UNIT II 10 Hours

Carbohydrate metabolism

POINTS TO REMEMBER

Aerobic respiration : Complete oxidation of organic food in presence of oxygen thereby

producing CO , water and energy.

Anaerobic respiration : Incomplete breakdown of organic food to liberate 2 energy in the

absence of oxygen.

ATPSynthetase : An enzyme complex that catalyses synthesis of ATP during oxidative phospho-
relation.

Biological oxidation : Oxidation in a series of reaction inside a cell.

Cytochromes : A group of iron containing compounds of electron transport system present in

inner wall of mitochondria.

Dehydrogenase : Enzyme that catalyses removal of H atom from the substrate.

Electron acceptor : Organic compound which recieve electrons produced during oxidation-
reduction reactions.
Electron transport : Movement of electron from substrate to oxygen through respiratory chain
during respiration.

Fermentation : Breakdown of organic substance that takes place in certain and ethanol. microbe
like yeast under anaerobic condition with the production of CO.

Glycosis : Enzymatic breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid that occurs in the cytoplasm.

Oxidative phosphorylation : Process of formation of ATP from ADP and Pi using the energy
from proton gradient.

Respiration : Biochemical oxidation food to release energy.

Respiratory Quotient : The ratio of the volume of CO produced to the volume of oxygen
consumed.

Proton gradient : Difference in proton concentration across the tissue membrane.

Mitochondrial matrix : The ground material of mitochondria in whichpyruvic acid undergoes

aerobic oxidation through Kreb’s cycle. Abbreviations

ATP − Adenosine tri phosphate

ADP − Adenosine di phosphate
NAD − Nicotinamide Adenine dinucleotide
NADP − Nicotinamide Adenine dinucleotide Phosphate
NADH − Reduced Nicotinamide Adenine dinucleotide
PGA − Phosphoglyceric acid
PGAL − Phospho glyceraldehyde
FAD − Flavin adenine dinucleotide
ETS − Electron transport system
ETC − Electron transport chain
TCA − Tricarboxylic acid
OAA − Oxalo acetic acid
FMN − Flavin mono nucleotide
PPP − Pentose phosphate pathway

Glycolysis – Pathway, energetics and significance

 the scheme of glycolysis is given by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and J.

Parnas. It is also called as EMP pathway.
 Glycolysis is the partial oxidation of glucose or similar hexose sugar into two
molecules of pyruvic acid through a series of enzyme mediated reaction releasing
some ATP and NADH2. It occurs in cytoplasm.
 In plants glucose is derived from sucrose or from storage carbohydrates. Sucrose
is converted into glucose and fructose by enzyme invertase.
 Glycolysis starts with phosphorylation of glucose in presence of
enzyme hexokinase to form Glucose-6-phosphate. One molecules of ATP is used
in this process.
 In next steps Glucose-6-phosphate is converted into fructose-6-phosphate,
catalysed by enzyme phosphohexose isomerase.
 Fructose-6-phosphate uses another molecule of ATP to form Fructose-1-6
biphospahte in presence of enzyme phosphfructokinase.

The most common type of glycolysis is the Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas (EMP pathway), which was discovered by
Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and Jakub Karol Parnas. Glycolysis also refers to other pathways, such as the Entner–
Doudoroff pathway and various heterofermentative and homofermentative pathways.

Glycolysis is also known as EMP PATHAWAY because it was discovered by Gustav Embeden, Otto
Meyerhof, and Jacub Karol Parnas

Glycolysis is also known as Entner Doudoroff pathway

carbohydrates are the source of energy it require the different type of carbohydrate
Respiration is a oxidation phenomenon in glucose oxidizes in thorough many reactions and on this
breakdown process of glucose provides the energy i9nthe form of ATP which require

Glucose (1 mol.)
ATP--------1mol
Hexokinase Mg ++

ADP
Glucose-6-phosphate (1 mol.)
Phospho-

glucoisomerase
Fructose-6-phosphate (1 mol.)
ATP--------1mol
Phospho-
Mg++
ADP
fructokinase
Fructose-1,6-diphosphate (1 mol.)
.Aldolase
Phosphotriose
3-phospho- Dihydroxy acetone
isomerase
glyceraldehyde phosphate

(1 mol.)
*Nonenzymatic (1 mol.)
H3PO4

reaction
1,3-diphosphoglyceraldehyde (2 mol.)
NAD+
Triose Phosphate
dehydrogenase
NADH+H+-----------2 mol.
1,3-diphosphoglyceric acid (2 mol.)
ADP
Phosphoglyceric trans
phosphorylase
ATP--------------------2 mol.
3-phosphoglyceric acid (2 mol.)

Phosphoglycero-mutase

2-phospholgyceric acid (2 mol.)

Enolase H2O

2-phosphoenol pyruvic acid (2 mol.)

ADP
Pyruvate kinase
ATP--------------------2 mol.
Pyruvic acid (2 mol.)
Citric acid cycle- Pathway, energetics and significance

HMP shunt and its significance; Glucose-6-Phosphate dehydrogenase

(G6PD) deficiency Glycogen metabolism Pathways and glycogen storage diseases (GSD)

Gluconeogenesis- Pathway and its significance

Hormonal regulation of blood glucose level and Diabetes mellitus

Biological oxidation
Electron transport chain (ETC) and its mechanism. Oxidative phosphorylation & its mechanism and
substrate phosphorylation

Inhibitors ETC and oxidative phosphorylation/Uncouplers level

Glycolysis – Pathway, energetics and significance
Book

List of abbriviations

Glossary

Suggestive reading s

Bioenergetics
Concept of free energy, endergonic and exergonic reaction,
Relationship between free energy,
enthalpy and entropy;

Redox potential.
Energy rich compounds; classification; biological significances of ATP
and cyclic AMP
PART III BIOENERGETICS AND METABOLISM
19. Metabolic Concepts
20. Bioenergetics
21. Glycolysis
22. Pyruvate Oxidation and Citric Acid Cycle
23. Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation
24. Oxidation of Fatty Acids
25. Biosynthesis of Lipids
26. Oxidation of Amino Acids
27. Biosynthesis of Amino Acids
28. Biosynthesis of Proteins
29. Protein Targeting and Degradation
30. Genetic code.
PART IV HORMONE BIOCHEMISTRY
B Vitamins .......... Coenzymes

Biotin ................... Biotin (enzyme bound)

Folate ................... Tetrahydrofolate

Niacin ...................NAD & NADP

Pantothenic acid ...CoA-SH

Pyridoxine ............Pyridoxal-Pi

Riboflavin ............FAD & FMN

Thiamine ............. Thiamine-PPi

........................ Cobalamin

Bioenergetics

Concept of free energy,

Endergonic and Exergonic reaction,
Relationship between free energy, Enthalpy and entropy

Redox potential.
Energy rich compounds; classification;
Biological significances of ATP and cyclic AMP
Biological oxidation:-
Electron transport chain (ETC) and its mechanism.

Oxidative phosphorylation & its mechanism and substrate level phosphorylation

Inhibitors ETC and oxidative phosphorylation/ Uncouplers level

Oxidations and reductions are when simultaneous known occur as redox reactions

Oxidation is defined as increase the no of oxygen atoms or decrease in numbers of

hydrogen atoms or removal of electrons or increase in oxidation numbers while as
reduction is defined as reduction in no of oxygen atoms or increase in number of
hydrogen atoms.

This removal electrons (oxidation) and addition of electrons (reduction) is the basis of
most of the biological reactions.