Body Movements

Body Movements
Our body is capable of performing a wide variety of simple and complex functions.
It is able to do so because of the internal structure that facilitates its movement.
Human Body And Its Movements
The human skeleton is the internal framework which is responsible for giving
support, shape and protection to our bodies. It contains 206 bones, each playing a
distinct yet important task. The skeleton can be classified into two parts called as
the axial and the appendicular. The axial skeleton comprises of the central part of
the skull, spine, and ribs and the appendicular skeleton consists of the arms and
legs.
Terms -
Limbs: The arms or legs of an animal.
Bones: These are the hard white structures below our skin that protect our internal
organs. Bones are incapable of bending.
Joints: These are defined as the points at which two bones are fitted together.
These are the points at which we can rotate and bend our bodies.
Figure 1: Body Movements

Types of Joints and their Location in Human Body
 A Pivot joint is a joint that rotates.. Examples of pivot joints in the body in the
neck that allows the head to rotate and the ones between the radius and ulna that
allow forearm rotation.
 When bones can move along one axis, it indicates the presence of Hinge joint.
e.g. Elbows and Knees.
 In the Ball and Socket joint, a partial spherical structure is present inside a
socket allowing movement in all directions. e.g. hips and arms
 As the name suggests Fixed joint allows no movement to occur. e.g Skull
VI I.I.T. Foundation, N.T.S.E. & Science Olympiad Biology Chapter Notes Page 1
Figure 2: Types of Joints
Important Points to remember in a Human Skeleton:
 Bones provide support, protection, movement and perform several other
functions.
 The bones in the skull (Cranium, Mandible, Maxilla) give protection to the brain.
 The long bones such as humerus, radius, ulna, tibia, fibula support the weight of
body
 The carpals are located in wrist and tarsals are located in ankles. They are
examples of short bones.
 The bones protecting the spine are called as the vertebral column. Cervical area
(top 7 vertebrae), Thoracic (next 12), Lumbar (bottom 5 vertebrae), Sacrum (5
fused or stuck together bones) and Coccyx (the tiny bit at the bottom of the
spine).
 The sternum and rib cage constitute the chest bones.
Figure 3: Human Skeleton

Some More Points to Remember
Gait of Animals
1. Earthworm:
 Does not have bones
 Earthworm body is made up of rings
 A slimy substances secreted by its body aids movement (NSO)
Figure 4: Detailed Movement in Earthworm

2. Snail:
 It has a slimy body, which does not have bones.
 The shell of the snail does not help in movement. It has to be carried along.
 The foot of the snail is a thick structure and is made up of strong muscles.
 A muscular organ called ‘Foot’ helps in locomotion.
Figure 5: A Snail
 Belongs to Phylum Arthropoda
 Its Exoskeleton is hard and stiff.
Cockroach
 3 pairs of legs help in walking and 4 wings help to fly
 The body muscles move the wings when it flies
 Presence of scales on the fish skin reduce frictional drag
 It possess a streamlined shape which enhances locomotion
Fish
 Coordination between muscles and tail help the fish to move.
 Fins aid the movement in the water
 Their forelimbs are modified into wings
 Presence of hollow and light bones, which reduces weight.
Birds
 Hind limbs help in walking and perching
 They have strong shoulder bones
 Presence of long backbone and thin muscles.
 Loops made by its body help in moving forward.
Snakes
 Moves fast but not in a straight line
 They cannot move on frictionless surface.
KEYWORDS
Chitin: a protein which makes the internal body of a cockroach.
Ball and Socket joint: a joint that allows movement in all directions.
Exoskeleton: the hard covering on the outside of organisms such as snails and
turtles.
Skull: the bony part of the head that encloses the brain.
Cartilage: a tough elastic tissue softer than a bone found at the ends of bones at
the joints.
Bone marrow: a fatty substance that fills the hollow cavity within big bones.
Ligament: strong flexible bands of connective tissue holding the bones together.
Immovable joint: a joint that does not permit the movement of bones.
Movement: change the position of any part of the body of an organism.
Joint: the place where two or more bones meet.
Skeleton: the framework of bones.
Locomotion: the movement of an organism as a whole.
Muscles: bones are moved by the expansion and contraction of muscles.
Backbone: vertebral column or spine present at the backside of the body.
Streamlined shape: narrow in front and broader in the middle (spindle-shaped)
Endoskeleton: hard skeleton supporting body from inside.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
• The skull consists of the cranium and facial bones. Most of the joints of the skull
are fixed.
• Vertebrates are animals with a vertebral column. They move with the help of
bones and muscles.
• Cockroaches and snails are invertebrate animals and move by crawling.
• Fish have fins for locomotion and birds have wings for flying.
• There are three types of joints – movable, partially movable and immovable.
• There are 206 bones in an adult human.
• Movable joints allow the movement but immovable joints do not allow
any movement.
• There are two types of the skeleton: exoskeleton and endoskeleton.
• Ball and socket joints allow the greatest freedom of movement. The joint of
the upper arm and shoulder blade is a ball and socket joint. So it is the joint of the
thigh bone and hip bone.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The body part used by snake for locomotion is
(a) legs
(b) feet
(c) fins
(d) whole body
2. The total number of bones in human
body is
(a) 206
(b) 306
3. Which of the following animal has an endoskeleton?
(a) mosquito
(b) cockroach
(c) crab
(d) human
4. Elbow joint is an example of
(a) hinge joint
(b) immovable joint
(c) gliding joint
(d) pivot joint
5. One of the following does not have a hinge joint. This one is
(a) elbow
(b) knee
(c) shoulder
(d) jaw
6. Fixed joint is found in
(a) wrist
(b) skull
(c) elbow
(d) ankle
Ans:
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (b)
Fill in the blanks with suitable words.
1. Joints which are permanently fixed are called——— joints.
2. Birds are the most common————– animal.
3. The body of an———- is made up of the ring-like segments.
Ans: 1. Joints which are permanently fixed are called immovable joints.
2. Birds are the most common flying animal.
3. The body of an earthworm is made up of ring-like segments.
C. State whether the following statements are True or False
1. Snails move with the help of wings.
2. Fishes have swim bladder for swimming.
3. Tendon joint one bone to another at a joint.
4. The first two pairs of ribs are called as floating.
5. Both fish and birds have streamlined shapes.
Ans: 1. False, 2. False, 3. False, 4. False, 5. True
Very Short Answer Type Questions.
1. Name the three parts of the skull.
2. What is a joint?
3. Which of the two moves faster: a snail or an earthworm?
4. What are the ligaments?
5. What kind of arrangement is found in the ball and socket joint?
6. What is slithering?
7. Name the organs used by fish for swimming.
8. Why do animals move?
9. Does snake have a backbone?
10. Name the two types of muscles found in our arms.
Ans: 1. The cranium and facial bones
2. The point where the two bones connect with each other is called joint.
3. An earthworm
4. The bones of a joint are connected to each other by strong fibrous tissue
called ligaments.
5. The joint in which the rounded end of one bone fits into the cavity (hollow space)
of the other bone is called ball and socket joint.
6. During movement, a snake contracts its muscles, thrusting its body from side
to side, creating a series of curves. It moves in S-shaped loops and in a zig-zag
manner. This movement is called slithering.
7. Fins
8. The animals move:
• In search of food
• Shift from unfavourable environment to a favourable environment
• Find their partners for reproduction and reach favourable areas for laying eggs or
rearing their young ones.
• Escape away from their enemies.
9. Yes
10. Tricep and Bicep
E. Short Answer Type Questions.
1. What is the significance of locomotion in animals?
2. What is cartilage? List its function?
3. How do the following animals move?
(i) Birds
(ii) Snake
(iii) Earthworm
(iv) Snail
4. Write the main function of the skull.
5. Name two hinge joints and two ball and socket joints in our body. Where can you
find fixed joints in the human
skeleton?
6. What is rib cage? State the functions of the rib cage.
7. How does locomotion differ from movement?
8. Give one example each of
(a) a hinge joint
(b) a pivot joint
(c) a ball and socket joint
(d) a fixed joint
9. Differentiate between bone and cartilage.
Ans:
1. Locomotion in animals helps in:
• In search of food
• Shift from unfavourable environment to a favourable environment
• Find their partners for reproduction and reach favourable areas for laying eggs or
rearing their young ones.
• Escape away from their enemies.
2. Cartilage is a soft tissue attached to bones and is also present independently.
If attached to bones, it gives them protection and helps in the movement. Cartilage
is much softer than bones. Cartilage can bend without breaking.
3. (i) Birds—The forelimbs in birds are modified into wings for flight. There are
special muscles attached to bones that are adapted for flight in birds. Birds also
have hollow, light and strong bones that make them fly easily in air.
Their wings are covered with feathers. The feathers on the tail and wings give a
large surface area, which helps to lift the birds upwards and keep the bird in the air.
Birds have large powerful chest muscles to allow them to flap their wings.
(ii) Snake—During movement, a snake contracts its muscles, thrusting its body from
side to side, creating a series of curves. It moves in S-shaped loops and in a zig-zag
manner. It cannot move in a straight line.
(iii) Earthworm—An earthworm moves by lengthening and ‘shortening’ its body
alternately by using the circular muscles and longitudinal muscles, respectively. The
muscular movement pushes their blood in the direction of the body movement.
(iv) Snail—It is a very slow moving animal. The muscular foot has a special
gland that secretes slimy mucus to make snail slip on the floor.
4. The cranium covers and protects the brain. The facial bones comprise of the
upper and the lower jaw and few other bones. The lower jaw is movable, which
enables us to talk, eat and even sing. The eye sockets are also included in the skull.
The eye socket is the safe pocket for the eye.
5. The joints between the shoulder and the upper arm and between thigh and hip
are ball and socket joint.
The hinge joint at our elbow allows you bend your forearm and straighten it. It does
not let us bend our arm backwards or sideways. The knee joint is another
example of the hinge joint.
6. There are twelve pairs of thin and curved bones called the ribs. The rib cage is
formed of the flat and long bones. These bones form a rib cage which protects the
heart and the lungs. Ribs are attached to the sides of each vertebra at back and the
first ten pairs of these ribs are attached to the breastbone at the front with help of
cartilage. The last two pairs of ribs are free in the front end are called floating ribs.
7. The movement of the whole body of an organism from one place to another is
called locomotion. The change in the position of any part of the body with respect to
its axis is called movement.
8. Give one example each of
(a) a hinge joint — knee joint
(b) a pivot joint — joint in the skull
(c) a ball and socket joint — joint between thigh and hip
(d) a fixed joint — the bones of the skull
9.
Long Answer Type Questions.

1. Draw a well-labelled diagram and explain the structures of the human forelimb.
2. What is a joint? Name four types of joints in the human body. Draw a well-
labelled diagram to show the elbow joint.
3. Why are skeletal muscles called voluntary muscles?
4. What are the special features of a bird that help them to fly?
5. List the main functions of the human skeleton.
Ans:
1. Students to do this in class.
2. The point where the two bones connect with each other is called joint.
Different types of joints are:
• Movable Joints
• Immovable joints
• Slightly movable joints
3. Skeletal muscles are called voluntary muscles because they can be
moved according to our will.
4. The forelimbs in birds are modified into wings for flight. There are special
muscles attached to bones that are adapted for flight in birds. Birds also have
hollow, light and strong bones that make them fly easily in air.
Their wings are covered with feathers. The feathers on the tail and wings give a
large surface area, which helps to lift the birds upwards and keep the bird in the air.
When a bird is flying, the feathers lie smoothly against the body, so that the air can
easily flow over them. Birds have large powerful chest muscles to allow them to flap
their
wings.
5. The skeletal system has the following functions:
1. It gives shape and support to the body.
2. It forms the framework for the body.
3. The backbone protects the spinal cord.
4. It protects your vital organs such as the brain, the kidney and the lungs.
5. With the help of muscles, it helps in the movement of the various parts of
our body.
HOTs
1. Name the bone in the human body which is not connected to any bone. Where is
this bone
located in the body?
2. What do you think would have happened if the backbone had only one long bone
instead
of many vertebrae?
3. Why is X-ray used for examining any fracture/dislocation in bones?
4. If an animal does not have a skeleton consisting of bone, can it move? Give
examples to prove your point.
Ans: 1. The only bone in the human body not connected to another is the hyoid. It
is suspended by some of the ligaments and muscles of the neck and in turn,
supports the root of the tongue.
2. Our movement would be affected.
3. An X-ray is used for examining any fracture/ dislocation in bones because they
penetrate deep and capture images of the bone clearly.
4. Yes, for example, the earthworm. The body of an earthworm is made up of the
ring-like segments. Bristles, attached to the underside of these segments help the
earthworm get a grip on the ground. Muscles attached to these bristles help to
contact the body. A matured earthworm has a ringed body. The earthworm does
not have a skeleton. Instead, it has liquid trapped in space inside the body. An
earthworm moves by lengthening and ‘shortening’ its body alternately by using the
circular muscles and longitudinal muscles, respectively. The muscular movements
push their blood in the direction of the body movement.
Body Movements
CHAPTER 4: BODY MOVEMENTS
Have you stopped to notice the movements in your body? How do your body parts
move when you walk, talk, eat, speak or even breathe? In this chapter we will study
how movements happen.
HUMAN BODY AND ITS MOVEMENTS:

If you think about it, you’ll notice that certain parts of your body move in a fixed
direction while there are other parts that you can freely move in all directions. Some
parts cannot be moved at all.
You see, there are places in our bodies where our body parts seem to join. These
are the places where we can bend or rotate our body. The places where the bones
join together are called joints. We can bend or move our body only at the joints.
Let us see the different types of joints:
1. Ball and socket joints: When the rounded end of one bone fits into the hollow
space (called cavity) of the other bone, the joint is called a ball and socket joint.
This joint allows movements in all directions. E.g.: Shoulder joint
Ball and socket joints

2. Pivotal joints: In a pivotal joint, a cylindrical bone rotates on a ring. For e.g.:
Where the neck joins the head is a pivotal joint.
3. Hinge joints: These joints only allow back and forth movements. For e.g., Knee
joint is a hinge joint.
4. Fixed joints: When the bones cannot move at the joint, it is called a fixed joint.
For e.g., When you open your mouth, only the lower jaw moves. The upper jaw
does not move. This means that the joint between the upper jaw and the head is a
fixed joint.
The joints are a part of a bigger structure. All the bones on our body form a
framework to give a shape to our body. This framework is called a Skeleton.
The major parts of the skeleton are:
1. Rib Cage: The chest bone and the backbone together form a box like structure
called the rib cage. There are some important internal organs that lie inside the rib
cage.
2. Backbone: The series of small bones at the center of the back is called the
backbone. The rib cage is joined to these bones.
3. Shoulder bones: Either of the two flat triangular bones on each side of the
shoulder is called shoulder bone.
4. Pelvic bones: Pelvic bones enclose the portion of your body below the stomach.
This is the part that you sit on.
5. Skull: The skull is made up of many bones joined together. It encloses and
protects your brain which is the most important part of your body.
There are some additional parts of the skeleton that are not as hard as the bones
and which can be bent. These are called cartilage. The upper part of your ear has
cartilage. In fact, cartilage is also found in joints of the body.
Another important component utilized in the movement of the body
is muscle.
Muscles work together to move a bone. When contracted, the muscle becomes
shorter, stiffer and thicker. It pulls the bone. Muscles work in pairs. When one of
them contracts, the bone is pulled in that direction. The other muscle of the pair
relaxes. To move the bone in the opposite direction, the relaxed muscle contracts to
pull the bone towards its original position, while the first relaxes.
A muscle can only pull. It cannot push.
GAIT OF ANIMALS
Gait means the manner of walking or moving. Different animals have different gait.
Let us see some examples.
Earthworm
The body of an earthworm is made up of many rings joined end to end. earthworm
does not have bones. It has muscles which help to extend and shorten the body.
During movement, the earthworm first extends the front part of the body, keeping
the rear portion fixed to the ground. Then it fixes the front end and releases the
rear end. It then shortens the body and pulls the rear end forward. This makes it
move forward by a small distance. Repeating such muscle expansions and
contractions, the earthworm can move through soil. Its body secretes a slimy
substance to make the movement easier.
An earthworm also has a number of tiny hair like structures called bristles which are
connected with the muscles. These bristles help the earthworm get a grip on the
ground.
Snail
A snail carries a rounded structure on its back. This structure Is called the shell. It is
not made of bones but is still called the outer skeleton of the snail. A thick structure
and the head of the snail may come out of an opening in the shell. The thick
structure is its foot, made of strong muscles. The foot has a wavy motion which
helps the snail in moving.
Birds
Birds can fly in the air and also walk on the ground. Birds can fly because their
bones are hollow and light. The bones of the hind limbs are for walking and
perching. The bony parts of the forelimbs are modified as wings. Birds have strong
shoulder bones. The breastbones are modified to hold muscles of flight. The
muscles of flight are used to move the wings up and down.
Fish
The head and tail of the fish are smaller than the middle portion of the body –the
body tapers at both ends. This body shape is called streamlined. The shape is such
that water can flow around it easily and allow the fish to move in water. The
skeleton of the fish is covered with strong muscles. During swimming, muscles
make the front part of the body curve to one side and the tail part swings towards
the opposite side. The fish forms a curve. Then, quickly, the body and tail curve to
the other side. This makes a jerk and pushes the body forward. A series of such
jerks make the fish swim ahead. This is helped by the fins of the tail. Fish also have
other fins on their body which mainly help to keep the balance of the body and to
keep direction, while swimming.
Body movements
A movement is defined as a change in the position of a body. Many movements take
place in our body and in other organisms to move from one place to another. The
term locomotion is mainly used to describe the change of position of the whole
organism. Moving our eyelids, rotating our neck, nodding our head, moving the
jaw muscles are examples of different movements in the human body.
Bones and Joints
The movements in our body are mainly because of the teamwork of bones and
muscles. Bones are the framework of a skeletal system, provides shape to the body
protects the inner organs and helps in movement. Joints are the location where two
or more bones meet.
Types of Joints
There are two main types of joints.
Immovable joints- It is also called the fixed joints. These joints do not have any
kind of movements in their joint cavity. Skull bone, pelvic girdle, and the root of a
tooth and the sockets are examples of fixed or immovable joints.
Moveable joints- These joints are free to move in all its directions. The different
types of movable joints in our body include:
 Pivot Joints- It is the joint between the skull and the vertebral column. This
type of joint allows up and down and side to side movements.
 Hinge joints- It is the knee and elbows joint. This type of joint allows only up
and down movement.
 Gliding joints- It is the wrist joint and the joints between the rings of the
backbone. This type of joint allows the bones to glide up and down, left and
right, and diagonally.
 Ball and socket joint- It is the joints between the shoulder and the upper
arm. This type of joint allows permits movement in all directions.
Important Questions
1. What is Cartilage?
2. How do the snake and snail moves?
3. Define movable and immovable joints with examples.
4. What does the skeleton of the human body comprise of?
5. What are the different types of joints and their functions?
What is a Joint?
A joint generally means a point where two or more things are connected together.
In this scenario, it is the point where two bones intersect. Joint means an
articulation or in other words, a strong connection that joins the bones, teeth, and
cartilage together. It is necessary for all types of movement in the body involving
bones. The force generated by muscles is used to carry out movement
through various joints. The degree and ease of movement at different joints vary
with a lot of different factors. They could be classified based on two different things.
Classification of Joints
A joint is classified based on functionality as to how much the movement it allows:
 Immovable: A joint which permits no kind of movement is called as

synarthrosis. The sutures of the skull and also the gomphosis
connecting teeth to that of the skull are some of the examples of
synarthrosis.
 Slightly movable: An amphiarthrosis usually allows a very little amount of
the movement at one of the joints. Examples of this amphiarthrosis include
some of the intervertebral disks present in the spine and also the pubic
symphysis present in the hips.
 Freely movable: The third class of functional joints is said to be freely
moving kind of diarthrosis joints. Diarthroses are said to have the highest
range of the motion of any kind of joint and also includes the knee, elbow,
shoulder and also the wrist.
Joints are also classified based on the structure of material present in joint.
 A fibrous joint is made up of tough collagen fiber, which does not allow any
type of movement and also includes the sutures of the skull and also the
syndesmosis holding ulna and also the radius of forearm together.
 Cartilaginous joints are said to be made up of bones that are joined
together with the help of cartilage. Some examples include the joints present
between the ribs and the costal cartilage and also the intervertebral disks
present in the spine of the body.
 The most common kind of the joint, the synovial joint is said to be
characterized by the presence of fluid-filled space between the smooth
cartilage pads present at the ends of the articulating bones. Such an
arrangement allows movement. The Synovial membrane that lines up
the capsule producing oily synovial fluid and also which lubricates joints and
also reduces the friction and wear & tear.
Types Of Joints
One of the key characteristics that distinguish living organisms from non-living is the
ability to locomote and move. This is feature is crucial for survival as living
organisms need to adapt to their environment and cater to their own biological
needs such as food, self-preservation, and mating.
Most living organisms have their own special systems for locomotion and
movement. These might include rudimentary structures such as cilia, flagella or
much more complex structures like wings or feet. Furthermore, scientists have
theorized that locomotion and movement have significantly contributed to man’s
evolutionary process – from being quadrupedal to bipedal and increase in the brain’s
volume. Let’s have a glance at the various types of joints in the human body and
discover how it helps us to move.
Locomotion is the ability to move from one place to another. The major key factors
that help in locomotion are bones and muscles. In humans and other vertebrates,
the bones form a framework called the skeletal system that provides structure and
shape. Furthermore, these bones allow movement through different types of joints.
These joints help us to rotate our shoulder, bend our knees and elbows, swivel our
neck and more. By definition, a joint is a point where two bones meet to provide a
framework that permits movement. Bones are attached to one another by tissues
called ligaments. Muscles are attached to bones through tendons.
According to the structural classification of joints, they are divided into 3 types,
namely:
Fibrous Joints / Fixed Joints
Fixed joints, also called immovable joints, are found where bones are not flexible. In
such joints, bones have been fused together in such a way that they are fixed to
that part, most commonly to create a structure. A prominent example of a fixed
joint is the skull, which is made up of a number of fused bones. Other examples
include the upper jaw, rib cage, backbone, and pelvic bone, etc.
Cartilaginous Joints / Slightly Moveable Joints
Cartilaginous joints are partly movable joints comprising of symphysis or
synchondrosis joints. These joints occur only in those regions where the connection
between the articulating bones is made up of cartilage. Synchondrosis are
temporary cartilaginous joints which are present in young children and last until the
end of their puberty. For example, the epiphyseal plates present at each end of the
long bones is responsible for bone growth in children. The symphysis or the
secondary cartilaginous joints (the place where bones join) is permanent. Examples
include the pubic symphysis. Other examples of cartilaginous types of joints include
the spinal column and the ribcage.
Synovial Joints / Freely Movable Joints
The synovial joints are the most common type of joint because this joint helps us to
perform a wide range of motions such as walking, running, typing and more.
Synovial joints are flexible, movable, can slide over one another, rotatable and so
on. These joints are found in our shoulder joint, neck joint, knee joint, wrist joint,
etc. There are six types of freely movable joint and are mentioned below with the
examples:
Types of Joints: A list of Joints in the Human Body
The following is a complete list of all joints in the human body.
Pictured: Types of Joints and their range of motions
Ball and Socket Joints
Here, one bone is hooked into the hollow space of another bone. This type of joint
helps in rotatory movement. An example ball and socket joint are the shoulders.
Pivotal Joints
In this type of joint, one bone has tapped into the other in such a way that full
rotation is not possible. This joint aid in sideways and back-forth movement. An
example of a pivotal joint is the neck.
Hinge Joints
Hinge joints are like door hinges, where only back and forth movement is possible.
Example of hinge joints is the ankle, elbows, and knee joints.
Saddle Joints
Saddle joint is the biaxial joint that allows the movement on two planes–
flexion/extension and abduction/adduction. For example, the thumb is the only bone
in the human body having a saddle joint.
Condyloid Joints
Condyloid joints are the joints with two axes which permit up-down and side-to-side
motions. The condyloid joints can be found at the base of the index finger, carpals
of the wrist, elbow and the wrist joints. This joint is also known as a condylar, or
ellipsoid joint.
Gliding Joints
Gliding joints are a common type of synovial joint. It is also known as a plane or
planar joint. This joint permit two or more round or flat bones to move freely
together without any rubbing or crushing of bones. This joint is mainly found in
those regions where the two bones meet and glide on one another in any of the
directions. The lower leg to the ankle joint and the forearm to wrist joint are the two
main examples of gliding joints.
Frequently Asked Questions on Types of joints
What are the Joints?
Joint can simply be defined as the point or the location within the body where two
or more bones meet together.
What are the different types of Joint?
There are 3 different types of Joints and are classified mainly based on their
mobility:
Fibrous Joints or Fixed Joints
Synovial Joints or Freely Movable Joints
Cartilaginous Joints or Slightly Moveable Joints.
What are the functions of the Joints?
The primary functions of Joints are to connect bones within our body. Apart from
this, it also helps us to move, rotate and also bear weight.
What are the different types of Synovial Joint?
Synovial joints are further classified into six different categories based on the shape
and structure:
Planar joints
Hinge joints
Pivot joints
Condyloid joints
Saddle joints
Ball-and-socket joints.
Give examples of Synovial Joint?
Examples of ball-and-socket joints are the Elbow, Neck, Knee, Shoulder, Thumb,
Hip, Wrist and Intercarpal joints.
What are the types of Fibrous Joints?
Fibrous joints are mainly referred to those joints which are fixed and immovable.
There are three types of immovable joints:
Sutures
Gomphosis
Syndesmosis.
Joints: Types And Examples
What is a Joint?
A joint generally means a point where two or more things are connected together.
In this scenario, it is the point where two bones intersect. Joint means an
articulation or in other words, a strong connection that joins the bones, teeth, and
cartilage together. It is necessary for all types of movement in the body involving
bones. The force generated by muscles is used to carry out movement through
various joints. The degree and ease of movement at different joints vary with a lot
of different factors. They could be classified based on two different things.
A joint is classified based on functionality as to how much the movement it allows:
 Immovable: A joint which permits no kind of movement is called as

synarthrosis. The sutures of the skull and also the gomphosis
connecting teeth to that of the skull are some of the examples of
synarthrosis.
 Slightly movable: An amphiarthrosis usually allows a very little amount of
the movement at one of the joints. Examples of this amphiarthrosis include
some of the intervertebral disks present in the spine and also the pubic
symphysis present in the hips.
 Freely movable: The third class of functional joints is said to be freely
moving kind of diarthrosis joints. Diarthroses are said to have the highest
range of the motion of any kind of joint and also includes the knee, elbow,
shoulder and also the wrist.
Joints are also classified based on the structure of material present in joint.
 A fibrous joint is made up of tough collagen fiber, which does not allow any
type of movement and also includes the sutures of the skull and also the
syndesmosis holding ulna and also the radius of forearm together.
 Cartilaginous joints are said to be made up of bones that are joined
together with the help of cartilage. Some examples include the joints present
between the ribs and the costal cartilage and also the intervertebral disks
present in the spine of the body.
 The most common kind of the joint, the synovial joint is said to be
characterized by the presence of fluid-filled space between the smooth
cartilage pads present at the ends of the articulating bones. Such an
arrangement allows movement. The Synovial membrane that lines up
the capsule producing oily synovial fluid and also which lubricates joints and
also reduces the friction and wear & tear.
4. Body Movements
Joints and their Types
The point at which two separate bones

meet is called a joint.
The point at which two separate bones meet is called a

joint. There are four types of joints in the human body.
They are:
Ball and socket joint: One end of a bone is rounded and ball-like, and fits into a cup-like
depression of the other bone.
This joint provides movement in any direction.
Shoulder joints and hip joints are examples.
In the shoulder joint, the head of the humerus fits into a socket of the shoulder girdle.
In the hip joint, the large ball-like head of the femur fits into the deep socket of the hip girdle.
Hinge joint: This joint moves like a hinge in one plane only, just like the hinge of a door.
The elbow joint between the humerus and the ulna.
The joints between the bones of the fingers and toes, and less perfectly, the knee joint.
Hinge joints usually give sufficient power, because there is less danger of twisting at the joint.
Pivot joint: One bone rotates over a pivot-like end of the other bone.
The skull rotates on the upper end of the back bone.
Fixed Joint: In this joint, no movement is possible between the two bones.
The sutures between the bones of the cranium are an example.
Bones and Skeleton
The skeleton is a framework of all the bones

in the human body
The skeleton is a framework of all the bones in the human body.
The skeleton consists of the skull, hand bone, shoulder bone, rib cage, pelvic bone, backbone,
leg bone and cartilage.
The skull protects the brain.
The shoulder has the ball and socket joint that helps the arm swing. The rib cage protects the
lungs, heart, stomach, abdomen and liver.
The backbone runs from the top of the skeleton to the bottom of the skeleton. It is connected to
all the bones.
The pelvic bone protects the lower abdominal organs such as the urinary bladder, rectum
and uterus.
Cartilage is a soft bone tissue that connects joints. It is present in external parts like the ear
and nose.
Gait of Animals
Earthworms move easily on hard and
slippery surfaces.
Gait of earthworms
Earthworms move easily on hard and slippery surfaces. Earthworms have tiny, stiff hair-like
projections, called bristles, under their body. They grab the soil with the help of these bristles.
Earthworms first stretch and then contract their muscles to move. As a result, they cover only
a small distance with every move. A slimy substance secreted by the earthworm helps it to
move. Earthworms eat their way through the soil. They throw away undigested food, which
improves the quality of the soil.
Gait of snails
The outer skeleton of the snail, the shell, is made of calcium carbonate. The snail pulls this shell
along as it moves. The snail can even hide its head inside the shell. The strong muscular foot
below the shell can protrude.
The under surface of the muscular foot is lubricated with mucus. Waves of muscular
contractions along this surface help a snail move. The mucus also reduces the risk of injury from
sharp objects. That is why snails can walk over sharp objects like blades without getting hurt.
Gait of cockroaches
The cockroach has three pairs of legs that help it to walk, and two pairs of wings that help it to
fly. A cockroach moves its legs with the help of muscles near the limbs. It uses its breast muscles
help to move its wings and fly. A cockroach can walk, fly and even climb. A cockroach can move
in different terrains like sand and wired meshes because of the spines on its legs.
Gait of birds
A bird has a body best suited for flying. Its wings are actually modified forelimbs. Birds can fly
easily with the help of these bony forelimbs. Birds have light and hollow bones. The breast
bones hold the muscles of flight that help them to flutter their wings. The tail controls the
direction of flight. Birds have very strong shoulder bones. They don't have the urinary bladder,
which helps them to fly easily. They can walk and perch on trees with the help of their hind
limbs.
Gait of snakes
Snakes move in S-shaped loops and in a zigzag manner. They cannot move in a straight line.
They have difficulty in moving on very smooth surfaces. Snakes have a long back bone and
many interconnected muscles that help them to slither. They have muscles connecting the
backbone, ribs and skin. Snakes move in grass, sand and water. Snakes do not have arms or
legs, but even then, they can climb trees.
Gait of fish
Fish have a streamlined body, which helps them move fast in water.
Fish swim with the help of their fins. The tail moves from side to side, and helps the fish swim in
the right direction. Some fish, however, move by bending their bodies from one side to another
in quick succession, which produces a thrust that helps it move forward.
5. The Living Organisms and their
Surroundings
Habitat and Adaptation
Livings things exist in most places. Life

exists even in open volcanoes.
Livings things exist in most places. Life exists even in open volcanoes. The term habitat refers to
the surroundings where organisms live. Every habitat is home for a certain living creature.
Habitat includes both living and non-living components. Plants and animals have different
features that help them to survive in their own habitat. Habitat can be terrestrial or
aquatic.
Terrestrial habitat refers to the land where all plants and animals survive. It includes deserts,
forests and grasslands, as well as coastal and mountain regions. For example, camels and cactus
plants live in deserts only.
Aquatic habitat refers to the water where plants and animals survive. Aquatic habitat includes
rivers, ponds, lakes, ocean and swamps. For example, fish live in water.
Adaptation: Plants and animals develop certain features or certain habits that help them
survive in their surroundings, and this is known as adaption. Different living creatures adapt to
their habitats in different ways. For example, fish have gills that help them to live in water and
use the oxygen dissolve in it. Plants that live in water have special tissues that help to take in
dissolved gas from water. For example, the ulva has ribbon-like leaves.
It takes thousands of years for a livings being to adapt to its habitat.
Acclimatization: The small adjustments by the body to overcome small changes in the
surrounding atmosphere for a short period of time are called acclimatization.
The components in a habitat are broadly classified into two types. They are biotic and
abiotic components.
Biotic components include all the livings organisms in a habitat.
Abiotic components include all the non-living things in a habitat. These include air, rocks, water,
sunlight and heat. All livings things depend on the abiotic components for all their needs. The
abiotic components are very useful for the survival of the biotic components in a habitat.
For example, sprouting is the first step where a new plant grows from a seed. The sprouting of
a seed depends on abiotic components such as air, water, light and heat.
The population of some species of turtles has declined due to the change in the earth's
temperature. Some popular theories believe that dinosaurs became extinct because of the
changes in the earth's temperature millions of years ago.
Types of Habitat
Habitat is the place that is natural for the

life and growth of an organism.
Terrestrial Habitat
Habitat is the place that is natural for the life and growth of an organism.
Now let us discuss how animals and plants adapt themselves for the terrestrial and
aquatic habitats.
Terrestrial habitat: All the deserts, mountains and forests and plain lands has come
under terrestrial habitat.
Camels have long legs for adaptation.
Snakes and rats live in burrows and come out only during the night when it is cool.
Xerophytes or desert plants shows some adaptations to sustain in the desert
conditions. In desert plants, the leaves are either absent or reduced to spines as in
cacti.
The leaf-like structure seen in cactus is its stem and it carries
photosynthesis. The roots grow deep into the soil for absorbing water.
The reduced leaf and the thick waxy layer of stem minimize
transpiration. The plants and animals in the mountain habitat show some
adaptations. Most of the trees in cold mountains are cone shaped.
The leaves are also very thin and look like needles
For the sliding of water and snow during rains and snowfall.
Animals in mountain areas have long hair and thick skin to protect them from cold climate. Thick
fur all over Bodies of Yak and Snow Leopard protects them from the cold climate.
The mountain goat, have strong hooves that help them run on the mountain slopes easily
The animals living in the grasslands show some adaptations.
Lions live in forests and prey on other animals, like deer, for food.
The lions brown skin colour blends easily with the colour of dry grass in grasslands and helps in
the catching the prey.
They have strong claws to tear and eat their food.
The eyes of the lion in front of its head helps in identifying the prey from long distances.
Deers have long ears to help them sense the presence of a predator.
Deers have eyes on the side of its head to look in all directions for danger and have long legs to run
away from predator.
Aquatic Habitat
All the fresh water and marine water bodies , has come under terrestrial habitat. Fish
have special features that help them to live in water.
They have streamlined bodies, which reduce friction and allow them to move freely in water.
Sea animals like the octopus and the squid do not have streamlined body as they stay deep inside the
ocean on the ocean bed, but make their body streamlined when they move in the water.
Sea animals, like fish, octopus and squid have gills that help them to absorb the dissolved oxygen from
the water they drink!
Dolphins and whales have blowholes to breathe in air when they swim close to the surface of the
water and there by stay inside the water for a long time without breathing.
In general the aquatic plants have much smaller roots and helps the plant in holding on the
surface. Stems are long and light.
Submerged plants such as Ulva has narrow and ribbon-like leaves. These allow the plants to bend
themselves in the direction of the flow of water.In milfoil, leaves are highly dissected, making water to
easily flow without Frogs usually live in ponds and lakes.
A frog can live both in water and on land. Frogs have strong hind legs to hop on land and webbed feet
to VI
swim in Foundation,
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Frogs also have a membrane called the nictitating membrane on their eyes. This
membrane helps protect their eyes inside water.
Skeletal System
Table of Content
 Bones of Cranium
 Facial Bones
 Vertebral Column
 Atlas Vertebra
 Thoracic Vertebra
 Lumber Vertebra
 Coccyx
 Sternum
 Bones of Fore Limbs
 Bones of Hind Limbs
 Joints
 Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System
Skeletal system consists of a framework of bone and a few

cartilages.
Bone and cartilage are specialised connective tissues. The former has a very hard matrix
due t calcium salts in it and the latter has slightly pliabl matrix due to chondroitin salts. In
human being: this system is made up of 206 bones and a fev cartilages. It is grouped into
two principal division the axial and the appendicular skeleton.
Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed along the main axis of the body. The skull,
vertebral colum sternum and ribs constitute axial skeleton.
The skull is composed of two sets of bones - cranial and facial, that totals to 22 bones.
Cranial bones are 8 in number. They form the hard protective outer covering, cranium for
the brain. The facial region is made' up of 14 skeletal elements which form the front part of
the skull. A single U-shaped bone called hyoid is present at the base of the buccal cavity
and it is also included in the skull.
Bones of Cranium
Frontal: Forms the forer.ead (anterior or front part of the top of cranium) and some upper
parts (roofs) of eye 'orbits or sockets and nasal cavities. A newborn infant displays a faint
suture in midline of frontal, indication that adult frontal is actually formed of two completely
fused frontal. Frontal suture between two frontal .disappear by age 6 years. It persists
throughout life it is referred as metopic sutures.
Parietals : Articulated to and situated just behind frontal. Form the main parts of bulging
top and sides of cranium.
Occipital: Articulated to and situated just behind parietals, Forms posterior (back) and
lower (base) parts of cranium. Foramen magnum is a large perforation in this bone. On
each side of the foramen, the occipital bears a prominent elevation called occipital
VI I.I.T.
condyle. TheFoundation,
condyles N.T.S.E. & Science
articulate Olympiad
the skull withBiology Chapter Notes
first vertebra Page
(atlas). Thus, human 38 is
skull
dicondylic,
Temporals: Form lower parts of right and left sides of cranium, as well as, the floor of
cranial cavity. These house structures of internal and middle ears and forma part of
external auditory meatus. The middle ear of each side encloses the three small ear
ossicles' - malleus, incus and stapes. The mastoid process with mastoid air cells in adult.
Sphenoid: A typically butterfly-shaped bone that forms the .middle and anterior parts of
base of cranium in front of occipital in the middle and temporals on the sides. It articulates
with all skull bones, keeping these firmly together. It also formsparts of lateral walls and
floors of eye orbits.
Sphenoid with sella turcica depression for pituitary body.
Ethmoid: A small, irregular bone in front of sphenoid and behind nasal bones. It fashions
the front (anterior) extremity and closer of cranial cavity. It also contributes to the
architecture of eye orbits and proximal parts of nasal chambers.
Facial Bones
Nasals: Small, oblong bones in middle of upper part of face, forming proximal part of the
bridge of our nose. The remaining, lower part of our nose is formed of cartilage.
Inferior nasal conchae (Turbinales): Two highly coiled, scroll-like processes of ethmoid
bone, called conchae project into each nasal cavity from lateral wall of the proximal bony
part of concerned nasal chamber. One ethmoidal concha is superior (uppermost). The
other one is called middle concha, because it is followed by a thin, separate scrolllike bone
which is named inferior nasal concha or turbinate.
Vomer: A thin, elongated, platelike bone, forming a part of the septum which separates
the two nasal cavities.
Lacrimals: Small and thin, finger-shaped bones, each located in front part of the medial
(inner) side of corresponding eye orbit. These form a part of the passages of
corresponding tear ducts.
Zygoma tics (Malars): Cheek-bones; form the prominences of our cheeks and parts of
the floor and side walls of eye orbits.
Palatines: L-shaped bones that form the back (posterior) part of our hard palate (roof of
mouth). Also contribute to the framework of nasal cavities and floor of eye orbits.
Maxillae: Large, upper jaw bones that form the major part of our face and upper jaw.
Comprise entire front (anterior) part of our hard palate. Also contribute to the architecture
of eye orbits and nose. Bear the teeth of upper jaw.
Mandible: Largest bone of our face, and strongest of all bones of the body. Forms entire
lower jaw and bears all lower jaw teeth. Articulated with temporal bones of skull. Only skull
bone that moves.
The skull region articulates with the superior region of the vertebral column with the help of
two occipital condyles (dicondylic skull).
Vertebral Column
It is our backbone which extends in the mid axis of the back (posterior) part of our trunk
from head to the lower (inferior) extremity of trunk. Together with the sternum and rib, it
forms the supporting frame work of our trunk. It support and rotate the head, suspends the
viscera, protect vital organs, provides attachment to limb girdles, facilitates some
movement of the trunk and houses the spinal cord. Vertebral column make two-fifth of
total weight of body. The length of human vertebral column is 71 cm. (28 Inc.) in adult
male and about. 61 cm (24 m) in an average adult female.
Curvatures of vertebral column: In a foetus, there is only a Single anteriorly concave
curve, in adult there are 4 curves like, cervical, thoracic, lumber, and sacral. Cervical and
lumber are anteriorly 'convex, while thoracic and sacral are anteriorly concave. At
approximately 3rd month after birth, when an infant begins to hold its head erect, cervical
curves develops,
VI I.I.T. Later,
Foundation, when
N.T.S.E. the child
& Science sits up,Biology
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Chapter Notes the lumber curves
Page 39
further develops. The thoracic and 'sacral curves retains anterior concavity of foetus, thus
are called 'Primary curves'. The cervical and lumber curves are modification of the original
foetal curves, are called' "Secondary curves ".
The curves of vertebral column are important because they increases its strength, help
maintain balance in upright position absorb shock during walking and running and help
protect the column from fracture. Certain abnormalities of curvature are:
Kyphosis: Exaggeration of thoracic curve, resulting in "round-shouldered" appearance,
also called hunch back.
Lordosis: An exaggeration of lumber curve, also called sway back.
Scoliosis: An abnormal lateral curvature in any region of spine.
The Vestigeal notochord called nucleus pulposes is found in intervertebral disc. Inter-
vertebral disc is fibro cartilagenous disc present between centrum of vertebrate.
Our vertebral column is formed by 26 'serially arranged units called vertebrae and is
dorsally placed. It extends from the base of the skull and constitutes the main framework
of the trunk. Each vertebra has a central hollow portion (neural canal) through which the
spinal cord passes. First vertebra is the atlas and it articulates with the occipital condyles.
The vertebral column is differentiated into cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5); sacral (1-
fused) and coccygeal (1-fused) regions starting from the skull. The number of cervical
vertebrae are seven in almost all mammals including human beings.
Atlas Vertebra
(i) First cervical vertebra.
(ii) Body is formed of vertebral arch transverse process:
(iii) It supports the globe of the head like the earth by the atlas (super man).
(iv) Centrum is absent.
(v) Neural spine absent.
(vi) Transverse process are long with transverse foramen.
Thoracic Vertebra
(i) Centrum acoelus.
(ii) Neural canal is formed by union of two neural arches.
(iii) Neural spine is a flat & long directed backward.
(iv) Club shaped transverse process.
(v) Neural arch with superior articular process.'
(vi) Two demifacets for articulation of head of a rib are present.
Lumber Vertebra
(i) Centrum acoelus.
(ii) Neural spine well developed.
(iii) Transverse process are thin and long.
(iv) Small accessory process present near the root of each transverse process.
(v) It is the largest vertebrae.
Sacrum: It is a triangular bone formed by fusion of 5 sacral vertebra.
(i) Fusion normally begins between 16 to 18 years of age and is completed by 30 yrs. of
age.
(ii) Serves as strong foundation for pelvic girdle.
(iii) Sacrum with 4 pairs of anterior and posterior sacral "foramina.
(iv) Lateral part of sacrum articulate with ilium of hip bone.
(v) Female sacrum is shorter, wider and more curved between 52 and 53 the male sacrum
is longer, narrower, and less curved.
(vi) In birds some of the vertebrae are fuse to form synsacrum. [Last thoracic+ Lumber+
Sacral+ One or two caudal]
Coccyx
(i) It is formed by fusion of four coccygeal vertebrae.
(ii) It is last section of backbone.
(iii) It is small triangular bone.
(iv) Two coccygeal cornua project up to articulate with sacral cornua.
(v) Rudimentary transverse process.
(vi) Fusion generally occurs between 20 and 30 years of age.
The vertebral column protects the spinal cord, supports the head and serves as the point
of attachment for the ribs and musculature of the back.
The ribs' are curved bars, which movably articulate with the thoracic vertebrae at the back
and while with the sternum in front. All collectively forming a bony cage, the thoracic
basket.
There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each rib is a thin flat bone connected dorsally to the vertebral
column and ventrally to the sternum. It has two articulation surfaces on its dorsal end and
is hence called bicephalic. First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs. Dorsally, they are
attached to the thoracic vertebrae and ventrally connected to the sternum with the help of
hyaline cartilage. The 8th, 9th and 10th- pairs of ribs do not articulate directly with the
sternum but join the seventh rib with the help of hyaline cartilage. These are called
vertebrochondral (false) ribs. Last 2 pairs (11th and 12th) of ribs are not connected
ventrally and are therefore, called floating ribs. Thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum
together form the rib cage.
The ribs serve three important functions
a) They protect the heart, large blood vessels and lungs.
b) They bear respiratory muscle (external and internal intercostal muscle).
c) Lower two pair of ribs protect the kidney. (11th and 12th)
Sternum
1. It is bone of chest.
2. It is absent in fish turtle.
3. It is associated with pectoral girdle in amphibia.
4. In man it is made up of cervical manubrium (presternum), mesosternum and xiphoid
process (Metasternum).
5. (v ) In male it is nearly 17 cm long.
6. Manubrium is broad and thick.
7. Mesosternum is made up fine sternabae.
8. Metasternum is represent by xiphisternum which is smallest broad and thin. In mammal a
cartilagenous plate attached with xiphisternum is known as xiphoid cartilage (hyaline).
9. Sternum = Manubrium + 5 sternabrae + Xiphisternum.
10. The sternum has two function:
o It takes part in the formation of the 'protective thoracic basket.
o It plays a role in the respiratory mechanism.
The bones of the limbs alongwith their girdles constitute the appendicular skeleton. Each
limb is made of 30 bones. The bones of the hand (fore limb) are humerus, radius and ulna,
carpals (wrist bones - 8 in number), metacarpals (palm bones - 5 in number) and
VI I.I.T. Foundation,
phalanges (digits -14 N.T.S.E. & Science
in number). Olympiad
Femur Biology
(thigh boneChapter Notes bone), tibia and
- the longest Pagefibula,
44
tarsals (ankle bones - 7 in number), metatarsals (5 in number) and phalanges (digits - 14
in number) are the bones of the legs (hind limb). A cup shaped bone called patella covers
the knee ventrally (knee cap).
Pectoral and pelvic girdle bones help in the articulation of the upper and the lower limbs
respectively with the axial skeleton. Each girdle is formed of two halves. Each half of
pectoral girdle consists of a clavicle and a scapula. Scapula is a large triangular flat bone
situated in the dorsal part of the thorax between the second and the seventh ribs.
The dorsal, flat, triangular body of scapula has a slightly elevated ridge called the spine
which projects as a flat, expanded process called the acromion. The clavicle articulates
with this. Below the acromion is a depression called the glenoid cavity which articulates
with the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joint. Each clavicle is a long slender
bone with two curvatures. This bone is commonly called the collar bone.
Pelvic girdle consists of two coxal bones. Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three
bones - ilium, ischium and pubis. At the point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity
called acetabulum to which the thigh bone articulates. The two halves of the pelvic girdle
meet ventrally to form the pubic symphysis containing fibrous cartilage.
Limb bones: Limb are of two types fore limb and hind 'limb,
Bones of Fore Limbs
a) Humerus or arm bone or bone of upper arm, is longest and largest bone of upper limb.
b) It articulates proximally with scapula and distally at the elbow with both ulna and
radius.
c) Humerus proximal" end with greater and lesser tuberosity tubercle.
d) Both radius and' ulna are with nutrient foramina.
e) Radius present towards thumb side.
f) Ulna present towards little finger side.
g) It includes humerus + radius & ulna + carpals + meta . carpals + Phalanges.
h) Humerus is characterised by presence of deltoid tuberocity for the attachment of
muscles.
i) Distal end of humerus at the elbow joint is like pully and called trochlea. Its groove is
called olecranon fossa whose basal part is marked by a supratrochlear foramen for the
passage of brachial artery and nerve.
j) Humerus is characterised by arterial foramen.
k) Head of the humerus articulate with glenoid cavity of pectoral girdle.
l) Radius is smaller and ulna is larger, were bones of fore arm.
m) Styloid process is present in distal end of ulna and radius both.
n) Olecranon process is present in ulna. Proximally, which forms prominence of elbow.
o) Trochlear notch is formed by ulna which is also known as sigmoid notch.
p) Carpals or wrist bone are eight in number, joined to one another by ligaments. Carpals
are arranged in 2 rows, with 4 bones in each row.
q) Metacarpals are five in number, and phalanges are - fourteen, phalanges formula = 2,
3, 3, 3, 3.
Bones of Hind Limbs
a) It includes Femur + Tibia and Fibula + Tarsals + Metatarsals + Phalanges
b) Fovea capitis is depression in head of femur.
c) Femur is longest and strongest bone of body.
d) Femur is known as bone of thigh
e) Greater trochenter, lesser trochenter 3rd trochonter are present in femur, of thigh and
buttock muscles.
f) Patellar groove in found in distal end of femur.
g) Fibula is smaller and associated with knee joint.
h) Tibia is larger, also called shin bone. It bears a weight of body.
i) Tarsal bones are seven.
j) Metatarsals are five.
k) Phalanges are fourteen.
l) Phalanges formula = 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
m) Patella form knee cap.
n) Patella is formed by sesamoid bone. Fabella is also example of sesamoid bone.
o) Thumb of foot is called hallux.
p) Ankle bones have 7 tarsals and arranged in two rows then 1st row have talus and
calcaneus, second row with cuboid, Navicular, and I, II, III cuneiform.
Joints
Joints are points of contact between bones, or between bones and cartilages. Force
generated by the muscles is used to carry out movement through joints where the joint
acts as a fulcrum. The movability at these joints vary depending on different factors. Joints
have been classified into three major structural forms, namely, fibrous, cartilaginous and
synovial.
Fibrous joints
VI I.I.T. do not allow
Foundation, N.T.S.E.any movement.
& Science This
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is shown by the flatPage
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49
bones which fuse end-to-end with the help of dense fibrous connective tissues in the form
of sutures, to form the cranium.
In cartilaginous joints, the bones involved are joined together with the help of cartilages.
The joint between the adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column is of this pattern and it
permits limited movements.
Synovial joints are characterised by the presence of a fluid filled synovial cavity between
the articulating surfaces of the two bones. Such an arrangement allows considerable
movement. These joints help in locomotion and many other movements. Ball and socket
joint (between humerus and pectoral girdle), Hinge joint (knee joint), Pivot joint (between
atlas and axis), Gliding joint (between the carpals) and Saddle joint (between carpal and
metacarpal of thumb) are some examples.
Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System
Myasthenia gravis: Auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction leading to
fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscle.
Muscular dystrophy: Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle mostly due to genetic
disorder.
Tetany: Rapid spasms (wild contractions) in muscle due to-low Ca++ in body fluid.
Arthritis: Inflammation of joints.
Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterised by decreased bone mass and
increased chances of fractures. Decreased levels of estrogen is a common cause.
Gout: Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.
Sprain: Sprain refers to injury to a joint capsule, typically involving a stretching or tearing
of tendons or ligaments. Unfortunately, both these structures have much poorer
regenerative power than bone, and once stretched often remain weak. Sprain is often
considered a minor disorder, but it may become chronic.
Fracture: Fracture is a break of a bone. Fracture occurs rarely in children. The bones of
children have a large quantity of organic matter and are, therefore, very flexible and less
likely to break. With advancing age, mineral matter (calcium phosphate) is deposited in the
bones. This decreases the organic matter, making the bones hard and brittle. Thus, old
people are more liable to fracture of bones. Bones fractures are of many types.
(a) Green-stick fracture or complete: It is mearly a crack. The bones remains partly
intact, occurs only in children.
(b) Simple or complete fracture: Bone breaks completely into two parts which remain
close to each other.
(c) Comminuted fracture: Bone breaks into more than two pieces (smaller fragments
between two main fragment)
(d) Compound fracture: Bone breaks completely but a fragment pierces out through the
skin.
(e) Evulsive fracture: A small piece breaks off fully from the bone but remains attached to
the ligament. Fractures need surgical treatment for healing and should be promptly and
properly attended to.
Note:
Bones of upper limb (Fore limbs) of Man
(a) Arm - Brachium - Humerus = 1 bone
(b) Fore arm - Antibrachium - Radius + Ulna =-2 bone
(c) Wrist-Carpus = 4 + 4 carpals = 8 bone
(d) Palm - Metacarpals - 5 metacarpals = 5 bone
(e) Fingers - Phalangeal formula - 2 3 3 3 3 = 14 bone
Total = 30 bone
In upper arm total 30 bones are present.
Bones of lower limb - Hind limbs of man
Thigh – Femur : 1 bone
Knee - Knee cap - patella : 1 bone
Leg - Tibia + Fibula:2 bone
Ankle - 7 tarsals :7 bone
Sole - 5 Meta tarsals :5 bone
Phalangeal formula - 2 3 3 3 3:14 bone
Total: 30 bone
In man total no. of muscles: 656 muscles
Bleeps and Triceps Arm
Gastrocnemius Shank of leg
Gluteimaximus Buttock muscles
Oblique Eye muscles
Rectus Eye muscles
Maxillaries Upper jaw
Pectoralis Major Chest
Pectoralis Minor Chest
Mandibularis Muscle of lower jaw
Latissisus dorsi Shoulder muscle
External oblique Lower abdomen
internal oblique Lower abdomen
Transversus Lower abdomen
Rectus abdominus Lower abdomen
Stepedial muscle / arrector pilli Smallest muscle
Sartorius femoris Longest muscle
Gluteus maximus Largest muscle
Bone of lower jaw - Mandible.

Strongest - bone of axial skeleton = Mandible (Lower jaw)
Neurocranium - A part of skull having brain and sensory capsules.
Sella turcica - Depression in sphenoid of skull that lodges pituitary body.
Wish bone - It is V-shaped bone formed by the fusion of clavicle and inter clavicle in bird.
It is also named as Merry thought bone.)
Largest foramen - Foramen of magnum at the base of cranium from where brain enters
into spinal cord.
Weberian Ossicles - Small bones developed from 1st four vertebrae of bony fishes like
carp and cat fish. These connect air bladder to internal ear and act as a barometer)
Smallest bone - Stapes
Longest bone - Femur
Movable joints are called synovial joints.
Synovial joints have a synovial or joint cavity, a space between articulating bones.
Articular cartilage covers the surface of articulating bones.
Articular cartilage of synovial joints is hyaline cartilage.
Synovial joints are surrounded by a tubular articular capsule.
The articular capsule consists of two layers; outer fibrous capsule and inner synovial
membrane.
The synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid which lubricates and provides nourishment
to articular cartilage. N.T.S.E. & Science Olympiad Biology Chapter Notes
VI I.I.T. Foundation, Page 53
In old age, stiffness of joints is due to the decrease in synovial fluid.
Structural arrangement of a perfect joint permits considerable movement of articulating
bones without danger of friction.
Due to the elasticity of the ligaments of the wall of joint capsule, articulating bones
automatically return back to their normal positions after movements.
Sprain is caused by excessive stretching of ligament at the joint. It causes pain and
swelling,
Dislocation between two bones may occur when ligament ruptures or it is torned and the
bones are displaced.
In human vertebrae are grouped into five groups namely cervical, thoracic, lumber,
sacrum, coccygeal
Category Name of vertebrae Number Region Neck Curve

7
Cervical curves
1. Cervical (1st atlas) (2nd chest
forward
Axis)
Thoracic curves
2. Thoracic 12 Abdomen
backward
Lumbar curves
3. Lumbar 5 Pelvis
forward
5
Sacral curves
4. Sacral (fused to form a Vestigeal tail
backward
single sacrum)
4
Coccyx curves
5. Coccygeal (fused to form a Region Neck
forward
single coccyx)
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Body Movements

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Body Movements

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Body Movements

Figure 1: Body Movements

Figure 3: Human Skeleton

Figure 4: Detailed Movement in Earthworm

Long Answer Type Questions.

HUMAN BODY AND ITS MOVEMENTS:

Ball and socket joints

The major parts of the skeleton are:

 Immovable: A joint which permits no kind of movement is called as

 Immovable: A joint which permits no kind of movement is called as

Joints and their Types

The point at which two separate bones

The point at which two separate bones meet is called a

This joint provides movement in any direction.

Shoulder joints and hip joints are examples.

The elbow joint between the humerus and the ulna.

The skull rotates on the upper end of the back bone.

The sutures between the bones of the cranium are an example.

Bones and Skeleton

The skeleton is a framework of all the bones

The skull protects the brain.

lungs, heart, stomach, abdomen and liver.

Earthworms move easily on hard and

Habitat and Adaptation

Livings things exist in most places. Life

It takes thousands of years for a livings being to adapt to its habitat.

Biotic components include all the livings organisms in a habitat.

Habitat is the place that is natural for the

Xerophytes or desert plants shows some adaptations to sustain in the desert

The leaf-like structure seen in cactus is its stem and it carries

adaptations. Most of the trees in cold mountains are cone shaped.

They have strong claws to tear and eat their food.

membrane helps protect their eyes inside water.

Skeletal system consists of a framework of bone and a few

Bone of lower jaw - Mandible.

Category Name of vertebrae Number Region Neck Curve

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