1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Legumes play an important role in the traditional diets of many regions throughout

the world. In contrast in Western countries beans tend to play only a minor dietary role

despite the fact that they are low in fat and are excellent sources of protein, dietary fiber, and

a variety of micronutrients and phytochemicals (Messina, 1999). Food legumes play a vital

role in human nutrition by providing sufficient protein, calories, minerals and vitamins

(Deshpande, 1992). Soybean is an important legume in terms of its high nutritional quality

(Saha et al., 2008).

Soybeans are unique among the legumes because they are a concentrated source of

isoflavones. Isoflavones have weak estrogenic properties and the isoflavone genistein

influences signal transduction (Messina, 1999).

The origin of soybean cultivation is China. China was the world’s largest soybean

producer and exporter during the first half of the 20th century. In the 1950s soybean

production developed rapidly in the USA and the USA is now the largest soybean producing

country in the world (Singh, 2010).

The soybean (Glycine max) is grown as a commercial crop in over 35 countries as the

major oilseed (Smith & Huyser, 1987). The fruit of soybean is simple or take the shape of

crescent pod, length about 3-7cm; including 1 or 2seeds which mass of 1000 seeds take out

115-280g. On the fodder designed the seeds in mass about 180-200g.Unripe seeds are green

and mature have from light-yellow by green to brown colour (Annexure 1). The world

production of the soybean seeds in 2009/2010 season carried out about 260.6mln ton ( Rynek

rzepaku, 2010) and important producers of seeds and soybean meal are USA, Brazil ,
 2

Argentine as well as China, which produce about 87% total quantity of soybean seeds. The

main exporters of the soybean seeds are USA (about 44%), Brazil (about 33%) and Argentine

(about 11%) and main importer are China (about 38%). On direct consumption is appropriate

about 10% of harvest and about 90% of soybean seeds is use as feeds for animals. The

production of soybean meal on world is amount over 160mln ton (Rynek Rzepaku, 2010) and

main exporters are Argentine -about 37%, Brazil about 29% and USA- about 8% (El-Shemy,

2011).

According to W. J. Wolf of the USDA Northern regional research center at Peoria,

Illinois, the average approximate composition of the soybean is 40 percent protein, 21 percent

oil, 34 percent carbohydrate, and 5 percent ash (Scott & Aldrich, 1970). Soybean is a rich

source of almost all the essential nutrients. The original impetus for research in soybean is to

benefit from its high protein content i.e. about 40 percent. Owing to these qualities, soybean

has long been used in supplementary foods (Awasthi et al., 2012). The soybean seeds of

modern cultivars have spherical shape, and the yellow and green colour is the most desirable

(Sikorski, 2007).The soybean products are used in food industry throughout the world. The

soybean seeds contain high quantity of protein and its amino acid composition is approximate

to composition of animal proteins, therefore is often used as replacement component of meat

protein.

The protein content in soybean seed is approximately 40% and the oil content is

approximately 20%. This crop has the highest protein content and the highest gross output of

vegetable oil among the cultivated crops in the world. In 2007, the total cultivated area of

soybean in the world was 90.19 million ha and the total production was 220.5 million tons

(FAO, 2009; Singh, 2010).

 3

The nutritive virtues of soybean were intuitively realized in the orient over 4000 years

ago. Soybean is a versatile plant food that provides high quality protein but only minimal

saturated fat. However, recent interest has focused on soy foods as a rich and essentially

unique dietary source of isoflavones and phytoestrogens. Soy protein also directly lowers

serum cholesterol levels (Messina, 2004; Awasthi et al., 2012).

Nutrients content in soybean products are the basic element to optimization diets and

estimation of total quantity nutrients give to animals. Knowledge about composition of feeds

let to forecast animal performance results. Soybean meal is the best vegetable protein source

considering on quantity as well its quality. From among legume seeds, the soybean seeds

content the most of crude protein and the best of amino acid composition. Content of crude

fiber (about 6%) is lower in comparison to another vegetable high protein feeds (El-Shemy,

2011).

Soybean seeds contain to 40% of crude protein and about 20% of fat, and soybean

meal characterized higher content of crude protein- about 40-49%. The protein of soybean

contains the considerable quantity of lysine (6.2g/16gN), but value of protein is limited by

methionine and cysteine content (2.9g/16gN) (Ensminger et al., 1990; NRC, 1998; Poultry

Feeding Standards, 2005; El-Shemy, 2011).

Soybean however contain reasonable amounts of anti-nutritional factors, an

appropriate and convenient method of processing is required in order to render them safe,

palatable, digestible and nutritious (Lasekan et al., 2004; Mahmood et al., 2015).

In Pakistan, soybean has suffered a setback and has therefore, not been able to attain a

respectable position among the oilseed crops. Its cultivation remained limited to a very small

acreage and showed a declining trend whenever efforts were not made for its promotion. In
 4

1970-71, it was grown on 2441 hectares which remained almost stagnant for two decades

with small fluctuations. However, from 1990-91 onwards the area started increasing and

reached 5350 hectares in 1994-95, producing 6,510 tons of soybean. The average yield

increased from 390 kg/ ha in 1970-71 to 1217 kg/ha in 1994-95; registering an annual growth

rate of 7.8 percent (National Oilseeds Development Project, 1995).

The province wise distribution of area and production shows that there was no

soybean crop in provinces of Punjab and Balochistan till 1981-82. 100 percent of the crop

was planted in NWFP. This trend continued till 1974-75. Later on, it was also planted in

Sindh on a small acreage. In 1986-87, it was planted in Punjab on 3023 hectares. Empirically,

soybean remained popular in NWFP probably because it found its place in orchards and

comparatively higher yields were obtained in mild climates of the northern than relatively

severe climates of Punjab and Sindh (National Oilseeds Development Project, 1995).

Protein malnutrition is a serious problem due to cereal based dietary pattern.

Therefore, various preparations based on cereal-pulse combination are of paramount

importance to improve the protein quality of our diet. FAO (Food and Agricultural

Organization) suggested that to meet the recommended dietary allowances of infants,

preschool children, adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women, low cost supplementary

foods could be processed domestically by simple, inexpensive processing technology

(Awasthi et al., 2012).The study aims to create awareness amongst people about the

nutritional value and importance of Soybean.

1.1 Significance of the study

The research will help to study the nutritive quality and various nutritive parameters

such as protein, oil and other micronutrients present in different varieties of soybean. It is
 5

intended to stimulate interest in further research to optimize beneficial effects of soybean. It

will help in creating awareness of the nutritional importance of soybean amongst the people

of Pakistan.

1.2 Objectives of the study

The study is based on the following objectives:

1. To study the nutritional parameters of four different soybean varieties cultivated in

Pakistan.

2. To present a comparative nutritional analysis of the four soybean varieties.

3. To contribute to the existing nutritional knowledge regarding soybean in Pakistan.

1.3 Delimitations

1. Only four varieties of soybean were examined.

2. The experiment was conducted in a controlled environment of National Agricultural

Research Centre laboratories, Islamabad.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Nutritive Composition of Soybean

Shemy et al. (2000) conducted a research in which the composition and contents of

nutritional factors such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, fibers, amino acids, and anti-

nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid, and tannins were compared in

soybean and fababean seeds with emphasis placed on the nutritional improvement of the

seeds by cortex removal. Protein hydrolysis analysis for both whole seeds and seed with

cortex removed revealed the presence of a large amount of lysine, arginine, aspartic acid,

glutamic acid, glycine, and leucine while these seeds contained a low level of tryptophan,

cystine, and methionine. Some anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid,

and tannins were detected in soybean and fababean seeds, phytic acid content and trypsin

inhibitor activity were higher in soybean seeds than in fababean seeds while the difference in

the tannin content was less pronounced. It was found that most of the tannins occurred in the

cortex of the soybean and fababean seeds. By removal of the cortex, tannins were almost

completely eliminated without changes in the protein composition and amino acids. From

these results, it is assumed that since soybean and fababean seeds contained a high

concentration of anti-nutritional factors in the cortex such as tannins, the utilization of the

legume seeds after removal of the entire cortex is suitable for human diet or industrial

products.

Chivandi et al. (2005) conducted a study to compare the nutritive and anti-nutritional

factors (ANFs) composition of industrially processed shelled Jatropha curcas (Physic nut)

kernels and soybean (Glycine max) seed. Samples of industrially processed soybean meal
 7

(SBM) generated from the traditional industrial hexane extraction method were used.

Samples of J. curcas meal (JCM) were derived from double solvent extraction of shelled J.

curcas kernels in a hexane-ethanol extraction system followed by wet extrusion (126 degrees

C, 2 atmospheres, 10 min contact time) and then re-extraction with hexane. The re-extracted

JCM was then heated with pressurized steam at 121 degrees C for 30 min before dried

samples were used in the laboratory analyses. Significant differences (p<0.05) in both the

nutrient and ANFs existed between the seed meals. The JCM had a significantly higher

(p<0.05) crude protein (CP) with 577.00 g/kg DM vs. 470.80 g/kg DM in SBM. Similarly,

JCM had a higher (p<0.05) ash, calcium and phosphorus content at 119.7, 12.4 and 22.26

g/kg DM, respectively vs. the 73.8, 3.43 and 7.31 g/kg DM, respectively, in SBM. The SBM

and JCM registered statistically similar levels of acid detergent fiber (ADF). However, JCM

had a significantly higher (p<0.05) neutral detergent fiber content (NDF) at 177.30 g/kg DM

with the SBM having 125.60 g/kg DM neutral detergent fiber. The JCM had a residual

phorbol ester (PEs) concentration of 0.8 mg/g that was equivalent to a decrease of 87.69%

from the 6.5 mg/g PEs content in raw shelled Jatropha curcas kernels. The SBM registered

19.40 TUI/mg as trypsin inhibitor activity while the JCM did not show any such activity.

Both meals did not cause agglutination and haemolysis of erythrocytes indicating that lectins

and saponins were completely inactivated during the industrial processing of each meal.

Kumar et al. (2006) conducted a research on the influence of growing environment on

the biochemical composition and physical characteristics of soybean seed. The biochemical

composition and physical appearance of soybean seeds determine the quality of various soy

foods. A multilocational field trial with seven Indian cultivars at four growing locations was

conducted to study the influence of the growing environment on the biochemical and physical

characteristics of soybean seed. Genotypic, locational and genotypic x locational interaction

were found to be significant for protein, oil and unsaturated fatty acids, namely oleic acid,
 8

linoleic acid and linolenic acid (P<0.001). Phytic acid and heat-stable anti-nutritional factor

in soybean seed showed significant (P<0.01) locational and genotypic x locational effects.

Among climatic factors, latitude showed a significant positive correlation with oil (P<0.05)

and a negative correlation with protein (P<0.01), while rainfall showed a negative correlation

with protein content (P<0.001). Average daily mean temperatures during bean development

showed a positive correlation with protein (P<0.05) and a negative one with oil and linolenic

acid (P<0.05). Among physical characteristics, seed size showed a positive correlation with

phytic acid and oleic acid, and a negative correlation with linolenic acid. Over four growing

locations, the seed coat colour showed no variation, while light hilum colour cultivars

responded differentially. The effect of various climatic factors on physical and biochemical

composition of soybean seed as observed in our studies suggests the need for development of

location-specific cultivars for food uses of soybean.

Okwu & Orji (2007) discussed the nutritive value and phytochemical composition of

three cultivars of Vigna unguiculata and Glycine max grown in Nigeria. Phytochemical

studies revealed the presence of bioactive compounds comprising flavonoids (2.36-6.28

mg/100 g-1), alkaloids (1.28-1.64 mg/100 g-1), tannins (0.38-0.77 mg/100 g-1), saponins

(0.11-0.23 mg/100 g-1). The protein, carbohydrate, lipids and fiber content were 19.69-

39.08, 32.78-67.26, 2.70-21.08 and 1.78-4.68%, respectively. The food energy value ranges

from 363.71-477.16 cal g-1. The grains are rich in B-vitamins such as niacin (1.85- 4.01

mg/100 g-1), thiamin (0.46-1.72 mg/100 g-1), riboflavin (0.22-170 mg/100 g-1) and ascorbic

acid content ranges from (5.20-55.44 mg/100 g-1). These grains are good sources of minerals

comprising calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and potassium while sodium content was low.

The legumes can be considered as sources of quality raw materials for food and

pharmaceutical industries.
 9

Rani et al. (2007) explored in a research that plant seed oils, including soybean seed

oil, represent the major source of naturally derived tocopherols, the antioxidant molecules

that act as free radical quenchers preventing lipid peroxidation in biological systems and

vegetable oil products. All four isomers of tocopherols, i.e. α, β, γ, δ tocopherols that exist in

nature are found in soybean seeds. Because of the nutritive value and the importance for oil

stability, enhancement of tocopherol content, through breeding programs, in soybean seeds

has become a new and an important objective. In this present investigation, the tocopherol

content and profile in seed samples of 66 genotypes of Indian soybean were determined. The

ratios observed between the lowest and the highest values for α, β, γ, δ, total tocopherol

content were 1:13.6, 1:10.4, 1:7.5, 1:9.1, 1:7.9, respectively. In view of the fact that levels of

unsaturated fatty acids, apart from tocopherols, also determine the oxidative stability of

vegetable oils, the relationship of four isomers of tocopherols with each other as well as with

different unsaturated fatty acids and oil content was also investigated in the present study. All

the four isomers of tocopherols exhibited highly significant correlations with each other (p <

0.001) whereas γ-tocopherol and total tocopherol content showed a significant relationship

with linoleic acid (p < 0.05).

Muhammad & Aziz (2007) conducted a research to study effect of gamma irradiation

on germination and seedling growth of soybean (Glycine max L.) varieties. LSD test revealed

non-significant differences for germination % age. However, plumule and radicle growth

showed highly significant differences under different gamma irradiation doses applied to

soybean seeds. Varietals differences were non-significant for plumule growth while, highly

significant germination % age and radicle growth t-test at P = 0.05 revealed non-significant

differences varietals means for fresh weight. However differences between varietals means

for dry weight and moisture contents were significant.

 10

Bhardwaj et al. (2007) conducted a study to determine contents of minerals in tofu

prepared from 12 soybean genotypes (BARC-8, BARC-9, Enrei, Hutcheson, MD86-5788,

Nakasennari, S90-1056, Suzuyutaka, V71-370, V81-1603, Ware and York) grown at three

southern US locations (Huntsville, Alabama; Princess Anne, Maryland; and Petersburg,

Virginia) during 1995. The genotype effects on mineral composition of tofu were significant

only for Zn. Growing location had significant effects on contents of P, B, Zn and Mn in tofu.

Average contents of S, P, K, Mg and Ca in tofu were 0.40, 0.68, 1.76, 0.26 and 0.25 g per

100 g of tofu, respectively. In the case of B, Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu and Al, the average contents

were 19.7, 62.3, 42.9, 190, 15.4 and 188 mg/kg of tofu, respectively. The contents of S and

Zn were positively and those of K and Mg were negatively correlated with protein content.

The contents of S, K, Ca, B and Zn were negatively correlated with oil content. Based on

Daily Recommended Intake values, it was suggested that consideration may need to be given

to the content of Mn given that seed produced in Maryland had considerably lower Mn

content as compared to that produced in Alabama or Virginia. Seed size, generally, did not

affect mineral composition of tofu.

Ibrahim et al. (2008) carried out a field experiments at Shambat, Sudan (Latitude 15

degrees 40'N and Longitude 32 degrees 32'E) in three consecutive seasons (2000/03) to

investigate the effect of Bradyrhizobium inoculation and chicken manure or sulphur

fertilization on minerals composition of soybean (Glycine max L.). The results obtained

showed that inoculation, chicken manure, sulphur and their interactions significantly

(P=0.05) improved both major and trace minerals composition of the seeds. The results also

indicated that all measured parameters increased with increasing level of chicken manure or

sulphur and the highest value of each mineral was observed with either 10 tone/fed chicken

manure or 100 kg/fed sulfur with or without Bradyrhizobium inoculation. The study also

showed that the residual effect of chicken manure or sulphur significantly (P=0.05) improved
 11

minerals content particularly at 10 tone/fed chicken manure or 100 kg/fed sulfur with or

without Bradyrhizobium inoculation.

Saha et al. (2008) conducted a research in which the physicochemical compositions of

20 black-seeded soybean lines were analyzed for different nutritional and cooking quality

parameters. Based on 18 physicochemical and nutritional attributes, 20 black soybean

germplasm lines were grouped into four clusters using nonhierarchical Euclidean cluster

analysis. The DARL-BK-615 and VRB-PS-1453 were found to be more diverse than others.

The DARL-BK-615 was found best for low trypsin inhibitor and high mineral contents (Zn,

Mn, Cu), while VRB-PS-1453 was found best for protein content and required the lowest

time for cooking. The selection for the improvement of physicochemical nutritional attributes

and anti-nutritional factors can be independently effective in black soybean genotypes.

According to Mebrahtu (2008) in addition to oil and soy foods, soybean [Glycine

max L. (Merr.)] is also produced for vegetable use. He conducted a study to determine the

magnitude of genotype × year interactions (GYIs) for nutritional values, to estimate broad-

sense heritability (h2BS), and to identify genotypes that have stable nutritional values. Thirty-

one soybean genotypes from maturity groups (MGs) III to VI were grown at Randolph

Research Farm of Virginia State University, Petersburg, Virginia, during three years. The

genotypes were harvested at immature green pod stage (R6-R7) and analysed for nutritional

values (lipid, protein, fatty acid profile, and carbohydrate). Significant (P<0.01) differences

among the genotypes were found for protein, ratio (18:1/18:2+18:3), and carbohydrate

(CHO). The GYIs were also significant (P<0.01) for all the seed traits analysed, indicating

that the performance of the genotype changed from year to year. Moderate h 2BS estimates of

56%, 61%, and 69% were observed for protein, ratio, and CHO, respectively. These

h2BSindicated the seed traits analysed were equally influenced by environments and genetic
 12

factors. In general, the percentage contribution of genotype to the total sum of squares was

higher than that of the GYIs for all seed traits analysed with the exception of lipid. Among

the genotypes tested Akiyoshi ranked high in protein, ratio, and, CHO and PI 379621 ranked

high in protein and CHO. These genotypes could be used as genetic source in improving

nutritive values of vegetable soybean genotypes. The rank correlations between G × Y model

analysis mean ranking and cultivar superiority performance measure (CSPM) value ranks for

lipid, ratio, protein, and CHO were 0.912**, 0.979**, 0.987**, and 0.973**, respectively.

Dantas et al. (2009) conducted a study that aimed at assessing the sensorial

characteristic and the centesimal composition of breads made up with wheat-soybean mixed

flour. Four sweet breads formulation were prepared using wheat-soybean mix flour (50:50

ratio) from different cultivars, which are used for human consumption, being a conventional

one, two without lipoxygenases, and the fourth with low contents of trypsin inhibitor.

Amounts of proteins, lipids, carbohydrate, moisture, ashes and calories were evaluated. A

hundred one consumers evaluated the formulations, and the sensorial characteristic

acceptance by consumers was done by means of nine-point structured hedonic scale, and the

Internal Preference Mapping technique was used to analyse the data. The use of wheat-

soybean mixed flour increased the nutritional value of prepared breads, when compared with

those made from the conventional formulation, especially referring to protein and lipid

contents. Formulations prepared with soy flours from lipoxygenase-free cultivars

significantly reduced the characteristic and distasteful flavor of soybean. The use of wheat-

soybean mixed flours in the same proportion improved the nutritional proprieties and the

highly accepted sensory characteristic. The sensory acceptance was observed especially in

bread prepared with lipoxygenases-free soybean flour.

 13

Garcia et al. (2009) conducted a research that analysed that soybean contains about 48

to 50% proteins. Among these, storage proteins are predominant. 7S and 11S globulins are

two storage proteins that constitute 80% of the total protein content in soybean. Moreover,

there are other less abundant storage proteins such as 2S, 9S, and 15S globulins. In addition

to globulins, enzymes, protease inhibitors (Kunitz and Bowman-Birk), lectin, and others

complete the soy protein content. Different methods exist to characterize soy proteins. These

methods involve (1) an isolation of proteins from soya commercial products and (2) the use

of analytical techniques for protein determination.

Seibel & Beléia (2009) conducted a study to quantify the chemical components and

determine the technological properties of soybean-based ingredients. Dietary fiber obtained

from the cotyledons and protein ingredients such as the concentrate and defatted flour were

evaluated. The chemical composition was determined using the official methods of analysis,

and the isoflavones by HPLC. The functional properties evaluated were: water holding

capacity (WHC), swelling capacity (SC), oil holding capacity (OHC), emulsifying capacity

(EC) and emulsifying activity (EA). On average, the protein ingredients contained 72% of

protein and the fiber rich ingredients, 60% of dietary fiber. In all the ingredients, the main

macromineral was potassium and the main micromineral was iron.

ChunMei et al. (2010) conducted a study to evaluate the effects of soybean varieties

on content of trypsin inhibitor and lectin, and growth, nutrient digestibility in rat. Seventy-

two male Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups and fed on different diets as

follows: group 1 to 5 was fed on diets containing one of five soybean varieties respectively;

group six was fed on normal diet containing soybean meal and oil. Each group was fed for 4

week, then faeces and urine were collected to determine the nutritional efficiency of diets,

and body weights were measured weekly. The results show that trypsin inhibitor and lectin
 14

content of Jilin45 was highest, and those of Jinong7 were lowest in five soybean varieties. All

measured parameters, including gain in body weight, feed utilization efficiency, nutrient

digestibility, nitrogen balance and nitrogen retention, were markedly different among five

treatment groups, and these values were significantly lower than control group. The data

demonstrated that soybean varieties could significantly affect trypsin inhibitor and lectin

content in soybean, so that there are strikingly differences of growth performance, feed

utilization efficiency and nutrient digestibility in animal fed on diets containing different

variety soybean.

According to Dragičević et al. (2010) the nutritive quality of soya bean grain depends

on many nutritional and anti-nutritional factors, such as proteins, trypsin inhibitors, phytate,

phenolics, sulfhydril groups of proteins, malondialdehide. The aim of this study was to

investigate content of noted nutritive and anti-nutritive factors in seven ZP soya bean

varieties: ZPS 015, Bosa, Nena, Lidija, Olga, Lana and Laura. Experimental data pointed out

different properties and usage of ZP soya bean varieties. Regardless of insignificant

differences in content of proteins and phytate, special attention is given to Lana and Laura,

varieties lacking in Kunitz-trypsin inhibitor. It is also important to emphasise high content of

phenolics in Nena variety as well as high sulfhydril groups and glutathione level in Nena and

Olga. These substances contribute to nutritive value of soya bean grain.

Carrera et al. (2011) conducted a study, the aim of this study was to explore and

describe the variability of non-transgenic soybean seed chemical components by investigating

the environmental correlations among protein (Pr), oil (O), oleic (Ol), linoleic (La), and

linolenic (Ln) acids, oleic to linolenic acid ratio (Ol:Ln) alpha-(AT), beta-(BT), gamma-(GT),

delta-(DT), and total tocopherols (TT) and total isoflavones (TI) by means of principal

component analysis. They analysed seeds from multi environment trials involving field trials
 15

grown in Argentina (24 to 38°S latitude). A wide range of variability was observed for Ol,

Ln, Ol:Ln, AT, BT, and TI. The strongest environment-induced relationships found were the

negative correlation between DT and AT and the positive correlation between DT and Ln.

Increased Ol:Ln was negatively correlated with Ln. High values of DT, Ln, and Pr were

associated with cool environments, TI content was greater in temperate to cool environments,

and AT, O, and Ol:Ln were associated with warm environments. Warm environments would

be suitable for obtaining products with higher Oleic acid concentration of low oxidation

capacity and greater vitamin E content. In turn, temperate to cool environments would be

suitable for the production of soybean with higher TI, La, Ln, and TT content; in addition,

these environments would favor seeds of higher Protein concentration.

Shirkole et al. (2011) evaluated soybean varieties (cv. TAMS-38 and JS- 335) for

their physical properties that are often required in order to design production processes and

equipment’s at moisture contents of 7.30% to 30.80%and 7.35% to 30.70% (d.b.) for TAMS-

38 and JS-335 respectively. The grain size, thousand grain weight, and angle of repose were

found linearly increased with increase in moisture contents. The grain sizes was found

increased from 5.92 to 6.65 and 5.64 to 6.37mm; thousand grain weight 124.2 to 154.4 and

103.5 to 137.3 g; and angle repose 27.37 to 30.37 and 28.00 to 30.85., respectively, with the

increase in moisture contents. The results indicated that per cent increase in terminal velocity

of TAMS- 38 and JS- 335 were 20.0% and 13.79%.The bulk density, true density, porosity

and sphericity were found linearly decreased with increase in moisture content. The bulk

density was decreased from 673.5 to 608.6 and 662.4 to 598.4 kg/m, true density 1192.1

to983.4 and 1147.1 to 948.4 kg/m3, porosity 43.4% to 38.1% and 42.2% to 36.9% whereas,

sphericity decreased from 85.1% to 77.4% and 86.3% to 78.3%, respectively for TAMS- 38

and JS- 335 with corresponding increase in moisture content. The values of static coefficient

of friction varied from 0.390 to 1.428 against various surfaces.

 16

Lee & Choung (2011) conducted a study in which the nutritional components,

including isoflavone, protein, oil, fatty acid, and free sugar, in soybean varieties with

different geographical origins were evaluated. Three representative isoflavone aglycones

(daidzein, glycitein, and genistein) from the hydrolysed extract were elucidated using high-

performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection and electrospray ionization/

mass spectrometry. Among components, isoflavone exhibited differences between varieties

and countries, whereas protein, oil, fatty acid, and free sugar showed no meaningful

differences. Genistein (596.2 μg/g) exhibited the highest content of isoflavone, followed by

daidzein (499.8 μg/g), and glycitein (87.2 μg/g). Nepal varieties showed the highest average

isoflavone content (1,391.2 μg/ g), with the lowest (878.2 μg/g) from those of China. Linoleic

acid (>50%) in fatty acid and sucrose (>70%) in free sugar exhibited the highest contents in

all varieties. Although isoflavone showed predominant differences, this component was not

significantly correlated with countries owing to the differences in contents of various

varieties from each country. However, isoflavone in terms of nutritional value may be a key

factor when considering the useful ingredients of soybeans from different geographical

origins.

Whey is a by-product of cheese or paneer making having a great nutritional value

along with potential functional food ingredients. Soy proteins also have a great potential to

increase the nutritional and physical qualities of food. Despite this nutritional importance, soy

products are not used much due to a characteristic beany flavour and anti-nutritional factors.

To make it a value added product, processing of soy products is of utmost importance.

Moreover, soy products are deficient in sulfur containing amino acids, for which there soy

products need to be blended with dairy products/cereals/pulses to make them nutritionally

adequate and popular in areas where people suffering from PEM inhabit. With this

information in mind, Chauhan & Chawla (2011) carried out a study with the objective to
 17

remove the beany flavour and anti-nutritional factors from soy flour by different processing

techniques. Acceptability evaluation of some products prepared by incorporating WPC at 10

and 20 per cent level and their respective forms blended with soy flour have been undertaken.

Nutritional analysis of most acceptable version of each product was carried out and compared

with the standard.

Kumar et al. (2011) evaluated Vegetable-Type Soybean for Sucrose, Taste-Related

Amino Acids, and Isoflavones Contents Genetic variability has been scarcely investigated in

vegetable soybean for taste-related compounds viz. sucrose, aspartic acid, glutamic acid,

glycine, alanine, and isoflavones. In the present study, analysis of green seeds of 12

vegetable-type genotypes, between reproductive stages of R6 and R7 (i.e., when the pods

were completely filled but the seeds and pods shell not yet turned yellow), revealed ranges of

1.28–7.12, 0.37–1.51, 0.64–2.82, 0.17–0.72, 0.11–0.51 g/100 g for sucrose, aspartic acid,

glutamic acid, glycine, alanine content, respectively, while a range of 8.64–33.19 mg/100 g

was observed for total isoflavones content. Genotypes with high levels of sucrose, aspartic

acid, glutamic acid and alanine scored high for taste. Results did not indicate any significant

relationship between isoflavones content and the taste score.

Soybean and watermelon seeds are rich source of protein as well as minerals mainly

iron yet they are not consumed by a large number of populations instead of their nutritional

qualities. Guava is a rich source of ascorbic acid. Bisla et al. (2012) conducted an experiment;

the objective was to prepare nutritionally enhanced ice-creams by the incorporation of soy

milk, watermelon seeds milk and guava pulp and evaluation of their acceptability and

nourishing potential. Total six different types of ice creams were prepared from soymilk,

watermelon seed's milk as whole and their blends with or without addition of guava pulp. At

9 point hedonic scale products were evaluated for their appearance, flavor, mouth feel and

overall acceptability in which most of the ice creams were liked moderately to very much and
 18

one ice cream were most acceptable i.e. blended milk (50% soymilk and 50% watermelon

seed milk) ice-cream with guava pulp. The nutritional analysis of most acceptable ice creams

indicated that protein and fat value was found to be excellent and iron as well as vitamin C

content was also found in good amount in comparison to standard cow's milk ice-cream. Thus

these ice creams would be highly nutritious and acceptable by the population.

Jiao et al. (2012) conducted a research on the compositional study of different

soybean varieties that was performed by use of 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

spectroscopy, chromatographic and spectrometric technique. In this study the compositions of

amino acids, fatty acids, sugars, elements, and isoflavones in two glyphosate-tolerant soybean

varieties and three Chinese conventional soybean varieties were studied by 1 H NMR

spectroscopy, gas chromatography mass spectrometry, high performance liquid

chromatography and inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry, respectively.

Systematical study of compositional profile characteristics provided an effective method for

discriminating different soybean varieties and useful reference values for soybean

consumption.

Khan et al. (2012) conducted an experiment the purpose of the current study was to

assess the nutritional quality and safety of chapattis supplemented with soy flour. Wheat and

soybean were procured and soy flour was prepared. Trypsin inhibitor contents and mineral

contents of different flour and chapattis prepared were determined. Chapattis were prepared

from different flour blends and whole wheat flour. To assess the quality and acceptability, the

chapattis were presented to a panel of judges and the sensory evaluation was carried out for

color, taste, aroma, chew ability, folding ability and overall acceptability characteristics. The

data obtained for each parameter were subjected to statistical analysis to determine the level

of significance. The phytic acid and trypsin content were higher in un-autoclaved soy flour

supplement composite flour. The defattening of soy flour also increases the level of these
 19

anti-nutrients in chapattis. The phytate and trypsin content of composite flour decreased as a

result of baking. The protein, fiber and ash contents of composite flour increased while

moisture content and nitrogen free extracts (NFE) decreased by the addition of soy flour.

Mineral contents of chapattis except Mn increased by the incorporation of soy flour. The

chapattis were found acceptable by the panel of judges at 10 percent replacement level of

whole wheat flour by soy flour. The results of the study indicate that 10 percent

supplementation of soy flour in wheat flour was found acceptable by consumers as it did not

affect the sensory attribute. For improved nutrition and to combat protein energy

malnutrition, chapattis flour can be supplemented with soy flour. The soy supplementation of

wheat flour will improve the nutritional quality of the chapatti flour as soy flour is rich in

high-quality protein and mineral.

DianYu et al. (2013) aimed to determine and to compare the main phytochemicals

from soybean and soybean germ of different Chinese varieties. The results indicated that the

soybean germ contains low protein (38.19%), lipids (10.98%), and crude fiber (7.47%)

compared with soybean. Specific gravity, refractive index, and saponification values of

soybean germ oil were comparable to those of soybean oil. However, unsaponifiable matter

of the germ oil was significantly higher (6.982%) than soybean oil (1.072%). The tocopherol

contents in soybean germ oil ranged as follows: γ-tocopherol, 176.39 mg/100 g oil; δ-

tocopherol, 57.29 mg/100 g oil; α-tocopherol, 50.67 mg/100 g oil; and β-tocopherol, 8.15

mg/100 g oil. The main sterols in soy germ oil were β-sitosterol (1,681.90 mg/100 g oil),

crevesterol (358.02 mg/100 g oil), stigmasterol (189.62 mg/100 g oil), and brassicasterol

(3.70 mg/100 g oil). Furthermore, soybean germ oil seemed to be an important source of

triglyceride, fatty acids, and particularly the fatty acids in the sn-2 position of triacylglycerol.

The important nutritional value of all these phytochemicals makes soybean germ and

particularly germ oil sources of functional molecules and additives for the food industry.
 20

Vojtíšková et al. (2013) conducted an experiment to determine amino acid

composition and mineral content in selected legume samples. All analyses were carried out at

the laboratory temperature of 21±2°C in triplicate. Amino acid composition was determined

using the automatic amino acid analyzer AAA 400 with post-column derivatization. To

assess the nutritional value of protein, index of essential amino acids (EAAI) was calculated.

Minerals were determined using the atomic absorption spectrometer AA 30. All results were

statistically evaluated. The highest content of Cys, Glu, Asp, Leu, Lys and Arg was

determined in seeds of G. max; only the content of Cys and His was lower than 10 g kg-1. The

greatest total content of essential amino acids (EAA) was discovered in soybeans, almost 128

g kg-1. The majority (Na, K, Mg, and Ca), trace (Fe, Zn, and Cr) and toxic elements (Pb, Cd)

were determined. Legumes were rich in Mg and Ca-mainly G. max and Ph. vulgaris. The

content of Mg in was 2.1 g 1000 g-1 in soybeans and 1.6 g 1000 g-1 in common beans. Also in

these two legumes the greatest concentration of toxic Pb was found.

Kökten et al. (2014) carried out a study in Bingol Province of Turkey in the growing

season of 2012 to determine the nutritive value of different soybean varieties. A total of 12

different soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] varieties supplied from Eastern Mediterranean

Agricultural Research Institute, Western Mediterranean Agricultural Research Institute,

Aegean Agricultural Research Institute and May-Agro Seed Company were used as the plant

material of the field experiments. Experiments were carried out in randomized block design

with 3 replications. Green herbage and hay yields, crude protein (CP), protein yield (PY),

crude ash (CA), dry matter digestibility (DMD), dry matter intake (DMI), relative food value

(RFV), acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) characteristics were

investigated. The results showed that the varieties Blaze, Ataem-7, Cinsoy, Nova, Erensoy

and Türksoy were considered as primary varieties to be used in animal feed and agricultural

activities of the region with regard to hay yield and quality.

 21

FengXian et al. (2014) explored the effect of different treatment methods on the

nutritional value and the removing of anti-nutritional factor in soybean meal, extrusion

method and fermentation method were selected to treat soybean meal. The general nutrition

composition, amino acid content, anti-nutritional factors and mycotoxin content, volatile

basic nitrogen content and microbial populations of soybean meal treated by extrusion or by

fermentation were analysed. The results showed that the extruded soybean meal had a

reducing trend of nutrient content compared with the soybean meal without treatment. The

protein solubility, trypsin inhibitor, lectin and urease activity were about 15.27%, 37.95%,

93.98% and 44.0% lower, respectively, than soybean meal without treatment. The fermented

soybean meal had an increasing trend of nutrient content compared with the soybean meal

without treatment. The crude protein, lysine, total amino acids and small peptide were about

7.61%, 17.75%, 7.24% and 295.69% higher, and the solubility of protein and crude fat were

about 23.18% and 42.86% lower, respectively, than soybean meal without treatment. In

conclusion, fermentation method is a more ideal method for the removing of anti-nutritional

factor in soybean meal than extrusion method.

Yoshikawa et al. (2014) carried out a study, the objectives of this study were to

evaluate differences of seed chemical and sensory properties among natto types and

determine heritability and correlation. A total of 15 small-seeded natto genotypes (three

superior, nine moderate and three inferior) were evaluated for protein, oil, calcium,

manganese, boron and sugar content and processed into a natto product to evaluate

appearance, stickiness, flavor, texture and shelf-life. The superior natto group had a higher

sugar content but lower protein plus oil, calcium, manganese and boron content than other

two groups. Most seed quality traits exhibited high heritability. The natto sensory preference

was positively correlated with sucrose and oil content, but negatively correlated with seed

hardness, protein, protein plus oil, calcium, manganese, and boron contents. Selecting
 22

soybean lines with low protein, protein plus oil, calcium, manganese, and boron content

while with high sucrose will be an effective approach for soybean breeding for natto

production.

Bohn et al. (2014) conducted a study on Compositional differences in soybeans on the

market. The research describes the nutrient and elemental composition, including residues of

herbicides and pesticides, of 31 soybean batches from Iowa, USA. The soy samples were

grouped into three different categories: (i) genetically modified, glyphosate-tolerant soy

(GM-soy); (ii) unmodified soy cultivated using a conventional “chemical” cultivation regime;

and (iii) unmodified soy cultivated using an organic cultivation regime. Organic soybeans

showed the healthiest nutritional profile with more sugars, such as glucose, fructose, sucrose

and maltose, significantly more total protein, zinc and less fiber than both conventional and

GM-soy. Organic soybeans also contained less total saturated fat and total omega-6 fatty

acids than both conventional and GM-soy. GM-soy contained high residues of glyphosate

and AMPA (mean 3.3 and 5.7 mg/kg, respectively). Conventional and organic soybean

batches contained none of these agrochemicals. Using 35 different nutritional and elemental

variables to characterise each soy sample, we were able to discriminate GM, conventional

and organic soybeans without exception, demonstrating “substantial non-equivalence” in

compositional characteristics for ‘ready-to-market’ soybeans.

Sharma et al. (2014) conducted a research; the objective of this study was to

investigate the physical characteristics and nutritional composition of some new soybean

genotypes. Hundred seed weight and volume of soybean genotypes ranged from 8.7 to 11.1 g

and 8.1 to 12.0 ml respectively, whereas, percent water absorption and percent volume

expansion values ranged from 94.3 to 119.5% and 70.8 to 159.5% respectively. The

genotypes contained % crude protein (39.4–44.4), oil (14.0–18.7), starch (4.3–6.7), total

soluble sugars (5.6–7.9), reducing sugars (0.21–0.33) and sucrose (5.6–11.8). The free fatty
 23

acid and triglyceride content ranged from 31–71 mg 100 g−1 oil and 90.1–93.9 g 100 g−1 oil

respectively. The anti-nutritional components determined include: mg g−1 TIA (41.5–85.0),

phytate (2.3–5.6), total phenols (1.0–1.5), flavonols (0.20–0.34) and ortho-dihydroxy phenols

(0.10–0.21). A significant variation for the 11S/7S ratio was observed among the 8 soybean

genotypes and the values ranged from 0.70 (‘SL 768’ and ‘SL 869’) to 2.4 (‘SL 794’).

Legumes are high-protein, medium-energy and micronutrient-rich food consumed in

many parts of the world including Africa. Joseph et al. (2014) evaluated the levels of specific

phenolic compounds in three legumes. Two varieties of the common bean, (Phaseolus

vulgaris L.) soybeans (Glycine max L.), and peas (Pisum sativum L.) from Rwanda were

analysed using high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection. The

phenolic compounds were identified by comparison to the chromatographic retention times

and UV spectra of known reference compounds. The results clearly showed the presence of

11 different phenolic compounds in common beans: gallic acid, (+)-catechin, (-)-epicatechin,

caffeic acid, o-coumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, quercetin, 4-hydrobenzoic acid, syringic acid,

ferulic acid and vanillic acid. The concentration ranged from 0.59 to 2.27 mg/kg for

epicatechin. High levels of catechin (13.5 to 57.9 mg/kg) ferulic acid (26.1 to 47.6 mg/kg)

were also observed. Therefore, the results of this study show that Rwandan common beans

are a good source of phenolic acids in particular catechins and ferulic acid.

Gomes et al. (2014) analysed the protein profiles of four new conventional soybean

seeds (BRS 257, BRS 258, BRS 267, and Embrapa 48) with the use of proteomic tools. Two-

dimensional (2D) and one-dimensional (1D) gel electrophoreses were performed, followed

by MALDI-TOF/TOF and ESI-Q-TOF mass spectrometry analyses, respectively. These two

different experimental approaches allowed the identification of 117 proteins from 1D gels

and 46 differentially expressed protein spots in 2D gels. BRS 267 showed the greatest
 24

diversity of identified spots in the 2D gel analyses. In the 1D gels, the major groups were

storage (25-40%) and lipid metabolism (11-25%) proteins. The differences in protein

composition between cultivars could indicate functional and nutritional differences and could

direct the development of new cultivars.

Costa et al. (2015) evaluated the differences in composition among six brands of

conventional soybean and six genetically modified cultivars (GM). We focused on the

isoflavones profile and mineral content questioning the substantial equivalence between

conventional and GM organisms. The statement of compliance label for conventional grains

was verified for the presence of genetic modified genes by real time polymerase chain

reaction (PCR). We did not detect the presence of the 35S promoter in commercial samples,

indicating the absence of transgene insertion. For mineral analysis, we used the method of

inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Isoflavones

quantification was performed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The

results showed no statistical difference between the conventional and transgenic soybean

groups concerning isoflavone content and mineral composition. The concentration of

potassium, the main mineral component of soy, was the highest in conventional soybeans

compared to that in GM soy, while GM samples presented the highest concentrations of iron.

Tobar-Tosse et al.(2015) present the characterization of vegetable soybean genotypes.

It was applied Principal Component Analysis considering the agronomics, nutritional and

anti-nutritional features: number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, fresh weight of

pods per plant (g), fresh weight of 100 seeds (g), estimated total yield of immature seeds (kg

ha-1), moisture content, proteins, lipids, ash, carbohydrates, isoflavones and Kunitz trypsin

inhibitor. The experiments were developed in the sector of Olericultura and Plantas

Aromático-Medicinais from UNESP-FCAV. The results showed that fresh weight of pods per
 25

plant, proteins content, number of pods per plant, fresh weight of 100 seeds, and moisture

content were the relevant variables for the discrimination of the genotypes in the first

principal component and for the second principal the component were ash content, proteins,

number of pods per plant and lipids content. Accordingly, the genotypes JLM010, JLM024

and CNPSO1 were defined as relevant by the variables fresh weight of pods per plant,

estimated total yield of immature seeds, number of pods per plant, carbohydrates content,

isoflavones and proteins. It was concluded that it is a relevant result because these genotypes

were considered candidates to be used in plant breeding programs.

Emire & Buta (2015) carried out an experiment to study the effects of fermentation on

quality protein maize (QPM) and soybean blends with respect to the nutritional quality

including physico-chemical and functional properties; microbiological and sensory analyses,

minerals and anti-nutrients composition. Quality protein maize-soybean blend flours were

fermented for 24 and 48 hrs by natural and controlled fermentations. In contrary

concentration of tannins and phytate were reduced significantly due to the fermentation

process. Micronutrients increment in (mg/100 g) for P, Fe and Zn was 32.57 to 61.9; 3.98 to

7.20 and 2.61 to 4.21; respectively were revealed. Fermentation significantly (p<0.05)

decreased the anti-nutrients which resulted a significant increase in micronutrients.

Microbiological result revealed significant reduction of undesirable coliform count and

increment of LAB with increase in fermentation time. Sensory quality result showed that

gruel prepared from the fermented blended flours at 24 hrs of fermentation time and <250 µm

particle size was found acceptable. In line with the result of this study, natural and controlled

fermentation uniformly reduced anti-nutrients composition and improved the nutritional

quality of the weaning blends via increased energy and nutrient densities.
 26

Xu et al. (2015) analysed the global protein expression in seeds of a high-oil soybean

cultivar (Jiyu 73, JY73) by proteomics. More than 700 protein spots were detected and 363

protein spots were successfully identified. Comparison of the protein profile of JY73 with

that of a high-protein cultivar (Zhonghuang 13, ZH13) revealed 40 differentially expressed

proteins, including oil synthesis, redox/stress, hydrolysis and storage-related proteins. All

redox/stress proteins were less or not expressed in JY73, whereas the expression of the major

storage proteins, nitrogen and carbon metabolism-related proteins was higher in ZH13.

Biochemical analysis of JY73 revealed that it was in a low oxidation state, with a high

content of polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E. Vitamin E was more active than

antioxidant enzymes and protected the soybean seed in a lower oxidation state. The

characteristics of high oil and high protein in soybean, we revealed, might provide a reference

for soybean nutrition and soybean breeding.

García-Rebollar et al. (2016) carried out a study to evaluate the effects of the origin of

the beans on chemical composition, crude protein (CP) quality and nutritive value of the

meals. Samples were collected at the country of origin or at the arrival of vessels from these

countries to Europe. On a dry matter (DM) basis, USA and BRA meals had more CP than

ARG meals (532, 532 and 517 g/kg, respectively; P<0.001). On a CP basis, Lys content was

higher (6.17, 6.07 and 6.11% CP; P<0.001) in USA than in BRA meals, with ARG meals

being intermediate. USA meals had more sucrose (84, 64 and 78 g/kg) and stachyose (64, 53

and 57 g/kg) but less neutral detergent fiber (90, 118 and 102 g/kg) and raffinose (11, 16 and

14 g/kg) than BRA and ARG meals (P<0.001). Ether extract was highest for the BRA meals

(P<0.05). Mineral content depended on SBM origin, with BRA meals having more Fe but

less Ca, P and K than USA and ARG meals (P<0.001. Protein quality indicators varied also

with SBM origin. Protein dispersibility index, KOH protein solubility and trypsin inhibitor

activity were higher (P<0.001) for the USA meals than for the BRA and ARG meals. Heat
 27

damage indicator, a variable that measures indirectly the incidence of Maillard reactions, was

lowest in the USA meals (P<0.001). The correlations among chemical analyses, protein

quality indicators and nutritive value traits were numerous and depended on the origin of the

beans. In summary, chemical composition, protein quality and nutritive value of the SBM

varied widely with the origin of the beans.

Yu et al. (2016) explored Profiling and relationship of water-soluble sugar and protein

compositions in soybean seeds. In this study, a total of 35 soybean germplasms collected

from Zhejiang province of China, were evaluated for both water-soluble sugar and protein.

The total water-soluble sugar (TWSS) content of the germplasms studied ranged from 84.70

to 140.91 mg/g and the water-soluble protein (WSP) content varied from 26.5% to 36.0%.

The WSP content showed positive correlations with the TWSS and sucrose contents but

negative correlations with the fructose and glucose contents. The clustering showed the 35

germplasms could be divided into four groups with specific contents of sugar and protein.

The combination of water-soluble sugar and protein profiles provides useful information for

future breeding and genetic research. This investigation will facilitate future work for seed

quality improvement.

Moreira et al. (2016) conducted two experiments under field conditions in a Typic

Quartzipsamment and an Orthic Ferralsol to investigate the effect of glyphosate application ×

Zn interaction on soil fertility, yield components, seed yield (SY), shoot dry weight (SDW)

yield, and nutritional status of soybean. The five Zn rates 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 kg ha -1 were used

in two soybean varieties [BRS 133 (conventional - NGM) and its essentially derived

transgenic line BRS 245RR (GM)], which was divided into: with (+Gly) and without (-Gly)

glyphosate application. Only the P (phosphorus) and Zn available concentrations in the soil

were impacted by Zn rates. However, the available P concentration only decreased in the soil
 28

planted with GM soybean. Mehlich 1 and di-ethylenetriaminepenta acetic acid-

triethanolamine (DTPA-TEA), 7.3 extractants were effective to determine the available Zn.

In the two crop sites, the number of pods per plant (NPP) and the SDW yield were affected

by the interaction varieties × Zn. Regarding the nutrients, only the foliar calcium (Ca), boron

(B), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) concentrations were negatively affected by glyphosate,

and in the case of Zn, the difference occurred only between the varieties BRS 133 and BRS

245RR.

Potassium (K+) nutrition ensures growth and quality of crops both under normal and

saline soils. In view of that a study was conducted by Parveen et al. (2016) to assess the

impact of various doses of K+ on growth, bio-chemicals, protein and oil contents of four

soybean (Glycine max L.) genotypes under saline condition. Soybean genotypes were grown

in pots having treatment combination of salinity (control, 6 and 12 dS m -1) and K+ doses

(control, 50 and 75 kg ha-1). The results showed that sufficient K+ nutrition enhanced plant

growth, biomass production, protein and oil percentage of soybean genotypes both in normal

and saline condition. Water relation in plant as well as chlorophyll contents and leaf area

improved with the application of potassium under salinity stress. Across K+ application rates,

all soybean genotypes significantly varied from each other. K+ accumulation was positively

correlated with growth and other parameters of soybean genotypes, but these relationships

were stronger in case of genotypes No. 62 and No 13 as compared to Ajmeri and William-82

genotypes. Soybean genotypes No. 62 and No. 13 classified as potassium efficient genotypes

while Ajmeri and William-82 categorized as potassium inefficient genotypes on the basis of

growth and K uptake.

Soybean has great nutritional potential. Its high protein content makes it an alternative

protein source to milk in situations where milk cannot be used due to allergic reactions or
 29

intolerance. However, the potential benefits of soybean might be limited by the presence of

anti-nutritional factors, including trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA). Joshi & Varma (2016)

evaluated the effect of dehulling and germination on the nutritive value of the soy flour and

on the factors that could negatively affect the nutritional potential of the bean. Soybean seeds

were soaked for 24 h and allowed to germinate for one to three days. Soaked soybeans were

manually dehulled and the flours obtained were evaluated for nutritional and anti-nutritional

factors. Dehulling and germination produce significant increase in crude protein and crude

fiber and ash content (p=0.05). Crude fat and starch content decreased, but the reduction was

insignificant. Trypsin inhibitor levels were significantly lower after germination and

dehulling of the seeds (p=0.05). Dehulling and germination are cost-effective processing

techniques to improve the nutritional quality of the legume.

2.2 Health Effects of Soybean and its Products

Isanga & Zhang (2008) conducted a research to discuss the different soybean

bioactive components and their implications to human health. Soybean products contain a

plethora of bioactive phytochemicals such as isoflavones, saponins, phytic acids,

phytosterols, trypsin inhibitors, and peptides. Research has implicated soybean

phytochemicals as functioning in cholesterol reduction, cardiovascular disease prevention,

diabetic symptoms prevention, bone loss prevention, and cancer prevention. However, some

bioactive compounds in soybean are reported to have some adverse effects to health also.

Nevertheless, the benefits of soybean bioactive components exceed by far their potential

adverse effects. The main objective of this article is to discuss the different soybean bioactive

components and their implications to human health.

Leiner (2009) conducted a research on the anti-nutritional components in soybean

foods. According to the research there are a number of components present in soybeans that
 30

exert a negative impact on the nutritional quality of the protein. Among those factors that are

destroyed by heat treatment are the protease inhibitors and lectins. Protease inhibitors exert

their anti-nutritional effect by causing pancreatic hypertrophy/hyperplasia, which ultimately

results in an inhibition of growth. The lectin, by virtue of its ability to bind to glycoprotein

receptors on the epithelial cells lining the intestinal mucosa, inhibits growth by interfering

with the absorption of nutrients. Of lesser significance are the antinutritional effects produced

by relatively heat stable factors, such as goitrogens, tannins, phytoestrogens, flatus‐producing

oligosaccharides, phytate, and saponins.

Chen et al. (2012) conducted a research in which soybean products (soyfoods), were

reported as potential functional foods are implicated in several health-enhancing properties,

such as easing the symptoms of postmenopausal women, reducing the risk of osteoporosis,

preventing cardiovascular disease, and anti-mutagenic effects. Isoflavone, for example, is one

of the most important compounds abundantly found in soybean, mainly accounting for the

health-enhancing properties as mentioned earlier. However, most biological activities of

isoflavones are mainly attributed to their aglycone forms. It has also been demonstrated that

isoflavone aglycones are absorbed faster and in greater amount than their glycosides in

human intestines. Fortunately, deglycosylation of isoflavones can be achieved during

fermentation process by several strains such as lactic acid bacteria, basidiomycetes,

filamentous fungus, and Bacillus subtilis with their β-glucosidase activity.

Bolla (2015) conducted a research and evaluated that soy foods are rich source of

dietary protein. Soy based foods are rich in a class of compounds called isoflavones.

Isoflavones have chemical structure that is similar to the hormone estrogen receptors

commonly called phytoestrogens. The consumption of soy isoflavones appears to result in

health benefits for cancer, heart disease, menopausal symptoms and osteoporosis. So as a

result soy proteins have become major components of food.

 31

Ghatge (2015) made an attempt to formulate soya-based food products such as soya

ladoo and soya flakes chiwada to prevent malnutrition among children. Soya products were

formulated and prepared by standard methods. Organoleptically selected soya products were

analysed for its chemical composition such as protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, and ant

nutritional factors. These products were supplemented to pre-school malnourished children @

40 g/head/day for six months. Preschool malnourished children were graded according to

grade of malnutrition. Their biochemical parameter such as serum iron (mg/dl) serum

proteins (gl/dl), serum vitamin A (IO/dl), serum zinc (mg ml), blood glucose mg/dl and

Haemoglobin g/dl had done monthly for six months. It had shown highly significant changes

on blood glucose level, haemoglobin, serum protein, serum vitamin A, serum iron and serum

zinc states of pre-school children after supplementation of soya products.

Sharma & Baluja (2015) conducted a research analyzing the importance of soybean in

prevention of diseases as it is rapidly being used in various medicines. Soy rich food is one

such example which is catching the attention of a common man as well as researchers due to

its numerous health benefits. Soy rich food and isoflavones are of great interest when it

comes to medicinal foods .The various health benefits which are claimed by soybean

consumption in any form includes as a Cholesterol lowering agent, as an Anticancer agent,

for Prevention of bone loss in menopausal women, as an Antioxidant and chelating agent and

prevention of Type 2 DM. Among all these beneficial effect, the most extensively researched

upon properties are its cholesterol lowering effect ,its role in prevention of osteoporosis and

its role as an anticancer agent .Other than this its role in cognition is also appreciated.

2.3 Nutritive Quality of Different Soybean Varieties Cultivated in Pakistan

Choudhry et al. (1999) conducted studies on the comparative yield potential of five

soybean (Glycine max L.) cultivars. The results showed that all cultivars (Ford, Ertou No.2,
 32

FS-85, Hong Kong and Williams) varied significantly in yield components. The cultivar FS-

85 gave significantly higher seed yield (1851.65 kg ha-1) than other cultivars due to higher

number of pods plant-1, number of seeds pod-1 and seed weight and appeared to be the best

under Faisalabad conditions.

Usman (2003) compared four varietal trials with 12 promising varieties, conducted at

Swat. Mansehra, Mardan and Peshawar to select and recommend the desirable, well adapted,

high and stable yielding variety/varieties of soybean with regards to quality for commercial

cultivation in NWFP-Pakistan. The data revealed that variety Wahab-93 gave the highest

seed yield of 1875 kg/ha, followed by variety Ajmeri (1640 kg/ha) and Malakand-96 (1585

kg/ha). The maximum oil and protein contents were found in NARC-1 (22.4%) and Wahab-

93 (45.5`70), respectively but due to increase in seed yield, a progressive increase in the yield

of oil (390 kg/ha) and protein (853 kg/ha) were found in Wahab-93, followed by variety

Ajmeri (328 kg/ha), and (688 kg/ha), variety Malakand-96 (324 kg/ha) and (691 kg/ha).

Being leguminous crops, it was observed that soybean improves the fertility and productivity

of soil and the ultimate yield of oil, protein and per hectare income of the growers of NWFP.

The low yield of 812 kg/ha was obtained from variety NARC-VI. It is, therefore, suggested

that soybean varieties i.e., Wahab-93, Ajmeri and Malakand-96 are recommended for

commercial cultivation in NWFP with regards to yield, oil and protein contents in seed.

Hussain & Mahmood(2004) conducted a research in which soybean (Glycine max L.

var. 95-2 Faisalabad) seeds were grown under laboratory conditions and investigated for

changes in oil content and lipase activity at different time intervals during early stages of

germination. Total hexoses, sucrose and total soluble protein were also studied. Data

suggested a linear decrease in oil content across 120 h. During first 48 h the decrease was

28% and by 120 h it was about 95% oil was exhausted. Lipase activity was maximum at 6.6

pH suggesting that soybean lipase had its optima in slightly acidic range. The enzyme activity
 33

in non-germinating seeds was low and at 48 h germinating stage maximum activity (4.4 units

g-1) was recorded. In 96 and 120 h old seedlings enzyme activity was 3.8 and 3.4 units g-1.

Carbohydrate analysis revealed small quantities of sucrose and hexose in resting seed. During

germination both moieties registered about 90% increase across 120 h. A massive increase in

total soluble protein was recorded during first 24 h of germination. This trend continued and

by 120 h 3.6-fold increase in protein was observed. The results of the study suggested that

germinating soybean seeds could be a good source for commercial preparation of lipase.

Ahmed et al. (2006) explored changes in free and bound phenolic acid content of four

different varieties of soybean i.e., Williams 82, FS 85, NARC 901 and NARC 9011 were

studied after artificial inoculation with conidia of Fusarium solani. Significant increase in

both free and bound phenolic acids was observed in all the four varieties after inoculation.

The increase in free phenolic acids was more pronounced in Williams 82 and NARC 901 and

9011 whereas bound phenolic acids were significantly higher in Williams 82 and FS 85. The

increase in free phenolic acids was higher than the bound phenolic acids.

Siddiqui & Ahmed (2006) carried out a study in a field located at Department of

Botany, University of Karachi where soil was treated with various concentrations of

pesticides before sowing. Combined effects of pesticides on soybean growth and nutritive

composition of seeds were observed. Pesticide treated soil had significant effects on leaf

growth components such as leaf area ratio, leaf area index, specific leaf area, net assimilation

rate, leaf weight ratio and leaf area duration. Low concentration of pesticide enhanced leaf

growth components at all the growth stages studied. The plants grown at the site treated with

0.25g L-1 pesticide, displayed maximum relative growth rate (RGR) and crop growth rate

(CGR) compared to control. However, significant reduction in CGR and RGR were recorded

at the sites treated with 0.5 and 0.75g L-1 concentration. Total phenols in leaf, shoot and fruit

were used as a stress indicator to ascertain the possibility of chemical stress caused by
 34

systemic pesticide. 114 and 220% increase in total phenol at vegetative stage and 50, 166 and

163% at late fruiting stage were recorded in the sites treated with high pesticide

concentration. Significant differences in nutritive values of seeds between treated and control

plants were also observed. At the site treated with low pesticide concentration, lipid content

was very high (28.9%) compared to the control. With increasing concentration, protein and

lipids contents started to decline. The results of this study showed the combined effects of

pesticides concentration on plant growth and nutritive composition of seeds.

Information is lacking on nutritional quality of indigenous land races of soybean

therefore Muhammad et al. (2009) copared land raced and improved varieties of soybean. In

the study three land races (Kulat brown, Kulat white, Mothi) and two improved varieties

(NARC-II, Swat-84) of soybean were sown on April 2, May 2, June 2 and July 2, at New

Developmental Farm of NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar, during 2004-05 and 2005-

06 growing season. Planting dates had significantly affected oil and protein content and yield.

Maximum protein content (321g per kg) and protein yield (468 kg per ha) was recorded for

April planting, while maximum oil content (169 g per kg) and oil yield (244 kg per ha) was

obtained from May planted crop. Maximum oil (17.2 g per kg) and protein (320 g per kg)

was recorded for variety Swat-84 while higher oil (239 kg per ha) and protein yield (433 kg

per ha) was given by NARC-II. Results showed improved varieties were superior in

nutritional quality as well as nutrient production.

Nosheen et al. (2009) presented a comparative evaluation of biofertilizers (brands

Biopower and Biozote) and chemical fertilizers (urea and diamonium phosphate (DAP)) on

yield and the quality of soybean cv. NARC-1. Significant increase in number of pods per

plant, seed oil content and specific gravity of oil was observed in case of chemical fertilizer

treatment. All the treatments decreased the acid value and free fatty acid (oleic acid) content

of oil, maximum reduction being in the case of Biopower treatment. Biopower treated plant
 35

seed oil exhibited higher refractive index and maximum conversion to methyl

esters/biodiesel.
 36

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Nature of study

The study is quantitative and comparative in nature.

3.2 Place of research

This research was conducted within the laboratories of National Agriculture Research

Centre, Islamabad.

3.3 Sample

The sample of the study were the following varieties of soybean; William 82, NARC

2, Ajmeri, Rawal 1.

3.4 Sample size

A sample of 500 gm of each soybean variety was collected from oilseed department,

NARC, Islamabad.

3.5 Sampling technique

Samples were randomly selected amongst the varieties cultivated in Pakistan.

3.6 Proximate Analysis

The proximate analysis include ash, moisture, crude fat, crude fiber, protein and nitrogen free

extract were carried out according to standard methods of AOAC (2010).

 37

3.6.1 Moisture Determination

Principal

A weighed amount of samples is dried in the oven provided with opening for ventilation and

maintained at 130˚C for 60 minutes; the loss in sample weight is expressed as moisture

content.

Equipment and glassware

 Hot air oven (Annexure 2, Figure A)

 Aluminum moisture dishes

 Desiccator

 Analytical balance

Procedure

 Moisture dishes were taken and dried in the oven at 130º C for 30 minutes, placed in

desiccator and weighed soon after they reached room temperature.

 2g of a well-mixed sample was added in dishes and covered with lids.

 The dishes were placed uncovered in an oven for 60 minutes (60 minutes drying

period begins when oven temperature is actually 130º C).

 Sample was removed from oven and covered with lid and placed in a desiccator.

 Gloves were used for sample to transfer it from oven to desiccator.

 Weight of sample was recorded soon after reaching the room temperature.

Calculation

% Moisture = W1- W3 x 100

W2
 38

W1 = Weight of sample and moisture dishes before heating

W2= Weight of sample after heating

W3 = Weight of sample

3.6.2 Ash Determination

Principle

After ignition at high temperature 450–600 ᵒC all carbon compounds (Organic) are burnt out

as CO2. The remaining part which is inorganic in nature (Minerals) is called ash.

Equipment and glassware

 Muffled Furnace (Annexure 2,Figure B)

 Porcelain crucibles with lids

 Desiccator

 Analytical balance

Procedure

 Weight of empty crucible was recorded accurately that have previously been ignited

at 550ºC.

 Crucibles were cooled to room temperature in a desiccator.

 A well-mixed 2g sample was weighed accurately into crucibles.

 Placed in muffle furnace at 660ºC and allowed to incinerate until light grey ash was

obtained (Overnight, 16hours).

 39

 Crucibles were removed from furnace and placed in a desiccator until reached at

room temperature.

 Weight of crucible with ash was accurately recorded.

Calculation

% Ash = W3 – W1 / W2 x 100

W1 = Weight of empty crucible

W2= Weight of sample

W3 = Weight of ash+ crucible

3.6.3 Determination of Fat content

Principle

Extraction of dried and ground material with a light petroleum fraction or diethyl ether in a

continuous extracting apparatus. The fat (triglycerides) and free fatty acids can be

conventionally determined in food by extracting the samples (should be dried and ground)

with suitable solvent e.g. hexane, petroleum ether, diethyl ether etc. in a continuous

extraction apparatus. The solvent is recollected and remaining fat is oven dried and weighed.

Equipment and glassware

 Analytical Balance

 Buchi apparatus system (Annexure 2, Figure C)

 Beakers

 Thimbles
 40

 Desiccator

 Oven

Reagents

 n hexane

Procedure

 3g sample was weighed into thimbles, covered with tissue paper.

 Buchi glasslic beakers were dried at 105ºC for 30 minutes cooled and weighed (W1).

 35-40ml of solvent was added (or half-filled).

 Thimbles and beakers were fixed in the Soxtec system.

 Tap water was switched on to regulate the temperature of heating system.

 Knob was set to boiling position for 45 minutes.

 The knob was set in rinsing position for 35 minutes.

 The solvent was collected by blocking the extraction outlet.

 Beaker with fat was removed when all the solvent was collected.

 Beakers with fat were dried at 105ºC for 30 minutes and then cooled in desiccator and

weighed (W2).

Calculation

% Fat = W2 – W1 ⁄ weight of sample x 100

 41

3.6.4 Determination of crude fiber

Principle

Crude fiber is the indigestible organic residue, which is left behind after digestion

with dilute acid and dilute alkali. This consists largely of the cellulose content together with a

proportion of lignin and hemi cellulose, the digested material is then filtered, washed with hot

water and then ignited. The loss in weight after ignition is called crude fiber.

Equipment and glassware

 Crude fiber digestion apparatus (Annexure 2, Figure D)

 Fiber Tec. Filtration unit (Annexure 2, Figure E)

 Filtering crucibles

 Beaker (1 Liter)

Reagents

 Sulphuric Acid H2SO4 0.2549N (6.88ml/L)

 Sodium Hydroxide NaOH 407.42g/L

 Hot distilled water

Procedure

 2-3g of sample was weighed and put into 800 ml tall Berzelius beaker.

 200ml Sulphuric acid (0.2549N) was added and boiled for 30 minutes under reflux.

 Beaker was removed from the heat and 10 ml sodium hydroxide was added gradually.

 Then boiled for additional 30 min.

 Remove & filtered through filtration unit.

 42

 Residues were washed with hot water to remove excess of alkali (filtrate was checked

with Phenolphthalein).

 Crucible was dried with residues at 100-130°C for 1 hr, cooled and weighed (A).

 Residues were ignited overnight in muffle furnaces.

Calculation

% Crude Fiber = W2 – W1 / Wt. of sample x 100

3.6.5 Protein determination

Principle

The samples are digested with H2SO4 in the presence of catalysts. All nitrogenous

compounds are converted into Ammonium Sulphate. Addition of strong alkali (NaOH) and

boiling convert (NH4)2 SO4 to ammonia NH3 which is distilled as NH4OH and this amount

is determined by titrating it with known normality of an acid HCl or H2SO4. The % nitrogen

is converted to protein multiplying by nitrogen factor which is different for different food

items.

Equipment and glassware

 Analytical balance

 Autokjeldahl distillation system

 Digestion system with scrubber

 Digestion tubes

 Dispensers for acid and distilled water

 43

Reagents

 Concentrated Sulphuric acid tech. grade (96-98% purity)

 Kjeltabs or digestion mixture of composition

o K2SO4 = 1.5g

o Se = 0.0075g

 Boric Acid (4%)

 Standard acid solution: 0.25N H2SO4

 32 % NaOH

Procedure

 0.5g sample was weighed and transferred into digestion tubes.

 Kjeltabs were added in each tube.

 Then the digestion tubes were placed in stands (20 tubes at a time) and placed in the

digester with a temperature of 420 ᵒC and fit the scrubber tube with digester and

turned on the digester and scrubber.

 Digestion was continued for 90 min.

 Tubes were cooled to room temperature.

 The Kjeltech Auto Analyzer (Annexure 2, Figure F) was started up as described in the

manual and weight of samples was added in the program along with protein factor.

 Two blanks were run before sample analysis.

 The prepared digestion tubes were taken one by one fitted in the position and the

safety door was closed.

 The solution in the digestion tube then became alkaline by addition of sodium

hydroxide, which converted the ammonium sulfate into ammonia gas which then
 44

moved out of the digestion flask into the receiving flask - which contained an excess

of boric acid.

 The low pH of the solution in the receiving flask converted the ammonia gas into the

ammonium ion, and simultaneously converted the boric acid to the borate ion.

 After titration of the ammonium borate formed with standard sulfuric acid the

nitrogen and protein content was then displayed on the screen.

 Whole distillation and titration process took around seven minutes for each sample.

3.7 Mineral Analysis

This method is applicable to the determination of minerals such as, zinc and iron in foods

according to standard methods of AOAC (2016).

Principle

The sample is wet digested and after dilution is determined by Atomic Absorption at suitable

wavelength. Matrix of standard solution is matched to that of test solution to avoid

interferences.

Equipment and Apparatus

 Wet digestor Buchi B-440

 Furnace Labconco 1100AF

 Atomic absorption spectrometer Varian 220 FS (Annexure 2,Figure G)

 Analytical balance, Sartorius CP 124 S, Readibility 0.1mg

 Hot air oven, Memmert

 Volumetric flasks
 45

 Glass beakers

 Glass rods

Procedure and Preparation

a. Wet digestion

Place in 150-200ml glass beaker an amount of sample containing not more than 2 g of dry

matter. Add 25 ml of Nitric Acid, sp.gr 1.42, boil slowly for 30 minutes on Buchi Wet

Digestor Model B-440. Cool the sample and add 15 ml of 60% perchloric acid w/w. Boil very

gently until the solution is colourless or nearly so and white dense fumes appear in the

beaker. The latter boiling should take nearly one hour. Dangerous conditions may arise if the

beaker is allowed to boil dry at any time. Prepare the blank in the same way. Make a suitable

dilution of sample and record the dilution factor.

b. Dry Ashing

 Pretreatment

Homogenize product if necessary, using non-contaminating equipment. Check for leaching

metals if the equipment consists of metal parts.

 Drying

In a crucible, weigh 10-20 g test portion to the nearest 0.01g. Dry in a drying oven, on a

water-bath, or at a hot plate at 100ºC, if there is a risk of heavy boiling at ashing stage.

Proceed according to the type of furnace.

 Ashing

Place dish in furnace at initial temperature not higher than 100 ºC. Increase temperature to

450º C at a maximum rate of 50º C/hour.

 46

 Sample Solution

Wet ash with 1-3 mL water and evaporate on hot plate. Put crucible back in the furnace at

temperature not more than 200 ºC and raise temperature to 450º C. Proceed with ashing for 1-

2 hours or longer. Repeat procedure until product is completely ashed. Add 5 mL 6MHCl to

crucible and evaporate on hot plate. Dissolve residue to 10-30 mL 0.1 M HNO3. Swirl the

crucible & cover the crucible. Let it stand for 1-2 hours. Treat the blanks in the same way.

Calculation

Set the instrument, atomic absorption spectrometer and its parameters according to the

manual provided with the instrument. Calculate the concentration of element in the test

sample according to the formula;

C = (a-b) x V/m

Where C = Concentration in the test sample (mg/Kg or ppm)

a= concentration in the test solution/s (mg/L)

b= mean concentration in the blank solutions (mg/L)

V= Volume of the test solution, mL

m=Weight of the test portion (g)

3.8 Statistical Analysis

The results were expressed as mean, and standard deviation (SD). Comparison among

varieties was made using ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) followed by LSD (Least
 47

Significant Difference) by using Statistix (Version 8.1) and Microsoft Excel (2010).

Difference was considered significant at P ≤ 0.5.

 48

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In our comparative study on the nutritional value of soybean varieties, different

varieties of American origin were selected from oilseeds programme, NARC, Islamabad.

These varieties were William-82, NARC-II, Ajmeri, Rawal-I. Three of the varieties selected

for the study are improved lines developed by oilseeds research program, NARC, with the

exception of one William-82 commercial variety. We identified a significant difference in all

nutritional parameters among different varieties.

We ran one way ANOVA test to compare the following nutritional parameters;

moisture, protein, ash, fat, fiber, iron and zinc respectively among different soybean varieties.

We used an alpha level of 0.05 and considered differences to be significant if P ≤ 0.05

followed LSD we used marker ‘a’ to label the most superior variety and marker ‘d’ to label

the most inferior variety.

Table 4.1 represents the moisture content of different soybean varieties that range

from 6.23-6.70 %. Results show William-82 has the highest moisture content with a mean

value of 6.70 and standard deviation of 0.09 whereas Rawal-I has the lowest moisture content

with a mean value of 6.23 and a standard deviation 0.03. Values of the varieties NARC-II and

Ajmeri fall under the same ranges. Least significant difference exists amongst the varieties.

William-82 being the most significant marked (a), followed by NARC-II and Ajmeri marked

(b) and Rawal-I marked (c).

 49

Table 4.2 represents the protein content of different soybean varieties. Results show

William- 82 has the highest protein content with a mean value of 36.18 and standard

deviation of 0.50 whereas Ajmeri has the lowest protein content with a mean value of 30.39

and a standard deviation 0.30. Values of the remaining varieties also fall under the same
 50

ranges. Least significant difference exists amongst the varieties. William-82 being the most

diverse marked (a), Rawal-I marked (b), NARC-II marked (c) and Ajmeri marked (d).

Table 4.3 represents the ash content of different soybean varieties. Results show

NARC-2 has the highest ash content with a mean value of 5.64 and standard deviation of 0.05

whereas Rawal-1 has the lowest ash content with a mean value of 4.74 and a standard

deviation 0.04. The values of varieties Ajmeri and William 82 fall under the same range
 51

where Ajmeri and William 82 have a standard deviation of 0.08 and 0.03 respectively. Least

significant difference exists amongst the varieties. NARC-II being most diverse marked (a),

Ajmeri and William 82 marked (b), and Rawal-1 marked (c).

Table 4.4 represents the fat content of various soybean varieties. Results show Ajmeri

has the highest fat content with a mean value of 23.23 and standard deviation of 0.60 whereas
 52

NARC-2 has the lowest fat content with a mean value of 20.91 and a standard deviation 0.20.

Values of the varieties Rawal-1 and William 82 fall under the same range where Rawal-1 and

William-82 have a mean value of 22.93, 21.83 and standard deviation of 0.40, 0.80

respectively. Least significant difference exists amongst the varieties. Ajmeri and Rawal-I

being the most significant marked (a) whereas NARC-II and William 82 marked (b).
 53

Table 4.5 represents the fiber content of different soybean varieties. Results show

Rawal-I has the highest fiber content with a mean value of 8.86 and standard deviation of

0.06 whereas William-82 has the lowest fiber content with a mean value of 7.04 and a

standard deviation 0.08. Values of the remaining varieties also fall under the same ranges.

Least significant difference exists amongst the varieties. Rawal-I being the most significant

marked (a), NARC-II marked (b), Ajmeri marked (c) and William 82 marked (d).
 54

Table 4.6 represents the iron content of various soybean varieties. Results show

NARC-II has the highest iron content with a mean value of 150.18 and standard deviation of

1.0 whereas Rawal-1 has the lowest iron content with a mean value of 11.10 and a standard

deviation 0.10. Values of the varieties Ajmeri and William-82 fall under the same range

where Ajmeri and William 82 have a standard deviation of 0.80 and 0.30 respectively. Least

significant difference exists amongst the varieties. NARC-II and Ajmeri marked (b) whereas

Rawal-I and William-82 marked (c).

 55

Table 4.7 represents the zinc content of various soybean varieties. Results show

NARC-2 has the highest zinc content with a mean value of 36.50 and standard deviation of

0.50 whereas Willaim-82 has the lowest zinc content with a mean value of 29.83 and a

standard deviation 0.30. Values of the varieties Rawal-1 and Ajmeri fall under the same

ranges where Rawal-I has a mean value of 30.47 and standard deviation of 0.20, Ajmeri has

the mean value of 35.97 and standard deviation of 0.90. Least significant difference exists

amongst the varieties. NARC-II and Ajmeri being the most significant marked (a) whereas

Rawal-I and William 82 marked (b).

 56

Figure 4.8 Nutritional Composition of Rawal-I

Rawal-I
Moisture
6.23
Protein
30.47
Ash
34.43
Fat

Fiber
11.1
Iron

8.86 Zinc
4.74
22.93
 57

Table 4.9

Nutritional Composition of NARC-II

Parameter Reading

Moisture 6.37 %

Protein 32.82 %

Ash 5.64 %

Fat 20.91 %

Fiber 8.33 %

Iron 150.18 ppm

Zinc 36.50 ppm

Figure 4.9 Nutritional Composition of NARC-II

NARC-II
Moisture
6.37
Protein
36.5
32.82
5.64 Ash

Fat
20.91
Fiber
8.33
Iron

150.18 Zinc
 58

Table 4.10

Nutritional Composition of Ajmeri

Parameter Reading

Moisture 6.41 %

Protein 30.39 %

Ash 5.19 %

Fat 23.23 %

Fiber 7.04 %

Iron 103.72 ppm

Zinc 35.97 ppm

Figure 4.10 Nutritional Composition of Ajmeri

Ajmeri
6.41
Moisture

35.97 Protein
30.39
5.19 Ash

Fat

23.23 Fiber

Iron

7.04 Zinc
103.72
 59

Table 4.11

Nutritional Composition of William-82

Parameter Reading

Moisture 6.70 %

Protein 36.18 %

Ash 5.18 %

Fat 21.83 %

Fiber 7.22 %

Iron 47.91 ppm

Zinc 29.83 ppm

Figure 4.11 Nutritional Composition of William-82

William-82

6.7 Moisture
29.83
Protein
36.18
Ash

Fat

5.18 Fiber
47.91
Iron
21.83
Zinc
7.22
 60

Table 4.12 enlightens the comparison between the nutritional compositions of

different soybean varieties. It represents no significant difference between the moisture

content of the varieties, the values range from 6.23-6.70 %. William-82 has the highest

moisture and protein content in all four varieties, protein content ranging from 30.39-

36.18 %. The difference between the ash content is significant, NARC-II having the highest

ash content 5.64%, therefore this variety also has a high mineral content, the highest iron

content 150.18 ppm which is very high in comparison to other varieties, values range from

11.10-150.18 ppm. NARC-II also has the highest Zinc content 36.50 ppm and the values

range from 29.83-36.50 ppm. Furthermore Ajmeri has the highest fat content 23.23 % and

values range from 20.91-23.23 %. Lastly the fiber content ranges between 7.04-8.86%, where

Rawal-I has the highest fiber content.

Table 4.12

Nutritional Composition of Different Soybean Varieties

Moisture Protein Ash Fat Fiber Iron Zinc

Variety
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (ppm) (ppm)

Rawal-I 6.23 34.43 4.74 22.93 8.86 11.10 30.47

NARC-II 6.37 32.84 5.64 20.91 8.33 150.18 36.50

Ajmeri 6.41 30.39 5.19 23.23 7.04 103.72 35.97

William-82 6.70 36.18 5.18 21.83 7.22 47.91 29.83

 61

Conferring to the ANOVA test it was concluded that there is a significant difference

among the nutritional parameters in the studied soybean varieties (Annexure 2). It was also

concluded that soybean is a rich source of protein and fat as all varieties contained % crude

protein (30.39-36.18) and % crude fat (20.91-23.23).

According to a research conducted by Gracia et al. (2009) soybean contains 48-50%

proteins. Among these, storage proteins are predominant. 7S and 11s are two storage proteins

that constitute 80% of the total protein content in soybean. Moreover there are other less

abundant proteins such as 2S, 9S and 15S globulins. In addition to globulins, enzymes,

protease inhibitors, lectin and others complete the soy protein content.

Profiling and relationship of water-soluble sugar and protein compositions in soybean

seeds were explored a total of 35 soybean germplasms collected from Zhejiang province of
 62

China, were evaluated for both water soluble sugar and protein. The total water soluble sugar

(TWSS) content of the germplasms studied ranged from 84.70 to 140.91 mg/g and the water

soluble protein (WSP) content varied from 26.5% to 36.0% (Yu et al.,2015)

A research conducted by Sharma et al. (2014) investigated the physical characteristics

and nutritional composition of some new soybean genotypes. The genotypes contained %

crude protein (39.4-44.4), oil (14.0-18.7), starch (4.3-6.7), total soluble sugars (5.9-7.9),

reducing sugars (0.21-0.33) and sucrose (5.6-11.8).

Similarly the physicochemical compositions of 20 black-seeded soybean lines were

analyzed for different nutritional and cooking quality parameters. The DARL-BK-615 and

VRBPS-1453 were found to be more diverse than others. The DARL-BK-615 was found best

for low trypsin inhibitor and high mineral content (Zn, Mn, Cu), while VRB-PS-1453 was

found best for protein content and required the lowest time for cooking (Saha et al., 2008).

Soy based foods are a rich source of dietary protein. Soy based foods are also rich in a

class of compounds called isoflavones. Consumption of these isoflavones appears to result in

health benefits for cancer, heart diseases, menopausal symptoms and osteoporosis. Thus as a

result soy proteins have become major components of food (Bolla, 2015).

Information are lacking on nutritional quality of indigenous land races of soybean. A

study conducted by Muhammad et al. (2009) compared land raced and improved varieties of

soybean. Three landraces (Kulat brown, Kulat white, Mothi) and two improved varieties

(NARC-II,Swat-84) were selected. Maximum oil (17.2 g per kg) and protein (320 g per kg)

was recorded for variety Swat-84 while higher oil (239kg per ha) and protein yield (433 kg

per ha) was given by NARC-II. Thus concluding that improved varieties were superior in

nutritional quality as well as nutrient production.

 63

Comparison of the nutritional composition of studied soybean varieties is given in the

table 4.12. NARC-II and William-82 were found to be more diverse than others. William 82

was found best for its high protein content 36.18% while NARC-II was found best for high

mineral content (Fe, Zn).

 64

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Legumes play an important role in the traditional diets of many regions throughout

the world. In contrast in Western countries beans tend to play only a minor dietary role

despite the fact that they are low in fat and are excellent sources of protein, dietary fiber and a

variety of micronutrients and phytochemicals (Messina, 1999).

The soybean is a remarkable plant. It is an antique- one of the oldest of all plant foods

and a modern day success with many uses. It is a highly efficient producer of protein and oil,

both of which are very well adapted to the nourishment of animal or man (Scott & Aldrich,

1983). The soybean (Glycine max) is grown as a commercial crop in over 35 countries as the

major oilseed (Smith & Huyser, 1987; El-Shemy, 2011).

The present study was conducted to determine and compare the nutritional

parameters of different soybean varieties. Four varieties were selected as sample; William-82,

NARC-II, Rawal-I, Ajmeri from Oilseeds Research Programme, NARC, Islamabad.

Proximate and Mineral analysis were carried out at Food Science & Product Development

Institute, NARC, Islamabad.

Results showed that the moisture content of the varieties, range from 6.23-6.70 %.

William-82 has the highest moisture and protein content in all four varieties, protein content

ranging from 30.39-36.18 %. The difference between the ash content is significant, NARC-II

having the highest ash content 5.64%, therefore this variety also has a high mineral content,

the highest iron content 150.18 ppm which is very high in comparison to other varieties,

values range from 11.10-150.18 ppm. NARC-II also has the highest Zinc content 36.50 ppm

and the values range from 29.83-36.50 ppm. Furthermore Ajmeri has the highest fat content
 65

23.23 % and values range from 20.91-23.23 %. Lastly the fiber content ranges between 7.04-

8.86%, where Rawal-I has the highest fiber content.

It was concluded that NARC-II and William-82 were found to be more diverse than

others. William 82 was found best for its high protein content 36.18% while NARC-II was

found best for high mineral content (Fe, Zn).

Soybean is an important legume in terms of its high nutritional quality. From among

legume seeds, the soybean seeds contain the crudest protein and the best of amino acid

composition (El-Shemy, 2011). In Pakistan, soybean has suffered a setback and has therefore,

not been able to attain a respectable position among the oilseed crops. Its cultivation

remained limited to a very small acreage (National Oilseeds Development Project, 1995).

Thus the government should make efforts to improve soybean production in Pakistan as it is a

cheap source of good quality protein.