Introduction to Intercultural Communication Theory

1. The main approaches to defining culture. The iceberg, the pyramid and the concentric
models of culture. The main characteristics, functions and components of culture.

Culture - the shared experience of a group of people, which is learned through socialization and is transmitted from
generation to generation in order to survive, perpetuate (eternalize) and prosper.
More complete definition - “the total pattern of human behaviour and its products embodied in thought, speech,
action, and artifacts, and dependent upon man`s capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding
generations through the use of tools, language, and systems of abstract thought.” (Webster`s dictionary)
There exist many definitions of culture that focus on different aspects, for example, definitions that speak about
norms and values adopted by a community and prescribing certain patterns of behaviour.
The iceberg model of culture:
- Observable (may or may not be obvious):
Food, music, language, visual arts, festivals, performing arts, literature, holiday customs, flags, games, dress.
- Non-observable (usually out of our own and others` awareness):
Nature of Friendship, Values, Notions of beauty, religious beliefs, body language, norms, etiquette, rules, gender
roles, learning styles, expectations, leadership styles, attitudes towards social status, notions of “self”, perceptions,
attitudes towards age, notions of modesty, thought processes, views on raising children, concept of fairness,
importance of space, approaches to problem solving, notions of cleanliness, importance of time, assumptions
Culture is a 3D pyramid:
Worldview (the lowest) – Beliefs – Values – Behaviour - Man`s environment and his technology
Culture as a series of concentric circles:
1) What men do, or man`s behavior (largest) <-> 2) Values: what is good or best for a given society <-> 3)
Beliefs: what is true <-> 4) what is real, or what we believe the world is like
Characteristics of culture:
1. Culture is learned (taught or acquired) [it`s not an inborn trait]
2. Culture and cultural patterns change. [according to the changes of time, society, needs, etc.]
3. Culture is a universal fact of human life. Cultural patterns and themes are related to universal human needs
and conditions [not individually predetermine]
4. Culture provides sets of unique and interrelated selected blueprints [примерный план, наметки,
программа] for living and for accompanying sets of values and beliefs to support these blueprints.
5. Language and culture are closely related and interactive.
6. Culture functions as a filtering device between its bearers and the great range of stimuli presented by the
environment. This filtering device is both protective and limiting. [that`s why cultures are unique and don`t
become other cultures]
7. Culture is shared and actually defines the boundaries of different groups.
Functions of culture:
1. Help human beings adapt to the environment.
2. Help to produce and distribute goods and services
3. Maintain internal order
4. Harmonize society
5. Provide a set of values and beliefs
5 components of culture:
1. Symbols may be either physical or non-physical. A flag is an example of a physical symbol, and bows and
curtsies are examples of non-physical symbols.
2. Language is used for communication. It can be written or spoken. Even when a culture uses the same basic
language as another culture, differences in terminology and inflection create new meanings.
3. Values help define acceptable behavior within the society. Values can be different for each group to which a
person belongs. For example, it may be acceptable in the family group to eat certain foods that are not
accepted within the religious group a person chooses.
4. Beliefs fulfill the spiritual needs of a culture. A whole culture can be based on one set of beliefs, yet a larger
cultural group may have many different sets of beliefs.
 5. Norms are the rules, mores and traditions within a culture. As a group develops laws and regulations, norms
change. A law that was necessary 100 years ago may not be needed in modern times.

2. The difference between cultures with High Power Distance and Low Power Distance,
High Context and Low Context cultures, collectivistic and individualistic cultures, cultures
with High Uncertainty Avoidance and Low Uncertainty Avoidance. Provide examples.
1) High Power Distance vs. Low Power Distance
High Power Distance: power is a basic fact in society, stress coercive (силовой) or referent power, value
obedience, close supervision (строгий надзор), tact, servitude (рабство, зависимость) and money as antecedents
(условие) to freedom. (Arab countries, China, Mexico)
Low Power Distance: power should be used only when it is legitimate, respect for the individual and equality as
antecedents to freedom. Low power distance organizations are looser (более свободные), decentralized
hierarchies, where employees or subordinates are considered equal, or nearly equal. There are fewer supervisors or
leaders and they are willing to trust subordinates with important jobs and are willing to share the blame when
problems arise. (Australia, Denmark, Israel)

2) High context vs. Low context

High-context cultures: people in these cultures emphasize interpersonal relationships and develop trust as
an important first step to any business transaction. Collectivistic. And people in these cultures are more
governed by intuition or feelings than by reason. Words are not so important as context, which might include
the speaker`s tone of voice, facial expression, gestures, posture – and even the person`s family history and
status. High-context communication is more indirect, more formal, and saying one word you can mean ten.
(Middle East, Asia, Africa, and South America).
Low-context culture are logical, linear, individualistic, and action-oriented. People from low-context
cultures value logic, facts and directness. Decisions are based on fact rather than intuition. Discussions end with
actions. And communicators are expected to be straightforward and efficient in telling what action is expected.
To be absolutely clear, they strive to use precise words and intend them to be taken literally (буквально). (North
America and much of Western Europe)

3) Individualism vs. collectivism

Individualistic cultures are usually the ones who are centered on the needs and values of a person, an
individual. People think more about themselves. Individualistic countries are self-oriented, business-like, action-
oriented. (Australia, Great Britain, USA)
Collectivistic cultures are group-oriented, society-oriented. The interests of the group of people are the co-
value, and personal achievements are understood to be aimed for the group. (China, South Korea, West Africa)

4) High-uncertainty avoidance vs. Low-uncertainty avoidance

High UA: lower tolerance for uncertainty, resist more change, higher levels of anxiety, worry about the future
more, see loyalty to their employer as a virtue, have a lower motivation for achievement, take fewer risks, a strong
tendency for consensus.
Characteristics:
- Structure, rules, expertise. But not only formal rules.
- Security (avoiding the unfamiliar): rather than taking risks, people prefer that what they know already.
- Hectic (взволнованный, беспокойный): «life» is being perceived as hectic and stress full from all angles.
- Emotions/passion: showing your emotions is seen as a way to blow off steam.
Countries: Greece, Belgium, Russia, Italy, Korea, Mexico.
Low UA: lower stress levels, accept dissent (расхождение во взглядах), taking risks.
Characteristics:
- Few rules, little structure
- Entrepreneurial (предпринимательский, капиталистический) starting your own business is seen as very
normal; the same goes for risk taking (no guts, no glory!)
- Stress-free: people experience «life» as being relatively stress free.
- Cool, calm and collected (сдержанный, собранный): there is a premium in society to look cool, calm and
collected. Think of the British stiff upper lip.
Countries: USA, UK, India, China, Indonesia, Singapore, modern Russia.
 3. Time orientation (past-present-future; monochromic and polychromic), activity-
orientation and human-environment orientation across cultures. Femininity and masculinity
cultures. Provide examples.

1) Time orientation
I. 1) Past orientation. In past-oriented societies people look to the ancesters, older and wiser persons and to
tradition which is quite often found in religious scripture for guidance and solution to the problems. They live with
traditional values and waste of doing things. They are usually conservative, both in life and in management, and they
are slow to change those things that are connected with the past. (China, Britain (before brexit), Japan and most
latin-american countries who are Spanish speaking)
2) Present orientation. Present orientation societies are very much now-oriented, without much interest in
past or future. They see the past as passed and the future as something uncertain. They prefer short-term benefits
and short-term perspectives. (the rest of Spanish speaking latin-american countries.)
3) Future orientation. The meaning of life is seen in terms of future. People are building a better world for
themselves and their children, either in material and physical conditions, or from the point of view of afterlife.
Future-oriented societies have a great deal of optimism about the future. They think they can understand it and can
shape it through their actions. They see management as a matter of planning, doing and controlling. They don`t go
with the flow, and do not try to let things happen. (the USA, increasingly Brazil.)
II. Monochronic time and polychronic time.
These dimentions represent two variant solutions to the use of time and space as organising activities.
Monochronic time emphasizes schedule, segmentation, promptness. Polychronic systems are characterized by
several things happening at once. They value people`s involvement and complession of transactions (сделка).
Polychronic time doesn`t see this characteristics as important to be strictly scheduled and polychronic time is less
tengeble then monochronic time. It means that monochronic time is like a ribbon or a road and polychronic one is
like a point. (Western countries (monochronic), Eastern countries (polychronic))

2) Activity orientation
1) Being (hedonistic-spontaneous). The kinds of activities that are performed are spontaneous expressions of
what is understood to be given in the human personality (the Mexican Fiestas – карнавалы, праздники)
2) Being-in-becoming (self-development) is concerned with who we are, not what we can have accomplished
(Zen Buddhist monks). Everything is aimed at perfecting one`s moral and spiritual practice.
3) Doing (action achievement). «A demand for the kind of activity which results in accomplishments what are
measured by standards conceived to be external to the acting individual. The question is not who are you but what
have you done.

3) Human-environment orientation
1) Mastery over nature. Nature is there for people to use, tame (укрощать, приручать), dominate and control.
2) Harmony with nature. In this view people should try to live in harmony with nature neither trying to conquer
it or treat it with fear and submission but to find ways to accomodate themselves to nature and use it.
3) Subjugation (submission to nature). This value orientation sees people as nature being strong and being
submissive for people. Command of environment can be weak to strong.

4) Masculinity and Femininity

Masculinity is seen to be the trait which emphasizes ambition, acquisition of wealth, and differentiated gender
roles: «Masculinity stands for a society in which social gender roles are clearly district: Men are supposed to be
assertive, tough, and focused on material success; women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned
with the quality of life.» (the USA, Germany, Japan, Austria, Mexico, Ireland, UK, Italy, Nigeria)
Femininity is seen to be the trait which stresses caring and brining-up behaviours, sexuality equality,
environmental awareness, and more unstable gender roles: «Femininity stands for a society in which social gender
roles overlap: Both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life.»
(Netherlands, Nordic countries, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Chili, Thailand)
 4. World view: definition, functions and types. Cultural presuppositions. Verbal and
conceptual worldviews. Provide examples.

Worldview is a wholistic (целостный) ideational model of the world and perception of the people which is a
result of a person`s lifelong experience. A worldview describes a relatively consistent and integral (целостный) sense
of existence and provides a framework for generating, sustaining and applying knowledge. Worldview serves as a
framework for culture dimensions including those of human perception and experience like knowledge, politics,
economics, religion, culture, science, affects, and so on. Two main functions:
1) Interpretative: Helps us to understand the world as it is thought to be, how it functions and how it`s
structured; world here means the totality, everything that exists around us, including physical universe, the Earth,
life, mind, society and culture. It tells us that we ourselves are an important part of this world and helps us answer
the basic questions «who we are and where are we going to?» and it also gives us a list of opportunities for future
development.
2) Regulative: it shows the way one ought to behave. It gives us a sense of purpose, directions, guidance to our
actions, answers to the questions «why?» and «what for?» and helps to investigate a human being as an entertain.
There are as many worldviews as people and in this case we speak about individual worldviews that differ both
culturably and psychologically. We can also single out the following types of worldviews: individual vs. shared
worldview; conceptual (global) vs. verbal worldview; artistic vs. scientific worldview; scientific vs. mythological;
religious worldview.
An important component of worldview is cultural presuppositions (исходные и культурные предпосылки).
Presuppositions can be defined as background assumptions (предположения) on which an action, theory,
expression or utterance makes sense.
Types of cultural presuppositions:
- Shared knowledge of facts, events, objects that are significant for this culture.
- Culture-specific perception of universal concepts such as time, space etc.
- Culture-specific understanding of appropriate attitudes, relations between people, goals and wishes, etc. (e.g.
joking or insulting)
- Culture-specific ideas of appropriate behaviour, including verbal behaviour («How are you?»)
- Culture-bound values and evaluations.
- Associations caused by common historical experience, way of life, everyday routine, etc.

A person`s conceptual worldview contains his or her background knowledge. This knowledge helps us
understand other people when we communicate. The process of understanding is not just decoding of graphical or
phonetic symbols. Understanding means attaching meaning of what you hear and see. You also attach meaning to
graphical forms and grammatical constructions. If the new information that we get doesn`t seem familiar to us, we
fail to understand. The way we perceive messages is influenced by our social cognitive styles and our patterns of
thought, logic and reasoning. Verbal worldview is verbalization of conceptual worldview.

Some part of our conceptual worldview exists in language forms. Conceptual worldview is both the result of
verbal and non-verbal communication, but the most important elements acquire verbal expression. Scientists proved
that knowledge in our mind exists in retrievable forms (в восстановимых освобождающихся формах. Knowledge
must be applied rapidly and efficiently. Therefore, a human mind has a tendency to schematize knowledge. We
usually place objects in a certain sphere of experience, present it as a component of activity, see what actions can be
done to it.
 5. The main ideas and peculiarities of tribal, Hindu-Buddhist, and Chinese worldviews.
The key characteristics of Tribal Religion are identified as the following:
(a) There is an absence of any written scripture in Tribal religion. It is the religion of oral traditions. It is
the religion of corporate 'memory' passed on from generations. Religious rituals, teachings and principles
are transmitted orally from one generation to another.
(b) No human-made images or temples are used for worship of the Divine. Natural objects are
accepted as symbols of the divine presence and adoration and oblations are given seasonally. Life-cycles,
birth, marriage and death, and annual cycles of major seasons and changes of nature accordingly form an
integral part of occasional and seasonal festivals and scarifies.
(c) A nature-human spirit continuum is the key to the tribal vision of life. All religious rites,
observances, festivities are based on this holistic vision of reality. Tribal religion accepts the integral
relationships of nature, humans and spirit in their experiences. The Tribal totem is one of the concrete
examples of this continuum.
(d) Another-important characteristic of Tribal religion is 'the worship of ancestors: Ancestors are part
of the life of those who are alive and they are interested in the welfare of the living. The Tribals offer grains
of rice at the beginning of their meal to the ancestors and the faith is that they partake of the meal with
the living ones.

Buddhism and Hinduism share many traits and general beliefs, including that of the illusory nature of
the physical world.
- The existence of karma and that salvation comes from an individual's own actions
- Reincarnation into another being according to the deeds of the previous life
- Desire or attachment is the cause of suffering in the world
- Compassion toward all living beings
- The existence of several levels of heaven and hell and of several deities
- Both religions also believe in the practice of meditation or yogic practices as a means of
enlightenment.

The ancient Chinese believed that everything in the world has two opposite forces existing in relationship with
each other. They called these forces Yin and Yang. The quality of our lives and our world’s well-being depend on
opposing tendencies being in balance with each other.
- a fatalistic, cyclical view of time and space characterized by connection of things big and small;
- a universe in which the only absolute evil is chaos and the only good is stability, a platform on which progress is
built;
- the clan, not the individual, as the basic productive unit of society.
 6. The main idea and peculiarities of naturalistic and monotheistic worldviews
(generally and separately about Judaism, Islam and Christianity).

Naturalism is a philosophical direction that considers nature as a universal reason for explaining all
the things.
The major part of this type of worldview is daily experience and practice. It forms by means of
scientific notions and theoretical logical arguments. There is no place for any blind belief.
1) A human being is a creature which possesses a capability to live due to the laws of social nature;
2) Nature is a creator, a man is a reformer;
3) People develop the language being mastered by the laws given by Dame Nature for the existing of
the language;
4) All changes are natural, that is they appear because of environment or human nature

Monotheism (from the Greek monos "only", and theos "god") is a word coined in comparatively modern times
to designate belief in the one supreme God, the Creator and Lord of the world, the eternal Spirit, All-powerful, All-
wise, and All-good, the Rewarder of good and the Punisher of evil, the Source of our happiness and perfection. It is
opposed to Polytheism, which is belief in more gods than one, and to Atheism, which is disbelief in any deity.
Understanding of Beginnings
God is the creator and the Book of Genesis says he created in six days and rested on the seventh. God will end
creation in his own time.
Conception of Time
Time is linear. A "Chosen One of God" will come when either the world has become a better place or when it has
reached the point of greatest trouble. The coming of this Messiah will herald an era of world peace.
Mortality (and Afterlife)
There is one life only. Most religious Jews believe the individual awaits the Day of Judgment when God will raise all
to life and judgment.
Rites of Birth and Death
Baby boys are circumcised (совершать обрезание) eight days after birth. The names of girls are announced in the
synagogue on the first Sabbath after birth. Burial takes place within 24 hours of death and cremation is very rare.

Judaism:
Judaism is the religion commonly linked to Jewish people. It is based on the principles contained in the Hebrew
Bible, the Tanakh, which are expanded and explained in the Talmud. The Jewish religion is based on the principle
that there is only one indivisible all-powerful, all-knowing and all-present God, who is fair and just and the creator of
the universe and mankind.
In 2007, the world Jewish population was of 13.2 million, 41 percent of which reside in Israel, whilst the
remaining is spread around the world (the diaspora).
Jewish history begins with the covenant established between God and Abraham around 1812 BC.
Being a Jew is very much a blood matter.
One of the most striking aspect of Jewish theology is the rejection of Christ as the Messiah (месАя), in sharp
contrast to the Christian belief. It is generally accepted that Jesus was a Jew himself

Islam:
A summary of Islam can be traced to Muhammad in about 622 AD. This relatively young religion claims to be
the restoration of true monotheism started with Abraham. Islam is based on absolute submission to the one "true"
God, Allah.
Muslims are called to conform to the "five pillars" (disciplines) of Islam in order to achieve eternal salvation.
Muhammad is believed by Muslims to be the last and greatest prophet of God. For the Muslim, the Qur'an is the
holy book of Islam and the true word of Allah.
The Qur'an is slightly shorter than the New Testament of the Bible. Each surah represents an episodic vision
received by Muhammad in the desert over many years. While Islam respects certain versions of the Jewish Torah
(first five books of the Old Testament), the psalms of David, and the four gospels of the New Testament, the Qur'an
is held alone as the religion's true authority.
By most accounts, Islam is the world's fastest growing religion, with estimated membership now over one
billion people.
 Christianity:
Christianity is the largest world religion at the moment. It has over 2 billion followers, who classify themselves
under 34,000 different denominations. Initially, Christianity was derived from Judaism, as Jesus Christ was a Jew, as
were his twelve disciples. Christianity is based mainly around the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and is
monotheistic. Christians believe in the Bible being the word of God.
Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the saviour of the world.
Anyone who accepts this belief is given eternal life and freedom from sin. Christians hold that Jesus will return
on Judgment Day to fulfil the rest of the Old Testament prophesies, to judge the living and the dead and establish
God’s kingdom in the new creation.
According to the Gospels, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born to the Virgin Mary in Bethlehem.
The Bible does not specifically refer to the Trinity, but it is a common doctrine and which serves to outline the
core beliefs of Christianity.

7. Intercultural communication competence: definition, aspects and cross-cultural

principals. Guidelines for an ethical communicator in intercultural interactions.
Interrelationship between language and culture.

Intercultural communication competence

Can be defined as a whole set of complex integrative abilities and skills which include understanding and
interpretation of specific features of other cultures and which also ensure normal behavior in interactions with
people of other cultural backgrounds.

The aspects of intercultural communication competence:

1. Ethical: personal qualities, such as the ability to look for and appreciate moral values that are common for
different cultural communities; [respect people, life, property, elders, etc.]
2. Cognitive: background knowledge, stereotypes, uncertainty, anxiety;
3. Interpretative (толковательный/объяснительный): communication skills, e.g., the ability to interpret
correctly the cultural differences in communicative styles; [how do you do – I`m fine: small talks; personal
distance]
4. Social-pragmatic: the way communicants understand the cultural context of communication and appropriate
behaviour patterns across cultures. [formal/informal; business, addressing people, behaviour at schools,
etc.]

Cross-cultural principles:
1. Culture, unlike language, is not comprised of fixed rules that apply to all members of one culture. Cultural
generalizations are descriptions of commonly observed patterns; they may not hold true for every member of a
given culture.
2. Cultural generalizations are different from stereotypes. The latter are applied to all members of a particular
culture and tend to limit, rather than broaden, one's views of other cultural groups. Stereotypes are exaggerated
images and beliefs
3. There are no absolute "rights" and "wrongs", only cultural differences. What is appropriate in one culture may be
inappropriate in another culture.
4. Culture does not explain all behavior. It does greatly influence behavior, but so too do: an individual's personality,
age, gender, economic and educational levels, life experiences, relationships, and specific situations.
5. It is best not to overemphasize either cultural differences or cultural similarities. Those who say, "We are all alike;
we're all human" deny the shape and flavor that cultures contribute to individual development. Those who say,
"We're so different that we must stay separate" create harmful barriers by closing their eyes to what is common to
every human being.
6. Finally, learning about culture is enriching. The more one learns about others, the more one sees one's own
culture more clearly. By learning about contrasts, we can better understand how culture influences individuals and
their communication with others.

4 guidelines by D.W. Kale:

1. Ethical communicators address people of other countries with the same respect they would like to receive
 themselves.
2. Ethical communicators try to describe the world as they perceive and cognize it as accurately as possible (to
tell the truth). Ethical communicators do not deceive or mislead on purpose.
3. Ethical communicators encourage people of other cultures to express themselves in their uniqueness. This
principle respects the right of people to expression regardless of how popular or unpopular their ideas might
be.
4. Ethical communicators should emphasize the commonalities of cultural beliefs rather than their differences.
Relationships between language and culture.
Language is the verbal expression of culture. A culture`s language contains everything its speakers can think
about and every way they have of thinking about things. For example, the Latin language has no word for the female
friend of a man (the feminine form of amicus is amica, which means mistress, not friend) because the Roman culture
could not imagine a male and a female being equals, which they considered necessary for friendship. Another
example is that Eskimos have many different terms for snow...there are nuances that make each one different.
Language and culture are interrelated and therefore cannot be separated. This is why translators always have
problems in translating idiomatic expressions which are largely influenced by the culture and social behavior of a
people. For example the Chinese expression: 放馬過來, literally, "put horse come here" is rear meaningless in its
English translation and expression. In Chinese, it is a sentence uttered to challenge someone to a duel. It is
equivalent to "I dare you!" But what has "setting horses free" got to do with challenging someone to a fight? It has
to do with the culture and social behaviour of the Chinese at the time this expression became common usage and is
now part of the Chinese lingo.

8. Barriers to intercultural communication and the ways to overcome them.

Ethnocentrism and relativism. Generalizations, stereotypes and prejudices and their
influence on cross-cultural communication. Provide examples.

Barriers to IC:
- Anxiety: feeling nervous when you focus so much on your own feelings that you do not pay attention to what
other people are telling you
- Assuming similarities instead of differences: thinking that a culture is similar to your own can cause you to
ignore important differences. The best thing to do is to assume nothing and ask what customs are
- Ethnocentrism – is negatively judging another culture by your own cultural standard
- Stereotypes and prejudice: stereotypical judgments are made about other on the basis of their ethic
membership. When information is ambiguous , the brain often reaches the wrong conclusion/ what we see is what
we expect to see
- Language problems
- Non-verbal behavior
- Lack or absense of background knowledge of the foreign communicant`s culture (traditions, customs,
behavioral patterns)
- Information war/propaganda
Information Warfare can be separated into two distinct categories:
- Offensive Information Warfare – (агрессивная информационная война), which deals with the degradation
of the enemy`s battlefield information
- Defensive Information Warfare (оборонительная информационная война) to protect one`s own battlefield
communication methods.

Ethnocentrism, a term coined by William Graham Sumner, is the belief that your native culture is the most
natural or superior way of understanding the world. This leads to making incorrect assumptions about others'
behavior based on your own norms, values, and beliefs. For instance, any time you think of another culture's
traditional food as weird or gross, that's a product of ethnocentrism! Social scientists strive to treat cultural
differences as neither inferior nor superior.
 Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cultural context, and
should be treated as such. A key component of cultural relativism is the concept that nobody, not even researchers,
comes from a neutral position. The way to deal with our own assumptions is not to pretend that they don't exist but
rather to acknowledge them, and then use the awareness that we are not neutral to inform our conclusions.
An example of cultural relativism might include slang words from specific languages (and even from particular
dialects within a language). For instance, the word "tranquilo" in Spanish translates directly to "calm" in English.
However, it can be used in many more ways than just as an adjective (e.g., the seas are calm). Tranquilo can be a
command or suggestion encouraging another to calm down. It can also be used to ease tensions in an argument
(e.g., everyone relax) or to indicate a degree of self-composure (e.g., I'm calm). There is not a clear English
translation of the word, and in order to fully comprehend its many possible uses, a cultural relativist would argue
that it would be necessary to fully immerse oneself in cultures where the word is used.

Stereotypes are widely held exxagerated beliefs about a group of people and are a form of generalization – a
way of categorizing and processing information we receive about others in our daily life. They may be both positive
and negative. The example of a negative one is the following: some people hold the stereotype that all attractive
people are also smart and socially skilled. They can also develop out of negative experiences. If we have unpleasant
contact with certain people, we may generalize that unpleasantness to include all members of that particular group,
whatever group characteristic we focus on (race, gender, sexual orientation).

Prejudice (предрассудок) is an unfounded attitude toward an outgroup based on a comparison with one’s in
group. In other words it is a negative attitude toward a cultural group based on little or no experience. Prejudice is
prejudging, without knowledge or examination of the available information. Whereas stereotypes tell us what a
group is like, prejudice tells us how we are likely to feel about that group. For instance, a prejudiced individual might
say, “African Americans aren’t as smart as other Americans”. Or, “Asian Americans study all of the time, and always
get the highest grades in my classes”. These are prejudices. They can create avoidance and interpersonal conflict –
and prevent effective communication between culturally different individuals.

9. The processes of enculturation and deculturation. Culture shock: reasons, symptoms,

stages and the ways to overcome it. Reverse culture shock.

Enculturation is the process by which we learn how to function in life; the process by which culture
itself is passed from generation to generation. Enculturation starts early in life with self-awareness, which
allows individuals to assume personal responsibility for their conduct and to learn how to react and how to
play various roles. Self-awareness gives one a positive view of self motivating him to act to his advantage.
Personality, thus, is partially, at least, a product of enculturation
Deculturation - the process where aspects of one culture are lost after contact with another one, but
not to the full extent.
Culture shock is the total effect upon a person of a new physical and cultural environment where
people behave differently, speak another language, use different signs and symbols, have other values and
beliefs. CS exists when the difference between the native culture and the new culture is big, when the
experience and resilience of the person is limited, when one has little knowledge of the new country and
has high, unrealistic expectations of it.
The common symptoms of CS:
- Extreme homesickness
- Desire to avoid social settings which seem threatening or unpleasant
- Physical complaints and sleep disturbances
- Depression and feelings of helplessness
- Difficulty with coursework and concentration
- Loss of your sense of humor
- Boredom or fatigue
- Hostility towards the host culture

A few steps to minimize the effects of CS:

1. Don't assume sameness.
2. What you think of as normal or human behavior may only be cultural.
3. Familiar behaviors may have different meanings.
 4. Don't assume that what you meant is what was understood.
5. Don't assume that what you understood is what was meant.
6. You don't have to like or accept "different" behavior; you should try to understand where it comes
from.
7. Most people do behave rationally; you just have to discover the rationale.

Stages of CS:
1. Preliminary Stage: You have made the decision to move abroad. You are busy making plans. You are
anticipating your life in your new country. You are excited and you can't wait to start your adventure.
2. Spectator Stage: Also known as the "honeymoon" stage. You have just arrived in your new country and
you are fascinated with the foreign and exotic aspects of your new life.
3. Participation Stage: The honeymoon comes to an end and it's time to learn the language, function
within the culture and deal with everyday challenges.
4. Shock Stage: Feelings of antipathy, irritability and loneliness are common at this stage. Negative feelings
are caused by the difficulty of daily life and everyday tasks. The differences between your old and new
countries become very apparent, and you may want to go back to the way it was back home. You can get
feelings of anger, impatience, etc. You are trying to adapt to the new culture. This can be a difficult process
and takes time.
5. Adjustment Stage: Usually, after 6-12 months. You grow accustomed to the culture, you have a sense of
direction. Everything does not feel that new anymore, you are used to the habits and oddness. Things
become normal again. You begin to form relationships with local people. You start to feel like you belong in
the new country and that you are accepted. You start to identify with the new culture.
6. Re-entry Stage (“Reverse Culture Shock”): If you decide to return to your country of origin, you may
experience some of the previous phases again, because the transition back to your old life may not be as
easy as you expect. Reverse culture shock often happens when you return home and experience a sense of
disorientation and discomfort. For example, things are different in your old country than when you left,
and you may find that you have changed a bit, too! Then you may go through the previous stages again.

10. Communication: definitions; the model of communication by S.L. Tubbs & S.

Moss; the processes of understanding and verbalizing; characteristic features of the
communication process.

Communication is international transmission of information by means of some established signal

Communication is the act of conveying information for the purpose of creating a shared understanding system.
Communication is an exchange of thoughts and ideas.

Tubbs S.L. & Moss S. Model of communication

2 communicators:
the centre who produce the message
the receiver who perceive the message
Our purpose of producing message and the intended meaning of the message might change, based on what we
receive from the other communicators. Also it can be said that people who are involved in a communicating process
are all sources of communication
To achieve the best possible results in a communicating process, communicators need to know the appearance
of input and filter in producing message, choose the right channel to transmit it and try to avoid the negative effects
of any interference in sending and receiving the message.
Input is motivation for communication, stimulus of past and present which give us information about the world.
1. Messages can be verbal (any type of spoken communication that uses one or more words) and non-verbal
(gestures, intonation, some symbols); intentional verbal (conscious attempts we make to communicate) and
intentional (things we say without meaning to do it).
2. Filters are some kinds of limitations of human ability to understand the messages (perceptual, biological and
sat).
3. Channel represents any ways and methods that communicators use to transmit the message from voices
and languages to the technologies.
 4. Noise or interference is anything that disturbs the information transmitted to receiver or distracts him or her
from receiving it.
5. Feedback is the return to you or your behavior and to understanding.
Communication is verbalization and understanding. Both are multilevel activities.
According to Kassevich, verbalization:
 Starts with the level of motive and intention which emerge (originate) in a definite communicative
situation as a part of some practical activity.
 On the second level the sender's thought is shaped first as a topic-comment structure and then as a
prepositional structure with predicate-argument roles (semantisyntax).
 On the third level the speaker chooses lexical and grammatical units which are combined with each
other in the form of inner speech.
 On the third level the utterance is finally shaped as a verbal expression of our thought.
The process of understanding deals with accurate reception of the intended contempt. You should recognize
the sender’s communicative intention and give an appropriate behavioral and cognitive response.

Characteristic features of communication process

1. Inferential. We divide implicit.
2. Intentional-has its motive.
3. Conventional-common, everyday routinized.
4. Jointly negotiated between the speakers and listeners.
5. Various according to context and language and according to the social relationships of participants.
6. Involves common sense knowledge.
7. Sequential (retrospective, prospective).
8. It is accomplished in real time and space.
9. Interpretative.

11. Ethnography of speech: 5 components of a communicative situation; 7 components

of a speech situation and their explanations.

Components of Communication
1. Context -
2. Sender/Encoder - the creator of the message
3. Message - subject and purpose (to inform, to persuade, to entertain)
4. Medium - the way the message is expressed
5. Receiver/Decoder - the audience of the message (a listener, a reader, a viewer)
6. Feedback
Context
Every message (Oral or written), begins with context. Context is a very broad field that consists different
aspects. One aspect is country, culture and organization. Every organization, culture and country communicate
information in their own way.
Another aspect of context is external stimulus. The sources of external stimulus includes; meeting, letter,
memo, telephone call, fax, note, email and even a casual conversation. This external stimuli motivates you to
respond and this response may be oral or written.
Internal stimuli is another aspect of communication. Internal Stimuli includes; You opinion, attitude, likes, dis-
likes, emotions, experience, education and confidence. These all have multifaceted influence on the way you
communicate you ideas.
A sender can communicate his ideas effectively by considering all aspects of context mentioned above.
Sender/Encoder
Encoder is the person who sends message. In oral communication the encoder is speaker, and in written
communication writer is the encoder. An encoder uses combination of symbols, words, graphs and pictures
understandable by the receiver, to best convey his message in order to achieve his desired response.
Message
 Message is the information that is exchanged between sender and receiver. The first task is to decide what
you want to communicate and what would be the content of your message; what are the main points of your
message and what other information to include. The central idea of the message must be clear. While writing the
message, encoder should keep in mind all aspects of context and the receiver (How he will interpret the message).
Messages can be intentional and unintentional.
Medium
Medium is the channel through which encoder will communicate his message. How the message gets there.
Your medium to send a message, may be print, electronic, or sound. Medium may be a person as postman. The
choice of medium totally depends on the nature of you message and contextual factors discussed above. Choice of
medium is also influence by the relationship between the sender and receiver.
The oral medium, to convey your message, is effective when your message is urgent, personal or when
immediate feedback is desired. While, when your message is ling, technical and needs to be documented, then
written medium should be preferred that is formal in nature. These guidelines may change while communicating
internationally where complex situations are dealt orally and communicated in writing later on.
Receiver/Decoder
The person to whom the message is being sent is called ‘receiver’/’decoder’. Receiver may be a listener or a
reader depending on the choice of medium by sender to transmit the message.Receiver is also influenced by the
context, internal and external stimuli.
Receiver is the person who interprets the message, so higher the chances are of mis-communication because
of receivers perception, opinion, attitude and personality. There will be minor deviation in transmitting the exact
idea only if your receiver is educated and have communication skills.
Feedback
Response or reaction of the receiver, to a message, is called ‘feedback’. Feedback may be written or oral
message, an action or simply, silence may also be a feedback to a message. Communication is said to be effective
only when it receives some feedback.
Speech situation is an instance of communication that includes a speaker, an utterance and a hearer who
interpretes the utterance.
A speech situation consists of 7 main components:
1) Scene:
a) Setting: differ across cultures and can be formal or informal (These are physical and social arenas for action:
time, space, location, use of space, require certain types of behaviours)
b) Purpose (function)
c) Topic
d) Genre (predictable sets of speech acts, participants, topics, settings, or other regularly occuring and
conventional forms)
2) Key (the tone or the mood, the manner in which an act or event is performed. One must be sure of the
seriousness of intention. Thus, «how marvelous» said with a sarcastic tone means exactly the opposite)
3) Participants: who they are, roles they take
4) Message form: speaking, writing, silence, other media
5) Sequence: set agenda (порядок действий), open agenda
6) Co-occurence patterns
7) Manifestation: tacit (бессловесный), explicit

12. Verbal communicative styles across cultures (types, examples, differences,

comparing Russian and American communicative styles).

1) Direct vs. Indirect

Direct: Meaning is conveyed through explicit statements made directly to the people involved with
little reliance on contextual factors such as situation and timing. (What you see is what you get! Tell it like it
is!)
Indirect: Meaning is conveyed by suggestion, implication, nonverbal behavior, and other contextual
cues; for instance, statements intended for one person may be made within earshot of a different person.
It is possible that messages will be sent through a third-party intermediary. Mostly, however, this style
allows one to avoid confronting another person or cause them to lose face. (What you get is what you
manage to see!) (East Asia)
2) Elaborate (усложнëнный) vs. succinct (лаконичный)
 The elaborate style: the use of rich expressive language in everyday conversation (Arab-speakers – highly
expressive metaphors and similies)
The exact style: ones contribution to language interaction must be neither more nor less informative than
required.
The succinct style: includes the use of understatements, pauses and silences in everyday conversations
(Chinese, Japanese, Native Americans.
3) Personal vs. Contextual
Personal style describes a style that is centered on the individual: refers to the use of certain linguistic devices
to stress “I” identity for the purpose to emphasize “personhood”(British, Scandinavian countries). Typical of low-
context, individualistic cultures with low power distance.
Contextual - role-centered language, refers to the use of certain linguistic signals to emphasize the sense of role
identity, emphasizes prescribed role relationships, reflects the hierarchical social order. They use status-oriented
language (Indians, Koreans).
4) Instrumental vs. affective
1) The instrumental style refers to more sender-oriented and goal-oriented language usage, (American). The
speaker consciously constructs his/her message for the purpose of persuading and producing attitude change (low
context).
2) The affective style is more receiver-oriented and more process-oriented language usage, (Japanese), the
speaker adapts to the environment, attempts to adjust him/herself to the feelings of the listener (high context).

Comparing Russian and American Communicative Styles

1. The American communicative style is characterized by informality and this informality attracts your
attention immediately upon your arrival in the States. A stranger can say "Hi!" to you in the street and can
start a short spontaneous conversation. First names are used almost immediately. People seem warm and
friendly from the very start. A woman in the lift, whom you see for the first time, can make a remark on
your dress or your hair style. Imagine the same situation in Russia: a stranger in the lift says to you Какое
хорошенькое платьице!") Most Russians, including myself, would consider this rude and inappropriate.
2. Another distinctive feature of American style of communication is distance: Americans stand closer
to each other than the British, when they talk to you and they speak louder. If they push you in the street,
they always apologize, saying 'Excuse me'. They also apologize, when you push them. Americans are not
used to touching one another when they talk. If you touch them or stand too close to them, while talking,
they may think of you as 'pushy and 'aggressive'. Americans stand closer than the British, but the
American's normal distance is greater than we have here in Russia. We are used to squeezing in busses and
subways, to living in apartment blocks rather than big private houses.
• American small talk is usually about weather and sports. Politics, religion and money are avoided.
• Americans are used to taking turns in a conversation, each would normally speak for no more than
10 or 15 seconds. If you speak for a long time, they will get bored, and you will be considered rude.
Japanese often complain about this American habit. "Their conversation is like playing ping-pong", they
say.
• American ritual talk ("How are you?") is very short, unlike in Britain. They prefer to get straight to
the point.
• Americans rely more on words than on connotations. They tend to be direct and speak their mind.
Probably, because of this the British accuse Americans of being rude.
Judging by their communicative style, Americans are friendly and informal, or "easy-going," as they
like to call themselves. However, there is a difference between friendliness and friendship. While most
Americans seem relatively warm and approachable upon first encounter, they later appear to many foreign
visitors to be remote and unreachable. "Superficial" is the word many longer-term foreign visitors use to
describe Americans' relationships with other people. The initial "Hi!'' usually doesn't lead you to any
friendship and gradually comes to seem dishonest or misleading as the small talk continues, the feelings do
not show, and ideas about important topics remain hidden. Latin Americans often complain that Americans
are simply too busy to have the time that is required to get to know another person well.
Meetings and Teamwork
In Russia, meetings are formal, serious gatherings, and casual behavior is considered a sign of
disrespect. Decisions are usually made in advance, either one on one or in small groups of decision-makers,
with meetings held solely to share information and give direction. In contrast, in the United States
meetings are slightly less formal, with participants interacting casually and frequently debating and
discussing issues. Russian business people value personal relationships and trust, and tend to be suspicious
of strangers. As a result, they usually work in small teams where people know each other well. Instead of
forming a new team for each project, these teams often work together regularly. By contrast, in America
teams are often created on a project basis, and the participants frequently have not previously met.
13. The role of non-verbal communication in intercultural communication.
Peculiarities of paralanguage and body language. Provide examples.

Nonverbal communication is when a message is sent without spoken or written words. Examples of
nonverbal communication include body language, gestures, facial expressions, tones of voice and even eye
contact. According to Dr. Edward G. Wertheim, nonverbal cues in communication have five roles: they
repeat and confirm what a person is saying if they are being honest, they contradict a person's words when
they are dishonest, they can be a substitute for verbal forms of communication and they compliment or
accent what a person says.
It is often said that it doesn't matter what a person says. Rather, what counts is how it is said. For
example, a person could be telling a friend about a sad event; but if the story is being told while smiling, it
would be hard for the listening party to say the other person truly feels sad. Nonverbal communication
often gives clues to how a person really feels about a subject.

Body language is one of the most observed features of communication. The way a person stands, how
close they are to another person, the direction in which a person is facing and the use of physical contact
are all static features of nonverbal communication. Other important aspects include those which are
dynamic: gestures, line of sight or eye contact, and facial expressions.

Paralanguage is vocal communication other than the verbal content. In addition to loudness,
paralanguage includes the speed of speaking, accent, tone. Often, hearing a stranger’s voice (in a
telephone conversation, for example) is sufficient to guess the person’s gender, ethnic group, age. Voice is
a means by which individuals can be identified nonverbally.
Loudness of voice when speaking is another type of nonverbal communication. Generally, we speak
more loudly when we are more distant from the person we are addressing or when we are in a public
speaking situation, such as in a classroom. Males often speak more loudly than females. Asians generally
speak softly, with Asian women speaking even more softly than men. Most Thais speak very softly, and it is
considered good manners to do so. In Arabic nations, males speak loudly in order to indicate sincerity.
North Americans consider this volume aggressive. A Saudi Arabian also lowers his voice in order to show
respect for a superior. Emotions such as anger, excitement, or enthusiasm may be conveyed by speaking in
a loud voice.

14. Identity: different identities and their role in intercultural communication. Inner
and outer personality. Personality traits that influence intercultural communication.

Identity is the condition or fact of being a specific person with his/her origins, character, goals in life, i.e.
individuality.
Identities
1) are reflective self images constructed, experienced and communicated by individuals within a culture and
within the context of a particular situation.
2) Identities are not stable and unchangeable, they are multiple, dynamic and subject to change.
3) One can have cultural identity, ethnic identity, language identity (how are they different?), gender identity,
role identity, etc.
4) Identity gives people security in familiar contexts. But in a culturally unfamiliar environment it makes
individuals feel insecure.
Types of identity:
1. Personal
2. Cultural
3. Ethic
4. Language
5. Role
Language is sometimes described as a site of identity construction.
 On one hand, languages supply the terms and other linguistic means by which identities are expressed and on
the other, linguistic means serve to index people's identities.
Some researchers speak of an "inner" and "outer'' personality
The "inner" personality comprises our innermost desires, thoughts, fears, biases, superstitions,
prejudices, dreams, which we only share with very close people.
The "outer" personality refers to the behavior of any person in a larger social context from children interacting
in school to the more formal behavior of adults in various social situations.
The inner personality changes very slowly, the outer personality changes rather visibly. Between culture,
behavior, and personality there is a mutual, subtle, and permanent relationships. Man is both the creator of culture
and the product of culture.

Personality traits that influence IС.

1. Self-monitoring: self-observation and self-control guided by situational cues to social
appropriateness. Low self-monitors perceive formal situations as more informative, high self-monitors see
informal situations as more informative. High self-monitors initiate and regulate conversations more, they
are good at learning what is socially appropriate in new situations. High self-monitoring is more typical of
individualistic cultures.
2. Self-consciousness: the consistent tendency of persons to direct attention inward and outward. It
consists of three components: private SC (attending to inner thoughts and feelings); public SC (general
awareness of the self in relation to others); social anxiety (a discomfort in the presence of others).
Individualistic cultures have higher levels of public self-consciousness.
3. Communication apprehension (понимание) (anxiety about the future): relatively enduring,
personality-type orientation toward a given model of communication in a wide variety of contents. It is
associated with loneliness, public self-consciousness, social isolation, alienation, dogmatism, intolerance of
ambiguity. High in Japan and Korea.
4. Communicator style: the way one verbally and paraverbally interacts to signal how literal meaning
should be taken, interpreted, filtered or understood. Can be characterized as dominant, dramatic, non-
aggressive, relaxed, impression leaving, animated, precise, attentive, friendly, open, etc.
5. Locus of control (viewpoint, position): if positive or negative reinforcement (подкрепление) can
strengthen or weaken the person’s potential for that behavior, the person views reinforcement as being
within the boundaries of his/her control. If he sees reinforcement as being outside his/her control, then he
views his/her behavior as depending on chance, fate, etc. When behavior is viewed as a function of the
individual's own action, an internal locus of control exists. When behavior is not a function of an
individual’s actions, it is an external locus of control.

15. English as a global language: reasons, pluses and minuses, the problem of
linguistic chauvinism.

Global Language - a language that is learned and spoken internationally, and is characterized not only
by the number of its native and second language speakers, but also by its geographical distribution, and its
use in international organizations and in diplomatic relations.
English is without a doubt the actual universal language. It is the world's second largest native
language, the official language in 70 countries, and English-speaking countries are responsible for about
40% of world's total GNP.
English can be at least understood almost everywhere among scholars and educated people, as it is
the world media language, and the language of cinema, TV, pop music and the computer world. All over
the planet people know many English words, their pronunciation and meaning.
The causes for this universality are very well known and understandable. English first began to spread
during the 16th century with British Empire and was strongly reinforced in 20th by USA world domination
in economic, political and military aspects and by the huge influence of American movies.
The concept of a Universal Language is more significant only now, in the era of world mass
communication. Before this era Greek, Latin, French were to some extent universal languages, though
mainly in Europe.
By a lucky coincidence due to factors above, English, the Universal language, is one of the simplest
and easiest natural languages in the world. The only other simple and easy languages are constructed ones.
 Of course the concept of easiness is relative, and it depends on which language you know already.
However the concept of simplicity is undeniable: English in an easy language to learn, understand and
speak. A complex language such as Hungarian would be a very unlikely candidate for a universal language.
First of all, English Language uses Latin alphabet, the most universal, simple and short one (only the
Greek alphabet is shorter and simpler). In addition, in English, the Latin Alphabet presents its most "clean"
form as a true alphabet with only 26 basic letters and no diacritics;
Verb conjugation is very simple and easy. Even for irregular verbs, there is almost no variation in
person (except 3rd singular in present tense).
Regular verbs have only four forms: Infinitive + Present, Past Tense + Past Participle, 3rd person
singular Present Indicative, Present Participle.
There are almost no Inflections. No number or gender inflection for adjectives, articles, adverbs. For
adjectives there is only comparative and superlative, almost only number for nouns. In pronouns there are
gender and number inflections and only three declension cases (Acc/Dat, Nom, Gen).
English is one of the most analytical languages, with no significant synthetic, fusional or agglutinative
characteristics.

Linguistic chauvinism could be defined as believing that one particular language is the best language
to learn, especially when this language is that of the ruling class. The effects of linguistic chauvinism is
visible everywhere, from the languages that are dying out to language loss when people move to areas
where another language is more prevalent. In another way we can also term linguistic chauvinism like
feeling that one's language is superior to others, just because one likes his/her language more than the
another languages. Like how Americans and Britishers don't like to learn foreign languages, because they
don't need to, since everyone speaks English. It doesn't t affect the language at all, but it sure affects
cultural relations among the Earthlings.
The biggest disadvantage that Language Chauvinism has is that it creates a division among the people.
This feeling of not being one is not only prevailent in India but in every corner of the world. If we in general
talk of our contry India wasnt divided enough by the divisions and fractitous lines of discrimination based
on caste and religion but India also has to contend with the little talked of-Linguistic Chauvinism which is
just as deep rooted in India as discriminations based on caste or religion are. The geography of federalism
was redrawn on a linguistic basis first in 1956-with Kerala and Andhra and from then on these geopolitical
divisions have entrenched themselves so firmly to the Indian Mind that they are acting as a barrier to
unprejudiced social interaction. Amazingly,one language alone isnt responsible that is there are many
forms of linguistic chauvinism in India depending on the language, but a mindset that is unwilling to
embrace openess and change is the true cause of this. Chauvinism in India is related to two major reasons,
first is beacuse of the official language English and second due to the presence of hundreds of regional
languages throughout the country.