3 + 1 −2 + 1 1 0 + 1 2
+1
2
1
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝑥 +𝑐
2
3
4
𝑥 2 𝑥2 1
= + 2 𝑥 −1 + − 4 𝑥 − 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 +
4 3 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝑥 + 𝑐

1 6𝑥
2) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
6 3𝑥 2 − 5
1
= 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 3𝑥 2 − 5 ) + 𝑐
6
 Exercise

Find following integrations :

1) ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 3𝑥 − 2 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥

4𝑥 3 − 2
2) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 4 − 2𝑥

3) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

( 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1 )
 Some Special Integrations

1) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

multiply and divided by

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
we get
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ) + 𝑐 ______ ( ∗∗ )
Similarly we can prove that

∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 ) + 𝑐

2) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

we know that
1 +𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 =
2
then
 1
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 +𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1
= ( 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 ) + 𝑐 _____( ∗ )
2 2
Similarly we can prove that
2 1 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = = ( 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 ) + 𝑐
2 2
by using
1 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 =
2

3) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= −∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ) +𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

Similarly we can prove that

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) +𝑐

 Some Methods of Integration

Integration by substitution :
if we have
∖
∫ 𝑔 ( 𝑓( 𝑥 )) 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
put 𝑢 = 𝑓( 𝑥 ) then = 𝑓 ∖( 𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑓∖( 𝑥 )

then
∖ ∖ 𝑑𝑢
∫ 𝑔 ( 𝑓( 𝑥 )) 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑔( 𝑢 ) 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) ∖
𝑓 (𝑥)
= ∫ 𝑔( 𝑢 ) 𝑑𝑢

Example : Find

∫ 𝑥2 √𝑥3 − 4 𝑑𝑥

Solution :

𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 4 _____________( 1 )
𝑑𝑢
= 3 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 3 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 = _____________( 2 )
3 𝑥2
substitute equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) in integration , we get
 𝑑𝑢 1 1 1 2 32
∫ 𝑥2 √𝑢 = ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢 = × 𝑢 +𝑐
3 𝑥2 3 3 3
3 3
2 𝑢2 2( 𝑥3 − 4 )2
= +𝑐 +𝑐
9 9
Example : Find
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
∫
𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution :
𝑢 =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ________( 1 )
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 _________( 2 )
substitute equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) in integration , we get
2
𝑢 𝑢2 ( 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )
∫
𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 =
2
+ 𝑐=
2
+𝑐

Example : Find
𝑥+1 1
∫
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 +𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐

We choose 𝑢 to be one of the following :

1 ) the quantity under a root or raised to a power
2 ) the quantity in the denominator
Example : Find
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
Solution :
𝑢 =𝑥+1 , 𝑥 =𝑢−1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
we get
𝑢−1 1
∫
𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 1 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 −𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑢 +𝑐
= ( 𝑥 + 1 ) – 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥 + 1 ) + 𝑐
Example : Find
29
∫ 𝑥 ( 𝑥−2 ) 𝑑𝑥

Solution :
𝑢 =𝑥−2 , 𝑥 =𝑢+2 , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑢31 𝑢30
∫ ( 𝑢+2 ) 𝑢29 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑢30 + 2 𝑢29 = +2 +𝑐
31 30
( 𝑥 − 2 )31 ( 𝑥 − 2 )30
= + 2 +𝑐
31 30

Exercise
Find following integrations :
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )
1) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

2) ∫ (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥

3) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

4) ∫ 𝑥 √1 − 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Triangular Substitutions :

First case : if we have

𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
put
𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢
Example : Find

∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥

Solution : we know that

1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑢

𝑎2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑢 = 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑢
put
𝑥
𝑥=𝑢 , 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑎
√𝑎2 − ( 2
∫ 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢 ) 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

=∫ √𝑎2 ( 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑢 ) 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

=∫ √𝑎2 √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑢 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

𝑎2 1
= ( 𝑢 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑢 ) + 𝑐
2 2
𝑎2 𝑥 1 𝑥
= ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ) ) ) + 𝑐
2 𝑎 2 𝑎
 ‫) * ( وذلك من المثال‬
Second case : if we have
𝑎2 + 𝑥 2
put
𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢
Example : Find
𝑑𝑥
∫
√9 + 𝑥2

Solution : put

𝑥 = √9 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 = 3 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢

𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
we know that
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢
then
9 + 9 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢 = 9 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 _______( 1 )
Substitute ( 1 ) in integration , we get
3 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
∫ = ∫ =
2
√9 + ( 3 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 ) √9 + 9 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢
3 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
∫ = ∫
√9 ( 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢 ) √9 √1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢

from ( ** ) we get
 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢
= ∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
3 √𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢

= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

= 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 ) + 𝑐

𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 =
3
𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
3
we get
𝑥 −1 𝑥
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ) ) + 𝑐
3 3
𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ) + ) + 𝑐
3 3

Third case : if we have

𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
put
𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢
Example : Find
𝑑𝑥
∫
√𝑥2 − 4

Solution : put

𝑥 = √4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢

𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
 we know that
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 − 1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢
then
4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 − 4 = 4 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢 _________( 2 )
Substitute ( 1 ) in integration , we get
2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
∫ = ∫ =
2
√( 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 ) −4 √4 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑢 − 4
2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢
∫ 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
√4 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑢 −1 ) √4 √𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑢 −1

from ( ** ) , we get
2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢
= ∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
3 √𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢

= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

= 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 ) + 𝑐

𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 =
2
𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1
2
we get
𝑥 𝑥
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐−1 ) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐−1 ) ) +𝑐
2 2

𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ) ) + 𝑐
2 2
 Exercise
Find the following integrations :

√𝑥 2 − 16
1) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

−3
2) ∫ ( 1 + 𝑥 2 ) 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥
∫
𝑥 √𝑥2 − 36
Integration by Parts :

We know that

𝑑 ( 𝑢 𝑣 ) = 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
then

∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

where

𝑑𝑢 = derivative of 𝑢 , and 𝑣 integration of 𝑑𝑣

Example : Find

1) ∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3) ∫ 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 4) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

5) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

6) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2
7) ∫ 𝑥3 𝑒 𝑥

Solution : 1 )
−1
𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 =𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
2
−𝑥 1
𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
−𝑥 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4
2)

𝑢 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥

= 𝑥2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ‫ ( ــــــــ‬1 )

by using integration by parts again

𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥

∫ 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 ∫ 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥
+ 𝑐 ‫ ( ــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬2 )
Substitute ( 2 ) in ( 1 ) , we get

∫ 𝑥2 𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥2 𝑒𝑥 − 2 ( 𝑥𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑐 )

3)
1
𝑢 =𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥
1
= 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 – ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 – ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 – 𝑥 + 𝑐
4)

𝑢 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥

∫ 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ‫( ــــــــــ‬1)
by using integration by parts again

𝑢 =𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥

∫ 𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ‫ ( ــــــــ‬2 )
Substitute ( 2 ) in ( 1 ) , we get
 ∫ 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

∫ 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
2
5)
1
𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 =
1 + 𝑥2
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=𝑥
𝑥
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 _______( 1 )
1 + 𝑥2
multiply last term by 2 and divide by 2 , we get

1 2𝑥
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑐 ______( 2 )
2 1+ 𝑥

Substitute ( 2 ) in ( 1 ) , we get

∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 −𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 1 + 𝑥2 ) + 𝑐

6)

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢 =𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 =𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑣 =𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 – ∫

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 _________( 3 )

We know that

𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1 ____________( 4 )

Substitute ( 4 ) in ( 3 ) , we get

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 – ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝑥

−1 ) 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 – ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 –𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

=𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 – ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ____( 5 )
Substitute ( ** ) in ( 5 )

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ) + 𝑐 ______ ( ∗∗ )
and put

𝐼= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

we get
 𝐼 =𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 – 𝐼 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 )
+ 𝑐
2 𝐼 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ) + 𝑐
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ) + 𝑐
𝐼=
2
7 ) we need using integration by substitution

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ________( 1 )
then

𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = ____________( 2 )
2𝑥
Substitute ( 2 ) and ( 1 ) in integration , we get

𝑑𝑦 1 1
∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥2 𝑒𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑒𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 2 2
by using integration by parts

𝑢=𝑦 𝑑𝑢 = 1
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑦 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑦

1 1 1
∫ 𝑦 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑒𝑦 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2 2 2
1 1
= 𝑦 𝑒𝑦 − 𝑒𝑦 + 𝑐
2 2
𝑦 = 𝑥2
we get
2
𝑒𝑥
( 𝑥2 − 1 ) + 𝑐
2
 Exercise

Find :

1) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 3) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

4) ∫ 4 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

5) ∫ 𝑥 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥

( 𝑢 = 𝑥3 )

Integration by Partial Fractions :

We have three cases :

First case : if we have
 𝑓( 𝑥 )
∫ 𝑑𝑥
( 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 )( 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 )( 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 )
where 𝑓( 𝑥 ) is polynomial function
then
𝑓( 𝑥 )
( 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 )( 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 )( 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 )
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
( 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 ) ( 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 ) ( 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 )
Example : Find
2 𝑥−3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 − 𝑥
Solution :
2𝑥−3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑥 ( 𝑥 + 1 )( 𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑥 𝑥+ 1 𝑥−1
then
𝐴 ( 𝑥 + 1 )( 𝑥 − 1 ) + 𝐵 𝑥 ( 𝑥 − 1 ) + 𝐶 𝑥 ( 𝑥 + 1 ) = 2 𝑥 − 3
Put 𝑥 = 0 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
− 𝐴 = −3 , 𝐴=3
Put 𝑥 = −2 , we get
𝐵 ( −1 ) ( −1 − 1 ) = 2 ( −1 ) – 3
−5
2𝐵 = −5 , 𝐵=
2
Put 𝑥 = 1 , we get
𝐶 ( 1 ) ( 1 + 1 ) = 2( 1 ) – 3
 −1
2 𝐶 = −1 , 𝐶=
2
then
2𝑥−3 3 5 1
= − −
𝑥 ( 𝑥 + 1 )( 𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑥 2(𝑥+ 1) 2(𝑥−1)
we get
2 𝑥−3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 − 𝑥
1 5 1 1 1
=3 ∫
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥+1 2 𝑥−1
5 1
= 3 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥 + 1 ) − 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥 − 1 ) + 𝑐
2 2

Exercise : Find
𝑥−1
∫
2 𝑥2 + 5 𝑥+3
Second case : if we have
𝑓( 𝑥 )
∫ 𝑛 𝑑𝑥
( 𝑎 𝑥+𝑏 )
then
𝑓( 𝑥 ) 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛
= + + ⋯ +
( 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 )𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 ( 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 )2 ( 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 )𝑛
Example : Find
𝑥2 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 + 4 𝑥2 + 4 𝑥
Solution :
 𝑥2 + 1 𝑥2 + 1 𝑥2 + 1
= =
𝑥3 + 4 𝑥2 + 4 𝑥 𝑥 ( 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 ) 𝑥 ( 𝑥 + 2 )2
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑥 𝑥 + 2 ( 𝑥 + 2 )2
𝐴 ( 𝑥 + 2 )2 + 𝐵 𝑥 ( 𝑥 + 2 ) + 𝐶 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1
put 𝑥 = 0 , we get
1
4𝐴 =1 , 𝐴=
4
put 𝑥 = −2 , we get
−5
−2 𝐶 = ( −2 )2 + 1 , 𝐶=
2
Coefficients of 𝑥 2
1 3
𝐴+𝐵 =1 , 𝐵 =1−𝐴 =1− =
4 4
we get
𝑥2 + 1 1 3 5
= + −
𝑥3 + 4 𝑥2 + 4 𝑥 4 𝑥 4 ( 𝑥 + 2 ) 2 ( 𝑥 + 2 )2
then
𝑥2 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 + 4 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑥
1 1 3 1 5 −2
= ∫ 𝑥+ 4 ∫ − ∫ ( 𝑥+2 )
4 𝑥+2 2

1 3 5
= 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥 + 2 ) + ( 𝑥 + 2 )−1 + 𝑐
4 4 2
Exercise : Find
𝑑𝑥
∫
𝑥4 + 𝑥3

Third case : if we have

𝑓( 𝑥 )
∫ 𝑑𝑥
( 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 ) ( 𝑐 𝑥2 + 𝑑 𝑥 + 𝑒 )

then
𝑓( 𝑥 ) 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐷
= +
( 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 ) ( 𝑐 𝑥2 + 𝑑 𝑥 + 𝑒 ) 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐 𝑥2 + 𝑑 𝑥 + 𝑒
Example : Find
2 𝑥−1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 + 𝑥
Solution :
2𝑥−1 2𝑥−1 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
= = + 2
𝑥3 + 2 𝑥 𝑥 ( 𝑥2 + 4 ) 𝑥 𝑥 + 4
𝐴 ( 𝑥2 + 4 ) + ( 𝐵 𝑥 + 𝐶 ) 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 − 1
put 𝑥 = 0 , we get
−1
4 𝐴 = −1 , 𝐴=
4
put 𝑥 = 2 𝑖 , we get
𝐴 ( ( 2 𝑖 )2 + 4 ) + ( 𝐵 ( 2 𝑖 ) + 𝐶 ) ( 2 𝑖 ) = 2 ( 2 𝑖 ) − 1
𝐴 ( −4 + 4 ) − 4 𝐵 + 2 𝐶 𝑖 = 4 𝑖 − 1
real part = real part
 1
− 4 𝐵 = −1 , 𝐵=
4
imaginary part = imaginary part
2𝐶 =4 , 𝐶=2
we get
1
2𝑥−1 −1 4 𝑥 + 2 −1 𝑥 2
= + = + +
𝑥3 + 2 𝑥 4𝑥 𝑥2 + 4 4 𝑥 4 ( 𝑥2 + 4 ) 𝑥2 + 4
then
2 𝑥−1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 + 𝑥
−1 1 1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫
4 4 𝑥2 + 4 𝑥2 + 4
−1 1 𝑥
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥 2 + 4 ) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑐
4 8 2

Exercise : Find
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥4 − 1

In previous cases the degree of the numerator should be less

than the degree of the denominator
if the degree of the numerator greater than or equals degree
of denominator , we use long division
Example : Find
 2 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 5 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 1
Solution :
2𝑥−1
2 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 5 𝑥 𝑥2 − 1
2 𝑥3 −2𝑥
− 𝑥2 + 7 𝑥

− 𝑥2 + 1
7𝑥−1
we get
2 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 5 𝑥 7𝑥−1
= 2 𝑥 − 1 +
𝑥2 − 1 𝑥2 − 1

7𝑥−1 7𝑥−1 𝐴 𝐵
= = +
𝑥2 − 1 ( 𝑥 + 1 )( 𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑥+1 𝑥−1
We can find 𝐴 = 4 and 𝐵 = 3 , we get
7𝑥−1 4 3
= +
𝑥2 − 1 𝑥+1 𝑥−1
then
2 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 5 𝑥 4 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑥−1+ + 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 1 𝑥+1 𝑥−1
= 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥 + 1 ) + 3 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥 − 1 ) + 𝑐

Exercise
Find
𝑑𝑥
1) ∫
𝑥2 − 1

𝑥2 + 1
2) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 − 6 𝑥2 + 9 𝑥

𝑑𝑥
3) ∫
𝑥 + 3 𝑥3

𝑥3
4) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2

The Definite Integral :

 𝑏
∫ 𝑓 \ ( 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 ( 𝑏 ) – 𝑓( 𝑎 )
𝑎

Example : Find
3
∫ 3 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 13[ 𝑥 3 ] = 33 − 13 = 27 − 1 = 26
1

Example : Find
𝜋
2 𝜋 𝜋
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 0 [𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ] =𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 –𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 = 1 − 0
0 2 2
=1

The Area Under The Curve :

𝑓( 𝑥 )

a b

The area of the region under the graph of 𝑓( 𝑥 ) , above the

x-axis , and between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is
𝑏
∫ 𝑓( 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Example : Find the area under the curve 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = 2 𝑥

from 𝑥 = 1 to 𝑥 = 4
solution :
4
∫ 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 14[ 𝑥 2 ] = 42 − 12 = 16 − 1 = 15
1

Exercise : Find the area under the curve 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = 2 𝑥

from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 2

If we have intersection point 𝑐

a
c b

to find 𝑐 solve the equation 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = 0

then
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = | ∫ 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 | + | ∫ 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 |
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐

Example : Find the area under the curve

4𝑥−8
from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 2
solution :
 4𝑥−8=0 , 𝑥=2
first area
2
∫ 4 𝑥 − 8 𝑑𝑥 = 02[ 2 𝑥 2 − 8 𝑥 ] = 2 ( 2 )2 − 8 ( 2 )
0

8 − 16 = −8| −8 | = 8
second area
3
∫ 4 𝑥 − 8 𝑑𝑥 = 23[ 2 𝑥 2 − 8 𝑥 ]
2

= ( 2 ( 3 )2 − 8 ( 3 )) − ( 2 ( 2 )2 − 8 ( 2 )) = −6 + 8 = 2

Total area
8 + 2 = 10
Exercise : Find the area under the curve
4 𝑥 3 − 32
from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 3

if we have quadratic function 𝑓( 𝑥 )

solve the equation 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = 0 to find two intersection points
Example : Find the area of the region between x-axis and the
curve
3 𝑥2 − 3
Solution :
to find intersection points , we need solve the following
equation
 3 𝑥2 − 3 = 0 , 𝑥2 − 1 = 0 , 𝑥 = ±1
then the area is
1
∫ 3 𝑥 2 − 3 𝑑𝑥 = −11[ 𝑥 3 − 3 𝑥 ]
−1

= ( ( −1 )3 − 3 ( −1 )) − ( ( 1 )3 − 3 ( 1 )) = 2 − (−2) = 4

Exercise : Find the area of the region between x-axis and the
curve
𝑥2 + 2 𝑥

The area of the region between two curves 𝑓( 𝑥 ) and 𝑔( 𝑥 ) :

First : we need find intersection points ( solve the equation
𝑓( 𝑥 ) = 𝑔( 𝑥 ) )
Second : find first area ( |𝐴1 | )of region between x-axis and
the curve 𝑓( 𝑥 ) and find second area ( |𝐴2 | )of region
between x-axis and the curve 𝑔( 𝑥 )
then find | |𝐴2 | − |𝐴1 | |
Example : Find the area of the region between the following
curves :
𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥
Solution :
First : find intersection points
𝑥2 = 𝑥 , 𝑥2 − 𝑥 = 0 , 𝑥(𝑥−1) = 0
𝑥=0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥=1
find first area of region between x-axis and the curve 𝑥 2
 1
𝑥3 1 1
∫ 𝑥 = 01 [ ] = ( 13 − 03 ) =
2
0 3 3 3

find first area of region between x-axis and the curve 𝑥

1
𝑥2 1 1
∫ 𝑥 = 01 [ ] = ( 12 − 02 ) =
0 2 2 2

then find | |𝐴2 | − |𝐴1 | |

1 1 3−2 1
− = =
2 3 6 6
Exercise : Find the area of the region between the following
curves :
𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥+2