Electric Machines

IC160 – Electrical Systems Around Us – Electric Machines
Motors and Generators

IC160 Electrical Systems Around Us Electrical machines help to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy
and vice versa.
Institute Core Course For convenient continuous energy conversion most machines employ
rotary form  Rotating Electric Machines
Electric Machines Mechanical to electrical energy  Generators
Electrical to Mechanical energy  Motors
Reading Material:
• Electrical Engineering by Hambley – Chapter 16 / Sections 16.1~16.4 & Chapter 17 / The electro mechanical energy conversion is generally reversible. The
Section 17.1 same machine, in principle, can act both as a generator and a motor.
• Also, read the appropriate sections from other basic Electrical Engineering books
Though there are several types of machines, the main types are as follows:
Prof. Ramesh Oruganti 1. Synchronous machines
School of Computing and Electrical Engineering 2. Asynchronous (Induction) machines
Indian Institute of Technology, Mandi 3. Direct Current (DC) Machines
August 2018 Prof. Ramesh Oruganti, School of Computing and Electrical Engineering, IIT Mandi 2

Electric Drives and CO2 Emission An Electric Machine
Terminal box Name plate
End housing
Cooling fins
‘Energy-Efficiency Policy Opportunities for Electric Motor-Driven Systems’ – Working Paper from Motor Shaft
International Energy Agency (IEA), 2011.
Hence, improving electric motor/drive efficiency is very much needed.

August 2018 Prof. Ramesh Oruganti, School of Computing and Electrical Engineering, IIT Mandi 3 August 2018 Prof. Ramesh Oruganti, School of Computing and Electrical Engineering, IIT Mandi 4
IC160 – Electrical Systems Around Us – Electric Machines IC160 – Electrical Systems Around Us – Electric Machines
Typical Construction of an Electric Machine Direct Current (DC) Machines
The input to these machines is DC. They are popular in automobile and other
applications.
A disadvantage of DC motor is that it is not rugged (unlike the induction
motor). The ‘commutator’ in the DC motor requires maintenance.
An advantage of DC motor till recently was that its speed and direction can
Rotor with shaft and bearings be easily controlled by controlling the input DC voltage.
Stator is fixed and the rotor rotates. The mechanical load is
coupled to the rotor shaft. Ball bearings will be used at the Nowadays this is not a major advantage since induction motor can also be
ends of the shaft to allow the rotor to rotate freely with used in most variable speed applications now. Power electronic inverters
minimum friction.
have been developed which can apply variable frequency voltage to the
Both rotor and stator are made of iron/steel to have low
reluctance paths for magnetic flux. In the paths where the
stator thereby varying the motor speed.
flux reversal takes place (due to ac flux), steel laminations Also, Brushless DC (BLDC) Motors which are rugged and can rotate at high
are used. Copper/Aluminium windings/conductors will be
placed in the stator and rotor for carrying electrical current.
speeds are currently popular. Typically these use sensors and semiconductor
switches to achieve the function of a mechanical commutator.
The airgap between the rotor and stator, will be kept as small as possible. (Why?)
Types of DC Motors Cross Section of a Two-Pole DC Machine

The DC machine has two parts – stator
• Shunt motor: Used together with power electronic converters in stator and rotor. Both are
industrial speed control applications. cylindrical.
The stator has magnetic poles
• Series motor: High torque at low speeds. Automobile starter
which produce the constant
motors. Also, universal motors (both AC and DC) in hand tools.
magnetic field either by fixed
• Compound motors: Here the torque-speed characteristics can magnets or by DC current in field
be shaped in the required manner. windings (see figure). By shaping
rotor
• Permanent magnet type: This is typically a low power motor. the poles, the flux density in the
These are used in servo applications, machine tools, robots, airgap under a pole is uniform.
computer peripherals. The rotor houses the armature
How is the torque produced here?
windings and the commutator. It
is made of laminated iron Flux /pole . This is approximately the
mounted on the motor shaft. magnetic field flux density in the airgap
multiplied by the pole face area.
Torque in a Current Carrying Coil in a Magnetic Field Right Hand Rule

As the coil rotates, the torque direction changes! Hence the current
direction in the coil has to be reversed.
This is accomplished by the ‘Commutator’.
Induced EMF in a Rotating Coil in a Magnetic Field How EMF is Generated in a DC Machine

Induced EMF  Back EMF
As the coil rotates, the induced voltage vad changes polarity. Hence,
in order to obtain DC voltage (same polarity voltage), we have to
‘rectify’ the voltage.
This is also accomplished by the ‘Commutator’.
How EMF is Generated in a DC Machine How EMF is Generated in a DC Machine
Figure on the previous slide is based on a two-pole machine with a
2 single turn armature coil.
1
1 Notice that without the commutator, the induced voltage is AC.
1
2 Thus, as we saw in previous slide, another function of a commutator-

2
brush arrangement is to act as a ‘mechanical rectifier’ to convert the
induced AC voltage into a DC voltage at the machine terminals. Notice
that the voltage shows a dip when the loop is between poles.
In a practical DC machine, several coils distributed around the
armature are used . So, the DC back emf will show very little
fluctuation.


Rotor and Armature of a DC Machine Armature Laminations
Slots are cut in the rotor
cylinder (built from laminated
iron). The armature conductors
are embedded in the slots.
The armature winding is
connected to a DC source and
made to carry current.
Note:
We need some arrangement to
carry current in and out of the
rotating armature to the DC
source on the outside (which is not rotating).
This is also one of the functions of the commutator-brush arrangement.
So finally, what are the different functions of a commutator?
Armature Winding in a DC Machine Automobile DC Starter Motor
DC Motor Equivalent Circuit DC Motor Power Losses

The voltage % is applied to the
armature of a DC motor. The
armature (winding) resistance is & .
Let us assume that the field magnetic
circuit is linear. Then the flux/pole (
' in the motor will be proportional
to the field current, ( .
The back (induced) emf, ) , in the
A current of will flow in the
armature is proportional to the shaft
angular velocity, * , and the field armature, creating a developed torque

flux, . ≃ neglecting mechanical losses).
≃
) *
The motor torque opposes and tends to
Note that the two constants , the overcome the load torque .
‘back emf ‘ constant and the ‘torque’ At steady-state, the speed ω! will be such
constant are the same. (Show.) that "#$
DC Motor Power Losses (contd.) DC Motor Characteristics
Total input Electrical power % + , %( + (
Field loss and Armature loss are the power losses
in & and &( . The speed-torque characteristics of a
Power Transferred to rotating armature ) + typical shunt excited or separately
Core loss is the hysteresis and eddy current loss excited DC motor will be as shown.
in the rote. Rated torque, TR, is the maximum
Mechanical Loss is the power torque that can be continuously
loss in the motor due to rotating
produced by the motor. Note that
friction.
this torque can usually be exceeded
If mechanical and core losses
for short durations.
are neglected, then
) * When the torque is zero, the motor will rotate at No, which is the no-load speed of
the motor.
where is the mechanical output torque of the motor and * is the mechanical As T is increased, the speed, N, will fall. In the normal operating range of the motor,
rotating speed (rad/s).
the speed will fall linearly with load torque.
When the motor-load system is in equilibrium (steady-state), then and *
* , where and * are the load torque and load speed, respectively.

DC Motor with a Crane Load DC Motor Equivalent Circuit

The voltage % is applied to the
A crane (or hoist) load armature of a DC motor. The
will present an almost armature (winding) resistance is & .
constant load torque Let us assume that the field magnetic
(irrespective of the circuit is linear. Then the flux/pole (
speed). The red Q ' in the motor will be proportional
line(almost horizontal to the field current, ( .
line) indicates the load The back (induced) emf, ) , in the
A current of will flow in the
characteristics and the armature is proportional to the shaft
green line (almost angular velocity, * , and the field armature, creating a developed torque
flux, . ≃ neglecting mechanical losses).
vertical line) the motor
characteristics. ≃
) *
The motor torque opposes and tends to
The motor-load system will operate at the intersection point, Q, called the Note that the two constants , the overcome the load torque .
operating point. At this operating point, the load torque equals the motor ‘back emf ‘ constant and the ‘torque’ At steady-state, the speed ω! will be such
torque and the load speed equals the motor speed. constant are the same. (Show.) that "#$
DC Motor Power Losses DC Motor Example – No load

In the figure shown, NO PPQ N, RS Q. P T, NU PPQ N, RU VVQ T
The motor runs at 1000 rpm under no load, i.e.,
with no external mechanical load connected to it. The
armature current under this condition is 5 A.
• Motor angular velocity under no load
2; + 1500
* 67 789 104.72 B89/D E
60
• Back emf of the motor,
) 6 % F & 220 F 5 + 0.2 219 % 6 ⇒ 67 789'
• The no-load electrical power converted into mechanical power,
IJ 6 ) + 219 + 5 1095 K I 6
I 6 = Developed mechanical power = Mechanical power loss in motor at no-load speed.
We are neglecting here another loss, the ‘core loss’’ in the rotor magnetic core.
• Torque developed by the motor,
I 6'
6 10.46 LM
* 6
DC Motor Example – Full load DC Motor Example – Full load (contd.)

A mechanical load is connected to the motor now. At full load, let the input power
to the motor armature be 10.56 kW ( [\] '. Assume that the mechanical power Calculating the speed d` ef' at full load.
loss in motor is proportional to square of speed (or loss torque is proportional to
cbg.h
speed). Neglect core loss. * + 104.72
cbi
Armature current, 100.6 B89/ sec ⇒ 960.7 BmM
IWX

789 48Z Calculating the developed torque O` ef' at full load.
%
Back emf, 48
) % F & 210.4% + 10.46 100.4 LM
5
Next to calculate the motor speed & developed Calculate the developed mechanical power [` ef in the motor at full load.
torque:
I ) + + * 10,100 K
Assuming that field flux is constant , what are ^SV /^SP & O`V /O`P ?
Here, subscripts 1 & 2 refer to two operating conditions. Determine the speed regulation:
We know that ) * & Ja nm 9 B o
8p76
q r stJJ(rr r stJJ
(rr r stJJ
)b /)c *b /*c and b /c b /c
0.041 ⇒ 4.1%'
DC Motor Example – Full load (Contd.) AC Machines – A Coil of Stator Winding
Calculate the mechanical power loss [`f ef in the motor.
Given that the mechanical power loss in the motor is proportional to square of speed.
c
100.6
Ir 1095 K + 1010.53 K
104.72
Calculate the output mechanical power [wxy ef of the motor.
I I F Ir 9089.5 K
Calculate the (electrical) input power [\] ef under full load to the motor.
IWX 6m
p m7z B p7 8BM8p
B , 6m
p m7z B p7 pℎ 9
10560 , 440 11000K
Calculate the efficiency under full load | ef of the motor.
I 9089.5
} 0.826 ⇒ 82.6 %'
IWX 11000 This is a two pole winding. Notice that the flux density
Calculate the output (load) torque, Owxy . p E7D*p equation represents both time (t)
I 9089.5 and space () variations.
90.35 LM p p E7D~ E7D*p E7D~
* 100.6
Three Phase Stator Winding Rotating Magnetic Field in AC Machines
p E7D*p; p cos *p F 120° ;

p cos*p , 120°'
p p E7D~; p p E7 D ~ F 120° ;
p p cos~ , 120°'
t , ,
E7D*pE7D~ , cos *p F 120° cos ~ F 120°
, cos *p , 120° cos ~ , 120°

cos*p F ~' , cos*p , ~' , cos*p F ~' , cos*p , ~ F 240°'
2 2

, cos*p F ~' , cos*p , ~ F 480°'
2
Rotating Magnetic Field in AC Machines (contd.) Rotating Magnetic Field - Animation

t
cos*p F ~' , cos*p , ~'

, cos*p F ~' , cos*p , ~ F 240°'
2
, cos*p F ~' , cos*p , ~ F 480°'
3
n7, t cos *p F ~ cos *p F ~
2
• At any time t, t varies sinusoidally with  , with max B (= Bm) at    t

• So, t rotates at a speed of  rad/sec. This is the synchronous speed, *s *' in
rad/sec. Remember this is for a two pole machine.
• For a four pole machine, *s */2.
c
• For a ‘P’ pole machine, *s /c /c
, where f = supply frequency (= 50 Hz in India)
bcg
https://3ic1108sam.wordpress.com/2013/06/16/rotating-magnetic-field-concept/
• In other words, Ls

Synchronous Speeds AC Synchronous Machines
f = 50 Hz f = 60 Hz
In a synchronous machine, AC three
No of Poles S NS phase spatially distributed windings
S NS
(rad/s) (rpm) (rad/s) (rpm) are wound on the stator.
DC windings on the rotor produces a
2 314.2 3000 377 3600 magnetic field in the machine. In low
4 157.1 1500 188.5 1800 power machines, the rotor field may
6 104.7 1000 125.7 1200 be produced by permanent magnets.
8 78.54 750 94.25 900
Four Pole Salient Rotor Machine.
c bcg
*s rad/s Ls rpm
/c
AC Synchronous Machines (contd.) Synchronous Motor Characteristics
In a synchronous motor, the three phase AC voltages in the stator windings
produce a rotating magnetic field in the airgap. The speed-torque characteristics of
a typical synchronous will be as
The magnetic field produced by the rotor aligns with the rotating magnetic field
shown.
of the stator and rotates at the same speed (= synchronous speed).
Notice that the speed of the motor
Thus, in a synchronous motor, the motor speed will be constant for a given
bcg
is always the same, equal to the
stator supply frequency. L synchronous speed.

Rated torque, TR, is the maximum
In a synchronous generator, as the rotor is rotated, the rotor magnetic field also torque that can be continuously
rotates. Thus, three phase AC voltages are induced in the stator. produced by the motor.
L I If the torque exceeds Tstall, however,

120 the motor will ‘stall’ (here the
motor speed will go down to zero
Most electric generators are made of synchronous machines.
while the motor draws a very large
In a synchronous generator the frequency of the generated voltage is constant current).
as long as the shaft speed is maintained constant.
Induction Machines Rotor of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
A majority of the motors in the industry are induction machines. They are
rugged and run at near constant speed.
The three phase AC windings in the stator are spatially distributed. This
arrangement produces a rotating magnetic field in the airgap of the
machine as seen earlier.
120
Ls rpm
I
As the stator produced magnetic field rotates, it produces three phase
voltages and currents in the rotor bars/windings. This, in turn, produces
its own magnetic field which interacts with the stator rotating magnetic There are no windings in the rotor and hence the motor is very rugged and
field to produce the motor torque. requires little maintenance.
The motor speed, N, will be less than the synchronous speed (why?). The Common error in English usage:
difference (Ns – N) is called the ‘slip speed’. It requires little maintenance means that it requires (almost) no maintenance.
D slip Ls F L'/Ls It requires a little maintenance means that it requires some maintenance.
Break up View of an Induction Motor AC Motor Performance Parameters
Fan Cooling fins Name plate

End housing
Stator three phase
winding
Explain the various loss components.
Squirrel cage
rotor
Stator (magnetic)
Power rating of the motor (W): Speed Regulation:
Terminal box Shaft
core It is the maximum mechanical power
Bearing
that the motor can produce on a
continuous basis.

Induction Motor Characteristics Induction Motor-Pump
Starting torque Tstart is the torque at
zero speed. If the load torque at zero Pump Motor The torque exerted by certain loads, such as
speed is more than this value, then fans, blowers, compressors and pumps is
the motor will not accelerate to the typically proportional to the square of the
operating speed. speed.
Full load torque, (Tfl), (or rated torque At steady-state, the motor-pump system will
TR) is the maximum torque that can operate at Q. At this point, the torques and
be continuously produced by the the speeds of the motor and the load match.
motor. This torque can usually be
exceeded for short durations.
When the load torque is zero, the At start, the speed is zero. The tt
motor will rotate at no load speed motor produces excess torque 6 6tt
LXr (almost near the synchronous (Ta ) over that of the load.
q q
speed, Ls '. Slip at a speed N is given by, D This excess torque will Q
q
As T is increased, the N will fall. In The ‘breakover’ or the ‘pullout’ torque TPO is the accelerate the motor-pump
the normal operating range, torque is maximum torque that can be produced by the system.

proportional to the slip. motor. s F g
Induction Motor-Crane Induction Motor Example

The torque exerted by certain loads, such
A 5 hp (1 hp = 746 W) induction motor operates from a 440 V rms (line-to-line) three
as cranes and hoists will almost be
phase source and draws a line current of 6.8 A rms at a pf of 0.78 lagging under rated
constant (why?).
full-load conditions. The full load speed is 1440 rpm. Under no-load conditions, the
In such cases, the load starting torque can speed is 1495 rpm, and the line current is 1.2 A rms at a pf of 0.3 lagging. Find the
be high. power loss and efficiency with full load, the input power with no load and the speed
Here, the motor produces lower torque at regulation. If the synchronous speed is 1500 rpm, determine the full load and no load
zero speed than the load demand. Thus slip values.
LOAD the motor will fail to accelerate.
We need to ensure in such cases that

available starting torque is increased to
exceed that of the load. (Can you s = 0.33 % (no load)
suggest one method that can be used?) = 4.00 % (full load)

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IC160 – Electrical Systems Around Us – Electric Machines

Motors and Generators

IC160 – Electrical Systems Around Us – Electric Machines

Hence, improving electric motor/drive efficiency is very much needed.

Types of DC Motors Cross Section of a Two-Pole DC Machine

2 Thus, as we saw in previous slide, another function of a commutator-

IC160 – Electrical Systems Around Us – Electric Machines

Armature Winding in a DC Machine Automobile DC Starter Motor

DC Motor Equivalent Circuit DC Motor Power Losses

angular velocity, * , and the field armature, creating a developed torque

IC160 – Electrical Systems Around Us – Electric Machines

DC Motor with a Crane Load DC Motor Equivalent Circuit

DC Motor Power Losses DC Motor Example – No load

DC Motor Example – Full load DC Motor Example – Full load (contd.)

Three Phase Stator Winding Rotating Magnetic Field in AC Machines

 p  E7D*p;  p  cos *p F 120° ;

Rotating Magnetic Field in AC Machines (contd.) Rotating Magnetic Field - Animation

cos*p F ~' , cos*p , ~'

• At any time t,  t varies sinusoidally with  , with max B (= Bm) at    t

Synchronous Speeds AC Synchronous Machines

Fan Cooling fins Name plate

Explain the various loss components.

IC160 – Electrical Systems Around Us – Electric Machines

Induction Motor-Crane Induction Motor Example

We need to ensure in such cases that

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angular velocity, * , and the field armature, creating a developed torque

p E7Dp; p cos p F 120° ;

cosp F ~' , cosp , ~'

• At any time t, t varies sinusoidally with  , with max B (= Bm) at    t