Modern World History PDF

MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM A.
D 1500
MODERN WORLD IN TRANSITION- FROM
1500 A.D
Complementary Course of
I Semester
BA Political Science and BA English
CUCBCSS
(2014 Admission Onwards)
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Calicut university PO, Thenjipalam, Malappuram-673635
942
School of Distance Education
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
STUDY MATERIAL
Complementary Course of I Semester BA Political Science and BA English
MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM A.D 1500

MODERN WORLD IN TRANSITION- FROM 1500 A.D
Prepared by :
1. Rejeesh V.M.,Koyilandy (Module I & II)
2. Ajmal Mueen MA
Asst. Professor and HoD of history
MAMO College, Mukkam (Module III)
Scrutinized by:
Ashraf Koyilothan Kandiyil
Chairman, Board of Studies- - History (UG)
Govt. College Mokeri
©
Reserved
Modern World History Page 2

Syllabus
MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM A.D 1500
HIS1C02 MODERN WORLD IN TRANSITION-FROM 1500 A.D
MODULE I:Transition from Medieval to Modern

Decline of Feudalism –growth of trade and Towns –development of Science and
Technolology -emergence of National consciousness.
Renaissance –causes-Humanism-features-Influence on science, Literature, art,
Architecture.
Reformation-Lutheranism-Anglicanism-Counter-reformation-Geographical
explorations-major explorations –Impact on world politics, economy and culture.
MODULE II-Developments in Political and Economy
Growth of Nation states- Development of Absolute monarchies- Divine right theory of
kingship-Louis XIV-European trading Companies in the east and Americas-
Mercantilism-commercial Revolution.
MODULE III: Dawn of Rationalism and Democracy
The English Revolution of 1688- The Bill of rights-The Enlightenment movement-
Francis Bacon- Locke- The American Revolution- Declaration of Independence.
Books for Reading:
1.Michael Beard- A history of Capitalism.
2.Wallbank and Taylor- Civilization Past and Present
3.C D M Ketelby-A history of Modern Times
4.Wallerstain Emmanuel- The Modern World System
5.Mark Ferrow- Colonialism:A world History
6.E J Hobsbaum-The Age of Capitalism
7.E J Hobsbaum –Nation and Nationalism Since 1780.
8.E.J.Hobsbaum-Age of Revolution
9.H.A.L.Fisher-History of Modern Europe
10.David Thomson-World History.

MODULE PAGE NO.
I TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TO

5
MODERN
II DEVELOPMENTS IN POLITICS AND

29
ECONOMY
III DAWN OF RATIONALISM AND

38
DEMOCRACY

Module I
TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TO MODERN
Historians have divided the history of mankind into three periods the Ancient,
the Medieval and the Modern. The year 476 AD in which the last West Roman
Emperor was deposed, is taken to mark the end of the ancient period and beginning
of the middle ages. The middle age are supposed to have ended in 1453 AD., the year
of the fall of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, into the hands
of the Turks. The modern period is said to begin from this year. The theory of ‘socio-
economic formation’ as basis for the periodization of history. The modern age can be
said to have begun with the development of capitalism in the world. As a new socio-
economic formation capitalism first appeared in Western Europe. It was in the late
middle ages, approximately between the 15th and 17th centuries, that Capitalism had
its embryonic origin. As far as Europe was concerned this was a period of Transition
from Feudalism to Capitalism.
The period witnessed a revolutionary change in the socio-economic structure
of Europe. This change was reflected in a set of major inter related historical
developments which were to stem the tide of capitalist expansion. as the
Renaissance, the Reformation, the birth of modern science, the discovery of new
continents and sea-routes resulting in the European colonization of globe’s vast
regions etc. The existing feudal socio-economic formation began to be replaced by
capitalism. But the modern age was not merely one of victory of capitalist society. It
also proved the age of the rise of new forces
Decline of Feudalism
Feudal system was first emerged in Europe. The early name of Feudalism was
clientage. The word feudalism was originated from the Latin word ‘Feudum’ (means
Fief’). Fief means land given to peasant. Feudalism was based on the ownership of
land by lords and their exploitation of the direct producers. The structure of feudal
relationship was like a pyramid. King was on top of the pyramid and slaves were at
the bottom. In short feudalism is a socio-politic and economic organization.

The unit of life in feudal Europe was the ‘manor’ or village. The serfs or villains
were the largest class in the feudal hierarchy forming base of feudal pyramid.
Medieval life was overwhelmingly rural, nine out of ten coming within the agrarian
framework. These villains were bound to the soil and were subject to the manifold
authority of the lord. Their suffering was very real and often found in open revolts.
Such revolts became a feature of European life in the 14 th and 15th centuries.
Examples – the peasants revolt in England and Germany, the Jacquerie in France and
Dolcino in Italy. Gradually, the villains emancipated from the clutches of their lords.
The decline of feudalism gradually began with the emergence of new ideas
particularly with the disappearance of Barbarians from Western Europe. Protection
was not required for the people and they were more conscious of their rights. They
were trying to be free from the tyranny of feudal lords.
Many factors led to the decay of feudalism. Economic changes were more
important than political reasons. The revival of trade with the Near East and the
growth of cities led to an expansion of commerce and industry which created new
opportunities for the serfs in the towns. Secondly, rise in prices of agricultural
products resulted in the purchasing power of the new class. Many, peasants gained
freedom in this way. The ‘Black death’, which swept over Europe in the 14 th century
also took a heavy toll of life from the working classes, which severely resulted in
scarcity of labour. Moreover, as the towns increased in power and wealth due to
trade and industry, the exacted independence from their lords. The modern
European city owes its existence to its medieval ancestor. From the 10 th century
onwards towns began to spring up throughout Europe. Politically, the important
cause for the decay of feudalism was the rise of nation states, particularly England
and France. Invention of gun powder revolutionized the methods of warfare.
The Crusades also contributed to the weakening of Feudalism by eliminating
powerful nobles. Lastly, the religious cause for the decline of feudalism was the all
pervading nature of the Roman Catholic Church. The church was a powerful anti
feudal force. While feudalism was local, the church was universal. The people gave
allegiance to the church rather than to the feudal lord. This undermined the
foundation of feudalism throughout Europe. The revival of trade and rise of towns in
Europe marked the beginning of a new civilization centered around cities. The most
important factor that aided the growth of towns was the economic factor, viz. the
growth of trade and manufacturing. Town and trade had an interacting influence
upon each other, so that the revival of one meant the revival of the other. The most
important features of town life in Europe in the Middle Ages was the merchant and
craft guilds that regulated trade and manufacture.

The artisans and merchants in the towns gradually won freedom from the
feudal lords on whose domain the town stood. A self-governing city of this type was
called a Commune. One striking change was the growth of wealthy class of
merchants. The same change brought into being an urban proletariat. The economic
change fundamentally altered the organization of medieval society which was feudal
and rural. Thus the economic and social aspects of feudalism died in the rising towns.
Effects of Crusades
Crusade means ‘battle of the Cross’. At first the term was applied to the wars
fought by the Christians to liberate Jerusalem, the Holy city of the Christians, which
has been captured by the Muslim Turks. The primary cause of the Crusades was, no
doubt, religious. There were four important Crusades. The Crusades helped for the
decay of Feudalism to some extent, but paved the way for the growth of Monarchy in
Europe. Politically, an important effect of Crusades was the development of
nationalism that came as an aftermath of the Crusades. The crusades also led to the
development of the towns, particularly Italian cities. An important theory regarding
the result of Crusades is that it resulted in the economic growth and commercial
development of the west with the contact of the East. It is often said that ‘Trade
followed the Cross’. Though the knights lost Palestine, the Italian merchants gained
from it. The maritime transport and commerce developed towards the West. Many
articles of Commerce like silk, sugar and spices found their way to Europe. New
markets developed in Europe, particularly central around Italian cities.
The Crusades had began with an agricultural feudalism, inspired by German
barbarism, Crossed with religious sentiment; they ended with the rise of industry and
the expansion of commerce, in an economic revolution that heralded and financed
the Renaissance. Another important result of the Crusades was in the sphere of social
system. Crusades partially affected for the reversal of feudalism. The freedom of serfs
from the barons was a good social result of the Crusade. The Eastern style of life and
luxury of the East entered in Europe after the Crusades. Scholars consider crusades an
important causative factor for the cultural glory that Europe gained after them. It is
stated that the most valuable elements of Islamic civilization were transmitted to
Europe through the Crusades.

The Muslim Architecture, Literature, Philosophy, Medicine and Science directly

influenced European thought and culture in a big way which has been manifested in
the beginning of the Renaissance. Europe, after the crusades, generally imbibed many
technical secrets of the manufacture of glassware, the knowledge of Mariner’s
Compass, gun powders and printing technology. The later Gothic Cathedrals reflect
the influence of the new architecture entered into Europe. Another important result
of the Crusades was the geographical knowledge of the Europeans with regard to
orient. This also resulted in the study of the Geography and later Geographical
Discoveries
GROWTH OF TRADE AND TOWNS
During the 12th and 13th centuries, the use of money, rather than goods, as a means
of exchange led to a revival of commerce. A merchant class developed, renting land in
places suitable for trade, often near a castle or abbey. These settlements often
became thriving marketplaces for all sorts of goods. For a fee, a commercial
settlement could obtain a charter from the local lord, establishing it as a town and
giving it the authority to govern itself. Many lords were willing to grant charters to
ensure a market for agricultural produce near.
Developments of Science and Technology
Discoveries and inventions of the Modern Age that helped to modernize the lives of
the people were:
Invention of the (Mariner’s) magnetic compass:
This instrument was used by navigators. It helped them to locate their direction right
in the middle of the sea. As this compass marked the two poles (north and south), it
helped them to choose the correct direction. Traders and travelers in the
middle Ages had no means to conduct their sea travels through safe courses. Due to
the invention of the magnetic compass, an era of adventurous navigation began.
The Invention of gun powder:
With the making of gunpowder, the art of warfare in Europe was modernized. This
helped kings to strengthen their defense provisions. It made the crown independent
and reduced the dependency of the crown on nobles.

The Art of Printing:

Soon after Europe entered the Modern Age, the art of modern printing was
discovered. Due to this, the scope of education broadened, and very soon modern
learning reached every corner of Europe. Acquiring knowledge became easier and a
ground for the latest ideas was created. This helped to bring about changes in almoks
of human life.
Emergence of national consciousness
A national consciousness is a shared sense of national identity that is a shared
understanding that a people group shares a common ethnic/linguistic/cultural
background. Historically, a rise in national consciousness has been the first step
towards the creation of a nation. Nationalism requires first a national consciousness,
the awareness of national communality of a group of people, or nation. National
identities in Europe and the Americas developed along with the idea of political
sovereignty invested in the people of the state. In Eastern Europe, it was also often
linked to ethnicity and culture. An awakening of national consciousness is frequently
ascribed to national heroes and is associated with national symbols
Emergence of Nation States
By 1500 Western Europe began to organise itself in a way that is similar to present
day
Europe. The relationship of lord & vassal which, with the vague claims of the Pope &
The Emperor (holy roman emperor) in the background, so long seemed to exhaust
political thought, gave way to idea of princely power over all the inhabitants of a
domain. i.e. nation-state. Necessarily, the change to such state of affairs neither took
place everywhere in the same way nor at the same pace. By 1800,France&England
had been centuries unified in a way that Germany & Italy were still not.
Causes for the emergence of Nation States:
I. France:
one of the first nation-states to cover anything like the area of their modern
successors, France''s existence as a separate kingdom date back as early as 9th
century. During the 14th & 15th centuries the unity was gently enhanced by the so-
called Hundred Years' war with England.

II. England:
A strong monarchy was established by William, the conqueror, in 11th century. The
powers of the feudal lords were increased during the 12th & 13th centuries, but were
gradually suppressed by the king during the 14th century; new additions to the infant
English national mythology during the Hundred Years' war. Feudalism ended in
England due to the war of roses in the late 15th century & monarchy was
strengthened by Henry VII & successive Tudor Rulers.
III. Spain:
a great measure of unity was achieved bythe end of the 15th cenutry due to the re-
conquest (the long struggle against Islam); & Spanish nationalism was strengthened
during the colonization of the new world.
RENAISSANCE
Renaissance in Italy
From early 14th to late 16th century witnessed in Western and Central Europe
an intense development in thought and culture. This intellectual and cultural
movement generally reflected the transition of Europe from Medieval to Modern age.
Historians label this development as Renaissance of Europe chiefly referring to the
new trends in thinking, literature, arts and science.
The term ‘Renaissance’ (French term) means revival or rebirth. First applied by
th
the 15 century Italian intellectuals to describe the revived study of the Greeco-
Roman classical learning. They believed that their are represented the rebirth of
culture and learning following an ‘age of darkness’ as the termed middle ages. The
present day historians however do not view either the medieval as ‘dark age’ or the
interest in ancient classical as fully non-existent in the middle Ages. The modern
historians, while not rejecting the term Renaissance, use it in a different sense. They
apply it to connote the pervasive cultural movement that originated from the very
medieval heritage in an age of transition from medieval to modern civilization. The
Renaissance marked a new interest in the worldly affairs which of course echoed the
Greeco-Roman attitude towards life. So quite naturally the Renaissance men evinced
a particular concern for the classical culture of ancient Greeks and Romans. But it
was only one aspect of Renaissance. In fact of Renaissance a vast movement
representing a new way of thinking and a new set of social ideas which were to form
part of modern civilization later.
The characteristic features of Renaissance can be summarized as follows:
A new world outlook, humanist approach in contrast of the theocentrism of

the middle ages, anti-scholastic trends, rational and materialist explanation of reality,
idea of individualism, new conception of state power independent of church
authority etc.
Renaissance has its beginning in Italy which was historically the most favored
place for it in Europe. Being part of any powerful empire, Italy was practically a land
of several important city-states and some republican states. There were no powerful
feudal lords or a priest politically dominate.
From 12th century on Italy had a dynamic urban society thriving on flourishing
crafts and profitable commerce with the East. Its prosperous cities like Venice, Genoa,
Milan, Florence and Siena were dominated by great merchant and banker families
who controlled politics too. The idea of citizenship had taken roots among this towns
people. That this middle class was mainly concerned with pleasures and activities of
this world gave them a secular rather than a religious attitude. These commercial
wealthy families showed particular interest to patronise the Renaissance artists and
writers. It is worthy of note that the earliest of the medieval European universities
were founded in Italian towns (as Padua and Bologna). The growing contact with the
Byzantine and Islamic civilization strengthened by the crusades had familiarised the
Italians with new currents of thought. That Italy was the homeland of Roman
civilization, which had left abundant physical remains of it there, was a factor of
cultural inspiration in Italy.
Humanism
In medieval Europe Art, Science, Literature and Philosophy were bound up
with religion. Later scholars who drew inspiration from Greek literature and
philosophy replaced religion with man. The movement that started with man and his
life placed in the focus is known as humanism. Simply Humanism, which became the
hallmark of European Renaissance, first appeared in Italy in the field of learning.
Humanism represented a fundamental shift from the ‘God-centered’ world view of
the middle ages to the ‘Man centered’ world outlook of the modern age.

The Italian poet Petrarch (1304-1374) of Florence, generally regarded as the

‘Father of Humanism’, considered the classical authors distinctly ‘human’ because
they were more concerned with man’s problems and possibilities on this earth than
with the issues of God which interested medieval writers. His assertation was that
there was much to be learnt which religious teaching could not give. These secular
matters could be learnt from the human literature of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
Following this exhortation of Petrarch these occurred in Italy, First in Florence, a
vigorous search for and collection of manuscripts of forgotten ancient works.
Ancient works were arduously procured from Libraries’ and Monasteries of
different regions particularly Constantinople and Levant. Hundreds of books by
ancient authors were copied in multiple numbers and distributed for reading not only
to scholars, but also to wealthy middle class men, princes and clerics. It was this
revived interest in the study of the human works of ancient that came to be knows as
humanism in Italy. Humanism in its technical sense promoted the study of the
humanities as part of formal education in Italian schools and the universities. The
humanities which included subjects like Language, Literature, History, Philosophy,
Ethics etc., were not directly associated with religion. The humanists, as the masters
of these subjects were called, brought in a revolution in the educational theory and
practice. Humanism that first developed in Italy was to have enormous influence on
culture of other countries in Europe. It has a tremendous impact on Italian Literature,
arts and science.
Renaissance in literature
The humanist writers of this period largely used secular themes for their
compositions. Prose and poetry began to be written in vernacular instead of Latin.
After an initial imitation of classical literary forms like drama, epic, novel and satire,
the Renaissance literature soon created. Such new forms as essay, short story and
literary criticism. The use of prose for all sorts of literary forms was a notable aspect.
The Renaissance gave birth to a few really great litterateurs in Italy. The names of
Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio and Machiavelli are immortal among them.
Dante (1265-1321): He was an Italian writer who embodied the new spirit of
rationality and creativity. Essentially a poet, Dante wrote prose also and dealt varied
subjects as love, social life, philosophy, political theory and language. In this writings
Dante supplanted the medieval allegories by deep human feelings. By for the most
celebrated work of Dante is ‘The Divine Comedy’, an epic poem providing the vision
of Hell, purgatory and paradise. This work which is noted for its high moral quality is
an ‘encyclopedia’ of the highest culture and knowledge of his age. The Divine
comedy, which set the standard of Italian language for the later writers, is generally
recognised as the greatest work of Italian Literature.
Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374): “The founding father of humanism” is the
first of the great humanist writers of Italy. Petrarch, who loved life and stood eagerly
interested in everything around him, was the embodiment of ‘Renaissance man’. A
first class humanist scholar, and a lyric poet, Petrarch wrote songs and poems in
Italian. He is best known for his ‘Ilcanzoniere’, a series of love poems dedicated to his
love Laura. In 1341 the senate of Rome Crowned him as ‘poet laureate of Italy’.
Petrarch’s writings have proved a major influence on many authors of the world.
Boccaccio (1313-1375): Boccaccio, whom Petrarch considerably influenced,
was a Renaissance scholar, poet and prose writer in the tradition of humanism.
Boccaccio has been hailed by some as ‘the father of Italian prose’. His masterpiece
‘The Decameron’, a Series of Italian prose tales.
Niccole Machiavelli (1469-1527): Machiavelli is a typical Italian Renaissance
writer. He was writing at a time when Italian states were in their Political decline. Italy
was being rocked by successive invasions from Spanish, French and German rulers. A
statesman, political theorist and historian, Machiavelli had served the republican city
state of Florence as an official for some time. Machiavelli wrote his famous political
work, ‘The Price’ in which he explains the theory and practice of despotism.
Renaissance in Art
The new awakening of Europe liberated of art from the clutches of medieval
religion. This can be learnt from the works of art of that period. Artists broke the
chains of taboos and gave new expressions to humanism. Their works attained
harmony with nature. The Renaissance artists turned to classical examples for
inspiration and often chose their subjects from Greco-Roman world. Indeed, the most
memorable contribution of the Renaissance art could be seen in paintings. The artist
librated painting from subordination to architecture.

Before the 16th century, most of the paintings were frescoes. Two styles or
schools of painting flourished in Italy in the Renaissance period. The Florentine and
the venetian. The founder of Florentine School was Giotto. This School produced
three remarkable painters-Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.
Leonardo da Vinci was a versatile genius. Besides a painter he was an architect,
poet, musician, engineer and a mathematician. His masterpieces in painting are
‘Mona Lisa’, ‘The Last Supper’. and ‘The Virgin of the Rocks’. Michelangelo was
outstanding as a painter and architect. He is known for his paintings in the Sistine
Chapel in the Vatican. His ‘Last Judgment’ and ‘The Fall of Man’ are among the most
famous works of art in the world. Raphael, another Italian painter, is known for his
paintings of ‘Madonna’, the mother of Jesus Christ. The paintings of Venetian School
were free from mysticism and spirituality. They were basically materialistic in
character.
Architects of the Renaissance times adopted their building plans from the
Roman churches. They discarded the Gothic Style. The Renaissance architecture was
based on the cross-like floor plan with the decorative columns, arches and domes.
Many good examples of Renaissance architecture are found among secular buildings.
Music also flourished during the Renaissance period. Renaissance music was free
from classical influence. Secularism and individualism reflected in music as well.
Renaissance in science
“Learn the truth of things rationally
through experiments and observations”.
- Roger Bacon
(Father of modern science).
The lines reveal the perspective that led to the development of modern
sciences. During the medieval period the catholic church did not permit free thinking
and spirit of enquiry. But the new thirst for knowledge paved the way for scientific
enquiry. Copernicus formulated the ‘Helio Centric Theory’ by modifying Ptolemy’s
‘Geo-centric Theory’. Kepler widened the scope of the theory of Copernicus with the
help of mathematics.

The inventions of the scientists, Isaac Newton and William Harvey paved the
way for the development of modern science. The scientific spirit also led to important
inventions like the printing press, paper, mariner’s compass etc. mariner’s compass
led to Navigation, Geographical Discovery, Colonization and the Spread of Commerce,
and the later industrial and Commercial Revolutions. James Edgar Swain observes,
“Renaissance is a collective term used to include all the intellectual changes that were
in evidence at the close of the middle ages at the beginning of modern times.”
Renaissance outside Italy
The end of fifteenth century Renaissance had its appearance in other
European countries north of Italy. The growth of industry rise and trade, the
consequent rise of a middle class and urban life in countries like Netherlands, France,
Germany, Spain and England created the preconditions for the intellectual and
cultural development there.
It was in the field of learning and literature that Renaissance had its best
expression in northern Europe. Like Italian the modern European languages as
French, German, English, Spanish etc., developed as literary languages during this
time. Certain specific features of Northern Renaissance are evident. Unlike the
Italians, the Northern humanists were more inclined to base their modes of thought
on medieval tradition than on Greeco-Roman. They were more concerned with
applying ideas of Renaissance to the study of religion and modernization of Catholic
doctrines and practices.
Impact of Renaissance
Renaissance was definitely to influence the onward course of European
civilisation. Renaissance ideas of free-thinking, spirit of enquiry, critical evaluation,
harmonious development of individual, avoid superstition etc., had spectacular
results in the course of history. Renaissance gave birth to a new system of education
whose curriculum included humanities and science which substantially contributed to
the rise of modern culture. It greatly advanced the development of physical sciences
in Europe. Renaissance spirit promoted people to challenge traditional ideas,
institutions and beliefs. That Renaissance paved the way of reformation is a generally
accepted fact. Similarly it played a prominent part in creating the more radical free-
thinking and atheism of the age of enlightenment.

REFORMATION
Meaning of Reformation
Martin Luther who started Reformation in Germany. He vehemently

criticised the evil beliefs and immoral practices of the church. By translating the Bible
into German he propagated Christian philosophy. He criticised the ‘sale of
indulgence’ by Tetzel in Germany. He published Ninety Five theses against the evils
of the Catholic Church. Those who followed the principles of Luther are called
Lutherans. Reformation in England was started under the leadership of Henry VIII th ,
in Switzerland Ulrich Swingli and John Calvin
The Reformation has been described as the child of Renaissance. Reformation
is a general name given to a group of religious movement, which broke out in the
later Middle Ages and came to a climax in the 16 th century, dividing Christians into
two groups. One is Roman Catholics and Protestants. All these movements or
upheavals were directed against the various drawbacks of the Church and the
objectionable practices of clergymen. The main target of these movements was the
Pope, the highest authority in the Church hierarchy.
The movements created a clear split in the Christian Church. Those who
continued to remain loyal to the Pope at Rome were called Roman Catholics, and
those who revolted against him and broke away from the church at Rome were called
Protestants. The Reformation movement broke out in England, France, Germany,
Czechoslovakia, Switzerland and Scotland. All Protestants did not share the same
religious beliefs or follow the same rituals or ceremonies. Much difference could be
noted between the Protestants of one country and those of another. An extreme
form of Protestantism was Calvinism. Presbyterianism of Scotland and Puritanism of
England were similar to Calvinism in simplicity, strictness and austerity. Though the
Protestant movement was essentially religious, it was so complex and its results were
so far-reaching that it looked much more than a mere religious movement and breach
in the Church.
The important of the Reformation can hardly be over-estimated. It was great
importance in changing the course of history, because before the movement, the
influence of the church pervaded every field of human activity. The Church
commanded powerful influence over the lives of he people in the middle ages. It

regimented thought, influenced or actually controlled political institutions,

hampered economic activities, and stunted literary and artistic developments. In the
ages of absolute faith and unquestioned loyalty to the church, whatever the church
dictated had to be accepted as gospel truth. The Reformation leaders wanted to
changed all this and bring about radical changes.
Causes of the reformation
The causes of the Reformation can be traced to the middle ages. Even in the
medieval period, there were mutterings and murmurings against the Churches
authority. But individuals, with all their correct attitude and reasoning, could do little
or almost nothing to correct the Church. The example of German emperors, who
suffered punishment and humiliation at the hands of powerful Popes in the
Investiture Struggle in the 11th and 12th centuries, must have silenced many men of
independent thinking. Though Church authority continued long without being
challenged seriously, a storm was slowly gathering.
The Reformation did not burst suddenly. Several causes were at work against
the numerous abuses of the Church in the later meddle age.
1. Spirit of Inquiry: We may put the spirit of inquiry as the most important cause of the
Reformation, because without it the working of the Church could not be examined.
Before the spirit of inquiry manifested itself, nobody could ever think of bringing the
affairs of the Church under any scrutiny. In the age of faith in which Churchmen could
get away with scandalous living and misuse of power, it was dangerous to criticise the
Church and point out its drawbacks.
In the middle ages, people were afraid to eroticize the Church openly as the Church
was very rich and powerful, and could bend to its will even the proudest king of
Europe. The Church had all the means and machinery to punish or even put to death
all those who went against it, even though they might be right and the Church might
have deserved condemnation.
Severe persecution was launched against the Waldersee, a religious seet organized in
southern France and northern Italy by Peter Waldo (1180). They began to deny the
authority of the Church and the efficacy of the sacraments. But they could not be
wiped out. They had criticized the luxurious life led by the clergy and regarded the
Bible “as a sufficient guide to religious life”.

2. Interest in Political Affairs: The Church began to take more and more unwholesome
interest in political affairs, and this was disliked by kings and people, who felt that the
Church should take interest only in the religious, spiritual and moral affairs. As the
Church wished to increase its political power and prestige, its efficiency as a religious
organization was impaired. The emergence of the “Holy Roman Empire” made the
Popes entertain grand ideas about their power. Owing to the bungling or the
mistakes committed by the so-called Holy Roman Emperors, The Popes were able to
succeeded in the Investiture Struggle between them and the Emperors and increase
their own power.
3. Moral Decline of the Church: Many of the Clergy, if not all, were mad after money
and power. They seemed to worship Mammon instead of God. The wealth of the
church multiplied. It owned huge estates and cash everywhere, and its treasuries
were overflowing. The rapid increase of wealth inevitably led to increase in the
comforts and luxuries of priests. Luxury and worldliness had shaped the moral
strength of the Church. The people were looking forward to the Church to guide them
morally, but they found that the clergymen themselves, who were ignorant and
ineffective as priests, did not have high morals. The moral decline of the Church
shook the faith of the people, and they began to regard the Church as another
organization indulging in all worldly affairs including luxury. The Reformation
movement powerfully attacked the moral decay of the church.
The leaders of the movement could openly show how wealth and power had made
the clergy corrupt and unfit to be regarded as the servants of God. They said that
when the good things of a worldly and materialistic life entered the Church through
the front door, spiritual and moral escaped through the hind door. It was openly said
that the noble teachings of Christ were completely forgotten, and some of the clergy
led such scandalous lives that people lost all respect for them.
4. Collection of Money: As observed earlier, the Church was very wealthy. But the
clergy were collecting funds every now and then on various pretexts. The Pope
ordered his deputies to collect money for general or specific purposes. If a new
cathedral was to be built, or an old one was to be repaired, appeals were made for
funds. The people were overburdened by the exactions of their kings and of the
Popes. Kings resented the collection of funds by the Church, as it came in the way of
raising more taxes. Efforts were also made to collect large sums of money by selling
Christian antiques or relics, many of which were not genuine.
5. Great Schism: Ugly quarrels in the Church led to the Great Sehism (1378-1415), and
the Church further suffered loss of prestige. At one stage, instead of one Pope, there
were two Popes: one elected by the Italian Cardinals, and the other by the French
Cardinals (1378). Thus, at the highest level of the Church there was a great split. The
confusion was further increased in 1409, when a third Pope was chosen at a joint
meeting of the two groups of Cardinals. Loyalties of Christians were divided as a
result of the Schism. Many were confused, and did not know to which Pope they
should be loyal. The confusion was, however, ended in 1417, when at an election,
held by the Church Council at Constance, a new Pope acceptable to all Christians was
elected.
6. Public Opinion against Pope: Gradually, if not all people, large sections of the
population belonging to different social classes were against the Pope for different
reasons. The strong manifestation of public opinion against the Pope weakened
Papacy.
Kings were against the Pope, as they resented Papal interference and collected
money from their subjects.
The people were against the Pope, as they were overburdened by payment, and felt
that the morally dealing Church did not deserve payment and loyality. Some did not
like the rituals and sacraments of the Church.
In Germany, Norway, Sweden and other countries, public opinion was expressing
itself against all that was Latin or Italian in the Church.
7. Criticism by Scholars: Books by influential writers exposed all the weakness of the
Church and prepared the ground for the Reformation. The malpractices of the Church
were subjected to stinging attacks by the Dutch scholar Erasmus in his reputed book
In praise of Folly. The prejudices and superstitions of society and the pretences of the
Church were exposed to the most damaging criticism, and biting irony and sarcasm of
Erasmus. The printing press multiplied the copies of the book, which travelled all over
Europe. Every university felt the influence of Erasmus, and many scholars eagerly
read the book and came to know about the moral hollowness of the Church hidden
by beautiful veils. Though Erasmus would never join the side of Martin Luther in
breaking away from the Church, but wished to be loyal to it, his satirical writings did
irreparable damage to the prestige of the Church.

Leaders of the Reformation

1. John Wycliffe
John Wycliffe (1320-1384) was an important early leader of the Reformation. He was
an English priest and professor at Oxford, who taught theology till 1382. He openly
criticized the Church and said that the humiliating agreement made by the English
King John Lackland to pay tribute to the Pope need not be honored. He supported the
state and said that it was higher than the Church. He was appointed rector of
Fillingham (1361) of Ludgershall (1374). He wrote pamphlets against the tributes
demanded by the Pope and went to Bruges in 1374 as a delegate for negotiations on
the matter.
Anti-Pope: He declared that the Pope was unworthy to become the representative of
God on earth, as he was anti-Christ in spirit.
Monasticism: He affirmed that monasticism could not be regarded as a true part of
Christianity. The Bible was to be regarded as the only guide of Christians, who should
put full faith in it. The Bible was translated into English by Wycliffe to enable the
ordinary man to understand it.
2. John Huss
John Huss (1369-1415), a priest and professor at the University of Prague in Bohemia,
was strongly inspired by the Lollard movement of John Wycliffe.
He criticized image worship, and the multiplication of rituals and collection of
fees by priests for their services.
He said that Christ, not Pope, is the head of the Church. A Pope should be
obeyed only when his orders are in harmony with the law of Christ. Rebelling against
a bad Pope was like obeying Christ.
Like Wycliffe, he also exposed the pretences of the worldly and luxury-loving
clergy, and emphasized the need for a check on the power of the Pope, through
various sermons and pamphlets. The ranks of the Hussites swelled, and this was a
cause of concern to the Pope.
All Christians were not prepared to agree with John Huss, who along with his
followers finally left Prague, and went to Leipzig, where they established the first
university in Germany.

Against Indulgences: He criticized the sale of Indulgences by the Pope in 1411 for
raising funds for a crusade against the king of Naples.
Sale of Indulgences: Certain events in the Church revolutionized the life of Luther
and broke up the Church. Luther was shocked to see in Rome the great display of
opulence and grandeur. He felt that the Pope was hardly better than any of the Italian
princes. Pope Leo X (1513-1521), desired to raise money for completing St. Peter’s
Church in Rome. One of the steps of collection was the sale of Indulgences. He
extended an Indulgence by issuing a bull on March 31, 1515. Under the Papal bult,
Tetzel, a representative of Pope Leo, was collecting money at Wittenberg by selling
Indulgences. It was believed that the purchaser of Indulgences did not make him
totally free from punishment for sins, but the rigour of punishment would be
reduced. The sale was made so boldly and vulgarly that even laymen of average
intelligence were shocked. Honest people were shocked to learn that the Pope had
instructed a banking firm to handle the income of the Indulgences, for which it was
allowed one-third of the proceeds as profit. He did not understand why the Pope,
who was fabulously rich, did not spend money from his own treasury to build St.
Peter’s.
Protestantism in Germany
In Germany Luther’s Protestant movement was successful, and the opponents
of the Church hailed him as a national hero. However, Luther’s reply to the Council of
Worms (1520-21) made the German emperor declare war on heretics. Luther’s side
was not weak, and a large section of the German population decided to challenge the
Roman Catholic openly.
Peasants’ Revolt: The reaction of the German princes was mixed. When the Peasant’s
Revolt broke out in 1525, they were afraid of losing power, and hence they
suppressed it ruthlessly, by massacring about 50,000 peasants. Luther’s approach was
conservative, and his support was for the princes.
Civil War: In the civil war (1530-1555) Germany was divided. The northern states of
Germany were the Protestant followers of Luther, and the southern states were
Catholic.
In Germany Protestantism was legally recognized by the Peace of Augsburg
(1555). By this the Holy Roman Emperor agreed to recognize Lutheranism side by side
with Roman Catholicism as a legal religion. The ruler of a German state was free to
accept either Roman Catholicism or Lutheranism, and the people were to follow his
religion.

Lutheran Doctrine: We may briefly refer here to the basic points of the Lutheran
doctrine jointly drafted by Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon, a scholar of the
University of Wittenberg.
Protestantism in Northern European Countries
Lutheranism spread in Northern European countries before long. The Kings of
Sweeden, Denmark and Norway were against Roman Catholicism, and they took
several steps to establish and strengthen Protestantism. Roman Catholic churches
were got rid of and Lutheran National Churches were established in their place. The
property of churches and monasteries was confiscated.
Protestantism in Switzerland
Calvinism: John Calvin was the reformer in Switzerland. He founded a more strict
form of Protestantism which came to be called Calvinism, Calvin opposed the
authority of Pope and asserted that the Bible alone is true. With the document of
Luther he added the doctrine of pre destination. He held that the church must be
independent and the church was to have a democratic form of Government. In
Geneva he established a self governing church. Calvinism spread more rapidly in
Europe than Lutheranism. His religion became the dominant force of Protestantism in
England (Puritans), Scotland (Presbyterians), Holland, West Germany and France
(Huguenots). According to Will Durent, “Calvin’s influence was even greater than
Luther’s, but he walked in a path which Luther had cleared. Calvin gave to
Protestantism in many lands an organization, confidence and pride that enabled it to
survive a thousand trails”. The religious impact of Calvinism was inseparable from its
political impact. Calvin’s idea of lay representation and popular control of the Church
gave an impetus to popular government and republicanism.
Counter Reformation
The Reformation was a movement directed against the Roman Catholic
Church. After the Reformation gathered momentum and secured the support of
millions of Protestants in different European countries, the Roman Catholic Church
itself launched a movement against the Reformation. This new movement was called
the Counter Reformation.
The main aim of the Counter-Reformation was to check the growth of
Protestantism, and to reform, revitalize and strengthen the Roman Catholic Church.
The Popes and their supporters felt that unless some concrete steps were taken, the
Roman Catholic Church might weaken more and more, and even face extinction.

A concerted Counter-Reformation movement was launched with the four-fold

purpose of punishing, reforming, converting, and rendering social service. The
Inquisition was to punish, the Council of Trent was to introduce reforms and the
Society of Jesus was to render service to God and society, and convert people to
Christianity.
Inquisition: The Inquisition was a Roman Catholic tribunal first formed in 1210 for
conducting inquiry into cases of heresy and meting our punishment. The first
Inquisitor General was St. Dominic. In 1233, Pope Gregory IX established a committee
in each Parish to discover heretics, who were to be examined. If found guilty, they
were excommunicated and given over to the civil arm for punishment, which included
torturing and execution by burning. The Spanish Inquisition, which was a civil court,
was set up in Castile in 1478. In 1483, the Inquisition was firmly established in Spain.
The Inquisition was relentless and brutal in its methods, and it soon became an
engine of cruelty and oppression. Its techniques of torture and punishment were
revolting, barbarous and inhuman. People dreaded it and shivered to think of its
procedures. Spain, which provided the seat of the Inquisition, became unpopular, and
it invited the wrath and rebellion of people, who were oppressed. The northern
provinces of Netherlands, which were under the iron heel of Spain, revolted and
made themselves independent in 1609.
Church of Reform: Paul III, Paul IV, Pius V, Sixtus V and other Popes earnestly desired
to introduce reforms in the Roman Catholic Church and improve its moral tone. Some
zealous and intellectually inclined Roman Catholics advocated far-reaching reforms,
which would not only improve the Church, but also reunite the Catholic and
Protestant Churches on certain basic common principles.
Failure of the Rotisbon Conference: The Ratisbon Conference convened in Germany
in 1541 by Pope Paul III had great objectives no doubt, but it was impossible to
resolve the difference and strike a common ground. On the failure of this conference,
the wide gap between the Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches continued.
Reforms of the Council of Trent: The Council of Trent (1545-1563) held on the border
of Italy and Germany was attended by Roman Catholic leaders. The deliberations
continued at various sittings over a period of 18 long years, and certain broad
decisions were taken.

1. The Pope was regarded as the head of the Roman Catholic Church, and he was
the final interpreter of all Christian doctrines.
2. A clear statement of the Church doctrines without making any compromise

was issued. New Church service books, and the Vulgate, a new Latin edition of
the Bible which became the official Bible of the Roman Catholics, were
prepared.
3. A set of disciplinary rules was prepared for Church officials with a view to
remove corruption and malpractices. The pernicious system of Simony and sale
of Indulgences were condemned. Proper training was to be given to the clergy
in schools.
4. An index of books, which were unworthy of being read by Roman Catholics,
was prepared.
5. The Inquisition was revived to punish offenders.
Consequences of the Reformation
1. Division of Christianity: It broke up the Unity of Christendom. Europe came to
be divided into two groups, the Catholic group consisting of France, Spain, Italy
etc. and the Protestant group including North Germany, Denmark, England,
Holland etc.
2. Religious intolerance and wars. The rivalry between Catholicism and

Protestantism led to intolerance and serious religious wars. This also gave way
for religious persecution. The Thirty Year’s War (1618-1648) broke out in
Germany on the issue of religion. It ruined Germany and thwarted German
unification for two hundred years. Internal and International politics came to
be hopelessly intermingled with religion. Many Christian groups like Lutherans,
Calvinists, Puritans, Huguenots, Presbyterians, Anabaptists, Pentecost’s etc.
have sprung up in different parts of Europe and America. The religious rivalry
party came to an end with The Edict of Nantes in 1598 which gave a
remarkable degree of toleration to the Huguenots in France.
3. Politically the Reformation and the Counter Reformation movement divided

Europe into several fragments. It gave strength to Nation States, royal
absolutism and Democratic and Republican spirits. Powerful national
monarchies in Europe particularly France, Austria, Prussia and England sprang
up. Protestants encouraged democracy even in the churches Calvinism

advocated a democratic form of Government for the church and the state. The
Calvinists were Champions of Democracy.
4. There were some economic results with the rise of Reformation. Reformation
itself was partly due to the outbreaks and revolts among the peasantry. In
Germany the peasant’s revolts accelerated the works of Lutherans. A new
favourable atmosphere for economic growth created by the Reformation was
highly congenial for the all round social and economic progress. The
Reformation encouraged a new attitude of individualism in economic matters
and a new business class sprang up in many parts of Europe. The great
sociologist Max Weber sees this economic development as indispensable in
the development of modern capitalism.
5. Another important result of the Reformation was the secularization of life and
Society. The unending religious controversy led to a sort of indifference
towards religion which finally resulted in the secularization of Life and Society.
6. Protestantism promoted freedom of the mind unfamiliar to the Catholic. The

Protestant Revolt left a rich legacy to the individual. It also led to the later
European Enlightenment. As Will Durent observes, “Reformation rendered
great services to Enlightenment. It broke the authority of dogma, generated a
hundred sects that would formerly have died at the stake, and allowed among
them such virile debate that reason was finally recognized as the bar before
which all sects had to plead their cause unless they were armed with
irresistible physical force. In that pleading, by attack and defense, all sects
were weakened, all dogmas; and a century after Luther’s exaltation of faith.
Francis Bacon proclaimed that knowledge is power, “Moreover Reformation
greatly influenced later 17th century thinkers like Descartes, Hobbes, Spinoza
and Locke who offered philosophy as a substitute or basis for religion.
Protestant Revolt was favorable to the spirit of critical, unfettered enquiry that
was to culminate in the 18th Century Enlightenment. In short, the Reformation
began with ideas and ended with force. An era of liberal thought closed in a
fever of war; and methods; of blood and iron supplanted the force of Reason.

Discoveries of New Trade Routes

The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation, the geographical
explorations of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had a great effect on the course
of history. Before these explorations, there was contact between Western and
Oriental countries, but this was through land. It was difficult to cover vast distances
through mountains and deserts, and brave and adventurous travelers took a long
time, sometimes even the major part of their lives to reach their destination. Then
again, even when land contacts had been established, to most of the Europeans,
many Oriental countries were closed books. In the later middle ages, bold and
enterprising men of Europe sailed in the unknown seas and discovered new sea
routes and new continents.
Geographical discoveries, like other forces, put great power in the hands of
Europeans and illustrated in one more way how Europe marched ahead at a
breathless pace, while Oriental countries became stagnant and were left far behind
them.
Owing to the relatively early expulsion of the Moors from Spain, Political
stability, and comparative peace. Portugal was the better placed than any other
European nation to take a lead in making geographical explorations. As the natural
resources of Portugal were poor, the Portuguese were looking forward overseas for
the luck of exploration, trade and colonization.
Sea Routes
Results of Geographical Discoveries

These explorations later brought about tremendous socio-economic changes in
Afro-Asian and Latin American countries. What could they be? Colonisation,
Economic exploitation, Trade revelry, Emergence of new culture, spread of
Christianity etc. In short it inaugurated a new era of commerce and colonisation. The
expansion of the world gradually led to the expansion of man’s mind and speeded up
the intellectual revolution started by the Renaissance. The discovery of new routes
diverted the course of commerce from Mediterranean to the Atlantic ocean. The
centre of gravity of trade and commerce is now shifted from the Mediterranean to
the Atlantic. Italian cities, Venice and Genoa, lost their commercial supremacy and
some European cities came into prominence. The geographical discoveries let to
European colonisation all over the world, especially in America and Asia. It changed
the economic life of Europe and marked the beginning of Capitalism. Moreover, the
discoveries resulted in the spread of Christianity into Asia, Africa and America.
Finally by the discoveries, the Europeans were able to establish colonies in the
new world and in India. America was soon Europeanised. But one pathetic result of
the explorations was the cruel treatment of the natives in the new world particularly
in Africa. Slave trade increased. The European powers like Britain, France, Germany
etc. began to compete for colonies.
Growth of International Trade and Market –Commercial revolution
Geographical discoveries brought about radical economic changes. It led to
tremendous increase in the volume of trade. Regular trade contacts among
continents were established and trade became global. The growth in the volume of
trade and the associated changes brought about what is called the commercial
Revolution.
The emergence of ‘Nation states with strong monarchies also gave a great
impetus to the growth of markets and the consequent commercial Revolution. The
new colonies meant new markets. The colonies acted as a fertile source for getting
raw materials and also a good Market. The beginning of Capitalism also could be seen
with advancement of trade and market. The newly emerged independent middle
class and its profit motive economic culture resulted in more investments in this
sphere of commerce. There was a total change in the means of production and

distribution. Big business and big business dealings controlled the markets. The new
concept of ‘Laissez-faire’ which stressed individualism also helped the growth of
commercial Revolution.
Commonly accepted coin system also used this trade and commerce. The
commercial Revolution imparted a new economic phenomenon of money and
exchange with surplus usage of Capital. The large scale of production effected by the
emergence of Industrial Revolution, Factory system and agricultural Revolution
brought about a new class of capitalists who finally started to control both the market
and the colonies. This economic phenomenon of commerce and colonisation
ultimately led to the imperialistic schemes of European powers in the following
centuries, especially in Asia, Africa and Latin America.

ModuleII
DEVELOPMENTS IN POLITICS AND ECONOMY
Rise of Nation-States
Towards the end of medieval period in Europe, strong dictators rose to power
in France, England and Spain. They suppressed the feudal lords with the support of
middle class. Such countries are known as Nation State. Nationalism is a modern
phenomenon that appeared along with the origin and development of capitalism in
the world. It is an ideological and political principle which came into existence in the
process of the formation of nations. A nation is a historical community of people
established on the basis of a common economic life combined with a common
language, territory and culture. Normally a nation is formed by overcoming the feudal
disunity and developing Capitalist production system which consolidates economic
ties between regions and merges local markets into a national market.
Nation-state is the basic form of the political organisation of the modern times.
In that sense it replaces the political system of the middle ages. It was in the late
medieval Europe that modern nations, nationalism and nation-states had its first
historical development in the world. It was the decline of feudalism that created the
material conditions for the rise of nationalism and nation-state in Europe. Feudal
political structure had provided no space for any sense of common nationality. In
medieval period people speaking the same language and inheriting the same culture
were generally distributed in different feudal states. As a classic example, the Holy
Roman Empire consisted of, besides the chief people Germans, Several linguistic and
ethnic sections of people. Secondly, the kings of states, who could been the natural
leaders of their nations, hardly possessed any power.
The growth of trade and urban life along with an assertive middle class played
a principal role in creating formation of Nations in Europe. The merchants and other
new economic classes who found both feudal exactions and anarchy detrimental to
their interests, preferred strong central authority. Hence this middle class sought to
strengthen the monarchs over feudal lords by financing them to build up their own
army and administrative machinery. The European Kings, with the middle class
support, now tried to establish their supremacy over feudal lords. A process of the
destruction of the power of feudal lords began.

The introduction of gun powder in Europe at this time proved to be of

immense help in this process. The impregnable feudal castles and fortresses now lay
important before the fire arms used by the kings. A favorable political condition was
now created for powerful national monarchy. The Renaissance and Reformation
provided a powerful ideological backing to nationalism and Nation-state. The growth
of national language and literature, promoted by Renaissance writers, was a notable
factor in this respect. It can be noted that Machiavelli, the prominent political
thinkers of Renaissance period, was an upholder of strong monarchic state.
The Reformation involved national and political issues is an historical fact. Thus
in the new economic and social milieux, the political process of the formation of
nations and nation-states became widespread in Europe. The people inhabiting a
defined territory and owning common language and culture, began to emerge as
single nations and constitute themselves into states under national monarchs. At that
time, monarchy was the main form of nation-state. The first nation-states of Europe
were France, England and Spain, then Portugal and Holland.
Development of absolute Monarchies

Modern Revolutions or democratic revolutions mainly stood for popular participation
in government, setting up of parliaments and the extension of the existing ones and
enforcing Universal adult franchise. The contradiction between the interests of
national monarchs and that of the rising middle class was the basic cause of the
democratic revolutions. The rulers of nation-states, who had gradually became rigid
autocrats, denied the people their basic rights. The allied with the aristocracy and
church and passed many unjust laws restricting freedom and civil rights. The people,
including those the sections who earlier supported strong monarchs, began to protest
against these unjust laws and against the despotic powers of the monarchs. The
bourgeoisie played the most significant role in the struggle against absolutism. They
opposed absolutism and demanded a share in the state power. Hence, these
revolutions expressed the interests and political ambitions of the middle class. He
was in this context that democratic revolutions took place in England, America,
France and throughout Europe.

The English revolution-absolutism in England
In 17th century absolute monarchs in European countries like England and

France by attractive terminologies as ‘Grand monarchy’. Stuart King of England were
staunch exponents of feudalism. The parliament, on the other hand, represented the
interests of the bourgeoisie. Interestingly, the English Revolution began in the form of
a conflict between the King and Parliament over the question of political power. The
Stuart Kings or parliament the supreme authority of the state. The struggle over this
question raged intermittently throughout the Stuart period and ended only when
James-II, the last Stuart ruler, was deposed. The persistent struggle between the King
and the parliament created two Revolutions in England. The civil war (1642) and The
Glorious Revolution of 1688. These revolutions established the parliamentary
supremacy in England.
Stuart Kings were absolute rulers. They upheld the theory of ‘Divine Right’ of
Kings. The doctrine that Kings are appointed by God and that for their actions they
are responsible to him alone and not to parliament. The early Stuarts tried to develop
their Privy Council into a strong executive agency composed of ministers and officials
personally devoted to the King. They tried to monopolies the power to make laws.
They tried to use the highest royal courts to punish the opponents of their policies.
They tried to impose taxes without consulting the parliament. They maintain a
standing army to enforce the royal will. Above all, the tried to monopolise the
various organs and functions of the government. The absolutism of Stuarts, therefore,
made a struggle with the parliament inevitable. The parliament had became an
independent and assertive body during the Stuart period. It was dominated by
Puritans, the champions of liberty.
Parliament claimed supreme sovereignty and held that the King was
subordinated to it. It rejected the Divine Right theory held by the Stuarts. The
parliament asserted that The King had no right either to impose new taxes or to make
laws. The conflicting interests of Stuart and their parliament thus prepared the
ground for this Revolution.

Divine right theory of kingship

One of the old theory of kingship a sovereign derives his authority from god by
virtue of his royal birth. therefore he is responsible to god alone. people have no right
to overthrow even a bad monarch. the oppressive rule of cruel king must be taken a
divine punishment of the people for their sins and crimes. in England the Stuart kings
were the upholders this right divine of kings to govern wrong. The English parliament
opposed this theory and the rivalry culminated in the execution of Charles one and
expulsion of James second.
Louis XIV
Louis XIV (1638-1715) was king of France from 1643 to 1715. He brought the
French monarchy to its peak of absolute power and made France the dominant
power in Europe. His reign is also associated with the greatest age of French culture
and art.
After the chaos of the Wars of Religion, the French monarchy had been
reestablished by Louis XIV's grandfather, Henry IV. Successive rulers and ministers
(Henry himself, Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu, and Cardinal Mazarin) had done all in
their power to make the king absolute ruler within France and to make France,
instead of the Hapsburg coalition of Spain and the empire, the dominant power in
Europe. By the time Louis assumed personal control, the groundwork for final success
had been laid. It was Louis who brought the work to completion, enforcing his will
over France and Europe to an unprecedented extent and establishing the
administrative machinery that made France a modern state.
Louis was born at Saint-Germain on Sept. 5, 1638, the son of Louis XIII and his
wife, Anne of Austria. His birth was greeted with immense national rejoicing, and he
was hailed as le Dieudonné, "the God-given." On May 16, 1643, his father died, and
Louis became king. As he was only 4, the country was governed by his mother as
regent; this meant, in effect, by Cardinal Mazarin, with whom Anne was in love. The
successive rebellions known as the Fronde failed to dislodge Mazarin, although they
left the boy king with a lifelong horror of rebellion and a resentment of Paris, where
the uprising had started. Mazarin remained in power for the rest of his life, and only
when he died, on March 9, 1661, did Louis astonish the court by announcing that
hence-forward he would direct his government himself. He meant what he said. The
government remained under Louis's personal control for the next 54 years.

European Trading Companies in the East

The important European trading companies are Dutch East India company, English
East India Company, French East India Company, etc.
Dutch East India Company:
This company was formed in 1502, by a group of Amsterdam merchants in the
Netherlands. In 1595Cornelius Houtman, a Dutch trader came to India and returned a
couple of years later with a rich cargo that yielded huge profits. This encouraged
many Dutchmen to sail to India and set up trading companies. in 1602 all Dutch
companies were amalgamated and the United-East India company of Netherlands or
simply the Dutch east India company, was established by the state general of the
Netherlands.
English East India company:

This company, popularly known as John company. founded by the Royal charter of
Queen.Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600,became one of the most powerful
commercial enerprisesin its time.the company was founded by a group ofenerprising
and influential businessmen,who obtained the crown’s charter for exclusive
permision to trade inthe East indiesfo 15 years.in england the company had secured
the backing of the english monarchs and political leaders by giving them valuable
gifts.
The French East India Company(1664):
Among the Europeans,the french were the last to enter india for trade.though
individual french merchants and travellerslikeBernier and Tavernir had visited india
before this date there was no great enthusiasm among Frech people for eastern
trade.in 1644 Colbert,the minister of Luis XIV,encouraged the founding ofv the East
India Company with a capital of 15 million francs,one fifth of which was advanced by
the State.
Mercantilism
One of the economic nationalism for the purpose of building a wealthy and powerful
state. Adam Smith coined the term “mercantile system” to describe the system of
political economy that sought to enrich the country by restraining imports and
encouraging exports. This system dominated Western European economic thought

and policies from the 16to the late 18centuries.The goal of these policies was,
supposedly, to achieve a “favorable” balance of trade that would bring gold and silver
into the country and also to maintain domestic employment. In contrast to the
agricultural system of the physiocratsor the laissezfaire of the 19and early
20centuries, the mercantile system served the interests of merchants and producers
such as the British East India Company, whose activities were protected or
encouraged by the state. The most important economic rationale for mercantilism in
the 16was the consolidation of the regional power centers of the feudal era by large,
competitive nation states. Other contributing factors were the establishment of
colonies outside Europe; the growth of European commerce and industry relative to
agriculture; the increase in the volume and breadth of trade; and theincrease in the
use of metallic monetary systems, particularly gold and silver,relative to barter
transaction. During the mercantilist period, military conflict between nationstates
wasboth more frequent and more extensive than at any other time in history. The
armies and navies of the main protagonists were no longer temporary forces raised to
address a specific threat or objective, but were full time professional forces. Each
government’s primary economic objective was to command a sufficient quantity of
hard currency to support a military that would deter attacks by other countries and
aid its own territorial expansion. Most of the mercantilist policies were the outgrowth
of the relationship between the governments of the nation states and their
mercantile classes. In exchange for paying levies and taxes to support the armies of
the nation states, the mercantile classes induced governments to enact policies that
would protect their business interests against foreign competition. These policies
took many forms. Domestically, governments would provide capital to new
industries, exempt new industries from guild rules and taxes, establish monopolies
over local and colonial markets, and grant titles and pensions to successful producers.
In trade policy the government assisted local industry by imposing tariffs, quotas, and
prohibitions on imports of goods that competed with local manufacturers.
Governments also prohibited the export of tools and capital equipment and the
emigration of skilled labor that would allow foreign countries, and even the colonies
of the home country, to compete in the production of manufactured goods. At the
same time, diplomats encouraged foreign manufacturers to move to the diplomats’
own countries. Shipping was particularly important during the mercantile period.
With the growth of colonies and the shipment of gold from the New World into Spain
and Portugal, control of the oceans was considered vital to national power. Because

ships could be used for merchant or military purposes, the governments of the era
developed strong merchant marines. In France, Jean Baptiste Colbert, the minister of
finance under Louis XIV from 1661 to 1683, increased port duties on foreign vessels
entering French ports and provided bounties to French ship builders. In England, the
Navigation Act of 1651 p rohibited foreign vessels from engaging in coastal trade in
England and required that all goods imported from the continent of Europe be carried
on either an English vessel or a vessel registered in the country of origin of the goods.
Finally, all trade be between England and its colonies had to be carried in either
English or colonial vessels. The Staple Act of 1663 extended the Navigation Act by
requiring that all colonial exports to Europe be landed through an English port before
being re exported to Europe. Navigation policies by France, England, and other
powers were directed primarily against the Dutch, who dominated commercial
marine activity in the16thand 17thcenturies.During the mercantilist era it was often
suggested, if not actually believed that the principal benefit of foreign trade was the
importation of gold and silver. According to this view the benefits to one nation were
matched by costs to the other nations that exported gold and silver, and there were
no net gains from trade. For nations almost constantly on the verge of war, draining
one another of valuable gold and silver was thought to be almost as desirable as the
direct.
Commercial Revolution
Geographical discoveries led to tremendous increase in the volume of trade.

Regular trade contacts among continents were established and trade became global.
The growth in the volume of trade and the associated changes brought about what is
called the commercial Revolution.
The emergence of ‘Nation states with strong monarchies also gave a great
impetus to the growth of markets and the consequent commercial Revolution. The
new colonies meant new markets. The colonies acted as a fertile source for getting
raw materials and also a good Market. The beginning of Capitalism also could be seen
with advancement of trade and market. The newly emerged independent middle
class and its profit motive economic culture resulted in more investments in this
sphere of commerce. There was a total change in the means of production and
distribution. Big business and big business dealings controlled the markets. The new
concept of ‘Laissez-faire’ which stressed individualism also helped the growth of
commercial Revolution.
Commonly accepted coin system also used this trade and commerce. The
commercial Revolution imparted a new economic phenomenon of money and
exchange with surplus usage of Capital. The large scale of production effected by the
emergence of Industrial Revolution, Factory system and agricultural Revolution
brought about a new class of capitalists who finally started to control both the market
and the colonies. This economic phenomenon of commerce and colonisation
ultimately led to the imperialistic schemes of European powers in the following
centuries, especially in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Towards the end of medieval period in Europe, strong dictators rose to power
in France, England and Spain. They suppressed the feudal lords with the support of
middle class. Such countries are known as Nation State. Nationalism is a modern
phenomenon that appeared along with the origin and development of capitalism in
the world. It is an ideological and political principle which came into existence in the
process of the formation of nations. A nation is a historical community of people
established on the basis of a common economic life combined with a common
language, territory and culture. Normally a nation is formed by overcoming the feudal
disunity and developing Capitalist production system which consolidates economic
ties between regions and merges local markets into a national market.
Nation-state is the basic form of the political organisation of the modern times.
In that sense it replaces the political system of the middle ages. It was in the late
medieval Europe that modern nations, nationalism and nation-states had its first
historical development in the world. It was the decline of feudalism that created the
material conditions for the rise of nationalism and nation-state in Europe. Feudal
political structure had provided no space for any sense of common nationality. In
medieval period people speaking the same language and inheriting the same culture
were generally distributed in different feudal states. As a classic example, the Holy
Roman Empire consisted of, besides the chief people Germans, Several linguistic and
ethnic sections of people. Secondly, the kings of states, who could been the natural
leaders of their nations, hardly possessed any power.
The growth of trade and urban life along with an assertive middle class played
a principal role in creating formation of Nations in Europe. The merchants and other
new economic classes who found both feudal exactions and anarchy detrimental to
their interests, preferred strong central authority. Hence this middle class sought to

strengthen the monarchs over feudal lords by financing them to build up their own
army and administrative machinery. The European Kings, with the middle class
support, now tried to establish their supremacy over feudal lords. A process of the
destruction of the power of feudal lords began.
The introduction of gun powder in Europe at this time proved to be of
immense help in this process. The impregnable feudal castles and fortresses now lay
important before the fire arms used by the kings. A favorable political condition was
now created for powerful national monarchy. The Renaissance and Reformation
provided a powerful ideological backing to nationalism and Nation-state. The growth
of national language and literature, promoted by Renaissance writers, was a notable
factor in this respect. It can be noted that Machiavelli, the prominent political
thinkers of Renaissance period, was an upholder of strong monarchic state.
The Reformation involved national and political issues is an historical fact. Thus
in the new economic and social milieux, the political process of the formation of
nations and nation-states became widespread in Europe. The people inhabiting a
defined territory and owning common language and culture, began to emerge as
single nations and constitute themselves into states under national monarchs. At that
time, monarchy was the main form of nation-state. The first nation-states of Europe
were France, England and Spain, then Portugal and Holland.

Module- III
DAWN OF RATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACY
The English Revolution of 1688
The Glorious Revolution constitutes a turning point in the history of England.
We have already seen the limited monarchical position of Charles II, who has been
restored in 1660. He was cautious and diplomatic and never wanted to invite the
displeasure of the parliament. In 1685 he was succeeded by his brother James-II.
James II, in his short reign of three years, got opposition from all sides. He was a
staunch Catholic and a firm believer in absolute monarchy. Hence he met with better
experiences from the parliament and the people. The real reason for the revolution of
1688 was James’ attempt to re-establish Catholicism and absolutism in England. The
re-catholisation attempt in all offices, particularly in the Universities in England by
james-II, greatly antogonised the people in the parliament.
James II granted complete toleration to Catholics of Scotland and issued a
declaration of indulgence in favour of Catholics and Dissenters which invited much
Criticism in England. Mean while, his Queen gave birth to a son to the embarrassment
of the parliament and to the people with a possible ‘danger’ catholic succession. This
also thwarted the prospect of Mary, daughter of James, who married to William of
Orange. This danger to the protestant succession of England has been solved factfully
and diplomatically by the parliament by inviting Mary and her husband Wiliam of
Orange as the joint rulers of England. This peaceful change of power over England is
known as ‘Bloodless’, or ‘Glorious Revolution’. The real Glory of the revolution was
that it was without Army, Civil War or Bloodshed. A new era in English History was
inaugurated. In short, the revolution of 1688 resulted in the establishment of
constitutional monarchy in England.
Bill of Rights
Some of the ideas of the English Bill of Rights were incorporated in the French
Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789. The English Revolution made significant
changes in the British Political system. For the first time in European history, arbitrary
royal rule based on Divine Right was replaced by a constitutional monarchy with a
massive transfer of power to parliament. Before becoming King, William had to
accept a number of drastic limitations on the royal power. These limitations were
then incorporated into the Bill of Rights, which was enacted in 1689. The Bill of Rights
was almost a short written constitution. Its most important provisions were:
maintaining a standing army without the consent of parliament is illegal, parliament
should meet frequently, making or suspending any law without the consent of
Parliament is illegal, English men have the right to petition to sovereign, levying taxes
without the consent of Parliament is illegal, Elections of members of parliament must
be free, Excessive bail should not be demanded, There must be freedom of speeches
in Parliament and the right to participate in its debates.
An Indirect result of the revolution was the growth of Cabinet system. The Bill
of Rights was one of the most important documents in the political history of Britain.
It reaffirmed and extended the rights of Englishmen a set forth in Magna Carta. It
gave a permanent constitutional form to all the restraint that parliament had tried to
put on the Stuart Kings. If raid down the essential principles of parliamentary
supremacy control of the purse, prohibition of the royal power of dispensation and
frequent meetings of parliament. Bill of Rights thus confirmed the revolution by
shifting Sovereignty from the crown to parliament. After 1832, a large number of
reforms were carried out in various fields.
Enlightenment:
18th Century is commonly described as the age of Enlightenment.
Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural revolution. Philosopher R.G.
Collingwood described the ‘Enlightenment as a Crusade against religion.’ The
Enlightenment or the Age of Reason, as it came to be known subsequently, marked a
sharp break with the past. Its leaders revolted against the traditional outlook and
ideology and challenged many of the old institutions of European societies.
Enlightenment thus announced the commencement of modern age.
Enlightenment was the product of the Scientific Revolution of the 17 th century. Rapid
growth of science and the development of scientific method brought about a radical
change in human approach. Science came to be seen as system of knowledge
capable of explaining everything related to the physical universe. This precipitated
the revolution called Enlightenment, which embodied the intellectual and scientific
developments of the early modern world. The more intellectually sections of the
middle class began to feel that their societies were defective, and sought to bring
change by changing ideas. This led to a much more far-reaching attack on prejudice
and superstition than had occurred in the renaissance and reformation. The result
was a current of ideas called Enlightenment.
The concept of Enlightenment
In a sense, Enlightenment was a revolt against tradition and a leap towards
modernity. It led a crusade against irrational tradition, prejudice, obscurantism,
Superstitions or revelation and oppression. It questioned blind obedience to
authority, whether that of the priest or the ruler. Enlightenment used the scientific
method of enquiry to launch a systematic attack on tradition. The principal targets
were religion and the domination of society by a hereditary aristocracy. The
Enlightenment men attempted to undermine the centrality accorded to religion and
hierarchy in social and political life. The Enlightenment was based on the concept of
Reason. Its exponents believed that human reason could be used to combat
ignorance, superstition and tyranny and to build a better world.
The Enlightenment embodies the spirit of optimism. Its advocates believed that they
lived in a world marked by greater well being and happiness of all. The thought that
human beings were able to create a world in which freedom, liberty and happiness
would prevail over all else. This vision was clearly evident in the writings of Voltaire,
Diderot, d’Alembert, Condorcet, Adam smith, David Hume and Immanual Kant
Important features of Enlightenment are,
1. The idea of progress
2. Rationalism
3. Secularism
4. Naturalism
5. Humanitarianism
6. Liberalism
7. Utilitarianism
8. Romanticism
The Enlightenment Philosophers like Hobbes,Francis Bacon John Locke, Diderot
and the central figures of the age of Enlightenment are Rousseaue, Voltaire and
Montesquieue.

John Locke
Locke (1632- 1704) was one of the philosophers of England and he was a critic
of political absolutism. ‘Essay Concerning Human Understanding,’ he advanced his
arguments against absolute monarchy. John Locke propounded his own version of the
social contract theory. In his ‘Two Treatises on Government’ John Locke inflicted a
death blow to the doctrine of Divine Right. Locke pointed out that the ruler ruled not
by Divine Right, but by virtue of a contract with his people. He proclaimed a new test
for good Government, namely the happiness of the subjects and welfare of the state.
This was the initial stage of the theory of Enlightenment despotism.
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 in London. He was the son of Sir Nicholas
Bacon, keeper of the great seal for Elizabeth I. Bacon studied at Cambridge University
and at Gray's Inn and became a member of parliament in 1584. However, he was
unpopular with Elizabeth, and it was only on the accession of James I in 1603 that
Bacon's career began to prosper. Knighted that year, he was appointed to a
succession of posts culminating, like his father, with keeper of the great seal.
However, Bacon's real interests lay in science. Much of the science of the period was
based on the work of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. While many
Aristotelian ideas, such as the position of the earth at the centre of the universe, had
been overturned, his methodology was still being used. This held that scientific truth
could be reached by way of authoritative argument: if sufficiently clever men
discussed a subject long enough, the truth would eventually be discovered. Bacon
challenged this, arguing that truth required evidence from the real world. He
published his ideas, initially in 'Novum Organum' (1620), an account of the correct
method of acquiring natural knowledge.
Bacon's political ascent also continued. In 1618 he was appointed lord chancellor, the
most powerful position in England, and in 1621 he was created viscount St Albans.
Shortly afterwards, he was charged by parliament with accepting bribes, which he
admitted. He was fined and imprisoned and then banished from court. Although the
king later pardoned him, this was the end of Bacon's public life. He retired to his
home at Gorham bury in Hertfordshire, where he continued to write. He died in
London on 9 April 1626.

American War of Independence

Causes of the Revolution:
American was of Independence popularly known as American Revolution
(1775-83) was the revolt of the 13 colonies of England in North America to be free
from their mother country which was following a policy of Imperialism. The war of
independence is regarded as an indirect result of the Seven Years War. In that War,
the colonists in America became conscious of their strength. So the possibilities of
Union among themselves had gained experience and training as soldiers and officers.
1. Mercantilism:
2. Navigation Laws: The Navigation Laws passed by Great Britain were detrimental to
the interest of the colonies in 1650. The Laws insisted that all goods from the colonies
to be shipped in British vessels alone, and some goods were to be sold exclusively to
British merchants only.
3. Sugar Act: The British government now came to the view that since the war was
fought for the defense of the colonists also, the latter had to bear a part of the
imperial burdon. Britain first began to strictly enforce the Navigation Acts with the
help of the increased number of British official said troops. It then passed a series of
acts to raise revenues from the colonies. The first of these was the Revenue Act of
1764, generally known as Sugar Act. The Sugar Act increased the import duty on
refined sugar and taxed imported items like wine, coffee, silk and linen. Shocked by
the sudden vigour of imperial control after decades of ‘salutary neglect’, the colonists
protested against the Sugar Act. They argued that the British parliament had no right
to tax them.
4. Stamp Act: England passed several laws against colonial smuggling. She also
proposed to station a force of ten thousand in America “for the defense of the
colonies”. About one third of the defense cost was to be borne by the colonies and
the amount was to be raised by a stamp duty on all legal documents, newspapers,
pamphlets etc. This stamp Act was passed in 1765. This Act provoked anger and
violence. The liberty loving Americans immediately raised the cry “No taxation
without representation”. This meant that the colonists wanted not to be ruled by a
parliament three thousand miles away. They wanted to have their own parliament
and rule themselves. Riots broke out in America. Effigies of stamp collectors were
burnt. Later, the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766. But at the same time a Declaratory
Act was passed asserting that Great Britain had the right to tax the colonies.
Additional troops were sent to enforce the right of taxation.

5. Boston Tea Party: The Import Duties Act passed in 1767 by Charles Townshend, the
Chancellor of Exchequer of England. decided to increase the revenue of the state by
levying a tax on tea, glass and paper entering American ports. There was a storm of
protest against this Act and many riots occurred in Boston. In 1769 the duties of glass
and paper were withdrawn but retained the duty on tea. Some patriots in America, by
this time, started agitation against Britain. The people of Boston attacked some
British soldiers and in the clash four townsmen were killed. The colonists magnified
the incident as a massacre (The Boston Massacre, 1773). The revolutionaries entered
into some ships of English East India Company bearing tea coming to the port of
Boston and a few chests of tea were thrown into the sea. This incident, the “Boston
Tea Party” in 1773 instigated the British and they soon closed down the Port of
Boston. They also sent troops to suppress the revolutionaries.
Persuasive Speech and persistent agitation by leaders like James Otis, Patrik
Henry, Samuel Adams and Thomas Paine, greatly helped the movement towards War
and Independence. George Washington was a leader of the revolutionaries who
made the revolution to a positive end. He was supported ably by leaders like
Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, Frankline and others. Washington was leading an army
which was short of many things including food and dress. A writer comments,
Gerorge Washington’s route in the revolutionary movement can be detected easily by
the bloodstains found in the land, because they have no enough shoes or even a
moiety of a shirt”. It was really his courage and determination that won the
revolution.
In June 1776 many of the delegates of the colonies met in series of congresses
which met at Philadelphia drew up the famous Declaration of Independence,
initiated by Thomas Jefferson. The declaration dealt with the ‘inalienable rights’ of
men to secure their life, liberty and happiness by organizing their own Government
based on the consent of the people. Very soon they declared the freedom of the 13
colonies from the mother country. The War broke out in 175 and lasted for about
eight years. The war ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The 13 colonies became
free and in 1789 the United States of America (USA) was born as a Republic with a
new constitution.

Results of the Revolution - Formation of the constitution of USA

George Washington was the First President of USA. A new constitution was
drawn up with the efforts of Alexander Hamilton and other leaders. The Constitution
made the American people a nation and it defined the respective powers of the
Central Government and Federal States. The Central Government was given the
control of the army and the navy, and the power to make war and peace, and the
issue of currency. The US constitution highlighted the following things: (1) An elected
President (2) A written constitution (3) Separation of Church and State (4) Separation
of powers, particularly, Executive and judiciary (5) A Federal Republic. The new
constitution of USA fully imbibed the spirit of the Declaration of Independence
passed in 1776.
Historical significance
The American War of Independence was the fuller expression of the inalienable rights
of men and the accommodation of the age long ambition of national freedom. The
revolution discredited the principle of absolutism and emphasized the right of the
people to overthrow any oppressive Government. The Declaration of Independence
emanated that “all men are equal” which in later even influenced the French
Revolutionaries. The new Republican Government in USA was a political experiment
with many novel features, inviting to the study of political scientist.

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MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM A.

Complementary Course of I Semester BA Political Science and BA English

MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM A.D 1500

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HIS1C02 MODERN WORLD IN TRANSITION-FROM 1500 A.D

MODULE I:Transition from Medieval to Modern

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MODULE PAGE NO.

I TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TO

II DEVELOPMENTS IN POLITICS AND

III DAWN OF RATIONALISM AND

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The Muslim Architecture, Literature, Philosophy, Medicine and Science directly

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The Art of Printing:

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The characteristic features of Renaissance can be summarized as follows:

A new world outlook, humanist approach in contrast of the theocentrism of

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The Italian poet Petrarch (1304-1374) of Florence, generally regarded as the

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Martin Luther who started Reformation in Germany. He vehemently

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regimented thought, influenced or actually controlled political institutions,

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Leaders of the Reformation

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A concerted Counter-Reformation movement was launched with the four-fold

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2. A clear statement of the Church doctrines without making any compromise

2. Religious intolerance and wars. The rivalry between Catholicism and

3. Politically the Reformation and the Counter Reformation movement divided

up. Protestants encouraged democracy even in the churches Calvinism

6. Protestantism promoted freedom of the mind unfamiliar to the Catholic. The

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Discoveries of New Trade Routes

Results of Geographical Discoveries

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The introduction of gun powder in Europe at this time proved to be of

Development of absolute Monarchies

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The English revolution-absolutism in England

In 17th century absolute monarchs in European countries like England and

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Divine right theory of kingship

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European Trading Companies in the East

English East India company:

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Geographical discoveries led to tremendous increase in the volume of trade.

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