Translation is replacement of an original text with another (House, 2009:3).

Translation has been

regarded as a kind of inferior substitute for the real thing, and it has been likened to the back of a
carpet, or a kiss through a handkerchief. But it can also be seen more positively as providing access
to ideas and experiences that, although represented at second hand, would otherwise be closed off
in an unknown language.

Translation, of its nature, provides access to something, some messages, that already exists, and it
is always therefore a secondary communication. The term translation is sometimes used to describe
linguistic activities such as summarizing or paraphrasing. Although such activities resemble
translation in that they replace a message that they are designed not to reproduce to the original as
a whole but to reduce it to its essential parts, or adapt it for different groups of people with the
different need and expectation.

In general, the purpose of translation is to reproduce various kinds of texts (including religious,
literary, scientific, and philosophical texts) in another language and thus making them available to
wider readers. As means of communication, translation is known as a technique for learning
foreign languages. According to Cook (2010:55), translation is that it involves a transfer of
meaning from one language to another and this is reflected in its Latin root translatum, a form of
the verb transferre which means "to carry across", and is also the origin of the English word
"transfer". The aim is to reproduce as accurately as possible all grammatical and lexical features
of the Source Language original by finding equivalents in the target language. At the same time
all factual information in the original text must be retained in the translation.

According Cook (2010:56), Translation is interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs
of the same language, some other languages, signs of non-verbal sign systems, intralingua, and
intersemiotic. Furthermore, translation is not just about comparing two languages, but also about
the interpretation of a text in two different languages, thus involving a shift between cultures.

Translation typically has been used to transfer written or spoken Second Language (SL), texts to
equivalent written or spoken Target Language (TL) texts. In general, the purpose of translation is
to reproduce various kinds of texts, including religious literary, scientific, and philosophical texts
in another language and thus making them available to wider readers. One of the troublesome
problems of translation is the disparity among languages. The bigger the gap between the SL and
the TL, the more difficult the transfer of message from the former to the latter will be.

By the definition above it can be concluded that translation is a transference from SL meaning to
TL and it can also mean reproduction of text in reader's language by making many adjustment for
grammar and lexical items and reproduction of many significant element of source text (ST),
seeking not only for the most correct but also for the closest that is appropriate and representative
for the message nature syntax, of the SL to be replaced into TL.
Refers to Newmark (1988:45) , translation procedures are different from translation methods.
Translation methods relate to the whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and
the smaller units of language. The following methods of translation:
Word-for-word translation: in which the SL word order is preserved and the words translated
singly by their most common meanings, out of context.
Literal translation: in which the SL grammatical construction are converted to their nearest TL
equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context.
Faithful translation: it attempts to produce the precise contextual meaning of the original within
the constraints of the TL grammatical structures.
Semantic translation: which differs from ‘faithful translation’ only in as far as it must take more
account of the aesthetic value of the SL text.
Adaptation: which is the freest form of translation, and it use mainly for plays (comedies) and
poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture is converted to the TL
culture and the text is rewritten.
Free translation: it produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the original.
Idiomatic translation: it reproduces the “message” of the original but tends to distort nuances of
meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.
Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in
such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the
readership.
The following procedures are the different translation procedure that Newmark proposes:
Transference: it is the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text. It includes transliteration and
is the same as “transcription”.
Naturalization: it adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal
morphology of the TL.
Cultural equivalent: it means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL one. However, “they
are not accurate”.
Functional equivalent: it requires the use of a culture-neutral word.
Descriptive equivalent: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained in several words.
Synonymy: it used for SL word where there is no clear one-to-one equivalent, and the word is not
important in the text.
Through-Translation: it is the literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations,
components of compounds, and perhaps phrases. It can also be called calque or loan translation.
Shifts or transpositions: it involves a change in the grammar from SL to TL, for instance, (i) change
from singular to plural, (ii) the change required when a specific SL structure does not exist in the
TL, (iii) change of a SL word to a TL word, change of an SL noun group to a TL noun and so forth.
Modulation: it occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the TL
text in conformity with the current norms of the TL, since the SL and the TL may appear dissimilar
in terms of perspective.
Recognised translation: it occurs when the translator normally uses the official or the generally
accepted translation of any institutional term.
Translation label: it is a provisional translation, usually of a new institutional term, which should
be made in inverted commas, which can later be discreetly withdrawn.
Compensation: it occurs when loss of meaning, sound-effect, metaphor or pragmatic effect in one
part of a sentence is compensated in another part, or in contiguous sentence.
Componential analysis: it is the splitting up of a lexical unit into its sense components, often one-
to-two, three or -four translation.
Reduction and Expansion: these are rather imprecise translation procedures, which you practise
intuitively in some cases.
Paraphrase: it is an amplification or explanation of the meaning of a segment of the text. It is used
in an ‘anonymous’ text when it is poorly written, or has important implications and omissions.
Couplets: it occurs when the translator combines two, three (triplets), or four (quadruplets) of the
above-mentioned procedures respectively for dealing with a single problem.
Note: it is additional information a translator may have to add to his version is normally cultural,
technical or linguistic, and is dependent on the requirement of his, as opposed to the original,
readership.