Module 5 Final

Module 2-Municipal Mobility Management Sustainable Urban Mobility
in Developing Countries
Sustainable Urban Mobility

in Developing Countries
Module 5
Energy and Environment
In Cooperation with
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Sustainable Urban Mobility in Developing Countries
– Module 5 –
Energy and Environment
Published The United Nations Institute for Training and research (UNITAR)
by: Palais des Nations
CH-1211 Geneva 10
Switzerland
Copyright: Copyright © 2010

United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)
ISBN: 978-92-9182-062-7
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FOREWORD
“We cannot talk about urban transport until we know what type of a city we want.
And to talk about the city we want is to talk about the way we want to live. Do we want
to create a city for the poor, the children, and the elderly, and therefore for every other
human being, or a city for automobiles? The important questions are not about
engineering, but about ways to live. A premise of the new city is that we want society to
be as egalitarian as possible. For this purpose, quality of life distribution is more
important than income distribution. The equality that really matters is that relevant to a
child: Access to adequate nutrition, recreation, education, sports facilities, green spaces,
and a living environment as free from motor vehicles as possible. The city should have
abundant cultural offerings; public spaces with people; low levels of noise and air
pollution; and short travel times.
Cars destroy the common silence; pollute the air; and require extremely costly
road space and infrastructure that absorbs scarce public funds. While only an upper
middle class minority uses cars, despite enormous costs and injustice, the system works.
But it would not be possible for every citizen to use a private car for his or her mobility;
otherwise jams would be massive and high velocity roads would destroy the human
qualities and structure of the city. Many developing cities are moving in this direction.
Bangkok, Manila, Cairo, Kuala Lumpur and other cities are already notorious for severe
traffic congestion, despite relatively low levels of motorization.
Urban transport is a political rather than a technical issue. The technical aspects
are relatively simple. The difficult decisions relate to who is going to benefit from the
models adopted. Do we dare to create a transport model different from that in the so-
called advanced world cities? Do we dare create a transport system giving priority to the
needs of the poor majority rather than the automobile owning minority? Are we trying to
find the most efficient, economical way to move a city’s population, as cleanly and as
comfortably as possible? Or are we just trying to minimize the upper class’s traffic jams?”
These questions are posed by Enrique Peñalosa, the former mayor of Bogotá
(Colombia), who introduced a number of sustainable transport measures in his city1.
This Course on Sustainable Urban Mobility in Developing Countries is designed to

provide answers for Peñalosa’s questions and learn about solutions and alternative
approaches in urban transport planning that target a more sustainable transport system
in Developing Cities. For this purpose, six modules have been developed that focus on
the following main topics:
Module 1: Urban Growth and Strategies for Sustainable Urban Transport

Module 2: Municipal Mobility Management
Module 3: Public Transport Services
Module 4: Management, Financing and Institutions
Module 5: Energy and Environment
Module 6: Social Issues and Safety
These modules together form a complex picture on what sustainable transport can
be and how it may be implemented.
Local Development Programme

UNITAR
1
Peñalosa, E., 2005: Urban Transport and Poverty, GTZ Sourcebook Module 1a, Eschborn
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This course on Sustainable Urban Mobility in Developing Countries has been

initiated by the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), in
collaboration with the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ).
The substantive content of this module was provided by Dr. Niklas Sieber (editor)
a Transport Economist, Regional Planner and University Lecturer from Germany, based
on extensive material provided by GTZ. This publication was prepared under the
supervision of the Local Development Programme of UNITAR and GTZ, especially Mr.
Manfred Breithaupt, Mr. Armin Wagner and Mr. Carlos Pardo for reviewing the module.
Special thanks are due to the aforementioned individuals and institutions for their
support and contributions.
Table of Contents
1. AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT ................................................... 1
1.1 Importance of Air Quality Management and basic facts................................ 1

1.1.1 Air pollution impacts .................................................................................. 1
1.1.2 Major types of air pollutants........................................................................ 2
1.1.3 The impact pathway of emissions ................................................................ 4
1.1.4 Health impacts of air pollutants ................................................................... 4
1.2 Techniques of Air Quality Management ........................................................ 5

1.2.1 Emission inventories .................................................................................. 6
1.2.2 Outdoor monitoring ................................................................................... 7
1.2.3 Dispersion modeling .................................................................................. 8
1.3 Emission control in cities from developing countries .................................... 8

1.3.1 Command and control ................................................................................ 8
1.3.2 Emission Standards ................................................................................... 9
2. VEHICLE AND FUEL TECHNOLOGIES ...................................... 12
2.1 Cleaner fuels and vehicle technologies ...................................................... 12

2.1.1 Emission reduction through the catalytic converter ....................................... 12
2.1.2 Fuel quality standards .............................................................................. 14
2.2 Two and three-wheelers ............................................................................ 14

2.2.1 Role of two and Three Wheelers in Urban Transport...................................... 14
2.2.2 Reducing emissions from two stroke engines ............................................... 15
2.2.3 Four stroke engines for two and three-wheelers ........................................... 16
2.3 Inspection and Maintenance ...................................................................... 17

2.3.1 Importance of Inspection and Maintenance ................................................. 17
2.3.2 Road worthiness tests .............................................................................. 18
2.3.3 Emissions (environmental) test ................................................................. 18
2.3.4 Safety test ............................................................................................. 18
2.3.5 Quality Assurance.................................................................................... 19
2.4 Alternative Vehicle Technologies ............................................................... 21

2.4.1 Natural Gas ............................................................................................ 21
2.4.2 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) .................................................................. 22
2.4.3 Methanol ................................................................................................ 22
2.4.4 Biofuels ................................................................................................. 22
2.4.5 Electric vehicles ...................................................................................... 24
2.4.6 Hydrogen (H2) and fuel cells ..................................................................... 24
2.5 EcoDriving ................................................................................................. 24

2.5.1 Effects of EcoDriving ................................................................................ 24
2.5.2 Anticipating driving style .......................................................................... 25
2.5.3 Defensive driving style ............................................................................. 25
2.5.4 Energy-saving driving styles ..................................................................... 26
2.5.5 Vehicle maintenance ................................................................................ 26
2.5.6 Sustainability of driver training .................................................................. 27
3. TRANSPORT NOISE AND ITS ABATEMENT ............................ 28

3.1 Technical features of noise ........................................................................ 28
3.1.1 What is noise? ........................................................................................ 28
3.1.2 Measurement of noise .............................................................................. 29
3.2 Health effects of transport noise................................................................ 30
3.3 Noise abatement measures........................................................................ 30

3.3.1 Noise level standards ............................................................................... 30
3.3.2 Motor vehicle control ............................................................................... 30
3.3.3 Urban land use planning ........................................................................... 31
3.3.4 Traffic management................................................................................. 31
3.3.5 Road surface and geometry ...................................................................... 31
3.3.6 Noise barriers ......................................................................................... 31
3.3.7 Building facade insulation ......................................................................... 32
3.3.8 Comparison of costs and effectiveness........................................................ 32
4. TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE ..................................... 34
4.1 Contribution of the transport sector to Climate Change ............................. 35
4.2 Strategies to reduce Green House Gas emissions ....................................... 37
4.3 Financial mechanisms to tackle Climate Change: CDM and GEF .................. 41
4.3.1 Clean Development Mechanism in the Transport Sector What is the CDM? ....... 42
4.3.2 Global Environment Facility (GEF) .............................................................. 43
List of Figures
Figure 1: Percentage of urban populations being affected by air pollution ..................... 2

Figure 2: Overview of ambient air quality in selected cities, 1990s .............................. 3
Figure 3: Ambient air concentration of particulate matter in cities ............................... 4
Figure 4: The impact pathway of emissions .............................................................. 4
Figure 5: Simplified Air Quality Management cycle .................................................... 5
Figure 6: Active sampler ....................................................................................... 8
Figure 7. Passive sampler ...................................................................................... 8
Figure 8: Emission standards in the EU and the USA ................................................. 9
Figure 9: NOx emissions from road vehicles in Europe 1992-2003 ............................. 10
Figure 10: Elements of a comprehensive vehicle pollution control strategy.................. 12
Figure 11: Estimated share of petrol cars fitted with catalytic converter (EU) .............. 13
Figure 12: Catalytic converter for petrol cars .......................................................... 13
Figure 13: Two and three wheelers in Asian cities ................................................... 15
Figure 14: Taipei, Taiwan has been a leading city in applying strict emission standards for
motorcycles. ...................................................................................................... 16
Figure 15: Emission reductions possible through I/M .............................................. 18
Figure 16: I/M Sticker Germany, road side test, emission test .................................. 17
Figure 17: Sound levels measured in dB(A) ............................................................ 28
Figure 18: Daytime traffic noise in a German town .................................................. 29
Figure 19: Effects of noise barriers ....................................................................... 32
Figure 20: Expected surface warming at the end of the 21st century ......................... 34
Figure 21: Flooded dwellings in Bangladesh ........................................................... 35
Figure 22: Transportation vehicle CO2 emissions by regions...................................... 36
Figure 23: Global transport fuel use by mode ......................................................... 36
Figure 24: Strategy responses to Climate Change ................................................... 38
List of Boxes
Box 1: Potential health benefits of reducing particulate matter in Jakarta, Indonesia .... 11
Box 2: The new vehicle inspection system in Costa Rica ........................................... 21
Box 3: Greenhouse Gas emissions caused by the production of biofuels ..................... 23
Box 4: EcoDriving example from a GTZ pilot project in Santiago de Chile ................... 26
Box 5: Climate change effects – Bangladesh .......................................................... 35
Box 6: EU legislation to reduce CO2 emissions from light duty vehicles ....................... 41
List of Tables
Table 1: Major air pollutants and Greenhouse Gases from transport ............................ 1
Table 2: Summary of pollutant types and emissions for some typical engine and fuel
combinations ....................................................................................................... 3
Table 3: Emission standards for new LGV .............................................................. 10
Table 4: Fuel components influencing vehicle emissions ........................................... 14
Table 5: Visual and measured safety tests ............................................................. 19
Table 6: Fuel consumption at different driving styles ............................................... 25
Table 7: German threshold values for harmful effects of road and rail noise ................ 30
Table 8: Indicative comparison of various noise mitigation measures ......................... 32
Table 9: Greenhouse gas emissions of selected transport systems............................. 39
Table 10: Sustainable transport instruments: meeting local priorities ......................... 40
Acronyms
ALS Area Licensing Scheme

BAC Blood alcohol concentration
BLT Build-Lease-Transfer
BOO Build-Own-Operate
BOOT Build-Own-Operate-Transfer
BOT Build-Operate-Transfer,
BrAC Breath alcohol concentration
BRT Bus Rapid Transit
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
CER Certified Emission Reduction
CH4 Methane
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
CO Carbon Monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
DBFO Design-Build-Finance- Operate
DBOM Design-Build-Operate-Maintain
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
ERP Electronic Road Pricing
GDP Gross domestic product
GEF Global Environmental Facility
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GNP Gross National Product
GPS Global Positioning System
GTZ German Technical Cooperation
HOV High-Occupancy Vehicle
I/M Inspection and maintenance
ICT Information and communications technologies
IEA International Energy Agency
IMT Intermediate Means of Transport
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ITDP Institute for Transportation & Development Policy
ITS Intelligent transport systems
JI Joint Implementation
LDV Light Duty Vehicle
LEZ Low Emission Zone
LOS Level of Service
LPG Liquified Petroleum/Propane Gas
LPT Local Public Transport
LRT Light rail Transit
MPT Motorised Private Transport
MRT Mass Rapid Transit
N2O Nitrous Oxides
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NMT Non Motorised Transport
NMV Non Motorised Vehicle
NOX Nitrogen Oxide
NPV Net Present Value
OECD Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development
P&R Park & Ride
Pkm Passenger kilometre, unit to measure transport volume for
PM Particulate Matter
PM10 Particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 µm
pphd Passengers per hour and direction
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
PPP Public Private Partnership
PT Public Transport
ROT Rehabilitate-Operate-Transfer
ROW Right-of-way
ROW Right-Of-Way
rpm Rotations per minute
SUTP (GTZ) Sustainable Urban Transport Project
SUV Sports Utility Vehicle
TDM Transport Demand Management
TFL Transport for London
tkm Tonne kilometre, unit to measure transport volume for goods
TOD Transit-Oriented Development
TSP Total suspended particles
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
VOC Vehicle Operating Cost / Volatile organic compounds
WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development
WHO World Health Organisation
WRI World Resources Institute
3
µg/m Pollutant concentration of air pollutants in microgram per square
Module 5 Energy and Environment
1. Air Quality Management2
This Chapter describes which types of air pollution from transport exist and which health
effects they entail. Air quality management includes emission inventories, outdoor
monitoring and dispersion modeling. This chapter provides as well guidance which
measures need to be taken to control transport emissions.
1.1 Importance of Air Quality Management and basic facts
1.1.1 Air pollution impacts
Approximately 1,200 million people are exposed globally to levels of sulphur dioxide
(SO2) high above World Health Organization guidelines and approximately 1,400 million
people are exposed to excessive levels of smoke and particulate matter (PM). Fifteen to
twenty percent of Europeans and North Americans are exposed to excessive levels of
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and excessive levels of carbon monoxide (CO) persist in half of
the World’s cities. Estimates of the increase in daily mortality show that on a global scale
4-8% of premature deaths each year are due to exposure to PM in the ambient and
indoor environment, with potentially 500,000 excess deaths annually due to PM outdoor
concentrations, and about 2.5 million excess deaths annually due to PM indoor
concentrations. Moreover, approximately 20-30% of all respiratory diseases appear to be
caused by ambient and indoor air pollution, again with an emphasis on the latter.
Table 1
Major air pollutants and Greenhouse Gases from transport
HC Hydro Carbons
CO Carbon monoxide
Oxides of nitrogen, including nitrogen dioxide
NOx
(NO2)
Sulphur oxides, including sulphur dioxide
SOx, soot
(SO2)
PM Particulate Matter
03 Ozone
CO2 Carbon Dioxide; not classified as air pollutant
Although enormous progress has been made in Air Quality Management and clean air
implementation plans for urban areas, especially in Developed Countries, a substantial
number of people living in urban areas - approximately 1.5 billion, or 25% of the global
population—are still exposed to enhanced concentrations of gaseous and particulate
pollutants in the air they breathe. In addition, the use of open fires for indoor cooking
and heating currently exposes approximately 2 billion people to substantial
concentrations of suspended particulate matter, 10—20 times higher than outdoor
concentrations. Sources of outdoor air pollution include industrial, commercial, and
vehicular emissions, as well as vegetation fires. Furthermore, urban population growth in
low-income countries (see Module 1, Chapter 1.1) is placing stress on already inadequate
infrastructures and technical and financial capacities. Together with increased car
ownership, this will lead to increases in the share of people being affected by air pollution
(Figure 1).
2
Adapted from Schwela (2004): GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a.
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Human health studies show that air pollution in developing countries accounts per year
for hundreds of thousands of excess deaths, millions of limited activity days and billions
of dollars in medical costs. These losses, and the associated degradation in quality of life,
impose a significant burden on all sectors of society, but especially the poor.
Figure 1
Percentage of urban populations being affected by air pollution
Source: UN (2008)
The World Health Organization reports that 3 million people now die
each year from the effects of air pollution. This is three times the
1 million who die each year in automobile accidents.
1.1.2 Major types of air pollutants
Major types of air pollutants include particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, volatile organic compounds and hydrocarbons, and photochemical oxidants such
as ozone. Table 2 shows pollutants typically associated with some typical engine and fuel
combinations. In Developing Cities, however, the most critical air pollutants are PM and
lead where leaded fuels are have not been phased out. With respect to PM, the most
commonly reported indicator is the mass of total suspended particles (TSP). In many
cities the TSP annual mean concentration exceeds 100 µg/m3, with the levels exceeding
300 µg/m3 in several cities of China and India. Where leaded vehicle fuel is still used,
airborne lead concentrations are likely to be in the range of 0.5 – 6 µg/m3. Even higher
values were observed in Dhaka (up to 14.6 µg/m3). Where leaded fuel is no longer used,
concentrations are likely to fall to less than 0.2 µg/m3. The concentrations of air pollution
in major and megacities of Developing Countries reach levels of concern for public health.
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Table 2
Summary of pollutant types and emissions for
some typical engine and fuel combinations
Source: Schwela (2004): GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a
Figure 2 gives an overview on the air quality of selected cities, based on the guidelines
for ambient air quality developed by the World Health Organization (WHO). Apparently,
particulate matters (SPM or PM) constitute a major problem in most of the cities, where
WHO guidelines are exceeded by a factor of more than two. In 17 of 21 cities, CO is a
serious health concern; followed by lead, which is exclusively a problem in the developing
world, since industrialized countries have no more lead in their fuels.
Figure 2
Overview of ambient air quality in selected cities, 1990s
Source: World Bank 2002
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Figure 3
Ambient air concentration of particulate matter in cities
Source: Walsh 2008
1.1.3 The impact pathway of emissions
Figure 4 describes the pathway emissions take, starting with primary pollutants from the
source of emission and being chemically transformed during transport to secondary
pollutants before they are come back to the ground through emissions. Here they cause
damages not only to human beings, but as well to buildings and agriculture. The effects
may be valued in terms of cost and used for cost-benefit calculations. Air Quality
Management must take into account each of these steps.
Figure 4
The impact pathway of emissions
1.1.4 Health impacts of air pollutants
The health impacts of air pollutants are numerous and varied and can become manifest
in any system of the human body. Systems affected include the respiratory system,
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immune system, skin and mucous tissues, and the cardiovascular system. Health effects
of air pollution on the respiratory system include acute and chronic changes in pulmonary
function, increased incidence and prevalence of respiratory symptoms, sensitization of
airways to allergens, and exacerbation of respiratory infections such as rhinitis, sinusitis,
pneumonia, alveolitis, and legionnaires’ disease. Principal agents for these health effects
are the combustion products SO2, NO2, PM10 and CO.
Health effects of air pollution on immune system allergies manifest themselves in

exacerbation of allergic asthma, allergic rhino-conjunctivitis, extrinsic allergic
alveolitis/hypersensitivity pneumonia, and can produce permanent lung damage in
sensitized individuals including pulmonary insufficiency. Effects of air pollution on the
cardiovascular system develop through reduced oxygenation and result in increased
incidence and prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, myocardial infarction, and
consequent increase in mortality caused by cardiovascular diseases. Carcinogenic effects
of air pollution are associated with lung cancer, skin cancer, and leukemia.
Schwela (2004): GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a
1.2 Techniques of Air Quality Management
The goal of Air Quality Management is to maintain a quality of air that protects human
health and welfare. In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to develop appropriate
air quality policies and strategies. Government policy is the foundation for Air Quality
Management. Without a suitable policy framework and adequate legislation, it is difficult
to maintain an active or successful Air Quality Management program. A policy framework
refers to policies in several areas, including transport, energy, planning, development
and the environment. Air quality objectives are more readily achieved if these
interconnected government policies are compatible, and if mechanisms exist for co-
coordinating responses to issues which cross different areas of government policy.
The goal of Air Quality Management is to maintain a quality of air that

protects human health and welfare.
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Figure 5
Simplified Air Quality Management cycle
Figure 5 shows a simplification, how air pollution may be contained through political
decision making. The starting point is high concentrations of air pollutants, causing - as
described in the impact pathway - health effects and thus economic damages. Triggered
by this, a political decision must be made, legislation changed and air pollution control
measures implemented. An emission inventory reveals the changes in air pollutant
concentration. This has to be confirmed through outdoor monitoring.
The main tools for air pollution management are:

• Emissions inventories/measurement
• Outdoor monitoring
• Dispersion models
1.2.1 Emission inventories
A crucial component of Air Quality Management is a reasonable quantitative knowledge of

the sources of the various emissions compiled in an emissions inventory. In some cases,
emissions are described in source groups. These may be:
• Point sources such as stacks in major industrial sites.

• Mobile sources such as on-road motor vehicles. Mobile sources are often
considered as line sources as it is not practicable to consider the emissions
from each car separately but rather to sum up the emissions along the road.
• Area sources include open burning of waste materials from agriculture,
forestry and land clearance. Other sources are forest fires, emissions from
vehicle refueling, off-road vehicles and marine craft, and commercial and
domestic fuel combustion. Surface mining and overgrazing of land in semi-arid
areas can also act as sources of particles.
In order to set up am emission inventory, the following procedures have previously been
developed in industrialized countries, and could be considered as a model for the
Developing World as well:
1. Assigning pollutant categories: A distinction has to be made between the original

primary and the transformed secondary. Secondary pollutants are formed in the
atmosphere, which can only be attributed to the concentrations of precursor
sources by numerical models.
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2. Compiling the data: Constructing the inventory requires information on the source
strength (the amount of emissions) of all emitters within a specified area. For
some components of an emissions inventory, accurate data may be available, e.g.
industrial emissions. In other cases, emissions can be calculated from estimates
of process inputs. For example, the emissions of SO2 from coal-fired electricity
generation plants can often be calculated with reasonable accuracy from the
knowledge of the throughput and sulphur content of the fuels and other
information.
3. Determining emission factors: When source data are missing, it is common to use
general emission factors for both point and diffuse sources. For example motor
vehicle emissions may be estimated in terms of grams of emissions per km
travelled. Calculations involve the distance travelled by vehicles, the number of
vehicles, temperature, fuel consumption and the composition and properties of
the fuels used.
1.2.2 Outdoor monitoring
Air quality monitoring is done through measurements of the ambient air quality in
selected location of the cities. It fulfills a central role in this process, providing the
necessary sound scientific basis for policy and strategy development, objective setting,
compliance measurement against targets and enforcement action (see Figure 5). For this
purpose, air measurement stations are required to quantify the pollutant concentration
and thus determine the air quality.
However, the limitations of monitoring should be recognized. In many circumstances,

measurements alone may be insufficient – or impractical – for the purpose of fully
defining population exposure in a city or country. Monitoring therefore often needs to be
used in conjunction with other objective assessment techniques, including dispersion
modeling, emission measurement and inventories, interpolation and mapping. Air quality
monitoring includes the following steps:
• The first step in designing or implementing any monitoring system is to define

its clear, realistic and achievable monitoring objectives.
• Quality assurance is a program of activities that ensures that measurements
meet defined and appropriate standards of quality, with a stated level of
confidence.
• Network design of air measurement stations: It is important to cover the
whole urban area, assessing population exposure and identifying critical
locations. This includes site numbers and selection.
• Sampling strategies and systems: Monitoring involves assessing pollutant
behaviour in both space and time.
• Instrument issues: Air monitoring methodologies can be divided into four main
generic types, covering a wide range of costs and performance levels: These
are passive samplers, active samplers, automatic analyzers and remote
sensors (see pictures below).
• Turning data into information: This is the analysis and interpretation, designed
to provide useful information in an appropriate format for end-users (see
Chapter 1.2.3).
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Figure 6: Active sampler Figure 7. Passive sampler
Source: Bowler, Schwela, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a
1.2.3 Dispersion modeling
As indicated above, adequate understanding of emission, topography, meteorology and

chemistry will allow the development of mathematical models for the prediction of
pollutants, primary or secondary concentration, and accordingly prediction of impacts
(impact pathway). Other models estimate vehicle emission factors as functions of speed,
ambient temperature, vehicle technology, and other variables. Computer models
developed so far include models for the prediction of air pollution concentration from
single sources (plume model), in an air stream zone, a combination of stationary and
mobile sources (air stream model) or in a geographical area at the downwind direction of
multiple sources, such as in cities (long range transportation model).
The simplest approach uses a point source dispersion model to estimate the ground-level
concentrations of the pollutants of interest at some distance (typically from hundreds of
meters to tens of km). More complicated models allow the examination of multiple
sources, including area sources. Dispersion modeling is a powerful tool for the
interpolation, prediction and optimization of control strategies. Models allow the
consequences of various options for improving air quality to be compared. The results of
dispersion modeling are typically maps showing the concentration of the considered
pollutants throughout the immediate area surrounding the facility point of origin.
1.3 Emission control in cities from developing countries
1.3.1 Command and control
Laws and regulations are at the heart of Air Quality Management strategies. The
traditional approach for developing and implementing Air Quality Management strategies
has been the “command and control” approach. This approach has several major features
focusing on the regulation of emissions. The command and control approach usually
involves:
• The development and regulation in law of emissions standards

• Licensing of emissions sources
• Monitoring and reporting of emissions
• Penalties for exceeding license conditions.
Page | 8
Under this system, the techniques to be used in areas such as pollution control are
prescribed by government, and compliance with conditions is checked by government
inspectors. The government issues licenses, sets emission standards, and checks
compliance with standards. Non-compliance cases commonly go to court, which considers
mitigating circumstances and sets penalties. New developments or major changes to
sources are usually subject to environmental impact assessment, and new sources may
be subject to tighter performance standards than existing operations.
Many countries have acted to regulate and enforce emissions reductions, so ambient
concentrations of vehicle-related air pollutants – NOx, CO, lead and hydrocarbons – over
the last two decades have declined in most Developed Countries. All countries, however,
which phased out lead as an additive to petrol, have observed a significant decline in
airborne lead concentrations. Legislation that reduces the lead content of petrol has been
implemented in many Developing Countries.
1.3.2 Emission Standards
The European Union and the Unites States of America are good examples on the positive
effects of emission standards. Figure 8 depicts the allowable NOx-emissions which
decreased tremendously during the past 40 years. While the USA started already in the
1970s, the EU followed in the 1990s, both reducing NOx emissions by more than 90% for
petrol and diesel cars. Similar standards were developed for LGV and HGV and include as
well other pollutants, such as HC, CO, VOC and SO2.
Figure 8
Emission standards in the EU and the USA
The first European emission standard, called Euro I, was introduced in 1992 and followed
by five other standards that will incrementally decrease vehicle emissions up to 2014.
Additionally to the vehicle emission standards, fuel quality standards were introduced as
well. Both fuel and vehicle emission standards entailed an enormous decrease in vehicle
pollution within the European Union. Figure 9 depicts the tremendous decrease of NOx
emissions.
Page | 9
Figure 9
NOx emissions from road vehicles in Europe 1992-2003
7500
7000
Euro 1
6500
Euro 2
6000
1000 ton/a
5500
Euro 3
5000
EU (25 countries) Euro 4
4500
EU (15 countries)
4000
3500
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Since they were so successful, many Developing Countries introduced the Euro Standards
as well. Table 3 shows some examples from Asian countries that introduced European
emission standards.
Table 3
Emission standards for new LGV
Source: Schwela (2004): Air Quality Management, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a
Box 1 describes which health impacts may be achieved if tighter emission standards for
particulate matter were introduced in Jakarta, Indonesia.
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Box 1
Potential health benefits of reducing particulate matter in Jakarta, Indonesia
One recent study illustrated the potential impact on human health of air pollution
reduction, through the use of exposure benefit relationships. An exposure benefit
relationship is the quantitative relationship between the amount of exposure to a
substance and the extent of toxic injury or illness produced. Data from exposure-
response relationships, observed in Developed Countries were applied to local
conditions to assess the annual benefits of reducing airborne pollution to meet both
Indonesian standards and WHO guidelines.
Health benefits of reducing particulates in Jakarta to Indonesian standards: Presenting

the impacts of air pollution in physical terms (number of people with illnesses or
dying) can be a powerful way to prompt government action, as well as providing a
basis for cost-benefit calculations for different policy measures. The estimated
numbers of lives saved and illnesses avoided in a population of 8.2 million that could
be achieved if Jakarta complied with Indonesian particulates standards was as follows:
Premature mortality 1,200

Hospital admissions 2,000
Emergency room visits 40,600
Restricted activity days 6,330,000
Lower respiratory illness 104,000
Asthma attacks 464,000
Respiratory symptoms 31,000,000
Chronic bronchitis 9,600
Such numbers are a powerful means to prompt government action, as well as

providing a basis for cost benefit estimates for chosen policies.
Source: Schwela (2004): GTZ Sourcebook 5a.
Further reading
World Bank 2002: Cities on the Move, Chapter 4
Global Transport Knowledge Partnership

http://www.gtkp.com/theme.php?themepgid=1
Breithaupt, Manfred (2007): Addressing Energy Efficiency in the Transport Sector –

With Special Consideration of Fuel Taxation, with reference material from Axel
FRIEDRICH, Umweltbundesamt, Germany and Lew FULTON, IEA Presentation at COP
13, Bali -8th Dec. 2007.
Schiller, Preston L (2010) An Introduction to Sustainable Transportation, Policy

Planning and Implementation, London.
Petersen, Rudolf; Walter Hook, Wiebke Zimmer; Uwe R. Fritsche (2008): “Future
Challenges of Transport and Environment”, Discussion Paper for the Symposium, of
the Symposium “Future Challenges of Transport and Environment, 24 and 25 June in
Berlin, Germany.
Page | 11
2. Vehicle and Fuel Technologies
Generally, the goal of a motor vehicle pollution control program is to reduce emissions
from motor vehicles in-use to the degree reasonably necessary to achieve healthy air
quality as rapidly as possible or, failing that for reasons of impracticality, to the practical
limits of effective technological, economic, and social feasibility. A comprehensive
strategy to achieve this goal includes four key components (see Figure 10): increasingly
stringent emissions standards for new vehicles, specifications for clean fuels, programs to
assure proper maintenance of in-use vehicles, and transportation planning and demand
management. These emission reduction goals should be achieved in the most cost
effective manner available.
Figure 10
Elements of a comprehensive vehicle pollution control strategy
Source: Walsh and Kolke (2005), GTZ Sourcebook Module 4a
This Chapter discusses how improved vehicle technologies and fuel quality standards can
improve environmental performance of transport. As depicted in Figure 10, these need to
be accompanied by inspection and maintenance. Additionally, this chapter emphasizes
two and three wheelers which play a major role in many Developing Countries and
contribute enormously to air pollution. Alternative engine technologies, their constraints
and advantages are discussed in the next subchapter. Another solution to air pollution is
EcoDriving, discussed in the last subchapter.
2.1 Cleaner fuels and vehicle technologies3
2.1.1 Emission reduction through the catalytic converter
The emission standards implemented by the European Union (Chapter 1.3.2) could only
be achieved through new engine technologies. The state of the art technology for
reducing CO, HC and NOX emissions from vehicles relies on the catalytic converter which
converts large portions of the emissions to carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and
nitrogen; in fact more than 90% of all new petrol fuelled cars contain a catalyst.
3
Walsh and Kolke (2005), GTZ Sourcebook 4a.
Page | 12
Figure 11 shows how fast the catalytic converters for petrol cars proliferated in Europe.
Catalytic converters for diesel engines are available as well.
Figure 11
Estimated share of petrol cars fitted with catalytic converter (EU)
Figure 12
Catalytic converter for petrol cars
Page | 13
2.1.2 Fuel quality standards
All modern petrol fuelled vehicles being produced today can operate satisfactorily on
unleaded fuel and approximately 90% of these are equipped with a catalytic converter
that requires the exclusive use of lead-free fuel. There is no longer any doubt that lead is
toxic and prevents the use of clean petrol vehicle technology which can dramatically
reduce CO, HC and NOX emissions.
The addition of lead to petrol should be eliminated as rapidly as possible.
Another important topic is the reduction of sulphur in fuels, especially diesel. Sulphate
particulate and SOx emissions, both of which are harmful pollutants, are emitted in direct
proportion to the amount of sulphur in diesel fuel. Sulphate PM emissions entail major
adverse health and environmental effects. The EU has limited the sulphur content of
diesel to 350 ppm (EURO 3) in 2000 and reduced the amount to 10 ppm (EURO 5) in
2009. The latter standard implies virtually sulphur free fuels. Table 4 lists other fuel
characteristics that have a negative influence on vehicle emissions.
Table 4
Fuel components influencing vehicle emissions
Petrol (Gasoline) Diesel

Lead content Sulphur content
Sulphur content Density
Vapour pressure Aromatic hydrocarbon content
Benzene content Volatility
Oxygenates content
Fuel additives: Cetane enhancers, smoke
MTBE (Methyl tertiary butyl ether)
suppressants, and detergent additives
Ethanol content
2.2 Two and three-wheelers4
Two and three-wheelers make up a large share of the vehicle fleet in Asia and have large
environmental impacts. Two-wheelers in Asian cities include mopeds, scooters, and
motorcycles and are used mostly for personal transportation, though in Bangkok and
some other cities – including in Vietnam and Indonesia – motorcycles are also used for
public transportation or paratransit. Three-wheelers in Asia include small taxis such as
auto-rickshaws in India, and Sri Lanka, baby taxis in Bangladesh and tuk-tuks in Thailand
- usually for carrying three passengers - and larger vehicles such as Tempos in
Bangladesh, Nepal and parts of India, which carry as many as a dozen passengers.
2.2.1 Role of two and Three Wheelers in Urban Transport
Two- and three-wheelers play an important role in the transport market in Asia. India,
China, Vietnam and Indonesia have a very large number of two-wheelers, which are used
4
Adapted from Shah, Iyer, Cherry (2009): GTZ Sourcebook Module 4c.
Page | 14
mostly for personal transport. Three-wheelers are typically used as short-distance taxis.
More than half of the motor vehicle fleet in China, Thailand and Malaysia consists of two-
wheelers; in Indonesia, Vietnam and Taiwan (China) the figure exceeds two-thirds of the
fleet. Figure 13 illustrates the dominance of two- and three-wheelers in the vehicle fleets
of Dhaka (Bangladesh), Denpasar (Indonesia), and Delhi (India).
Figure 13
Two and three wheelers in Asian cities
Dhaka, Bangladesh Denpasar, Bali Delhi, India
Vehicle usage (km/day) Person-trips Vehicle population
Source: Shah, Iyer, Cherry (2009): Two and Three-Wheelers, GTZ Sourcebook Module 4c.
Three-wheel taxis are perceived as less compliant with traffic regulations and more
accident prone than four-wheel vehicles. They are also more visible, because of their
numbers, and contribute to congestion and pollution. For these reasons there is strong
sentiment in some countries, notably Bangladesh, against three-wheelers powered by
two-stroke engines.
2.2.2 Reducing emissions from two stroke engines
Two-stroke petrol engine vehicles are estimated to account for about 60% of the total
vehicle fleet in South Asia. The large number of these vehicles, their age, poor
maintenance, low lubricant quality and excessive lubricant use, and traffic congestion in
large cities make two-stroke engine vehicles a significant source of particulate emissions.
Most designs used total-loss lubrication, with the oil being burnt in the combustion
chamber, causing "blue smoke" and other types of exhaust pollution. The resulting
particulate emissions are extremely damaging to public health.
Two-stroke engines have several advantages over four-stroke engines. These include
lower cost; excellent torque and power; mechanical simplicity (fewer moving parts and
resulting ease of maintenance); lighter and smaller engines; greater operating
smoothness; and lower nitrogen oxide emissions. They also have disadvantages
compared with four-stroke petrol engine vehicles, including higher particulate and
hydrocarbon emissions, lower fuel economy and louder noise.
With the exception of India, Taiwan (China) and Thailand, most countries in Asia have
not yet adopted strong measures to mitigate emissions from two-stroke engines. These
include
• Improving lubricant use: This includes i) using the correct concentration of

lubricant, ii) using low-smoke lubricant, and ii) using a mechanical lubrication
system, which adjusts the amount of lubricant metered into petrol to the
engine speed and load.
Page | 15
• Installing catalytic converters: Catalytic converters for two- and three-

wheelers are oxidation catalysts, which reduce the level of carbon monoxide
(CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions. Retrofitting of emission control devices
such as catalytic converters on petrol vehicles or particulate filters on diesel
vehicles has been successfully done in some countries.
2.2.3 Four stroke engines for two and three-wheelers
Four-stroke vehicles have significant advantages over two-stroke vehicles. These include:
• Much improved fuel economy

• Much less pollution (PM, HC, CO2, but higher NOx emissions) – "green product
label" for both local and global pollution
• Much less noise
• Four-stroke motorcycles in the market are not much higher in price than
comparable two-stroke versions
• Established technology
The additional costs compared to two stroke engines are easily

recovered in fuel savings in less than a year by operators
of four-stroke engine auto-rickshaws.
Four-stroke engine two-wheelers have been on the market for some time. All
motorcycles sold in the United States are of four-stroke design. The additional costs
compared to two stroke engines are easily recovered in fuel savings in less than a year
by operators of four-stroke engine auto-rickshaws. Other environmental friendly
alternatives are engines powered by CNG, LPG or electricity.
Figure 14
Taipei, Taiwan has been a leading city in applying
strict emission standards for motorcycles.
Source: Metschies, GTZ Transport Photo CD
Page | 16
2.3 Inspection and Maintenance5
This chapter deals with inspection and maintenance (I/M) and roadworthiness tests as a
major component of an overall strategy of emission reduction from road transport.
An effective I/M or roadworthiness system is one of the most cost-effective

ways of improving both air quality and road safety.
2.3.1 Importance of Inspection and Maintenance
Especially in a situation where no or low fuel quality standards and emission limits are
set for all modes of road transport, an effective I/M or roadworthiness system is one of
the most cost-effective ways of improving both air quality and road safety. Vehicle
inspection programs can improve maintenance levels for vehicles and bring about a
higher turnover of vehicles as well. This is due to the fact that inspection and
maintenance I/M focus on all vehicles currently in use in a vehicle fleet. I/M helps to
ensure that all vehicle owners maintain their vehicles regularly which in turn helps to
ensure that these vehicles comply with emission limits. Even though in a Developing
Country context the specific emission limits of the vehicles in an I/M program could be
high compared to a new car, I/M leads to emission reductions which would not be
possible if the vehicles were not maintained and inspected at all (see Figure 15). A
properly maintained vehicle consumes between 3 and 7% less fuel, and hence leads to a
similar CO2 reduction. Introduction of improved and unleaded petrol combined with
controlled three-way catalytic converter technologies can reduce air pollutants more
dramatically.
Figure 15
Emission reductions possible through I/M
Source: Kolke (2005) GTZ Sourcebook 4b
5
Kolke (2005) GTZ Sourcebook 4b.
Page | 17
2.3.2 Road worthiness tests
An inspection system should combine I/M emission checks with safety checks, which is
called roadworthiness test. Following an inspection in Germany, a sticker is glued to the
number plate, indicating the next roadworthiness test for this vehicle. To ensure that
vehicle owners do not tamper with emission or safety related parts of their vehicles after
they have passed theI/M and roadworthiness procedure, legislation should consider
random roadside vehicle inspections.
Figure 16
I/M Sticker Germany, road side test, emission test
Source: Schwela (2004): Air Quality Management, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a
The I/M test can be divided into two main modules. The first module is the emissions
check; the second is the safety check. Each module consists of two steps: a visual check
and a measurement test, using computer-aided test equipment.
2.3.3 Emissions (environmental) test
Technical specifications of the environmental tests ensure that the introduction of I/M
and roadworthiness meets the goals of emission reduction, environmental and safety
requirements. The visual environmental check consists of oil losses and the exhaust
system. The visual inspection ensures that there are no leaks at the exhaust and oil
system, and - if applicable - the emissions control system is present. Measured
environmental tests are of:
• Exhaust smoke (diesel engines)
• Exhaust CO/HC/Lambda (petrol engines)
• CO2 (to avoid manipulation and to ensure that the exhaust system has no
leaks)
• Noise
2.3.4 Safety test
The second module, the safety checks, is also a combination of visual checks and
necessary measurements. Both modules combined—emissions and road safety—and
enforced by trained, responsible personnel, allow an effective roadworthiness test. A list
of the devices to be tested is given in Table 5.
Page | 18
Table 5
Visual and measured safety tests
Visual Safety Checks Measured Safety Tests
• Registration Plate • Auxiliary Lamp Condition • Front Wheel Side Slip

• Vehicle Identification • Rear View Mirrors • Rear Wheel Side Slip
Number • Steering Wheel Play • Front and Rear Axle Suspension
• Rear Lamps • Safety Belts • Service Brake Performance
• Registration Plate Lamps • Door/Locks/Anti-Theft Devices • Service Brake Imbalance
• Mechanical Brake • Stop Lamps • Parking Brake Performance
• Hand Lever • Towing Bracket/Coupling • Parking Brake Imbalance
• Windscreen Wipers and • Side Lamps • Headlamp Aim
Washers/Ventilation • Indicators/Tell Tales • Auxiliary Lamp Aim
• Seats • Reflector Headlamp Condition
• Service Brake Pedal • Speedometer Bumpers
• Horn Service • Running Boards and Steps
• Glass
Source: Kolke (2005) GTZ Sourcebook Module 4b
2.3.5 Quality Assurance
Roadworthiness tests should be conducted regularly by a contractor, which again is

controlled by the government. Centralized vehicle inspection stations are the best
solution for periodical vehicle inspections. However, I/M programs have often been
associated with fraud and corruption. Failure to address these issues will seriously or
even totally compromise the effectiveness of I/M systems in reducing emissions.
Experience shows that corruption can be effectively controlled at reasonable costs in test-
only networks. Test-and-repair networks still suffer from fraud and corruption problems
even with intensive quality assurance efforts. Here are a number of measures to reduce
both:
• Fines, control and verification structure
• A legal basis for fines and other sanctions is required to attract any company
from the private sector to run an effective I/M program.
• Fully automated pass/fail decision
• As a general rule, the less reliance there is on human judgment or manual
actions, the more reliable the result. The test and quality control systems
should be fully automated and a computer based automatic exhaust
measurement should make the pass/fail decision for the overall results and for
those tests which are performed by machines and computers.
• Punishing corrupt inspectors
• A key element of a successful I/M program is how to enforce rules against
corrupt entities, especially inspectors. Attention should be given to establishing
appropriate sanctions and effective legal procedures to assure that a workable
system is in place.
• Combination of annual vehicle registration and I/M
• Vehicle registration should be combined with the mandatory requirement of a
passed roadworthiness test. A revocation of the vehicle’s license should be
mandatory, if a vehicle owner has not carried out a roadworthiness test on
his/her car.
• External I/M auditing group
Page | 19
• In the early stages of introducing an I/M program, it is recommended that an

independent international expert group support a tender process as well as the
I/M introduction. Although in a system run by a private contractor, the
contractor is also responsible for preventing fraud and needs to have its own
audit system for this purpose.
• Powers and duties of the regulatory agency
• The duties of the regulatory agency are often not well defined and the agency
is usually not well staffed in many Developing Countries.
• Data management system
• A well functioning I/M system will include a data management system that
ensures that all test data are collected automatically and manipulation of input
data is impossible.
• Equipment and station maintenance
• Some I/M systems, especially those operated directly by government staff
using government-owned equipment and stations, lack the technical
capability, sufficient staff, and adequate funds to assure that software and
hardware are maintained, calibrated, used, and upgraded appropriately.
Source: Jakarta,
Third Winner Photo Competition,
Swisscontact 2002.
Page | 20
Box 2
The new vehicle inspection system in Costa Rica
For many years the authorities in Costa Rica have been discussing the nationwide
introduction of an integrated vehicle inspection system. The background of these
discussions was the perception that the maintenance status of the vehicles on the road
was not acceptable from both a safety and environmental perspective. As a first step
the so-called Ecomarchamo, a decentralised exhaust emission control system, was
introduced, but for several reasons was only a limited success.
Various efforts were carried out to launch

calls for tenders for a new vehicle inspection
system, including exhaust emission control
and safety inspection of all vehicles, with
close assistance from the local GTZ experts.
After difficulties and delays during the
advertisement and contracting phase, the
periodic vehicle inspection system recently
commenced country-wide. The new system
can serve as a good example.
Country-wide coverage with a total of 13 inspection stations with 38 test lanes results
in acceptable driving distances for the vehicle owners to reach testing stations. The
appearance of the inspection station demonstrates seriousness and technical
competence.
In addition to the periodical vehicle inspection a so-called road-side inspection system

were introduced, in order to guarantee the success of the technical inspection and to
avoid manipulations of the vehicles after they have passed the technical inspection.
Further action is still needed. The roadworthiness and emissions performance of

imported new and used vehicles is inadequately regulated. An effective vehicle type
approval system is needed, based on international standards. The emission standards
in the periodical exhaust emission testing have to be revised continuously and
adjusted to technical developments. Moreover in regard to air pollution control, the
vehicle emission testing is important but only a first step in the right direction. It is
necessary to develop an integrated air pollution control plan which addresses all
sources of air pollution.
Source: Kolke (2005) GTZ Sourcebook Module 4b.
2.4 Alternative Vehicle Technologies
A number of alternative future vehicle technologies are readily available or presently

researched, which might have positive impacts on vehicle emissions.
2.4.1 Natural Gas
Natural gas is clean burning, cheap and abundant in many parts of the world. Because
natural gas is mostly methane, natural gas vehicles have much lower non-methane
hydrocarbon emissions than petrol vehicles, but higher emissions of methane. Natural
gas engines cause additional capital costs for the vehicle’s engine and the storage tank
system and further cost for the compression of natural gas, covering investment,
Page | 21
operation and maintenance of the filling station. To store natural gas, it has to be
compressed to 200 bar at the filling station. The additional costs of natural gas bus fleets
may be estimated at 7% including all costs for additional staff, filling station, etc.
2.4.2 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Engine technology for LPG vehicles is very similar to that for natural gas vehicles. As a
fuel for spark-ignition engines, it has many of the same advantages as natural gas, with
the additional advantage of being easier to carry aboard the vehicle. LPG has many of
the same emissions characteristics as natural gas. Using LPG in transport instead of
burning it as a waste gas at the oil fields or in the refinery will immediately result in fossil
fuel savings. The use of LPG results in an energy efficiency for the energy chain of
exploitation, refinery and use, comparable to that of petrol and diesel. Where
compressed natural gas is readily available in a given locality, strong consideration
should be given to replacing diesel buses with CNG buses. Other centrally fuelled fleets
such as refuse trucks or local delivery trucks are also attractive candidates for
replacement.
Where compressed natural gas is readily available in a given locality, strong

consideration should be given to replacing diesel buses with CNG buses.
2.4.3 Methanol
Methanol has many desirable combustion and emissions characteristics, leading to low
NOx emissions and low photochemical reactivity. It is also a liquid, which makes its
storage and handling much simpler than with gaseous fuels. At current and foreseeable
prices, the most economical feedstock for methanol production is natural gas, especially
natural gas found in remote regions where it has no ready market.
2.4.4 Biofuels
Biofuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass. The term
covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Biofuels are gaining increased
public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price peaks and the need for
increased energy security.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials

and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops. With advanced technology being
developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feedstocks for
ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is
usually used as a petrol additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions.
Bioethanol is widely used in the USA (maize) and in Brazil (sugar-cane).
Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. Biodiesel can be
used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to
reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered
vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most
common biofuel in Europe.
Page | 22
Biomass should be rather used as a renewable source for

local energy production than as fuel for transport
or as an export product from developing countries.
The view that biofuels are a sustainable energy source for transport, which is mainly
based on the fact that they are renewable energies, has widely changed in the last years.
This critical assessment is based on several facts: i) Since the conversion of biofuels from
biomass requires energy, the direct use of biomass is much more efficient. ii) The
scarcity of agricultural land supports the fear that biofuels supersede food production and
thus increase the risk of hunger in Developing Countries. iii) The massive conversion of
tropical rainforests to palm oil plantations, especially as experienced in Indonesia and
Malaysia, has raised concerns about the sustainability of the production. iv) The latter
production would entail monocultures, a negative Greenhouse Gas balance (see Box 3),
and a huge water usage.
Therefore, biomass should be rather used as a renewable source for local energy
production than as fuel for transport or as an export product from Developing Countries.
Box 3
Greenhouse Gas emissions caused by the production of biofuels
Biofuels are by no means neutral in their GHG emissions. The plant takes up CO2
during its growth which is again released when burning the biofuel, e.g. in a vehicle.
CO2 plant uptake and fuel burning neutralize each other. However, the process of
planting, harvesting, transport and transformation leads to GHG emissions in the life-
cycle of producing biofuels. These need to be compared with the life-cycle emissions of
conventional fuels to establish the GHG reduction due to usage of biofuels (well-to-
wheel analysis). GHG life-cycle emissions of biofuels are crop, location and case
specific. Emissions related to crop production include:
Emissions due to energy usage in crop cultivation and harvesting;

Emissions due to fertilizer usage (N2O) including potentially upstream emissions
associated with chemical fertilizer production;
Emissions related to land-use change leading to changes in carbon stocks in carbon
pools (e.g. energy crops are planted on areas formerly covered by forests). This is one
of the unresolved methodological issues.
Transport emissions include those associated with the transport of the agricultural
input to the biofuel refinery and the transport of the (blended) biofuel to the gas-
station. Biofuel production related emissions include:
Energy used for the refinery of the biofuel (electricity and fossil fuel);
Methane emissions resulting from waste-water treatment facilities of the refinery;
Upstream emissions resulting from the usage of methanol.
Page | 23
2.4.5 Electric vehicles
Presently, electric vehicles are discussed as a solution to environmental problems of road

transport. Electric vehicles have two advantages: Local air pollution is practically zero
and global pollution may be reduced, if renewable sources for the energy production are
used. Electric cars generate less noise and contribute to a lesser degree to summer smog
and nitrogen input into soil and bodies of water depending on the source of the
electricity. However, the lower energy efficiency of the vehicles might entail higher
consumption of primary energy and thus more emissions than conventional technologies.
The level of pollution is mostly dependent on the energy source for the electricity. Only if
renewable energies, such as solar-, wind- and waterpower were used, electric vehicles
would generate major environmental advantages.
The biggest constraint is the storage of electrical energy, since the batteries do not allow
for travel over longer distances. Therefore they are presently used for short distances for
delivery in towns or recreation areas. Improved batteries might serve as well as energy
storage when vehicles are parked. However, the technology is not developed to a level
that allows widespread commercial usage. Hybrid vehicles, combining electric and fuel
driven engines and using the advantages of both technologies and thus producing less
pollution are becoming increasingly popular in the Developed World.
2.4.6 Hydrogen (H2) and fuel cells
Hydrogen is usually used as compressed hydrogen with 200 bar or liquefied hydrogen at
-252°C. Hydrogen is a secondary energy, which means that it has to be produced from
other fossil or non-fossil energy sources. Total fuel life cycle, however, shows that using
other fossil primary energy for the production of hydrogen does not result in a net CO2
advantage.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts a source fuel into an electrical current.
Fuel cells can operate virtually continuously as long as the necessary flows are
maintained. Fuel cells are different from conventional electrochemical cell batteries in
that they consume reactant from an external source, which must be replenished.
Hydrogen, methanol and even petrol are discussed as fuels for fuel cell vehicles.
Presently hydrogen and fuel cell technologies are far from ready for a widespread
commercial use in Developed Countries.
2.5 EcoDriving6
The term EcoDriving encompasses driving styles and vehicle maintenance that focuses at
reducing variable costs, environmental pollution, and increasing road safety.
2.5.1 Effects of EcoDriving
A change in the driving style has a number of positive effects on the environment,
economy and safety:
• A reduction of variable costs (fuel, repairs, maintenance, tyres);

• An increase of effectiveness (less down time due to repair work and
maintenance);
• A decrease of negative environmental impacts;
• Increased road safety; and
6
Adapted from Breithaupt, Eberz (2005) Sourcebook Module 4f.
Page | 24
• Stress reduction for the driver and the passengers.
There is no doubt that economical driving leads to considerable energy savings, reduces
operating costs for vehicles and leads to a reduction of Greenhouse Gas emissions.
Experiences worldwide show that cost reductions of up to 25% can be achieved. On
average, reductions of 10 to 20% are realistic.
Driving economically can save a considerable amount of money,

especially regarding fuel, tyres, repairs and maintenance.
2.5.2 Anticipating driving style
Anticipating traffic is a major factor reducing fuel consumption. But what is an

anticipatory driving style? First of all, the driver should learn to predict what other
participants in city traffic are about to do and how to react accordingly. An anticipatory
driving style involves matching the driving behavior to the road and traffic conditions.
Points to consider include: traffic in front of the own vehicle, traffic behind the own
vehicle, oncoming traffic, traffic at intersections, overtaking, and reversing. An
anticipating driving reduces braking and acceleration and thus reduces fuel consumption.
2.5.3 Defensive driving style
The basic rule for a defensive driving style is to react accordingly. The “normal” working
procedure of a vehicle driver is as follows:
Observation ➮ prediction ➮ evaluation ➮ decision ➮ action
Observation means: to look consciously and to process whatever information is

necessary to solve the traffic problem
• Prediction: what will the driver do and what will others do?
• Evaluation: to estimate the effects of an action (pro and cons)
• Decision: to decide the correct action (solution)
• Action: the (re-)action the driver will execute.
Table 6 shows the strong effects of aggressive and gentle driving styles. Gentle driving
may save up to 47l/100km or 46% on a heavy bus compared to an aggressive style.
Table 6
Fuel consumption at different driving styles
Light bus (8.8 tons) Heavy bus (24.5 tons)

Driving style l/100 km indexed l/100 km indexed
A: aggressive 37.8 143 101.5 145
B: normal 26.5 100 69.9 100
C: gentle 21.0 79 54.5 78
Page | 25
2.5.4 Energy-saving driving styles
If the driver has to stop and wait for a longer time (e.g. at a railway crossing), it is
recommended to switch off the engine. This is not only better for the environment but it
also saves fuel. A rule of thumb is to switch off the engine when the vehicle has to stand
still for more than a minute. To drive economically means to drive at a constant road
speed as often as possible - although this might be difficult to realize in urban traffic.
To change the gear correctly is a fundamental part of an economical driving style.

Changing up must be carried out in such a way that the engine can deal with the new
gear. In practice, this means to allow the engine speed to pass through the green zone
on the revolution counter and then change. Conversely changing down should be done
when the rpm needle reaches the bottom of the green zone.
The driver should avoid braking when it is possible to ease off the accelerator in good
time and allow for coasting. Coasting means releasing the accelerator pedal and using
the engine as a brake, e.g. when approaching red lights or the end of a traffic jam.
Box 4
EcoDriving example from a GTZ pilot project in Santiago de Chile
Eleven drivers of urban public transport buses in Santiago de Chile have been trained
during one week on EcoDriving. The training was based on a manual developed by
GTZ in a corresponding project in Argentina. The results were quite impressive. Fuel
consumption decreased by between 8 and 32% with an average of nearly 20%. At the
same time, braking could be reduced between 3 and more than 50%. The average
reduction of braking is more than 25%.
Besides these expected effects the improvement of environmentally important aspects

like exhaust gas and noise emissions have been evaluated. A considerable reduction of
the engine rotations was observed after the training program, which had the side
effect of lower noise emissions.
The effect on exhaust gas emissions also was considerable. For the Santiago bus fleet
emission factors have been developed. Based on these data it was possible to
calculate the difference in exhaust gas emissions as an effect of EcoDriving. NOx, CO,
PM and HC was reduced by more than a quarter.
Economical driving techniques entail significant improvements with

respect to air pollution and noise emissions - and all this does
not involve any costs. On the contrary this is a classic win-win-situation
as the reduction of fuel consumption and the reduction of
braking significantly decrease the operating costs of the vehicle.
2.5.5 Vehicle maintenance
Regular maintenance is important for all engines – both old and new ones – in order to
ensure economical operation. Well maintained vehicles, properly adjusted engines, and
appropriate tyre pressure is essential for low energy consumption and environmental
Page | 26
protection. When the pressure of all tyres of a vehicle is too low by 15-20% fuel
consumption increases by 5-8%.
2.5.6 Sustainability of driver training
An important condition for the sustainability of training on EcoDriving is that drivers

adopt a more defensive and economical style of driving. In some Developing Cities,
especially in Asia, drivers rent vehicles from the owners for a fixed fee on a daily basis
and operate it on their own account. In this case the driver benefits directly from fuel
savings. If this is not the case, and drivers are employees of the bus company,
companies may establish premium systems offering financial incentives to drivers whose
fuel consumption is below average. Premiums can also be provided to drivers who have
not caused accidents for a certain period of time. To provide monetary incentives to
drivers seems to be the most effective way to assure sustainability. Furthermore, it is
also important to pay drivers a fixed salary instead of payments based on the number of
passenger. The latter would lead to a “chase for passengers” and an economical and
defensive driving style could not be implemented.
Further reading on Vehicle and Fuel Technologies
Walsh and Kolke (2005), Cleaner Fuels and Vehicle Technologies, GTZ Sourcebook
Module 4a
Lemke, Seisler (2005) Natural Gas Vehicles, GTZ Sourcebook Module 4d
Kolke (2005): Inspection and Maintenance, GTZ Sourcebook Module 4b
Shah, Iyer, Cherry (2009): Two and Three-Wheelers, GTZ Sourcebook Module 4c
Breithaupt, Eberz (2005) Eco Driving, Sourcebook Module 4f
Page | 27
7
3. Transport Noise and its Abatement
This chapter provides an overview on transport noise and the measures to abate the
effects on human beings. First of all, technical features of transport noise are explained,
especially how it is measured. In the second subchapter the health effects of transport
noise are discussed before abatement measures are shortly described.
3.1 Technical features of noise
3.1.1 What is noise?
Noise is unwanted sound. Sound has a range of different physical characteristics, but
only becomes noise when it has an undesirable physiological or psychological effect on
people. Environmental noise refers to noise that can affect our surroundings, and
includes construction noise, machinery noise, transportation noise, as well as domestic
noise. Sound may be described in terms of amplitude, frequency, and time pattern.
Amplitude, perceived as loudness, is the fundamental measure of sound pressure used in

most measurements of environmental noise. The sound pressure level is measured in
decibels (dB), and the range is distributed on a logarithmic scale. Thus sharply painful
sounds, which are 10 million times greater in sound pressure than the least audible
sound, are in decibels simplified logarithmically to a manageable range for comparison.
Figure 17 gives some examples of noise pressures.
Frequency, perceived as pitch, is determined by the rate at which sound makes the air
vibrate. Time pattern refers to a sound’s pattern of time and level, which can be
continuous, intermittent, fluctuating, or impulsive. Continuous sound is a constant level
of sound for a relatively long period, such as the sound of a waterfall, whereas
intermittent sound is sound produced for short periods, such as the ringing of a
telephone. Fluctuating sound varies in level over time, such as the loudness of traffic
sounds in a busy intersection, and impulsive sound is sound produced in an extremely
short span of time, such as a gunshot.
Figure 17
Sound levels measured in dB(A)
7
Adapted from Source: GTZ et al (2005): Noise and its abatement, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5c.
Page | 28
3.1.2 Measurement of noise
It is common international practice to determine noise in terms of levels which are

expressed as a logarithmic function L of the sound pressure and adapted to the
sensitivity of the human ear. Environmental sound is typically measured by three
descriptors which are used to determine the impact of environmental noise on public
health and welfare. These are: i) the A-weighted Sound Level dB(A), ii) Equivalent Sound
Level Leq, and iii) Day-Evening-Night Sound level Lden.
i) The A-weighted sound level (dB(A)) is the most common measure of expressing
noise. The A-weighted sound level measures sound on a scale that closely mirrors
the way it is heard by people, by giving more weight to the frequencies that
people hear more easily, within 1 – 6 kHz. Due to the logarithmic scale, a 3dB(A)
increase in sound levels represents a doubling in noise. To get an impression of
dB(A) Figure 17 provides a graphic scale of transport-oriented sound levels.
ii) The emissions of a source and consequently the reception levels are usually not
constant. For moving sources such as road traffic noise, the noise level is
constantly changing with the number, type, and speed of the vehicles which
produce the noise. The equivalent acoustic level (Leq) is the sound level of a stable
noise which contains the same energy as a variable noise over the same period. It
represents the mean of the acoustic energy perceived during the period of
observation. The equivalent acoustic level of noise during the period 8:00 AM to
8:00 PM is written as Leq (8:00 AM – 8:00 PM) or Leq (12 h).
iii) When the occurrence of sound is relevant, such as in residential areas, the Day-
Evening Night Sound Level (Lden) is used. This A-weighted equivalent sound level
covers a 24-hour period with an extra 10dB weighting added on the equivalent
sound levels occurring during night-time hours (10 PM – 7 AM). Nocturnal noise
levels are generally lower than during the day. For example, the nocturnal Leq
(12:00 AM – 6:00 AM) is typically 10dB
iv) below the Leq (8:00 AM – 8:00 PM).
Figure 18
Daytime traffic noise in a German town
Source: GTZ Sourcebook Module 5c
Page | 29
3.2 Health effects of transport noise
Transport noise has various physical and psychological effects on human beings. They
range from disturbance and annoyance to premature death. The first are related to
communication, concentration, stress and sleeping disorder. Disturbances and stress may
entail other, more serious effects, such as high blood pressure, mental health and heart
attacks. Studies about the effects of night-time traffic noise on public health conclude
that noise during night-times causes stress and thus increases the risk of gastro-
intestinal (stomach, bowels) and cardio-vascular (heart and blood circulation) diseases.
The risk of cardiac infarctions increases by 20% if persons are exposed to outdoor
transport noise above 65 dB(A). Noise has not only been documented to affect adults,
but correlations have been found with children as well as with foetuses of pregnant
women. Noisy environments causing speech interference in classrooms may have serious
ramifications on a child’s education, especially if this occurs during the language
acquisition development stage.
3.3 Noise abatement measures
Various noise abatement measures have been applied in Developed Cities and are ready
for implementation in the Developing World as well.
3.3.1 Noise level standards
Setting noise standards for urban area is an appropriate way of limiting noise emissions.
An example of German noise standards is given in Table 7, where threshold levels for
areas with different land use for day and a night time are defined. If these levels are
exceeded, the municipality is required to implement noise reducing measures (see
below). It should be noted that noise standards are only applicable for a defined
measurement method which specifies the location of measurement devices and the
duration of measurement.
Table 7
German threshold values for harmful effects of road and rail noise
dB(A) Day (6Am-10PM) Night (10PM-6AM)
Hospital areas 57 47
Sensitive housing 59 49
General housing 59 49
Mixed areas 64 54
Industrial Areas 69 59
Source: Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz, TA Lärm
3.3.2 Motor vehicle control
The control of vehicles can reduce noise emissions at the source. For example, vehicles
can be designed with engine encapsulation, i.e. enclosures for the engine, or fans that
turn off when not needed, and better mufflers. Quieter vehicles can bring a substantial
reduction in traffic noise along those roads and streets where no other corrective
measures are possible. Unfortunately, due to limitations in technology, these regulations
for new vehicles and state and local regulations for maintenance of vehicles can only
Page | 30
partially reduce the noise created by traffic. The best that can be expected is a 5 to 10
dB(A) decrease depending on the current emission levels. In Developing Countries where
usually no noise regulations on vehicles exist, it is recommended to introduce such
regulations at least for new cars to be allowed to enter traffic.
In some countries (e.g. European Union) in addition to the limits for propulsion noise,
emission limits for tires have been introduced. The reduction potential for low noise tires
is considered to be up to 5 dB(A).
3.3.3 Urban land use planning
Urban planning may take into account transport noise as a criterion for future land use
development. Prudent land use control can help to prevent many future traffic noise
problems along highways bordered by vacant land which may one day be developed. E.
g. less noise-sensitive commercial buildings may be placed next to a major traffic artery,
with residences further away. Open space can be left as a buffer zone between
residences and a street.
3.3.4 Traffic management
Managing traffic can reduce noise problems. For example, trucks can be prohibited from
certain streets and roads, or they may be permitted to use particular streets and roads
only during daytime. Traffic lights can be changed to smooth out the flow of traffic and to
eliminate the need for frequent stops and starts. Lower speed limits can contribute to
noise reduction; about a 30 km/h reduction in speed is necessary for a noticeable
decrease in noise levels. Use of horns can be banned in certain locations, e.g. around
hospitals.
3.3.5 Road surface and geometry
The application of a bituminous surface layer over worn concrete roadways is effective in
reducing road/tire noise. The use of open-graded asphalt may also be effective in
reducing road/tire noise in sensitive areas. However, these measures come only into
effect with higher speeds. When planning new roads, road design should avoid steep
grades and sharp corners to reduce noise resulting from acceleration, braking, gear
changes, and use of engine brakes by heavy trucks at critical locations.
3.3.6 Noise barriers
Noise barriers are among the most common mitigation measures used. They are most
effective, if they break the line of sight between the noise source and the receptors being
protected, and if they are thick enough to absorb or reflect the noise received (see
Figure 19). For a noise barrier to work, it must be high enough and long enough to block
the view of a road. Noise barriers do very little good for homes on a hillside overlooking a
road or for buildings which rise above the barrier. Openings in noise walls for driveway
connections or intersecting streets reduce the effectiveness of barriers. Vegetation, if
high enough, wide enough, and dense enough (cannot be seen through), can decrease
street traffic noise considerably. A 200-foot width of dense vegetation can reduce noise
by 10 decibels, which cuts the loudness of traffic noise by half.
Page | 31
Figure 19
Effects of noise barriers
Source: GTZ et al. (2005): Noise and its abatement, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5c
3.3.7 Building facade insulation
Building facade insulation, such as double window glazing, is an option usually adopted
as a last resort in order to dampen noise indoor noise.
3.3.8 Comparison of costs and effectiveness
A successful mitigation plan will often incorporate several of the measures. A busy road
passing by a high-rise building, for example, may require specialized surfacing, a barrier
or screen to reduce traffic noise at lower levels, and facade insulation for the upper floors
of the building. The relative costs and effectiveness of some of the measures outlined
above are compared in Table 8.
Table 8
Indicative comparison of various noise mitigation measures
Source: GTZ et al. (2005): Noise and its abatement, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5c
Page | 32
Further reading on transport noise
GTZ et al. (2005): Noise and its abatement, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5c
Page | 33
4. Transport and Climate Change8
This chapter answers the question how much the transport sector contributes to Climate
Change and provides an overview which strategies may be applied to reduce Green
House Gas Emissions (GHG). This last chapter provides some insights which international
financial mechanisms to tackle Climate Change are available: The clean Development
Mechanism CDM and the Global Environmental Facility GEF.
It is now generally agreed that a global Climate Change is occurring. It also appears that
the poorer countries stand to suffer most as a consequence of this change, with
estimated costs in the range of 5 to 9% of gross domestic product (GDP) for some of the
poorer countries— several times greater than the relative effect in industrialized
countries. In addressing the impacts of Climate Change through sustainable transport
instruments, cities are also able to benefit from a range of co-benefits, including
improved air quality, reduced noise from traffic, increased road safety, and a range of
social and economic benefits.
Figure 20
Expected surface warming at the end of the 21st century
Source: IPCC
The effects of Climate Change include wide-spread melting of glaciers and ice caps, rising
sea levels and changes in rainfall patterns that are likely to lead to increased drought in
some regions. Heat-waves and extreme high temperatures are also very likely to become
more common. Extreme weather events, including hurricanes and typhoons, may
become more intense, although it is not yet clear as to whether or not the frequency of
these events will increase. It is expected that these trends will continue over the coming
decades. Due to the relatively long period of time between emission and the effects in
the atmosphere, there are no easy solutions. However, if action is taken now, there is
still a chance to limit the worst effects beyond the middle of the century.
Effects will vary greatly in different areas of the world. It is expected that effects will be
stronger in the south, in Developing Countries, whose geography and lack of resources to
adapt make them more vulnerable. Recent examples include the increase in flooding in
Bangladesh (Box 5) and the desertification in China.
8
Adapted from Dalkmann and Brannigan (2007): Transport and Climate Change, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5e.
Page | 34
Box 5
Climate change effects – Bangladesh
Bangladesh is vulnerable due to low lying land, high risk of cyclones, dependency on
agriculture and the poverty of its inhabitants. Severe floods used to occur once every
twenty years. They are now occurring every five to seven years, taking place in 1987,
1988, 1995, 1998, 2004, and 2007. Floods in 2004 were some of the most severe in
decades, leaving 1,000 people dead and 30 million people homeless. It is estimated
that the floods caused £4 billion of damage. A 45cm sea level rise would reduce
Bangladesh’s land area by 11% and force 5.5 million people to migrate. A 100 cm rise
would remove 20% of the land area, causing 15 million people to migrate. Rainfall is
predicted to increase by 10 to 15% by 2030 and the higher temperatures increase the
frequency and intensity of cyclones.
Figure 21
Flooded dwellings in Bangladesh
Source: Heine GTZ
4.1 Contribution of the transport sector to Climate Change
Carbon dioxide (CO2) represents the largest proportion of the basket of Greenhouse Gas
(GHG) emissions covered by the Kyoto protocol. Over the past three decades, carbon
dioxide emissions from transport have risen faster than those from all other sectors and
are projected to rise more rapidly in the future. It is estimated that the transport sector
is responsible for about 25 percent of emissions of the gases contributing to global
warming in industrialized countries, but only about one-half this amount in Developing
Cities. From 1990 to 2004, the carbon dioxide emissions from the world’s transport
sector have risen by 36,5%. For the same period, road transport emissions have risen by
29% in industrialized countries and 61% in the other countries (mainly Developing
Countries or countries in transition).
Figure 22 shows the projected increase in transportation CO2 emissions by world region
for 2050. At present industrialized countries are the main sources of transport emissions.
However, the proportion of emissions being produced in Developing Countries is
increasing rapidly, particularly in countries such as China, India, and Indonesia. World
CO2 emissions from the transport sector are projected to increase by 140% from 2000 to
2050, with the biggest increase in developing countries.
Page | 35
Figure 22
Transportation vehicle CO2 emissions by region
Dalkmann and Brannigan (2007): GTZ Sourcebook Module 5e
The majority of transport fuel emissions (76%) are from road transport. Light Duty
Vehicles (LDVs) - i.e., four-wheeled vehicles, including cars, sports utility vehicles
(SUVs), small passenger vans (up to 8 seats), and personal pickup trucks - are the most
important source. Air travel produces around 12% of transport CO2 emissions and its
share is growing rapidly.
Various transport modes contribute to global warming by more than their direct
emissions of CO2, e.g. via the upstream CO2 emissions from oil refineries, electricity used
by electric trains, and for aviation the enhanced climate forcing as a result of contrails
and other effects. In developing countries, particularly China, India, Latin America, and
other Asian countries, a rapid rise in two-wheeled vehicles is predicted. Between 2000
and 2050, two-wheeler fuel consumption is projected to increase by more than eight
times, this increases the proportion of road vehicle fuel use attributed to two-wheelers
from 2% to 3%.
Figure 23
Global transport fuel use by mode
Page | 36
4.2 Strategies to reduce Green House Gas emissions
With the signing of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, the first legally binding international
agreement to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions was established. As of May 2007, a total
of 175 parties have ratified the agreement, covering over 60% of global emissions.
Industrialized countries who sign up to the treaty are legally bound to reduce worldwide
emissions of six Greenhouse Gases by an average of 5,2% below their 1990 levels by the
period 2008 to 2012. The Kyoto Protocol also includes mechanisms which allow
industrialized countries to meet their targets by reducing emissions elsewhere, either
through purchasing carbon credits as in the EU Emissions Trading Scheme or by funding
projects in developing countries using the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM, Chapter
4.3.1) or Joint Implementation.
Although controversy continues over the optimal Greenhouse Gas reduction strategy, and
the distribution of action between industrialized and developing countries, it is accepted
that some mitigating strategy is called for in all countries. Despite this, GHG mitigation
has a negative connotation in many developing countries, where exhortations to limit
GHG emissions are perceived as a denial of the right to develop the services and lifestyle
being enjoyed by industrialized countries. To avert this outcome requires a combination
of transportation policy reforms in the short term and technological changes in the longer
term.
Transport is proving to be one of the most difficult sectors in which to reduce Greenhouse
Gas emissions as there are numerous small emission sources (i.e., vehicles) and,
additionally, there is a seemingly close relationship with economic development.
Leapfrogging may be a particularly important element of reducing Greenhouse Gases
from transport in developing countries, i.e., bypassing the use of inferior, less efficient,
more expensive or more polluting technologies and moving to more advanced ones. To
achieve the above reduction targets in the transport sector, there are three primary ways
to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions from transport (see Figure 24):
• Avoid (i.e., avoid travel or avoid travel by motorized modes);

• Shift (i.e., shift to more environmentally friendly modes); and
• Improve (i.e., improve the energy efficiency of transport modes and vehicle
technology).
Page | 37
Figure 24
Strategy responses to Climate Change
Figure 24 lists a number of strategies and instruments that that have already been
discussed in the previous Modules of this course which all have the goal to reduce CO2
emissions of transport. A variety of sustainable transport instruments can be
incorporated within these strategies. They can be categorized into Planning, Regulatory,
Economic, Information, and Technology Instruments. There are four main outcomes
related to strategy implementation that will determine the effect on carbon emissions:
• Travel does not take place: As a result of sustainable transport measures

implemented, the decision is taken not to travel for certain trips. In this case,
emissions for a trip that would have been made previously are reduced to
zero. This is achieved through the ‘avoid’ strategy that has been detailed in
Module 1 Chapter 3 and Module 2 Chapter 1.
• Non-motorized transport is increased: Strategies to encourage mode-shift can

result in a higher proportion of trips being made by walking or cycling. This is
handled in Module 2, Chapter 3.
• Public motorized transport is increased and/or made more efficient: A second

outcome of mode-shift strategies is to achieve a shift to public transport
Page | 38
vehicles, such as buses or rail. Although there are emissions associated with
both bus and rail, the high occupancy levels that can be achieved means that
the emissions of Greenhouse Gases per passenger km is less than being the
sole occupant of a private vehicle (see Table 9). Strategies to improve the
energy efficiency and technology of vehicles also apply to public transport
vehicles, so emissions can be reduced further. These questions are discussed
in Module 3.
• Individual motorized transport is made more efficient: Where private cars and
other low occupancy vehicles continue to be used, the strategy to improve
energy efficiency and technology of vehicles can help to reduce emissions.
These issues are treated in Chapter 1 and 2 of this Module.
Table 9
Greenhouse gas emissions of selected transport systems
Source: Hook and Wright (2002)
Page | 39
Table 10
Sustainable transport instruments: meeting local priorities
From these strategies, a number of measures may be derived, that aim at mitigating
Climate Change effects, but have as well other local impacts such as safety, equity or air
pollution (Table 10). Thus, applying these measures will have global as well as local
effects. The European Union has adopted a proposal to reduce CO2 emissions of new
passenger cars as explained in Box 6.
Page | 40
Box 6
EU legislation to reduce CO2 emissions from light duty vehicles
In 2007, the European Commission adopted a proposal for legislation to reduce the
average CO2 emissions of new passenger cars which account for about 12% of the
European Union's carbon emissions. The Commission's proposal will reduce the
average emissions of CO2 from new passenger cars in the EU from around 160 grams
per kilometre to 130 grams per kilometre in 2012. That will translate into a 19%
reduction of CO2 emissions. The emission limit value does not apply to each vehicle
individually but to the average of all vehicles built by a manufacturer registered in the
EU in one calendar year.
A so-called limit value curve implies that heavier cars are allowed higher emissions
than lighter cars while preserving the overall fleet average. The curve is set in such a
way that a fleet average for all new cars of 130 grams of CO2 per kilometre is
achieved. From 2012, a manufacturer will be required to ensure that the average
emissions of all new cars which it manufactures and which are registered in the
Community are below the average of the permitted emissions for those cars as given
by the curve. That curve is set in such a way that heavier cars will have to improve
more than lighter cars compared to today, but that manufacturers will still be able to
make cars with emissions above the limit value curve provided these are balanced by
cars which are below the curve. Manufacturers' progress will be monitored each year
by the Member States on the basis of new car registration data.
This decision of the EU Commission has been criticised by environmental groups. The
limits are too low compared to the initial proposals. Long term goals are missing, that
comply with the Kyoto goals: 80 g/km by 2020 and 60 by 2025. The standards punish
carmakers that make their vehicles lighter, one of the most important methods of
reducing CO2 and fuel consumption.
4.3 Financial mechanisms to tackle Climate Change: CDM and GEF
Many of the instruments presented in this chapter do not require large-scale

investments. They can be implemented at relatively low cost and often provide economic
benefits in the long run due to improve transport, reduce negative impacts such as
congestion and air pollution, health benefits, etc.
Some improvements, however, require significant amounts of investments which cannot

always be met by municipal authorities or governments in developing countries.
Extensions of public transport services are a typical example of such investments. In
some cases funds may be provided by international donors such as the World Bank,
regional development banks or bilateral development cooperation either as loans or on a
grant basis. If the investment yields a high return on investment, the private sector may
also be interested in project finance. BRT systems may constitute such a case if adequate
framework conditions are in place.
In addition to these funding options, Climate Change funding mechanisms exist which
can provide additional funding if the planned investment will help mitigate Greenhouse
Gas emissions. This section presents two major financial mechanisms that support
Climate Change mitigation projects: the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the
Global Environment Facility (GEF).
Page | 41
4.3.1 Clean Development Mechanism in the Transport Sector9 What is the CDM?
The CDM allows industrialized countries with a Greenhouse Gas reduction commitment
under the Kyoto Protocol to invest in emission reducing projects in developing countries.
These are usually alternatives to what is considered to be more costly emission
reductions in their own country. While CDM is becoming a popular tool in other sectors
like renewable energy and energy efficiency, there are only few transport projects in the
pipeline. One key bottleneck is the need for a reliable method to prove a reduction in
CO2.
What are the benefits for cities in developing countries?
CDM projects provide additional funds for investments in developing countries and can
lead to better infrastructure and technology. Investments using this mechanism should
lead to sustainable development as projects are assessed for their impact on reducing
Greenhouse Gas emissions.
For industrialized countries, the benefits of getting involved in the CDM are that they will
be able to implement Greenhouse Gas emissions at lower costs than in their own
countries. For the host country (i.e. a developing country), benefits include financial
assistance in the implementation of sustainable transport projects, and realization of the
associated wider co-benefits (safety, accessibility, mobility etc.).
Eligibility of projects
For a project to be eligible it has to reduce net Greenhouse Gas emissions, either through
reduction of emissions or sequestration. This reduction has to be ‘real, measurable and
additional’. There are a variety of requirements that projects should adhere to, and
processes to be undertaken in order to gain funding.
• ‘Additionality’: For a project to be considered for CDM funding, ‘additionality’

should be proved. This means that the emissions reductions achieved are
proved to be in addition to any that would occur in the absence of the certified
project activity, e.g. with and without Bus Rapid Transit.
• Baseline: The baseline for CDM projects must be calculated. The baseline
refers to the scenario representing the Greenhouse Gas emissions that would
occur in the absence of the proposed project activity. In doing so, the possible
alternatives to the project should be identified and discussed.
• ‘Leakage’: Transport projects are particularly susceptible to ‘leakage’. Leakage

can be described as the net change of Greenhouse Gas emissions which occurs
outside the project boundary, and which is measurable and attributable to the
CDM project activity. An example of leakage in the transport sector is where
increased investment is put into transport infrastructure, which could lead to
reductions in the level of congestion, increases in vehicle speeds, and then
reduced emissions. However, the investment could also lead to the generation
of additional trips and a shift to private vehicle use as a result of reduced
journey times (Induced traffic, see Module 1, Chapter 4.2). The latter effect is
called leakage and has to be taken into account.
• Emission reductions: The emission reductions from a project can be calculated

as the baseline, minus the project, minus the leakage emissions. In other
words, the emission reductions are only those reductions that can be directly
attributed to the project.
9
Adapted from Grütter (2006) GTZ Sourcebook Module 5d.
Page | 42
4.3.2 Global Environment Facility (GEF)
What is the GEF?
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was set up to fund projects and programmes
aimed to protect the global environment. In principle, the GEF only provides co-funding;
this means that a significant contribution to the financing of the project needs to come
from other sources. Such financing can either come from the national government or
from other donor agencies. The financing may be also achieved by providing ‘in-kind’
resources (e.g. preparation of the transport planning administration), credits, and loans.
What kind of projects may be financed via GEF?
Projects can include biodiversity, Climate Change, international waters, land degradation,
the ozone layer and persistent organic pollutants. The GEF is directly linked to the
relevant environmental conventions. With regard to Climate Change, the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the relevant international
convention, and GEF co-funding is available for developing countries which have ratified
the UNFCCC and want to promote Climate Change mitigation projects. Eligible areas of
activity are: renewable energy, energy efficiency, and sustainable transport.
What are the benefits for cities in developing countries?
By using the GEF, developing countries and cities can mobilize additional funding to
implement projects that are their core interest. In the transport sector, co-funding from
the GEF can, for example, be used to improve public transport or promote non-motorized
transport. To be eligible for GEF funding, projects must have a benefit for the global
environment and fulfill specific formal criteria.
What kind of projects may be financed via GEF?
In 2007, new policies were introduced for the GEF and submitted to the GEF council in
June 2007. While the GEF initially supported mainly technological solutions, the new
strategic programme will have a stronger focus on ‘non-technology’ options such as
planning, modal shift and the promotion of better managed public transport systems.
GEF support can be given to promote transport modes with lower carbon intensity. This
covers public transport, public rapid transit (including BRT) as well as non-motorized
transport. Priority will be given to countries with rapidly growing small and medium
cities.
What kind of funding is available?
There are a great variety of projects that can be financed by GEF, and the application
process differs depending on the type of project. The most work intensive preparation is
needed for full-sized projects, which include projects in excess of US$1 million. Other
options include enabling activity or medium-sized projects. For all types of projects it is
possible to apply first for a project preparation grant (PPG) to get initial funding (up to
US$25,000) to prepare the project proposal. This includes holding workshops to increase
stakeholder participation within the project and to strengthen the focus of the proposal.
Page | 43
Further reading on Transport and Climate Change
Dalkmann and Brannigan (2007): Transport and Climate Change, GTZ Sourcebook
Module 5e
Grütter (2007): The CDM in the Transport Sector, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5d
World Bank (2002): Cities on the Move, Chapter 4
Grütter (2006): The CDM in the Transport Sector, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5d
Eichhorst (2009): Adapting to Climate Change, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5f

UNFCCC, Guidelines, Guidance and Clarifications
http://cdm.unfccc.int/Reference/Guidclarif/index.html
Page | 44
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Module 2-Municipal Mobility Management Sustainable Urban Mobility

Sustainable Urban Mobility

Copyright: Copyright © 2010

Opinions expressed in this volume are those of the authors and

The designations employed and the presentation of material in

This publication is protected by international copyright law. All

This Course on Sustainable Urban Mobility in Developing Countries is designed to

Module 1: Urban Growth and Strategies for Sustainable Urban Transport

Local Development Programme

This course on Sustainable Urban Mobility in Developing Countries has been

1. AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT ................................................... 1

1.1 Importance of Air Quality Management and basic facts................................ 1

1.2 Techniques of Air Quality Management ........................................................ 5

1.3 Emission control in cities from developing countries .................................... 8

2. VEHICLE AND FUEL TECHNOLOGIES ...................................... 12

2.1 Cleaner fuels and vehicle technologies ...................................................... 12

2.2 Two and three-wheelers ............................................................................ 14

2.3 Inspection and Maintenance ...................................................................... 17

2.4 Alternative Vehicle Technologies ............................................................... 21

2.5 EcoDriving ................................................................................................. 24

3. TRANSPORT NOISE AND ITS ABATEMENT ............................ 28

3.2 Health effects of transport noise................................................................ 30

3.3 Noise abatement measures........................................................................ 30

4. TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE ..................................... 34

4.1 Contribution of the transport sector to Climate Change ............................. 35

4.2 Strategies to reduce Green House Gas emissions ....................................... 37

Figure 1: Percentage of urban populations being affected by air pollution ..................... 2

ALS Area Licensing Scheme

1. Air Quality Management2

1.1 Importance of Air Quality Management and basic facts

1.1.1 Air pollution impacts

1.1.2 Major types of air pollutants

Source: Schwela (2004): GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a

Source: World Bank 2002

Source: Walsh 2008

1.1.3 The impact pathway of emissions

1.1.4 Health impacts of air pollutants

Health effects of air pollution on immune system allergies manifest themselves in

Schwela (2004): GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a

1.2 Techniques of Air Quality Management

The goal of Air Quality Management is to maintain a quality of air that

Schwela (2004): GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a

The main tools for air pollution management are:

1.2.1 Emission inventories

A crucial component of Air Quality Management is a reasonable quantitative knowledge of

• Point sources such as stacks in major industrial sites.

1. Assigning pollutant categories: A distinction has to be made between the original

1.2.2 Outdoor monitoring

However, the limitations of monitoring should be recognized. In many circumstances,

• The first step in designing or implementing any monitoring system is to define

Figure 6: Active sampler Figure 7. Passive sampler

Source: Bowler, Schwela, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a

1.2.3 Dispersion modeling

As indicated above, adequate understanding of emission, topography, meteorology and

1.3 Emission control in cities from developing countries

1.3.1 Command and control

• The development and regulation in law of emissions standards

1.3.2 Emission Standards

Source: Schwela (2004): Air Quality Management, GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a

Health benefits of reducing particulates in Jakarta to Indonesian standards: Presenting

Premature mortality 1,200

Such numbers are a powerful means to prompt government action, as well as

Schwela (2004): GTZ Sourcebook Module 5a