CHAPTER 1: INTRDUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

 What is Fluid Mechanics

 Dimensions and Units
 Physical Properties of Fluid
Fluid: A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing and that substance is in the liquid or gas
phase.
OR
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to external shearing stress, no
matter how small.
A fluid has following characteristics:
It has no definite shape of its own, but conform to the shape of the containing vessel.
Even a small amount of shear force exerted on a fluid will cause it to undergo a deformation which
continues as long as the force is continues to
be applied.
Deformation of a rubber block placed
between two parallel plates under the
influence of a shear stress. The shear stress
shown is that on the rubber—an equal but
opposite shear stress acts on the upper plate.

In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but

in fluids, stress is proportional to strain rate.
When a constant shear force is applied, a solid
eventually stops deforming at some fixed strain
angle, whereas a fluid never stops deforming and
approaches a constant rate of strain.
Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal component of a force
acting on a surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential component of a force
acting on a surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest is at a state of zero shear stress.
When the walls are removed or a liquid container is tilted, a shear develops as the liquid moves to
re-establish a horizontal free surface.
The normal stress and shear stress at the surface of a fluid element. For fluids at rest, the shear
stress is zero and pressure is the only normal stress.
Classification of Fluids
A fluid may be classified as follows:
Classification A: Liquid, Gas and Vapour
Classification B: Ideal Fluid and Real fluid
Liquid: A liquid is fluid which possesses a definite volume (which varies slightly with temperature
and pressure)
The contraction of volume of liquid under compression is very small which is generally ignored.
So liquid is assumed to incompressible (fluid of constant density)
Gas: It does not have definite volume and is compressible (fluid of variable density)
Vapour: It is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very near the liquid state
(i.e. steam)

Unlike a liquid, a gas does not form a free surface,

and it expands to fill the entire available space.
Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous
words.
Gas: The vapor phase of a substance is
customarily called a gas when it is above the
critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the current phase is not far from a state of condensation.
Macroscopic or classical approach: Does not require
a knowledge of the behavior of individual molecules and
provides a direct and easy way to analyze engineering
problems.
Microscopic or statistical approach: Based on the
average behavior of large groups of individual
molecules.
On a microscopic scale, pressure is determined by the
interaction of individual gas molecules.
However, we can measure the pressure on a macroscopic scale with a pressure gage.
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and molecular ordering is
nonexistent.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at relatively fixed positions in a
solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual
molecules move about at random in the gas phase.
Mechanics: The oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies under
the influence of forces. It has three branches
i) Statics: It is the branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest or forces in equilibrium.
ii) Kinematics: It is the branch of mechanics which deals with pure motion, without reference to
the forces involve in it.
iii) Dynamics: It is branch of mechanics that deals with the action forces in producing or changing
the motion of body
Or
It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the motion and equilibrium of systems under the
action of forces, usually from outside the system.
Fluid mechanics deals with liquids and gases in motion or at rest.
Fluid mechanics: (Mechanics of liquid and gases)
Fluid mechanics is the science which deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion
(fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with
solids or other fluids at the boundaries. It has three
branches
i) Fluid Statics: Fit is the branch of fluid mechanics
which deals with the study of fluids (liquid or gases) at
rest (under statics condition).
Hydrostatics: it deals with the study of
incompressible fluids (liquids including water).
ii) Fluid Kinematics: It is the branch of fluid
mechanics which deals with velocities, accelerations
and pattern of flow only. Forces or energy causing
velocity and acceleration are not dealt under this
discipline.
Hydrokinematics: It deals with velocities,
acceleration and patterns of flow of incompressible (liquids) fluids only. Forces or energy causing
motion are not dealt under this discipline.
Fluid dynamics: It is the branch of fluid mechanics which deals with the relations between
velocities, acceleration and forces or energy exerted by or upon fluids in motion.
Hydrodynamics: Also called hydromechanics is the branch of fluid mechanics which
deals with the relations between velocities, accelerations of liquids including water and forces or
energy exerted by or upon them.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes, such as the
flow of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets,
and automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with naturally occurring flows.
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics. The word “hydraulics” has been derived from a
Greek word “hudour” which means water. Thus hydraulics is the science that deals with laws
governing water at rest or in motion and with application of these laws in engineering.
 Hydraulic Machines: It is the branch of hydraulics that deals with the machines run by
water under some head, or raising the water to higher levels. Examples of hydraulics machines are
water turbines, water pumps etc.
Hydraulic Structures: These are the structures related to water. For example, dams,
barrages, water channels, water pipes, water well irrigation channels, reservoirs.
DIMENSIONS & UNIT
Dimensions:
In fluid mechanics, a dimension means a quantity which is used to express a physical
quantity. For example, mass of water (physical quantity) is expressed by mass which is a
dimension of mass of water and is denoted by the letter M. The length of a pipe (physical
quantity) is expressed by length which is a dimension of length of pipe and is denoted by the
letter L.

Fundamental or Primary Dimensions:

Mass, Length, time and temperature are fundamental or primary dimensions or quantities which
are used to express various physical quantities in Fluid Mechanics subject.

Derived or Secondary Dimensions

 The primary quantities which are expressed in terms of the fundamental or primary
dimensions are called derived or secondary quantities. For example, velocity, area, acceleration,
force etc. are derived or secondary quantities.

The expression of a derived physical quantity in terms of the fundamental or primary

dimensions is called the derived or secondary dimension of that physical quantity.
MLT -2 are the derived or secondary dimensions of the derived quantity, force (F) which is
expressed as:

Force = Mass x Acceleration

i.e. F = mass x a

F = ML/T2 = MLT-2

Fundamental Dimensions Systems

There are two systems for fundamental dimensions which include:
1. MLT (mass, length and time) system
2. FLT (force, length and time) system

Example Problem (1):

Determine the dimensions of the following quantities MLT system:
i) Discharge
ii) Pressure
iii) Power
iv) Specific weight
v) Surface tension

Solution
i) Discharge = area x velocity = L2 x L/T = L3/T = L3T-1 Ans
ii) Pressure = Force/area = MLT-2/L2 = ML-1T -2 (F = ma = ML/T2 = MLT-2)
iii) Power = Work done/time = Force x distance/time = MLT -2 x L/T = ML2T-3
iv) Specific Weight = weight/volume = force/volume = MLT -2/L3 = ML-2T-2
v) Surface tension = force/length = MLT -2/L = MT-2

Example Problem (2)

Determine the dimensions of density, torque and momentum in FLT system of dimensions:

Solution:
Density = mass/volume = F/a x 1/L3 = F/L T2/L3 = FL-4T2
Torque = Force x distance = FL

Momentum = Mass x velocity = F/LT -2 x L/T = FT

Table 1 gives the dimensions of the various physical quantities used in the fluid phenomenon:

Table 1. Quantities and their dimensions used in fluid mechanics

Dimensions in terms of
Quantity
MLT system FLT system
Fundamental quantities
Mass (M)
M FL-1T2
Length (L)
L L
Time (T)
T T

Geometric Quantities
Area (A) L2 L2
Volume (∀) L3 L3
Moment of inertia L4 L4
Kinematic Quantities
Velocity LT-1 LT-1
Acceleration (a) x Grav. Acc. (g) LT-2 LT-2
Discharge (Q) L3T-1 L3T-1
Kinematic viscosity () L2T-1 L2T-1
Dynamic Quantities
Force or weight (for W) MLT-2 F
Mass density () ML-3 FT2L-4
Specific weight () ML-2T-2 FL-3
Dynamic viscosity () ML-1T-1 FL-2T
Dynamic Quantities
Pressure, Shear stress () ML-1T-2 FL-2
Modulus of elasticity (E) ML-1T-2 FL-2
Surface tension () MT-2 FL-1
Momentum (W) MLT-1 FT
Work or Energy (E) ML2T-2 FL
Torque (T) ML2T-2 FL
Power (P) ML2T-3 FLT-1
UNITS
A unit represents a measured amount of a physical quantity. For example weight of a
liquid is 400 pounds (lbs). Here, weight is a physical quantity and 400 lbs is a measured amount
of weight which is represented by unit “lbs”.

Fundamental Units
All physical quantities are expressed in terms of three fundamental quantities, which are:
(i) mass, (ii) length and (iii) time,
The units which are used to express the measured amounts of mass, length and time are
called as fundamental units i.e., kilogram, meter and second are fundamental units.

Derived Units
The units which are expressed in terms of other units (fundamental units) called as derived units.
For example, units of area, velocity (m/s) acceleration (m2/s), pressure (N2/s) etc. are the derived
units.

System of Units
English/British/For-Pound System of Units
Based on English system of units (English units) fundamental quantities; mass, length
and time are represented by slug, feet and seconds units. The physical quantity i.e. weight or
force is expressed by pounds. Here pound is a fundamental or basic unit and slug is a derived
unit as it is expressed in terms of pound i.e. F = m.a or m = F/a or m = lb. s 2/ft.

International System of Units/Metric System of Units (SI)

The SI is a complete system of units based on the meter – kilogram-second (MKS)
system. In the SI system of units, mass (kilogram) is a basic unit and force (newton) is a derived
unit.

F = ma N = Kg – m/s2
The SI system of units is currently being of used in about 100 countries of the world.

Rules for the Usage of SI Units

i) For numbers having five or more digits, the digits should be placed in groups of three
separated by spaces (instead of commas) counting both to the left and right of the
decimal point.
For example: 14500 should be written as 14 500
75890000 should be written as 75 890 000
0.01255 should be written as 0.012 55
 ii) For large or smaller numbers, use only those powers of ten (10) which confirm to 10 3n
where n is a positive (+ve) or negative (-ve) whole number .
For example:

30000000 should be written as 30 x 106

30000 should be written as 30 x 103

0.000001 should be written as 1 x 10-6

0.001 should be written as 1 x 10-3

3) In a four digit number, the space is not required. For example 4550 can be written as
4550.
4) A dash or dot (.) is to be used to separate units that are multiplied together. For example,
newton x meter is written as N-m or N.m. Do not write like mN which means milli-
newton.

5) All symbols are written in small letters like m (for meter), s (for second) and kg (for
kilogram) except the symbols, derived from the proper names like N for Newton & W for Watt.
6) The units with the names of scientists should not start with capital letter, when written in
full. For example write 90 newton. Do not write 90 Newton.

7) Use standard abbreviations for units as given below:

Standard Abbreviations for Units

m for meter or meters
km for kilometer or kilometers

kg for kilogram or
min for minute or minutes

s for second or seconds

N-m for newton x meters (i.e., work done)

KN-m for kilo-newton x meters

N/m3 for newton/cubic meters
Table 2 provides information on commonly used quantities along with their dimensions and units

Quantity Dimensions MLT English Unit SI Unit

& FLT System
Acceleration (a) LT-2 ft/s2 m/s2
Area (A) L2 ft2 m2
Density (ρ) ML-3 slug/ft3 kg/m3
Energy or work (E or W) FL ft-lb N-m
3 -1 3 3
Flow rate (Q) LT ft /s (cfs, cusec) m /s (cumec)
-3
Specific weight () FL lb/ft3 (pcf) N/m3
Kinematic viscosity (v) L2T-1 ft2/s m2/s
Dynamic viscosity (u) FTL-2 lb-s/ft2 N-s/m2
Pressure (p) FL-2 lb/in2 (psi) N/m2 = Pascal = Pa
Velocity (V) LT-1 ft/s (fps) m/s
3
Volume (vol) L ft3 m3
Power (P) FLT-1 ft-lb/s N-m/s

Use of Prefixes with SI units

For very large or very small numbers, the most commonly used prefixes with SI units are given
in Table 3 (provided below):

Table 3. Commonly used Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Multiple Example

Giga G 109 1 giga newton = 1 GN = 109
Mega M 106 1 mega newton = 1 MN = 106 newton
Kilo k 103 1 kilo newton = 1 kN = 103 newton
1 kilometer = 1 km = 103 meter
Milli m 10-3 1 millimeter (mm) = 10 -3 meter or
1 meter = 1000 mm
Micro μ 10-6 1 micrometer (μm) = 10-6 meter or
1 meter = 106 μm
Nano n 10-9 1 nano meter (m) = 10-9 meter
1 meter = 109 nanometer 109 or
1 nanosecond = 10-9 second
1 second = 109 nanosecond
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
As already discussed, fluids include liquids and gases which have different characteristics/
properties:

 A liquid can easily be distinguished from a gas.

 A liquid takes the shape of the vessel into which it is poured.
 The liquids under ordinary conditions are quite difficult to compress. Therefore, they are
regarded as incompressible fluids for most of the purposes.
 A gas completely fills the vessel which contains it.
 The gases can be compressed much readily under the action of external pressure. When the
external pressure is removed, gases tend to expand indefinitely.
Among liquids, properties of water are more important because the subject of “Hydraulics”
mainly deals with water. Following important properties of water will be discussed in detail:

 Density (or mass density)

 Specific weight (or weight density)
 Specific volume
 Specific gravity
 Compressibility and bulk modulus of elasticity
 Viscosity
 Capillarity
 Vapor pressure

1. Density or Mass Density

The density also known as mass density or specific mass, which may be defined as the
mass per unit volume of liquid/water at a standard temperature and pressure. It is generally
denoted by ρ(rho). Mathematically, density is expressed by following relationship:

Mass of liquid/water
Density of a liquid/water = Volume of liquid/water

Or
m
ρ =
V
where

 = density (kg/m3)
m = mass (kg)
V = Volume (m3)
The density of water 4oC is 1000 kg/m3 ( = 1 g/cm3), which is considered as standard value
for all practical purposes because variation in water density is very small ( with variation in
temperature and pressure, which is ignored.

Example Problem
If 2.5 m3 of an oil has a mass of 2.0 tonne, find its mass density:

Solution
Given Volume of oil = Voil = 2.5 m3
Mass of oil = moil = 2 tonne = 2 x 1000 = 2000 kg

So, density of oil = ρ oil = moil/Voil = 2000/2.5 = 800 Kg/m3

2. Specific Weight/Weight Density

The specific weight or weight density is defined as the weight per unit volume of a
liquid/water at standard temperature and pressure. It is generally denoted by  (gamma).
Mathematically, specific weight is:

Specific weight =  = weight/volume = W/V

ρVg
 = W/V = mg/V = = ρg
𝑉

γ= ρg
Where

 = specific weight (N/m3)

 = Density (kg/m3)
g = Gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)

Specific weight of water (w) at standard temperature (4oC) and pressure is taken as 9.81
KN/m3 ( = 9810 N/m3).

The variation in w value with variation in temperature pressure is very small, so it is

neglected.

Example Problem
In an experiment, the weight of 2.5 m3 of a liquid was found to be 18750 N. Find the specific
weight of the liquid.
 Solution:
Given: Volume of liquid = VL = 2.5 m3

Weight of liquid = liquid = WL = 18750 N

Find L = ?
W 18750
As V l ⟹ So 𝛾𝐿 = = 7500 N/𝑚3
p 2.5

3. Specific Volume

It is defined as volume per unit mass of a fluid especially of a gas. It is denoted by ν.

Mathematically,
Mathematically, specific weight is:

Specific volume = ν = Volume/Mass = V/m = 1/  ν = 1/

Where

ν = specific volume (N/m3)

 = Density (kg/m3)
ν = reciprocal of density = 1/ ⇒ commonly application of gases

4. Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of the specific weight of the liquid to the specific
weight of pure water at a standard temperature of 4oC. or

Specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of density of the liquid to the density of pure water at a
standard temperature of 4oC.
Specific gravity is dimensionless and has no units. It is denoted by S. Mathematically:
𝛾𝐿 𝜌𝐿
S = = 𝑆 =
𝜌𝑤 𝑎𝑡 4𝑜 𝐶 𝜌𝑤 𝑎𝑡 4𝑜 𝐶
Where
S = Specific gravity of the liquid

L = specific weight of liquid

w at 4oC = specific weight of weight at 4oC = 9.81 KN/m3

L = density of liquid (Kg/m3)

w at 4oC = density of water

w at 4oC = 9.81 KN/m3 = 9810 N/m3

w at 4oC = 1000 Kg/m3

So,

i) L = S x w at 4oC = S x 1000 = 1000S (Kg/m3)

ii) l = S x w at 4oC = S x 9.81 = 9.81S (KN/m3)

Example Problem
Determine the specific gravity of mercury having specific weight of 133 kN/m3 and during of
13550 Kg/m3.

Solution
Given:

Specific weight of mercury = w = 133 kN/m3

Density of mercury = m = 13560 Kg/m3

Find:
Specific gravity mercury = Sm = ?

As Sm = m/w So, Sm = 133/9.81 = 13.56

Also

Sm = m/w 13560/1000 = 13.56

Example Problem 2:
A vessel of 4 m3 volume contains an oil, which weighs 30.2 kN. Determine the specific
gravity of the oil.

Solution:

Given data
Volume of oil = Vo = 4 m3
 Weight of oil = Wo = 30.2 kN

Find
Specific gravity of oil = So = ?
specific weight of oil
Specific gravity =
Specific weight of pure 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 4𝑜 𝐶 (𝛾𝑤4𝑜 𝐶 )
Or

So = o/w4oC
So,

So = 7.55/9.81 = 0.77

w4oC = 9.81 kN/m3

o = weight of oil/volume of oil = Wo/Vo = 30.2/4

o = 7.55 kN/m3
So = 9.77 Ans

5. Compressibility and bulk Modulus of Liquid

Compressibility of Liquid
The property due to which liquids undergo a change in volume under the action of external
pressure (or change in volume due to change in pressure) is known as compressibility. It
decreases with increase in pressure of liquid as the volume modulus (bulk modulus) increases
with the increase in pressure. The compressibility of a liquid is inversely proportional to the
volume/bulk modulus of elasticity (E v) of the liquid i.e.,

Compressibility of liquid  1/EV

The variation in volume of water with variation of pressure is so small that for all practical
purposes it is neglected. Thus, water is considered as an incompressible liquid. However, in
case of water flowing through pipes when sudden or large changes in pressure (i.e. water
hammer) take place, the compressibility cannot be neglected.

Bulk Modulus of Liquids

Elasticity of liquids is measured in terms of bulk/modulus of elasticity (E v).

The volume or bulk modulus of elasticity (E v) is defined as the ratio of the increase in
pressure (compressive stress) to the volumetric strain caused by this pressure increase. This
ratio is applied to liquids and gases (fluids). The compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk
modulus of elasticity i.e. compressibility = 1/Ev= - dv/v/dp

Let us consider a cylinder fitted with a position as shown in the Figure:

Let p = original pressure of cylinder liquid
dp = increase of pressure

V = original volume of liquid

-dv = change of volume (minus sign indicates that the volume of a liquid

decreases as the pressure increase

Volumetric strain = change in volume/original volume = -dV/V

Bulk Modulus = Ev = Volume Modulus = Increase of pressure/Volumetric strain

Or Ev = dp/-dv/v

Unit of Ev will be N/m2 as of presume

The bulk modulus of elasticity of liquids is a function of temperature and pressure

(i.e. Ev =f(T, p). Table 1 given below shows a few values of E V;

Table 1. Bulk modulus of water (mN/m2)

Pressure
(N/m2) 0o 20o 50o
0.1 1950 2139 2210
10.0 2000 2200 2280
30.0 2110 2520 2410
100.0 2530 2730 2840
Table 1 indicates that at any temperature, value of Ev increased continuously with pressure, but
at any one pressure, Ev is a maximum at about 50oC. Thus, water has a minimum compressibility
at about 50oC.

At NTP (normal temperature and atmospheric pressure, 20oC temp. and standard atmospheric
pressure), EV of water = 2.07 x 106 kPa.

Example Problem
When the pressure of liquid is increased from 3.5 MN/m2 to 6.5 MN/m2 its volume is
found to decrease by 0.08 percent. What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid?

Solution

Given Data:
Initial pressure = pi = 3.5 MN/m2

Final pressure = pf = 6.5 MN/m2

Decrease in volume = 0.08%

= -dv/v = 0.08/100
Find: Bulk Modulus, Ev = ?
As increase in pressure (dp) = pf – pi

= 6.5 – 3.5 = 3 MN/m2

= 3 x 106 N/m2

-dv/v = 0.08/100
So, Ev = dp/- dv/v 3 x 106/0.08/100 = 3.75 x 109 N/m2 or

Ev = 3.75 GN/m2
Assume Ev of water = 2200 MN/m2

dp = 7 MN/m2
Compressibility of water = 1/EV = -dv/v/dp

-dv/v = dp/EV = 7/2200

Or –dv/v = 0.003
0.3% of its original volume

for this assumption that water is considered as an compressible fluid is justified.

 6. Viscosity of Fluids
Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow or motion within the fluid. It is
due to the internal friction of a moving fluid which causes resistance to flow. Viscosity is
primarily due to cohesion in case of liquids and molecular momentum exchange between fluid
layers in case of gases and as flow occurs, these effects appear as shearing stresses/forces
between the moving layers of fluid.
A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its molecular structure causes a lot of
internal friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular structure results in
very little friction when it is in motion.
The frictional forces (viscous forces) try to prevent different layers of fluid moving with
different velocities from sliding past each other. Therefore, some shearing stress is needed to
overcome the friction between layers and keep the fluid moving. The stress required is
proportional to the fluid’s viscosity.

In liquids viscosity is due to the cohesive forces between the molecules.

In gases viscosity is due to collisions between the molecules.

The viscosity of fluids strongly depends on temperature:

 The viscosity of a liquid decreases with increasing temperature. This is due to reason that
in liquids the friction is due to inter-molecular cohesion which decreases with increase in
temperature
 The viscosity of a gas increases with increasing temperature. It is due to the fact that in
gases friction is due to exchange of momentum of the molecules, normal to the direction
of flow. The molecular activity increases with rise in temperature.
Newton’s Law of Viscosity
This law states that shear stress on a layer of liquid is directly proportional to the rate of
shear strain or velocity gradient in vertical direction.
Consider a thin layer of a liquid filled between two flat parallel plates as shown in the
following Figure.
Let
A = area of the upper plate

U = velocity of the upper plate moving relative to lower plate

Y = thickness of th e liquid layer

F = a force which is applied on the upper plate which will cause it to move with
velocity U with respect to lower plate
Experimentally it has been found that applied force F is directly proportional to the velocity U
and the area A of the upper plate, and inversely proportional to the vertical distance between
plates Y. That is:

F  AU/Y

F =  AU/Y
As applied force divided by area = shear stress

So F/A = shear stress =  =  U/Y or

 =  du/dy this equation is called

as Newton’s Law of viscosity.

Or  ∝ du/dy

The constant of proportionality  in this formula is the coefficient of viscosity/dynamic

viscosity/absolute viscosity/viscosity of the fluid.

The ratio du/dy is called the rate of shear strain or velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular
to the plates.

The unit of  in SI units is N-s/m2. Other common units of viscosity area poise (P) and
centipoises (cP) after poiseuille.
1 N-s/m2 = 10 P
1p = 100 cp

Kinematic Viscosity (ν) of the Fluid

The kinematic viscosity is equalt o the dynamic viscosity divided by density of the fluid.
i.e. mathematically:
Kinematic viscosity = dynamic viscosity/density of fluid or

ν = /
The unit of v in SI units is cm2/s as stoke (St) after G. G. Stokes. Other common unit of ν is
centistokes (cSt). 1 St = 100 cSt

Note:

 Absolute viscosity  of all liquids is practically independent of pressure range that is

generally faced in engineering problems.
 Kinematic viscosity v of gases varies with pressure because of changes in density.

Types of Fluids Based on Viscosity Presence

1. Ideal fluids: (already discussed)
2. Real fluids: (already discussed)
3. Newtonian fluids
These fluids follow Newton’s Law of Viscosity i.e. shear stress on a layer of fluid is
directly proportional to the rate of hear strain or velocity gradient. The viscosity of a
Newtonian fluid is constant, independent of flow velocity means  does not change with
rate of shear strain or velocity gradient and dependent only on temperature. Examples:
water, kerosene, milk, etc.
4. Non-Newtonian Fluids
The fluids which do not follow the linear relationship between shear stress and shear rate
or velocity gradient are called as Non-Newtonian fluids. The viscosity of a Non-
Newtonian fluid is dependent not only on temperature but also on shear rate. Depending
on how viscosity changes with shear rate the flow behavior is characterized as:
Shear thinning – the viscosity decreases with increased shear rate
Shear thickening – the viscosity increases with increased shear rate.

The Non-Newtonian fluids are relatively uncommon and are generally complex mixtures.
Examples: blood, paint, solutions or suspensions, mud flows, etc.

Example Problem 1
1 Plate 0.05 distant from a fixed plate, moves at 1.2 m/s and requires force of 2.2 N/m2 to
maintain this velocity. Determine the viscosity of the fluid between the plates.

Solution

Given Data
Velocity of the moving plate = u = 1.2 m/s

Distance between the plate = dy = 0.05 mm = 0.05 x 10-3 m

Shear force (shear stress) per unit area on the moving plate = 𝜏 = F/A = 2.2 N/m2
Determine

Viscosity of the fluid =  = ?

As  =  du/dy
So
τ dy
μ= = τ
du du
dy

Velocity of upper moving plate u = 1.2 m/s

du=change of m/s
Velocity w.r.t. fixed plate = u – 0 = 1.2 – 0 = 1.2 m/s

Put values in the above equation and get  value follows:

2.2 ×0.05 × 10-3

μ= = 9.17 × 10−5 N-s/m2
1.2
= 9.17 × 10-5 × 10 P
Or
s
= 9.17 × 10-4 P ∵ 1 N- =10 P
m2
μ = 9.17 × 10-4 P
or

= 9.17 × 10-2 cP ∵ 100 cP =1 P

Example Problem 2
The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the plate
is 720 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 15 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 3 m/s
requires a force of 120 N to maintain the velocity. Determine:

i) The dynamic viscosity of the oil = o = ?

ii) The kinematic viscosity of oil = ν = ? if the specific gravity of the oil = S o = 0.95
Solution
Given Data:
Each side of a square plate = l = 720 mm =
0.72 m
Oil film thickness = dy = 15 mm = 0.015 m
Velocity of the moving upper plate = u = 3
m/s
Change of velocity between plates = du = 3.0

Force required on upper plate = F = 120 N

Find:

i) Dynamic viscosity = μo = ?
ii) Kinematic viscosity = νo = ?
du
τ = μo .
dy
so
dy
μo = τ .
du
= 231.48 x 0.015/3
i) o = 1.16 N - s/m2 or 11.6 P ∵ 1 N – s/m2 = 10 P
Or 1160 cP ∵ 100 cP = 1P

𝜇𝑜
ii) 𝜈𝑜 =
𝜌𝑜
ρo
So = ⇒ So × ρ w = ρ o
ρw
ρo = 0.95 x 1000 ∵ ρo 1000 kg/m3

ρo = 950 kg/m3

o = ρo g
𝛾𝑜
ρo = o/g ∵ = 𝑆𝑜
𝛾𝑤

9319.5
ρo =
9.81

ρo = 950 kg/m3 ∵ g = 9.81 m/s2 o = 9319.5 N/m2

1.16
𝜈𝑜 = = 0.00122 m2 /s
950
∵ 1 m2/s = 104 St
 νo = 1.22 x 10-3 x 104 = 12.20 cm2/s

νo = 12.20 St

Example Problem (3)

A lubricating oil of viscosity  undergoes steady shear between a fixed lower plate and
an upper moving plate at velocity V. The clearance between the plates is t. show that a linear
velocity profile results if the fluid does not slip at either plate.

Solution
Is the given geometry and motion,
Shear stress is constant throughout

From Newton’s Law of Viscosity, we have

du τ
= = Constant
dy μ
τ
du = dy = Constant
μ
τ τ
∫du = ∫ dy = ∫ dy
μ μ
U = ly + m where m is constant of integration (1)

Where l and m are constants which are evaluated from the no slip conditions at the upper plate at
lower plate.
i) No slip condition at lower plate means:
At y = 0, u = 0 put in Eq. (1) 0 = 0 + m  m = 0
 No slip condition at upper plate means:
At y = t, u = V Put in Eq. (1)
V = lt + 0 (m = 0)
l = V/t Put in Eq. (1)
U = V/t y + 0  I = V/t y
U = Vy/t
This equation determines the velocity profile between plates. This profile reflects a linear
velocity distribution between the plates as shown in the above equation.

Example Problem (4)

The velocity distribution of flow over a plate is parabolic with vertex 30 cm from the plate,
where the velocity is 180 cm/s. If the viscosity of the fluid is 0.9 N-s/m2 find the velocity
gradients and shear stresses at distances of 0, 115 and 30 cm from the plate.

Solution
Distance of vertex from plate = 30 cm

Velocity at vertex = u = 180 cm/s

Fluid viscosity = μ = 0.9 N-s/m2

Find:

1. Velocity gradients at 0, 15 & 30 cm from the plate

2. Shear stresses at 0, 15 & 30 cm from the plate
Equation of parabolic velocity distribution is:
u = ly2 + my + n (1)

Where l, m and n are constants. The values of these constants are found from the following
boundary conditions:
 i) At y = 0, u = 0
ii) At y = 30 cm, u = 180 cm/s
iii) At y = 30 cm, du/dy = 0
Put boundary condition (i) in Eq. (1) and get

When y = 0, u = 0
U = ly2 + my + n

0=0+0+n  n=0
Put boundary condition (ii), in Eq. (1) and get

When y = 30 cm, u = 180 cm/s

U = l y2 + my + n

180 = l(50)2 + m (30) + 0

180 = 900 l + 30 m (2)

Put boundary conditions (iii) in Eq. (1) and get:

When y = 30 cm, du/dy = 0

U = ly2 + my + n = 0

du/dy = 2 ly + m  0 = 2 x l x 30 + m
0 = 60 l + m (3)
Solve Eqs. (2) and 3) and gets

180 = 900 l + 30 m
0 = 60 l + m m = - 60 l put in above Eq.

180 = 900 l + 30 (-60 l)

180 = 900 l – 1800 l

180 = -900 l  l = 180/-900 = -2/10 = 0.2

l = - 0.2

As m = -60 l  m = - 60 x – 0.2 = 12
m = 12
Put

l = -0.2, m = 12 and n = 0 in Eq. (1) and get

u = -0.2 y2 + 12 y
Eq. for parabolic velocity distribution

Now
Velocity gradients:

du/dy = - 0.2 x 2 y + 12 = -0.4 y + 12

du/dy = - 0.4 y + 12

du/dy at y = 0  du/dy = - 0.4 y + 12 = 0 + 12 = 12/s Ans.

du
( ) = 12 /s
dy y = 0

du/dy at y = 15 cm 
du
( ) = −0.4 y + 12 = −0.4 x 15 + 12 = −6 + 12 = 6/s
dy y =15 cm

du
( ) = 6 /s
dy y = 15 cm

du/dy at y = 30 cm  (du/dy) 4 cm = - 0.4 y + 12

= - 0.4 x 30 + 12 = 0
du
( ) = 0
dy y =30 cm

Shear Stresses, 

i)  at y = 0  ∵  = u du/dy
1 = 0 = 0.9 x 12 (du/dy)y = 0 12/s
1 = 0 = 10.8 N/m 2

ii)  at y = 15 cm  y = 5 = 0.9 x 6 (du/dy)y=15 = 6/s

 y = 15 cm = 5.4 N/m2
iii)  at y = 30 cm  y = 30 = 0.9 x 0 = 0
y = 30 = 0 Ans.
Example Problem (5)
A fixed parallel are 12 mm apart (Figure 1). The space between surfaces filled with oil of
viscosity 0.972 N-s/m2. A flat thin plate of 0.25 m2 area moves through oil at a velocity of 0.3
m/s. Determine the drag force:
i) When the plate is equidistant from both the places, and
ii) When the plate is at a distance of 4 mm from one of the plane surface.

Solution
Given
Distance between the fixed parallel plate = 12 mm = 0.012 m
Area of thin plate, A = 0.25 m2

Velocity of plate, u = 0.3 m/s

Viscosity of oil, u = 0.972 N-s/m2

Find,
Drag Force, F = ?
i) When the plate is equidistant from both the plans
Let
F1 = shear force on the upper side of the plate
F2 = shear force on the lower side of the plate

F = total force required to drag the plate = (F1 + F2)

Shear stress (1) on the upper side of thin plate is

given by:

1 = μ (du/dy)1 = 0.972 x 0.3/0.006 = 48.6 N/m2

Force on upper side of plate = F1 = 1 A = 48.6 x 0.25

F1 = 12.15 N

Similarly shear stress (2) on lower side of the plate is given by:

2 = μ (du/dy)2 = 0.972 (0.3/0.006)

= 48.6 N/m2

Drag force on lower side of plate F2 is given by:

F2 = 2 A = 48.6 x 0.25 = 12.15 N
F2 = 12.15 N
Total drag force on thin plate = F

F = F1 + F2 = 12.15 + 12.15 = 24.30 N

F = 24.30 N

ii) When the plate is at a distance of 4 mm from one of the plane

Shear stress on upper side of the plate

1 = μ (du/dy)1 = 0.972 x 0.3/0.008

F1 = 1 A = 36.45 x 0.25 = 36.45 N/m2

Therefore the plate F1 = 9.11 N

Shear stress on lower side of the plate

2 = μ (du/dy)2 = 0.072 x 0.3/0.004 = 72.9 N/m2

Shear force/drag force on lower side of plate

F2 = 2 A = 79.9 x 0.25 = 18.2 N

Total drag force = F = F1 + F2 = 9.11 + 18.22 = 27.33 N

F = 27.33 N

7. Surface Tension
Liquids have cohesion and adhesion molecular attraction forces.

Cohesion
Cohesion means intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid. It enables a
liquid to resist small amount of tensile stress. Cohesion is a tendency of the liquid to remain as
one assemblage of particles.

 Surface tension is due to cohesion between particles at the free surface of a liquid.
Adhesion
Adhesion means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and the molecules of a solid
boundary surface in contact with the liquid. This property enables a liquid to stick to another
body.

 Capillary action is due to both cohesion and adhesion.

8. Surface Tension ()

The surface tension () of a liquid is its property, which enables it (liquid) to resist tensile
stress. It is caused by the force of cohesion between the molecules at the free surface of a liquid.
A liquid molecule in the inertia of the liquid mass is surrounded by other molecules all around
and is in equilibrium. At the free surface of the liquid, there are no liquid molecules above the
surface to balance the force of molecules below it. Consequently, there is a net inward force on
the molecule as shown in the following figure:

Figure: Shows the phenomenon of surface tension in a liquid

This net inward force is normal to the liquid surface. At the liquid free surface a thin layer of
molecules (an imaginary film) capable to resisting tension is formed. This layer film acts as a
membrane and resists tensile stress. This thin layer of molecules is either at the interface between
two immiscible (non-mixing) liquids (as water and mercury) or at the interface between a liquid
and a gas.

Examples (of surface tension phenomenon)

- Rain drops: a falling rain drop becomes spherical due to cohesion and surface tension.
- Capillary rise or depression
- Collection of dust particles on water surface
- Bird can drink water from pond
- Rise of water in a tree
 - Rise of water in soil

Formula for Surface Tension ()

The formula for surface tension is as follows:
force of surface tension
Surface tension =
length of periphery at liquid free surface
Or
F
σ =
L
where

 = N/m
F = N

L = m
Following table gives typical values of surface tension of important liquids at 20oC.

Liquid (when in contact with air) Surface tension () (N/m) at 20oC
Water 0.0735
Glycerin 0.0490
Kerosene 0.0235
Castor oil 0.0392
Alcohol 0.0216
Mercury 0.5100

Important Points about Surface Tension

- Surface tension slightly decreases with increasing temperature
- Surface tension effects are generally neglected in most engineering problems
- However, effects of surface tension become important in problems which involve:
Capillary rise, formation of drag and bubble, hydraulic model studies (when models are
small)

Finally: Comprehensive Definition of Surface tension

Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a
gas or on the surface (interface) between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface
behaves/acts like a membrane under tension. It is denoted by . Its magnitude is expressed as
force per unit length of the free surface. In SI units, unit of surface tension () is N/m.
 9. Capillarity
Capillarity is a phenomenon by which a liquid rises or depresses down/ falls, into a
smaller diameter glass tube above or below the general level of liquid outside the tube. This
phenomenon is due to the combined effect of cohesion and adhesion of liquid particles.

For example: when a tube of smaller diameter is differed in water, the water rises up at the point
of contact in the tube with an upward. Concave surface called meniscus (Concave meniscus).
This is due to the reason that the adhesion between the tube and water molecules is more than
the cohesion between the water molecules. Water wets the tube surface due to surface tension.
But when the same tube is dipped in mercury, the mercury depresses down in the tube with an
upward convex surface called meniscus (Convex meniscus). This is due to reason that the
adhesion between the tube and mercury molecules is less than the cohesion between the mercury
molecules. Mercury does not wet the glass.

Mathematical Formula for Capillary rise or depression

Consider the figure which shows the phenomenon of rising water in the tube of smaller diameter.

h = height of capillary rise (m)

d = diameter of the capillary tube (m) = 2 r
r = radius of the capillary tube (m)

θ = angle of contact of the water surface (degrees)

w = surface tension of water (force per unit length of periphery of the capillary tube)
w = specific weight of water ( = g) (N/m3)
Now:
- Weight of water column (Ww.c) in the capillary tube
above the water surface or level acting downwards
π d2
Ww.c = ×h × γw (1)
4

Vertically/upward component of the force of surface

tension

V = w Cos   d (2)
As downward weight of the water column is balanced by the vertical upward component of the
force of surface tension (lifting force), equation Eq. (1) showing gravity force and Eq. (2)
showing lifting force

Ww.c = V
π d2
= ×h × γw = w Cos   d
4

4 σw Cos θ 4 σw Cos θ
h = =
d γ γd
4σw Cos θ
h =
γ𝑤 𝑑
as for water and clean glass tube

θ = 0o  Cos = 1
4 𝜎𝑤
So, h = γ𝑤 𝑑

2 𝜎𝑤
Or h = d =2r
γ𝑤 𝑟

For Mercury (Figure b)

For mercury angle of depression,  = 140 o

So  = 140 o = - 0.77 or - Cos 40 o -ve and shows depression of mercury

So,
4σm Cos140o
h = γw d

h is capillary fall or depression

Important Points for Capillary Rise or Fall
- Smaller tube diameter of the capillary tube, greater is the capillary rise or depression:
- Capillary effects are negligible for tube diameters greater than 12 mm.
- For wetting liquid like water: for water θ = 0 o when water is pure and is in contact with
clean glass. But θ becomes as high as 25o when water is slightly contaminated.
- For non-wetting liquid (mercury): θ varies from 130o to 150o.

Example Problem (1)

Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, when
immersed in (i) water and (ii) mercury. The temperature of the both liquid is 20 oC. The values of
surface tension of water and mercury at 20oC in contact with air are 0.0735 N/m and 0.51 N/m
respectively. The contact angle for water, θ = 0 and for mercury, θ = 130o. Take specific weight
of water at 20oC equal to 9790 N/m3. Assume specific gravity of mercury at 20oC equal to 13.6.

Given Data
Glass tube diameter = d = 4 mm = 0.004

Surface tension of water at 20oC = water = 0.0735 N/m

Surface tension of mercury at 20oC =  = 0.51 N/m

Specific weight of water at 20oC = w = 9790 N/m3

Contact angle for water; θ = 0o

Find:

i) Capillary effect for water (capillary rise)

ii) Capillary effect for mercury (capillary fall)
 4 σ water Cos θ
iii) Capillary rise (hrise for water = 𝛾𝑤 𝑑

4 ×0.0735 ×Cos 0
=
9790 ×0.004
= 7.51 x 10-3 m

hrise = 7.51mm
iii) Capillary depression for mercury (hdep)
4 𝜎𝑚𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 Cos 130𝑜
iv) ℎ𝑑𝑒𝑝 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑑
4 × 0.51 × (−0.642)
=
(13.6 × 9790) × 0.004

= - 2.46 x 10-3 m
= - 2.46 mm
Or

hdrop = 2.46 mm depression

∵ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 130𝑜 = −0.642

∵ Sm = m/w

m = Sm  w

m = 13.6 x 9790

Example Problem 2:
Assuming that the interstices (pores) in a clay are of size equal to one tenth the mean
diameter of the grain, determine the height to which water rise in a clay soil of average grain
diameter of 0.048 mm. Assume surface tension at air water interface equal to 0.074 N/m.

Solution
Given info:
Pore diameter = d = 1/10 x 0.048 = 0.0048 mm = 0.0048 x 10 -3 m

Surface tension =  = 0.074 N/m

Assume = 0o, w = 9.81 kN/m3 = 9810 N/m3

Find
Capillary rise of water in a clay soil
4 σ water Cos θ
i) ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 =  = 0o
𝛾𝑤 𝑑
Cos  o = 1
4 × 0.074 ×Cos θ
ii) = 9810 ×0.004 × 10−3
hrise = 6.286 m

Example Problem 3
Determine minimum size of glass tubing that can be used to measure water level, if the
capillary rise in the tube is not to exceed 0.3 mm. Take surface tension of water in contact
with air as 0.0735 N/m.

Solution (P3)

Given
Capillary rise = h = 0.3 mm = 0.3 x 10-3 m

Surface tension =  = 0.0735 N/m

Specific weight factor = w = 9810 N/m3

Find

Size of glass tubing, d = ?

4 σ Cos θ 4 × 0.0735 ×Cos 0o

i) h = = Assume  for water equal to 0o
𝛾𝑤 𝑑 9810 × d
4 × 0.0735 × 1
=
9810 × 0.3 × 10−3
d = 100 mm

10. Vapour Pressure

All liquids have a tendency to evaporate or vaporize (i.e. to change from the liquid to the
gaseous state). Molecules are continuously projected from the free surface to the atmosphere.
These ejected molecules are in a gaseous state and exert their own partial vapor pressure on
the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapor pressure of the liquid (P v).
 If the surface above the liquid is confined, the partial after pressure exerted by the
molecules increases till the rate at which molecules re-enter the liquid is equal to the rate at
which they have the surface. When this equilibrium condition is reacted, the uniform
pressure is called as saturation vapor pressure (pvs)

Important Points about Vapor Pressure

- If the pressure on the liquid surface is lower than or equal to the saturation vapor pressure,
boiling takes place. That is why saturation vapor pressure is known as boiling pressure for
a given temperature.
- Vapor pressure increases with rise in temperature because of increased molecular activity
with increase in temperature.
- Mercury has a very low vapor pressure. That is why it is used in barometers.
- Value of saturation vapor pressure is of practical interest in the case of liquids, for if the
confining pressure on liquid surface becomes less than this value, the liquid will vaporize.
- Typical values of some selected liquids at 20oC are given below:

Liquid Pv (N/m2)
Mercury 0.17
Water 2340
Kerosene 3200
Gasoline 55000