Theoret. Comput.

Fluid Dynamics (2000) 13: 349–359

Theoretical and Computational
Fluid Dynamics
© Springer-Verlag 2000

The Flow of Newtonian and Inelastic Non-Newtonian Fluids

in Eccentric Annuli with Inner-Cylinder Rotation

S. Wan, D. Morrison, and I.G. Bryden

Fluids and Environmental Research Group, School of Mechanical and Offshore Engineering,
The Robert Gordon University, Schoolhill, Aberdeen AB10 1FR, Scotland

Communicated by T.B. Gatski

Received 4 June 1999 and accepted 5 November 1999

Abstract. This brief note presents a preliminary analysis of the flow of Newtonian and inelastic non-
Newtonian fluids in eccentric annuli with inner-cylinder rotation. The study has been motivated by a need
to understand the flow of drilling fluids in present-day oil wells, the annuli of which are more accurately
represented as eccentric, rather than concentric, annuli. To derive a physical understanding of the results
numerically generated for this study, they are also analysed in terms of dimensionless variables. In this way,
the underlying phenomena of this complex three-dimensional problem are easily visualized.

1. Introduction

The study has been motivated by a need to understand the flow of drilling fluids in present-day oil wells.
Traditionally, the annulus between drill-pipe and the borehole has been represented as an concentric annulus
as shown in Figure 1(a). This is no longer a useful representation in a present-day directional well as the
drill-pipe is expected to lie on the low side of the hole, due to gravity, along high angled sections of the
well. The annular cross-section is also expected to vary along the well-path. Hence, as a development in our
understanding of the flow of drilling fluids, the annulus is here represented as an eccentric annulus as shown
in Figure 1(b). Annular eccentricity is often expressed as:
b
e= , (1)
r2 − r 1
which is the ratio of the distance between the centres of the cylinders, b, to the difference between their radii,
r1 and r2 .
Both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluilds are used as drilling fluids. In this note we have assumed
laminar, steady-state, iso-thermal, inelastic flow. The underlying theory for the flow of both Newtonian and
inelastic non-Newtonian fluids is briefly presented in Section 2 below.
It appears that there has been little work on the flow of both Newtonian and inelastic non-Newtonian
fluilds in eccentric annuli with drill-pipe (inner cylinder) rotation. In their work on Newtonian flow, Ooms
and Kampman-Reinhortz (1996) first attempted a perturbation technique valid for relatively small values of
Taylor’s number and then resorted to a fully numerical scheme based on finite differences for higher Taylor’s
numbers. Cui and Liu (1995) solved the problem for power-law fluids for the axial pressure gradient. They
avoided the calculation of the pressure field by expressing the governing equations in terms of the axial
velocity, vz , and a velocity potential, Ψ defined as

349
350 S. Wan, D. Morrison, and I.G. Bryden

Figure 1. The borehole annulus as (a) a concentric annulus and (b) an eccentric annulus.

∂Ψ
vx = , (2a)
∂y

∂Ψ
vy = − , (2b)
∂x
and solving for them accordingly. Using a finite element method, Meuric et al. (1998) recently solved the
momentum equations fully for the pressure gradient without resorting to the use of the potential.
In this study, instead of solving the problem for the pressure gradient, the problem was solved for the
flow-rate. In this way, interpretation of the numerous numerical results generated was greatly simplified.
Analysis of the results was further simplified by casting and interpreting the numerical results in terms of
dimensionless variables (see Section 4).

2. Basic Theoretical Concepts

As mentioned in Section 1 above, the theory of the generalized Newtonian fluid (Bird et al., 1977) has been
invoked for this study, and its main conclusions are briefly presented below. As the flow is three-dimensional,
the flow-field is governed by the full set of the momentum and continuity equations. These are, respectively,

∂ ∂τij ∂p
(ρui uj ) = − (3a)
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj

and
∂(ρuj )
= 0. (3b)
∂xj
For both Newtonian and inelastic non-Newtonian fluids, the stress tensor, τij , is related to the rate-of-
deformation tensor, εij , as in
τij = 2ηεij , (4)
where η is termed the viscosity of the fluid. Thus, the Navier–Stokes equations, which are applicable to a
Newtonian fluid, are recovered by setting η to a constant viscosity, µ:

η = µ. (5)
The Flow of Newtonian and Inelastic Non-Newtonian Fluids in Eccentric Annuli with Inner-Cylinder Rotation 351

For an inelastic non-Newtonian fluid, it is some function

η = η(Id , IId , IIId ) (6)
of the invariants of the rate-of-deformation tensor:
Id = εii , (7a)

IId = εij εij , (7b)

IIId = εij εjk εki . (7c)
For incompressible flows, the first invariant, Id , vanishes identically. In addition, the third invariant, IIId
vanishes for both one- and two-dimensional flows. In many analyses of three-dimensional flows, the third
invariant, IIId , is often not included but there are indications, however, that this assumption may not be
justified (Song and Xia, 1994).
In the present study, the power-law model is used as a representative non-Newtonian model. Dependence
on IIId is also not included, so that for an incompressible flow, the non-Newtonian viscosity, η, is given by
³p ´n−1
η=m 2IId , (8)

where m is termed the consistency factor and n is the flow index behaviour.

3. Numerical Simulation

A commercial package based on the control volume method (Rodi et al., 1989; Majumdar et al., 1992) was
employed for the solution of the flow-field. The grid used consists of 80 radial, 20 circumferential and 5 axial
grid-lines as illustrated in Figure 2. Grid independence and accuracy of generated results were compared
against point velocity data experimentally obtained by Escudier and Gouldson (1996). Excellent agreement
with the experimental results was found.

Figure 2. Configuration of grid used for numerical calculations.

To simulate fully developed conditions efficiently, von Neumann conditions were applied on the velocities
of the fluid entering and leaving the annular pipe. The pressure field was hence solved for the flow-rate by
respecting mass conservation using the SIMPLE algorithm (Patankar, 1980), with standard relaxation factors.
352 S. Wan, D. Morrison, and I.G. Bryden

The simple upwind convective scheme was found to be adequate for representation of convective terms. As
a collocated grid was used, the Rhie–Chow method (Rhie and Chow, 1983) was used for calculating face
velocities.
Multigrid methods (Briggs, 1987) appeared to be most efficient in damping the oscillatory residuals to be
expected in problems involving swirl, for rapid convergence. For the solution of non-Newtonian problems,
the discretised point non-Newtonian viscosity is absorbed in the matrix coefficients of the outer iterative
loop. The velocity and pressure fields are then solved in the normal way in the inner iterative loop.

4. Presentation and Analysis of Some Numerical Results

In order to distinguish between the effect of inertia and that of a varying non-Newtonian viscosity, numerical
simulations were first carried out for a Newtonian fluid and then for a power-law fluid.
Simulation results for a Newtonian fluid of density 1000 kg/m3 and viscosity of 0.45 Pa/s, flowing at a
rate of 0.025 m3 /s through annuli of radius ratios of 0.1, 0.4 and 0.6, are presented in Figure 3. The calculated
axial pressure gradient is plotted against eccentricity for various inner-cylinder rotation speeds. A pattern in
the results is clearly visible. We find that, through the coupling of all three equations in the Navier–Stokes
set by inner-cylinder rotation, the effect of inertia is to raise the magnitude of the axial pressure gradient.
The nature of the increase in the axial pressure gradient is clearly a function of the geometry of the annulus.
Simulations were run for power-law fluids, of a density of 1000 kg/m3 and a consistency factor of 0.45
Pa/sn , flowing through annuli with a radius ratio of 0.4. Figure 4 presents simulation results for eccentricities
of 0.1, 0.3 and 0.9. The ratio of the axial pressure gradient to the axial pressure gradient obtained when the
inner cylinder is stationary is plotted against the inner-cylinder rotation speed, for various values of the flow
index behaviour, n.
An interplay between the inertia and shear-thinning is clearly visible. For small excursions from a con-
centric annulus (eccentricity = 0.1), the momentum equations of the Navier–Stokes set will be weakly
coupled. Shear-thinning effects will, therefore, have ample opportunity to dominate inertial effects. Thus,
the more non-Newtonian the fluid is (n = 1.0–0.5), the faster the rate at which the pressure ratio falls with
inner-cylinder rotation. At an intermediate eccentricity (eccentricity = 0.3), shear-thinning has a similar
effect as inertia at low inner-cylinder rotation speeds. This is because at low shear-rates the viscosity of a
power-law fluid can be higher than that of the corresponding Newtonian fluid. To see this, we observe that
for one-dimensional flow, the viscosity of a power-law fluid is
m
η= , (9)
γ 1−n
where γ is the shear-rate. As the shear-rate, γ → 0, we see that the viscosity η → ∞. At extreme eccentricities
(eccentricity = 0.9), we may find the effect of inertia counterbalancing the effect of a varying viscosity.

5. Presentation of Some Results in Terms of Dimensionless Variables

In search of a simpler analysis of this rather complex problem, a dimensional analysis was performed for
a Newtonian fluid and for three non-Newtonian models that commonly appear in the petroleum industry
literature. The pertaining variables are listed in Table 1, together with their SI units and dimensions. The
derived dimensionless variables and their definitions are listed in Table 2.
Numerical results in terms of dimensional variables were generated for a Newtonian and a power-law
fluid. The range of values of each dimensionless variable was selected in order to correspond with certain
flow conditions and hole geometries that can be found in an oil well.
For the Newtonian fluid, results in terms of dimensionless variables have been plotted as in Figure 5, for
a radius ratio of 0.4. Using the definitions in Table 2, we find that all the log f − log Re plots appear to have
a gradient of −1. In a concentric annulus (eccentricity = 0.0) the plots collapse on a single straight line for
all T a numbers (representing inner-cylinder rotation). This reflects the decoupling of the axial flow from the
The Flow of Newtonian and Inelastic Non-Newtonian Fluids in Eccentric Annuli with Inner-Cylinder Rotation 353

Figure 3. Newtonian flow in eccentric annuli with inner-cylinder rotation: plots of calculated axial pressure gradient versus eccentricity
at different inner-cylinder rotation speeds (RPM).
354 S. Wan, D. Morrison, and I.G. Bryden

Figure 4. Flow of power-law fluid in eccentric annuli with inner-cylinder rotation: plots of axial pressure gradient ratio (pressure
gradient/pressure gradient without inner-cylinder rotation) versus inner-cylinder rotation (RPM) for different flow-index behaviour, n.
The annulus radius ratio for this study is 0.4.
The Flow of Newtonian and Inelastic Non-Newtonian Fluids in Eccentric Annuli with Inner-Cylinder Rotation 355

Table 1. List of flow variables and their SI units and dimensions.

Newtonian Power-law Bingham- Herschel- Variable name SI units Dimensions

plastic Bulkley
P P P P Pressure gradient Pa/m M L−2 T −2
Q Q Q Q Flow-rate m3 /s L3 T −1
R R R R Outer-cylinder radius m L
ρ ρ ρ ρ Density kg/m3 M L−3
ω ω ω ω Inner-cylinder rotation speed rad/s T −1
µ Viscosity Pa/s M L−1 T −1
– m m Consistency factor Pa/sn M L−1 T n−2
– – µ0 – Plastic viscosity Pa/s M L−1 T −1
– n – n Flow index behaviour – Nil
– – τ0 τ0 Yield stress Pa M L−1 T −2
κ κ κ κ Radii ratio – Nil
e e e e Eccentricity – Nil

Table 2. List of derived dimensionless variables.

Recognizable forms Newtonian Power-law Bingham-plastic Herschel–Bulkley

P R5 P R5 P R5 P R5
Friction factor, f
ρQ2 ρQ2 ρQ2 ρQ2
ωρR2 ω 2−n ρR2 ωρR2 ω 2−n ρR2
Taylor’s no., T a
µ m µ0 m
ρQ ρQ2−n ρQ ρQ2−n
Reynold’s no., Re
µR mR4−3n µ0 R mR4−3n
Radii ratio κ κ κ κ
Eccentricity e e e e
Flow index behaviour – n – n
ωµ0 ωn m
Dimensionless yield stress – –
τ0 τ0

swirl flow in a concentric annulus. As soon as the annulus becomes eccentric, the plots separate, the pattern
of separation depending on the geometry and strength of the swirl.
The results for the corresponding non-Newtonian problem are plotted as shown in Figure 6. For purely
axial-flow (T a = 0, Figure 6(a)), all log f − log Re plots again have a gradient of −1. The more non-
Newtonian the fluid (n = 1.0–0.5), the smaller the value of the friction factor. With inner-cylinder rotation
(T a = 523.60, Figure 6(b)), the gradient of each of the plots (expect for the plots for n = 1.0) deviates from
−1.
We see that analysis is simplified with the above scheme of casting results in terms of dimensionless
variables. In fact, this may well pave the way for the development of practical correlations for Newtonian
and non-Newtonian flow.

6. Conclusions

From numerical simulations of the flow of a Newtonian fluid in eccentric annuli with inner-cylinder rotation,
a clear pattern can be seen in the effect of inertia on the axial pressure gradient (see Figure 3). Briefly, the
effect of inertia is to increase the magnitude of the axial pressure gradient, and the size of this increase
is a function of inner-cylinder rotation speed and the geometry of the annulus in question. Ultimately,
these inertial effects must arise from the coupling of the equations in the Navier–Stokes set as the flow is
three-dimensional.
For the corresponding non-Newtonian problem, numerical solutions for the flow of a power-law fluid
clearly show a pattern in an interplay between the effect of inertia and that of a varying non-Newtonian
356 S. Wan, D. Morrison, and I.G. Bryden

Figure 5. Plots of log f versus log Re at different T a for different eccentricities (0.0, 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9). Annulus radius ratio = 0.4.

viscosity (see Figure 4). Briefly, in a slightly eccentric annulus, shear-thinning effects can dominate and
counteract inertial effects, whereas in a highly eccentric annulus, inertial effects predominate. In an annulus
of intermediate eccentricity, shear-thinning plays a similar role to inertia at low inner-cylinder rotation speeds
and a counteracting role at high inner-cylinder rotation speeds.
To simplify the analysis of these rather complex problems, numerical results were recast in terms of
dimensionless variables for both Newtonian and non-Newtonian flow (see Table 2). It was found that, for
a Newtonian fluid, log f bears a linear relationship with log Re, with a gradient of −1, irrespective of the
The Flow of Newtonian and Inelastic Non-Newtonian Fluids in Eccentric Annuli with Inner-Cylinder Rotation 357

Figure 6. Plots of log f versus log Re at different power-law index, n, for different eccentricities (0.0, 0.3, 0.5 and 0.9). Annulus radius
ratio = 0.4 (a) T a = 0.0. (b) T a = 523.60.

values of the other non-dimensional variables (see Figure 5). For a power-law fluid, log f still bears a linear
relationship with log Re. However, the gradient now varies with the values of the other non-dimensional
variables (see Figure 6(b)). In the form of these dimensionless variables, it is envisaged that practical
correlations linking all these variables may be developed from numerous numerical results.
358 S. Wan, D. Morrison, and I.G. Bryden

Figure 6. Continued.

Finally, although the form of the non-Newtonian viscosity, η, in terms of both the second invariant, IId
and third invariant, IIId of the rate-of-deformation tensor is still awaited, the present study will have paved
the way for its incorporation in future numerical studies.
The Flow of Newtonian and Inelastic Non-Newtonian Fluids in Eccentric Annuli with Inner-Cylinder Rotation 359

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