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ATME College of Engineering
13th K M Stone, Bannur Road, Mysore – 570028
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(ACADEMIC YEAR 2019 - 20)
SUBJECT NAME: URBAN TRANSPORTATION AND PLANNING

SUB CODE: 15CV751
SEMESTER: VII
INSTITUTIONAL MISSION AND VISION
Vision of the Institute
Development of academically excellent, culturally vibrant, socially responsible and globally
competent human resources.
Mission of the Institute
 To keep pace with advancements in knowledge and make the students competitive
and capable at the global level.
 To create an environment for the students to acquire the right physical, intellectual,
emotional and moral foundations and shine as tourch bearers of tomorrow's society.
 To strive to attain ever-higher benchmarks of educational excellence
DEPARTMENT VISION AND MISSION

Vision of the Department
To develop globally competent Civil Engineers who excel in academics, research and are
ethically responsible for the development of the society.
Mission of the Department

 To provide quality education through faculty and state of art infrastructure
 To identify the current problems in society pertaining to Civil Engineering disciplines
and to address them effectively and efficiently
 To inculcate the habit of research and entrepreneurship in our graduates to address
current infrastructure needs of society
Program outcomes (POs)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge
of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change
Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)
PSO 1 – To apply science, mathematics and mechanics to solve problems in engineering

realm
PSO 2 – To analyze the techniques, skills and modern engineering tools necessary for
engineering practices
PSO 3 – To develop ability to function as a leader and a team player in multidisciplinary
teams
PSO 4 – To recognize of the need for and an ability to engage in research and life-long
learning for developing sustainable construction practices
PSO 5 – To design and conduct experiments as well as to analyze and interpret data
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
PEO 1- Engaged in professional practices, such as construction, environmental, geotechnical,

structural, transportation, water resource engineering by using technical, communication and
management skills.
PEO 2- Engaged in higher studies and research activities in various civil engineering fields
and life time commitment to learn ever changing technologies to satisfy increasing demand of
sustainable infrastructural facilities.
PEO 3- Serve in a leadership position in any professional or community organization or local
or state engineering board
PEO 4- Registered as professional engineer or developed a strong ability leading to
professional licensure being an entrepreneur.
Course Title: Urban Transportation and Planning
As per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) scheme]
SEMESTER:VII
Subject Code 15CV751 IA Marks 20
Number of Lecture Hours/Week 03 Exam Marks 80
Total Number of Lecture Hours 40 Exam Hours 03
CREDITS – 03 Total Marks-100
Course objectives: This course will enable students to;
1. Understand and apply basic concepts and methods of urban transportation planning.
2. Apprise about the methods of designing, conducting and administering surveys to provide
the data required for transportation planning.
3. Understand the process of developing an organized mathematical modelling approach to
solve select urban transportation planning problem.
4. Excel in use of various types of models used for travel forecasting, prediction of future
travel patterns.
Teaching Revised
Modules Hours Bloom’s
Taxonomy
(RBT) Level
Module -1:
Urban transport planning: Urbanization, urban class groups, 08 hours L1,L2,L3
transportation problems and identification, impacts of
transportation, urban transport system planning process,
modeling techniques in planning. Urban mass transportation
systems: urban transit problems, travel demand, types of transit
systems, public, private, para-transit transport, mass and rapid
transit systems, BRTS and Metro rails, capacity, merits and
comparison of systems, coordination, types of coordination.
Module -2:
Data Collection And Inventories: Collection of data – 08 hours L1,L2,L3
Organisation of surveys and Analysis, Study Area, Zoning,
Types and Sources of Data, Road Side Interviews, Home
Interview Surveys, Commercial Vehicle Surveys, Sampling
Techniques, Expansion Factors, Accuracy Checks, Use of
Secondary Sources, Economic data – Income – Population –
Employment – Vehicle Owner Ship.
Module -3:
Trip Generation & Distribution: UTPS Approach, Trip 08 hours L3,L4
Generation Analysis: Zonal Models, Category Analysis,
Household Models, Trip Attraction models, Commercial Trip
Rates; Trip Distribution by Growth Factor Methods. Problems
on above
Module -4:
Trip Distribution: Gravity Models, Opportunity Models, Time 08 hours L2,L3,L4,L5
Function Iteration Models. Travel demand modeling: gravity
model, opportunity models, Desire line diagram. Modal split
analysis. Problems on above
Module -5:
Traffic Assignment: Diversion Curves; Basic Elements of 08 hours L2,L3,L4,L5
Transport Networks, Coding, Route Properties, Path Building
Criteria, Skimming Tree, All-or-Nothing Assignment, Capacity
Restraint Techniques, Reallocation of Assigned Volumes,
Equilibrium Assignment. Introduction to land use planning
models, land use and transportation interaction.
Course outcomes: After studying this course, students will be able to:
1. Design, conduct and administer surveys to provide the data required for transportation
planning.
2. Supervise the process of data collection about travel behaviour and analyze the data for use
in transport planning.
3. Develop and calibrate modal split, trip generation rates for specific types of land use
developments.
4. Adopt the steps that are necessary to complete a long-term transportation plan.
Program Objectives:
· Engineering knowledge
· Problem analysis
· Interpretation of data
Question paper pattern:
· The question paper will have 5 modules comprising of ten questions. Each full question
carrying 16 marks
· There will be two full questions (with a maximum of three subdivisions, if necessary) from
each module.
· Each full question shall cover the topics as a module
· The students shall answer five full questions, selecting one full question from each module.
If more than one
Question is answered in modules, best answer will be considered for the award of marks
limiting one full question answer in each module.
Text Books:
1. Kadiyali.L.R., ‘Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning’, Khanna Publishers, New
Delhi.
2. Hutchinson, B.G, ‘Introduction to Urban System Planning’, McGraw Hill.
3. Khisty C.J., ‘Transportation Engineering – An Introduction’ Prentice Hall.
4. Papacostas,‘Fundamentals of Transportation Planning’, Tata McGraw Hill.
Reference Books:
1. Mayer M and Miller E, ‘Urban Transportation Planning: A decision oriented Approach’,
McGraw Hill.
2. Bruton M.J., ‘Introduction to Transportation Planning’, Hutchinson of London.
3. Dicky, J.W., ‘Metropolitan Transportation Planning’, Tata McGraw Hill.
Urban Transportation and Planning 15CV751
Module – 1
Urban Transport Planning
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Urbanization
1.3 Urban class groups
1.4 Transportation problems and identification
1.5 Impacts of transportation
1.6 Urban transport system planning process
1.7 Modelling techniques in planning
1.8 Urban mass transportation systems
1.9 Types of transit systems
1.10 Mass and rapid transit systems
1.11BRTS
1.12 Metro rails
1.13 Recommended questions
1.14 Outcomes
1.15 Further Reading
1.0.Introduction
The defining trait of urban areas is density: of people, activities, and structures. The defining
trait of urban transportation is the ability to cope with this density while moving people and
goods. Density creates challenges for urban transportation because of crowding and the
expense of providing infrastructure in built-up areas. It also creates certain advantages
because of economies of scale: some transportation activities are cheaper when carried out in
large volumes. These characteristics mean that two of the most important phenomena in
urban transportation are traffic congestion and mass transit.
1.1 Objectives
Understand and apply basic concepts and methods of urban transportation planning
1.2 Urbanization
Urbanization is closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and the
sociological process of rationalization. Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but
a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global scale, whereby
predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban culture.
Urbanization occurs as individual, commercial, and governmental efforts reduce time and
expense in commuting and improve opportunities for jobs, education, housing, and
transportation. Many rural inhabitants come to the city for reasons of seeking fortunes and
social mobility. But the picture of urbanization is not so much glorious as it apparently
seems. Modern cities have grown in a haphazard and unplanned manner due to fast
industrialization. Cities in developing countries become over-populated and over-crowded
Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 1

partly as a result of the increase in population over the decades and partly as a result of
migration.
India’s urban population went up from 25.86 million to 377.11 million during the
period 1901 to 2011. The share of urban population increased from 11% to 31% during the
same period. The rate of population growth increased after Independence up to the 1970s, but
has been decreasing thereafter. It went up from 2.37% in the 60s to 3.85% during the 70s, but
thereafter came down to 2.84% during 2001-2011.
An urban population that is only 31% of the total population is low as compared to
many other parts of the world. Therefore, it would be reasonable to expect that India’s urban
population will continue to grow for several decades. In fact, as stated in the previous section,
the urban population is projected to reach 875 million by 2050 and comprise 58% of the total
population of the country. Therefore, our cities need to be prepared to accommodate the large
increase that is expected in their population, in order to survive, let alone thrive.
Causes of urbanization
Political Causes: During times of political unrest, families are forced to leave their rural
farming villages, and they migrate to the urban areas in search of shelter, food and
employment. When large numbers of people are driven from their rural villages, especially in
war-ravaged countries, the cities become saturated, and slums start to grow on the outskirts of
the cities.
Economic Causes: Poverty in rural areas, due to large companies creating commercial farms
and small farmers finding it harder and harder to make a living, forces people to move to the
urban areas in search of better employment opportunities. The rise of industry in developing
countries has provided more job opportunities in urban areas, and cities have increased
significantly in size due to this
Education: Opportunities for education at universities and technical colleges draw young
people to the urban centres, where they hope to provide better prospects for the future for
themselves and their families. Urban centres in developing countries have become hubs of
education and training, as they are also in developed countries.
Natural Population Increase: There has been a natural increase of population in many
developing countries due to improved medical care, immunization programs, better sanitation
and more widespread education. Death rates have decreased, and there are fewer infant
deaths, resulting in population growth. As populations grow so does the urban sprawl. As the
cities become overcrowded with not enough employment to go around, more and more
people live in substandard housing.
Environmental Degradation: When the natural habitat of farming families is destroyed due
to deforestation, mining or industrial expansion, they are forced to find somewhere else to
live. Often small amounts of compensation from logging and mining companies provide the
funds for families to move to urban areas, but there is no guarantee of work in the cities, and
many families move there and are forced into poverty because they cannot find enough work.

Social Causes: Many young people migrate to urban centres in search of lifestyle changes
and with the desire to become associated with the club scenes in large cities. Such scenes
provide employment opportunities, but they sadly also attract gambling and crime syndicates
to develop.
1.3 Urban class groups

Urban areas mean places where modernisation has occurred and where there’s a huge
population. Examples of urban areas are large mega cities like New Delhi and Mumbai, or
smaller cities like Jaipur, Bhopal or Pune. “Livelihoods” means what people do for a living
and the lifestyles they have. Thus, in this article we shall learn about the different types of
urban livelihoods in India, that is, the types of jobs in the city and the lifestyles people lead.
Types of Livelihoods
Urban Livelihood of Street Workers: In towns and cities, it is easy to spot many people
working in the streets. Some examples are those of vegetable vendors, ice-cream sellers,
cobblers, rickshaw pullers, etc. These workers are self- employed people. Another special
feature is that there may be no permanent shop for them to carry out their occupation. Some
live and sell their products in shacks, some move around in bicycles and millions are left to
sleep beneath highway roads.
Most of these workers have migrated from rural areas (villages) in search of earning more
money, but alas, the city life engulfs them. It is their basic right to earn a living and thus, the
government has started with many schemes to ensure their protection.
Self Employed Businessmen: What do you think of shopkeepers of medicine shops, clothes
shop or a cafe? These people are businessmen who have started their own enterprises. Some
businessmen are worth billions- like the owners of multinational companies, or some are
small enterprise owners.
Some businessmen fall into the category of organised sector, where their accounts and
businesses are recorded. However, small businessmen are self- employed in the unorganised
sector too. They invest some money into starting on their own and slowly make profits.
Business is a risky deal and it takes courage and creativity to run a successful one.
Factory Workers: Another one of the urban livelihoods in India is that of a factory worker.
These people are not formally employed and thus, fall in the unorganised sector. Besides,
they work as and when their employer wants them to and earns a very small income for their
work. Some examples are sewers in clothes factories or labourers used for lifting heavy
packages. These people are hired and paid on an hourly basis and it is not enough for them to
subsist on generally.
Workers in Organised Sector: A majority of urban livelihoods in India fall under this
category of workers. Examples of this are a marketing manager of a company, a civil
engineer working on bridges, or a doctor working in a hospital. They earn the highest ‘salary’
in the city per month, but they don’t earn ‘hourly wages’ like labourers.

These workers have several benefits, unlike street workers or factory labourers. These
benefits are like having a company’s retirement plan, a company’s medical insurance, having
paid leaves.
Thus, we see what type of jobs is there in cities, ranging from self- employing work on the
streets, to working in big companies and corporate. Cities have the richest and the poorest
people and the gap in urban livelihoods is shocking and unfortunate. As students of civics and
responsible citizens, we must work towards providing the underprivileged with basic
necessities and support.
1.4 Transportation problems and identification

1. Urban Transportation at the Crossroads: Cities are locations having a high level
of accumulation and concentration of economic activities and are complex spatial structures
supported by transport systems. The larger the city, the greater its complexity and the
potential for disruptions, particularly when this complexity is not effectively managed.
a. Traffic congestion and parking difficulties: Congestion is one of the most prevalent
transport problems in large urban agglomerations, usually above a threshold of about 1
million inhabitants. Congestion is particularly linked with motorization and the diffusion
of the automobile, which has increased the demand for transport infrastructures. However,
the supply of infrastructures has often not been able to keep up with the growth of
mobility.
b. Longer commuting: On par with congestion people are spending an increasing amount of
time commuting between their residence and workplace. An important factor behind this
trend is related to residential affordability as housing located further away from central
areas is more affordable.
c. Public transport inadequacy: Many public transit systems, or parts of them, are either
over or under used. During peak hours, crowdedness creates discomfort for users as the
system copes with a temporary surge in demand. Low ridership makes many services
financially unsustainable, particularly in suburban areas.
d. Difficulties for non-motorized transport: These difficulties are either the outcome of
intense traffic, where the mobility of pedestrians, bicycles and other non-motorized
vehicles is impaired, but also because of a blatant lack of consideration for pedestrians and
bicycles in the physical design of infrastructures and facilities. On the opposite side, the
setting of bicycle paths takes capacity away from roadways as well as parking space.
e. Loss of public space: The majority of roads are publicly owned and free of access.
Increased traffic has adverse impacts on public activities which once crowded the streets
such as markets, parades and processions, games, and community interactions. These have
gradually disappeared to be replaced by automobiles. In many cases, these activities have
shifted to shopping malls while in other cases, they have been abandoned altogether.
Traffic flows influence the life and interactions of residents and their usage of street space.
More traffic impedes social interactions and street activities. People tend to walk and cycle
less when traffic is high.

f. High infrastructure maintenance costs: Cities with an aging of their transport

infrastructure are facing growing maintenance costs as well as pressures to upgrade to
more modern infrastructure. In addition to the involved costs, maintenance and repair
activities create circulation disruptions.
g. Environmental impacts and energy consumption: Pollution, including noise, generated

by circulation has become a serious impediment to the quality of life and even the health
of urban populations. Further, energy consumption by urban transportation has
dramatically increased and so the dependency on petroleum.
h. Accidents and safety: Growing traffic in urban areas is linked with a growing number of
accidents and fatalities, especially in developing countries. Accidents account for a
significant share of recurring delays. As traffic increases, people feel less safe to use the
streets.
i. Freight distribution: Globalization and the materialization of the economy have resulted
in growing quantities of freight moving within cities. As freight traffic commonly shares
infrastructures with the circulation of passengers, the mobility of freight in urban areas has
become increasingly problematic.
2. Automobile Dependency: Automobile use is obviously related to a variety

of advantages such as on demand mobility, comfort, status, speed, and convenience. These
advantages jointly illustrate why automobile ownership continues to grow worldwide,
especially in urban areas and developing economies.
a. Under pricing and consumer choices: Most road infrastructures are subsidized as they
are considered a public good. Consequently, drivers do not bear the full cost of automobile
use, such as parking. Like the “Tragedy of the Commons”, when a resource is free of
access (road), it tends to be overused and abused (congestion). This is also reflected in
consumer choice, where automobile ownership is a symbol of status, freedom and
prestige, especially in developing countries. Single home ownership also reinforces
automobile dependency and if this ownership is favoured through various subsidies.
b. Planning and investment practices: Planning and the resulting allocation of public funds
aim towards improving road and parking facilities in an ongoing attempt to avoid
congestion. Other transportation alternatives tend to be disregarded. In many cases, zoning
regulations impose minimum standards of road and parking services and de facto impose a
regulated automobile dependency.
3. Congestion: Congestion occurs when transport demand exceeds transport supply at a
specific point in time and in a specific section of the transport system. Under such
circumstances, each vehicle impairs the mobility of others.
a. Passengers. In many regions of the world incomes have significantly increased; one
automobile per household or more is becoming common. Access to an automobile
conveys flexibility in terms of the choice of origin, destination and travel time. The
automobile is favoured at the expense of other modes for most trips, including
commuting.

b. Freight. Several industries have shifted their transport needs to trucking, thereby
increasing the usage of road infrastructure. Since cities are the main destinations for
freight flows trucking adds to further congestion in urban areas.
4. Mitigating Congestion: In some areas, the automobile is the only mode for which
adequate transportation infrastructures are provided. This implies less capacity for using
alternative modes such transit, walking and cycling. At some levels of density, no public
infrastructure investment can be justified in terms of economic returns.
a. Ramp metering: Controlling the access to a congested highway by letting automobiles in
one at a time instead of in groups. The outcome is a lower disruption on highway traffic
flows.
b. Traffic signal synchronization: Tuning the traffic signals to the time and direction of
traffic flows. This is particularly effective if the signals can be adjusted on an hourly basis
to reflect changes in commuting patterns.
c. Incident management: Making sure that vehicles involved in accidents or mechanical
failures are removed as quickly as possible from the road. Since accident on average
account between 20 and 30% of all the causes of congestion, this strategy is particularly
important.
d. Car ownership restrictions: Several cities and countries have quotas in the number of
license plates that can be issued or require high licensing fees. To purchase a vehicle an
individual thus must first secure through an auction a license.
e. Sharing vehicles: Concerns two issues. The first is an individual providing ridership to
people having a similar origin, destination and commuting time. Two or more vehicle
trips can thus be combined into one, which is commonly referred as carpooling. The
second involves a pool of vehicles that can be leased or shared for short duration when
mobility is required.
f. HOV lanes: High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes insure that vehicles with two or more
passengers (buses, taxis, vans, carpool, etc.) have exclusive access to a less congested
lane, particularly during peak hours.
g. Parking management: Removing parking or free parking spaces can be an effective
caution tool since it reduces cruising and enables those willing to pay to access an area.
h. Public transit: Offering alternatives to driving that can significantly improve efficiency,
notably if it circulates on its own infrastructure (subway, light rail, buses on reserved
lanes, etc.) and is well integrated within a city’s development plans.
i. Non-motorized transportation: Since the great majority of urban trips are over short
distances, non-motorized modes, particularly walking and cycling, have an important role
to play in supporting urban mobility. The provision of adequate infrastructure, such as
sidewalks, is often a low priority as non-motorized transportation is often perceived as not
modern in spite of the important role it needs to assume in urban areas.
Identification
 Congestion-related delay
 Congestion-related unreliability
 Community severance

 Lack of amenity
 Visual intrusion
 Global warming
 Local air pollution
 Noise
 Reduction of green space
 Damage to environmentally sensitive sites
 Poor accessibility for those without a car and those with mobility impairments
 Disproportionate disadvantaging of particular social or geographic groups
 Number, severity and risk of accidents
 Suppression of the potential for economic activity in the area
1.5 Impacts of transportation

1. Energy Consumption in Transport and Environmental Pollution: Transport requires
energy mainly for vehicle operation and to some extent also for manufacturing of the vehicle.
The energy consumption in transport sector is the main cause of pollution. There are
significant differences in fuel efficiencies between various modes of transport, for example,
consumption of energy in cars is more among urban transport modes. Although there has
been a significant improvement in the fuel efficiency in cars and other automobiles.
2. Air Pollution: Transport is a major source of air pollution not only in developed but in
developing countries also. Ecologists believe that the rapid increase in the number of vehicles
on our roads, which has taken place without any real restriction, is fast developing into an
environmental crisis. Exhaust fumes are the major source of atmospheric pollution by the
motor vehicle.
It is clear that very large amount of pollutants are being emitted from various forms of
transport into the air that we breathe. These emissions are also responsible for the increase in
‘global warming’. The most obvious way of achieving a reduction in pollution by motor
vehicles is to reduce the emission of fumes at source. A short-term solution is likely to be
made by medications to the present type of engine and to improve combustion within the
exhaust system, as Japanese manufactures have done in many cases.
3. Noise Pollution: Another side’ effect of transport systems is the noise pollution. It is
estimated that some 135 million people in OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development) countries suffer transport noise levels in excess of 65 db. The sources of
noise from road vehicles are many and varied, including break squeal, door slam, loose loads,
horns, over-amplified music systems, etc. Rail noise depends on the form of propulsion, the
nature and load, the speed of train and the type of track. The noise pollution problems around
airports are well known.
4. Land Consumption and Landscape Damage: The provision of land-based transport
requires the direct utilisation of land. Long strips of land are consumed, and large areas
effectively divided into smaller ones (severance). Previous land uses, such as forestry,
agriculture, housing and nature reserves, may be displaced, and zones adjacent to the new
development rendered unsuitable for wide range of activities.
5. Ecological Degradation: The degradation of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, as
measured by indicators such as reduced habitat/species diversity, primary productivity or the
areal extent of ecologically valuable plant and animal communities, provides one of the most
emotive aspects of the tension between transport development and environmental quality.

1.6 Urban transport system planning process

Transport planning process can be broken down to five important stages
1. Survey and analysis of existing conditions: The survey inventory starts with the
definition of the survey area and division of the area into smaller units called zones, to
study the pattern of movement. At this stage itself the goals that provide direction to the
planning effort are set. The goals are so formulated that all the relevant social, legal,
aesthetic, political, economic and technical considerations are comprehensively weighed,
evaluated and reconciled. The goals are
i. Minimum disruption of the general environment
ii. Minimum demolition of housing
iii. Re-vitalization of public transport
iv. The removal of through traffic from urban centres and residential areas
v. A high benefit/cost ratio
vi. Operational feasibility
vii. A quantitative compatibility with general urban structure
2. Forecast analysis of future conditions and plan synthesis: Transport plans are long-
range in scope and involve planning for 20 – 25 years ahead. Therefore becomes necessary
to do prediction of travel pattern and needs for the future year.
Economic activity can be predicted in a number of ways. A simple method is to extend the
past trends in the various parameters representing economic activity.
Population forecast can be done by studies of the past trend. More detailed studies of the
birth, death and migration data help in formulating population prediction models. Apart
from an estimate of total population it is also necessary to know the age distribution,
family size and the number of households.
3. Evaluation: In an urban system, a number of alternative transport plans are feasible for a
given set of goals and policies. In order to select the best from these, it is necessary to
evaluate each of the alternatives as to how fulfils the desired objectives.
Benefits/Cost techniques are often used to evaluate the alternative in economic terms.
At this stage it may be necessary to revise the plans and go back to the initial stage of
design to evolve further alternatives.
4. Programme adoption and implementation: The best alternative emerging from the
evaluation study is selected for adoption and implementation. The stages in which the
project is to be implemented are decided with the consideration for the financial resources.
The necessary organisation for handling the project is built up and the work executed.
5. Continuing study: Because transport planning is a dynamic and complex process, there
can’t be any finality about the plan. The urban system and the people inhabiting it are not
deterministic and are governed by random behaviour. Considerably uncertainty is always
associated with such systems. Technology and preferences of people may change. Plans
and policies which are relevant today may not remain so in the future context. This
underlines the need for a continuous review and updating of the plan. The process is one
of the constant iteration and feedback. Periodic surveys should be carried out on the trends
in travel patterns, journey times and other relevant factors and the plan readjusted if need
be.


1.7 Modelling techniques in planning
Trip Generation: Trip generation is the first stage of the classical first generation aggregate
demand models. Trip generation is the analysis and model building phase starts with the first
step commonly. It is a general term used in the transportation planning process to cover the
number of trip ends in given area. Trip generation is classified in production and attraction.
Production (origin) means number of trips end originated in zone-i. Attraction (destination)
means number of trips end attracted to zone-j. There are basically two tools for trip
generation analysis, multiple linear regressions and category analysis (cross classification).
Trip Distribution: The decision to travel for a given purpose is called trip generation. The
decision to choose destination from origin is directional distribution of trips forms the second
stage of travel demand modeling. Trip distribution is determined by the number of trips end
originated in zone-i to number of trips end attracted to zone-j, which can be understood by
the matrix between zones. The matrix is called origin - destination (O-D) matrix.
Modal Split: The third stage in travel demand modeling is modal split. Modal split is
determined by number of trips of people process by the different mode of travel. In other
words, modal split sub model of travel demand modelling is used to distribute the total travel

demand in two or more mode categories. These categories are public transport riders and
personal / private vehicle riders. The demand can further be split into different modes. The
socio-economic demand variables used to explain mode choice behavior are income, vehicle
ownership, household size, residence location etc. The supply variables are in vehicle time,
waiting time, travel time, travel cost, transfer time etc.
Trip Assignment: Trip assignment is the fourth and the final phase of the four stage
modelling. Travellers will choose the route which will take minimum travel time, minimum
travel distance dependent on the traffic volume on the road.
1.8 Urban mass transportation systems:

1.8.1 Urban transit problems:
As cities continue to become more dispersed, the cost of building and operating public
transportation systems increases.
a. Decentralization: Public transit systems are not designed to service low density and
scattered urban areas that are increasingly dominating the landscape. The greater the
decentralization of urban activities, the more difficult and expensive it becomes to serve
urban areas with public transit. Additionally, decentralization promotes long distance trips
on transit systems causing higher operating costs and revenue issues for flat fare transit
systems.
b. Fixity: The infrastructures of several public transit systems, notably rail and subway
systems are fixed, while cities are dynamical entities, even if the pace of change can take
decades. This implies that travel patterns tend to change and that a transit system built for
servicing a specific pattern.
c. Connectivity: Public transit systems are often independent from other modes and
terminals. It is consequently difficult to transfer passengers from one system to the other.
This leads to a impossibility between the preference of riders to have direct connections
and the need to provide a cost efficient service network that involves transfers.
d. Automobile competition: In view of cheap and everywhere road transport systems,

public transit faced strong competition and loss ridership in relative terms and in some
cases in absolute terms. The higher the level of automobile dependency, the more
inappropriate the public transit level of service. The public service being offered is simply
outpaced by the convenience of the automobile.
e. Construction and maintenance costs: Public transit systems, particularly heavy rail, are
capital intensive to build, operate and maintain. Costs vary depending on local conditions
such as density and regulations. There are however exceptions where cost overruns can be
substantial because of capture by special interests groups such as labour unions,
construction companies and consulting firms. When there is inefficient regulatory
oversight, these actors will converge to extract as much rent as possible from public transit
capital improvements.
f. Fare structures: Historically, most public transit systems have abandoned a distance-
based fare structure for a simpler flat fare system. This had the unintended consequence of
discouraging short trips for which most transit systems are well suited for, and
encouraging longer trips that tend to be costlier per user than the fares they generate.

g. Legacy costs: Most public transit systems employ unionized labour that have consistently
used strikes and the acute disruptions they create as leverage to negotiate favorable
contracts, including health and retirement benefits. Since public transit is subsidized these
costs were not well reflected in the fare systems.
h. Self-driving vehicles: Development in information technologies let anticipate in the

coming years the availability of self-driving vehicles. Such a development would entail
point to point services by on demand vehicles and a much better utilization level of such
assets. This system could compete directly with transit systems due to its convenience,
comfort and likely affordability.
1.8.2 Travel demand

Travel Demand is a function of the population, per capita trip rate and per capita trip
length. Travel demand has, grown faster than the population because it is a function of both
the rising number of trips undertaken due to increased income as well as the increased trip
lengths on account of increased collapse.
The demand for goods and services in general depends largely on consumer’s income
and the price of the particular good or service relative to other prices. For example the
demand for travel depends on the income of the traveller. The choice of the travel mode
depends on several factors such as the purpose of the trip, distance travelled and the income
of the traveller.
A demand function for a particular product represents the willingness of consumer to
purchase the product at alternative prices. A demand function shows a number of passengers
willing to use a commuter train at different price levels between a pair of origins and
destinations for a specific trip during a given period. The term price stands for all outlays
perceived by the traveller for a given trip. The price for trip could be out of pocket costs (the
train fare); travel time including access, waiting and in-vehicle time; comfort; safety;
convenience; reliability; and several other tangible and intangible factors. Most of the
components of the perceived price for travel can be measured and expressed in monetary
units. This synthetic price is sometimes called a generalised price.
1.9 Types of transit systems:

1.9.1 Public transit system
Public transport is a system of transport for passengers by group travel systems available for
use by the general public, typically managed on a schedule, operated on established routes,
and that charge a posted fee for each trip. Examples of public transport include city
buses, trolleybuses, trams (or light rail) and passenger trains, rapid transit (metro
/subway/underground, etc.) and ferries. Public transport between cities is dominated
by airlines, coaches, and intercity rail. High-speed rail networks are being developed in many
parts of the world
Bus: Bus transport is one of the oldest and most common modes of transportation aimed at
facilitating movement of people within a city or to remote locations. It has the advantage of
being affordable and convenient if there is no traffic. Long ago, buses were managed by
individuals, but these days, there is an upsurge of bus services that are clean and efficient. In
fact, most federal governments want all public transport buses to be sparkling clean, embrace

the cashless models, be economical and produce fewer emissions by 2020. The bus services
are also required to be accessible to people with disabilities.
Train: Train transportation is rapidly growing. This is evident by the sea of humanity lining
up at railway stations to commute to and from work. Most governments are ramping up the
growth of this mode of transportation by increasing the number of trains and upgrading
existing ones in the busiest routes. These governments are stepping up their efforts because
trains contribute immensely to the reduction of traffic congestion and keeping more cars out
of roads. Specific aspects that are targeted include expansion of railway networks, excellent
travel information, and installation of Internet in trains. These ambitious projects should
make train transportation a lot more attractive to enable people to leave their cars at home.
Tram: A tram goes by many names such as tramcar, trolley, trolley car or street car
depending on the city you live in. It’ a rail vehicle that runs on track built on city streets.
They can also run on segregated right of way. The networks or tracks managed by tramcars
are known as tramways. Trams are mostly operated by electricity and are found in large cities
where demand for public transportation is high. They are also best suited for large cities
because they have the capacity to transport many passengers. A bus, on the other hand, is
designed to transport fewer passengers.
Light rail: This is a mode of urban public transport that lies between a tram and train. Light
rail operates at higher capacity and travels long distances than a tram. However, it travels
slowly than a train and has more stops than a train or tram. It’s, therefore, ideal for regional
routes with short distances.
Metro systems: Metro systems have the highest performance, speed, capacity and reliability
compared to other modes of transportation. They are common in large cities across the world.
Metro systems operate underground, which means they don’t interact with normal road
traffic. Just like trams and buses, the urban regions and provinces are fully responsible for the
safety of people and the metro systems underground. The metro lines are also supervised by
relevant authorities to ensure transportation goes on without any glitch. They require high
initial capital investment, but once up and running; they are ideal for efficient functioning and
quality of life in major cities across the world.
Regional taxi: This is, ideally, public transportation on demand and offers door-to-door
transportation. The benefit of regional taxis is that they travel to destinations where
traditional public transportation modes don’t. The pricing of regional taxis lies between
regular taxis and public transport.
1.9.2 Private transit system

Auto rickshaw: An auto rickshaw is a motorized development of the traditional pulled
rickshaw or cycle rickshaw. Most have three wheels and do not tilt. The auto rickshaw is a
common form of urban transport, both as a vehicle for hire and for private use, in many

countries around the world, especially those with tropical or subtropical climates, including
many developing countries
Taxicab: A taxicab, also known as a taxi or a cab, is a type of vehicle for hire with a driver,
used by a single passenger or small group of passengers, often for a non-shared ride. A
taxicab conveys passengers between locations of their choice. This differs from other modes
of public transport where the pick-up and drop-off locations are determined by the service
provider, not by the passenger, although demand responsive transport and share taxis provide
a hybrid bus/taxi mode.
Motorcycle taxi: A motorcycle taxi, or cart bike or bike taxi, is a licensed form of transport
in some countries. The taxi typically carries one passenger, who rides as the pillion behind
the motorcycle operator. Multiple passengers are common in some countries.
Water taxi: A water taxi or a water bus, also known as a sightseeing boat, is
a watercraft used to provide public or private transport, usually, but not always, in an urban
environment. Service may be scheduled with multiple stops, operating in a similar manner to
a bus, or on demand to many locations, operating in a similar manner to a taxi. A boat service
shuttling between two points would normally be described as a ferry rather than a water bus
or taxi.
Transportation Network Company: A transportation network company (TNC), sometimes
known as a mobility service provider (MSP) is a company that matches passengers with
vehicles, via websites and mobile apps. TNCs for automobiles are commonly referred to
as ride-hailing services and TNCs exist for aircraft and watercraft as well. TNCs are
examples of the sharing economy and shared mobility.
TNCs have been noted for providing service in less populated or poorer areas that are
not regularly served by taxicabs, and charging lower rates than taxicabs, since taxicab rates
are often set by local jurisdictions.
Studies are inconclusive on whether TNCs reduce drunken driving rates in cities where they
operate, with some studies showing that it depends on the city.
Peak car: Peak car (peak travel) is a hypothesis that motor vehicle distance travelled per
capita, predominantly by private car, has peaked and will now fall in a sustained manner. The
theory was developed as an alternative to the prevailing market saturation model, which
suggested that car use would saturate and then remain reasonably constant, or to GDP-based
theories which predict that traffic will increase again as the economy improves, linking recent
traffic reductions to the Great Recession of 2008.
Car sharing: Car sharing or car clubs is a model of car rental where people rent cars for short
periods of time, often by the hour. It differs from traditional car rental in that the owners of
the cars are often private individuals themselves, and the car sharing facilitator is generally
distinct from the car owner. Car sharing is part of a larger trend of shared mobility.
Car sharing enables an occasional use of a vehicle or access to different brands of vehicles.
The renting organization may be a commercial business. Users can also organize as
a company, public agency, cooperative, or ad hoc grouping. The network of cars on the
network becomes available to the users through a variety of means, ranging from the
simplicity of using an app to unlock the car in real time, to meeting the owner of the car in
order to exchange keys.

Personal rapid transit: Personal rapid transit (PRT), also referred to as pod cars, is a public
transport mode featuring small automated vehicles operating on a network of specially built
guide ways. PRT is a type of automated guide way transit (AGT), a class of system which
also includes larger vehicles all the way to small subway systems. In terms of routing, it tends
towards personal public transport systems.
PRT vehicles are sized for individual or small group travel, typically carrying no more than
three to six passengers per vehicle. Guide ways are arranged in a network topology; with all
stations located on sidings, and with frequent merge/diverge points. This allows for nonstop,
point-to-point travel, bypassing all intermediate stations. The point-to-point service has been
compared to a taxi or a horizontal lift (elevator).
Chauffeur: A chauffeur is a person employed to drive a passenger motor vehicle, especially
a luxury vehicle such as a large sedan or limousine. A woman employed to drive a passenger
motor vehicle is a chauffeuse.
Originally, such drivers were often personal employees of the vehicle owner, but now in
many cases specialist chauffeur service companies or individual drivers provide both driver
and vehicle for hire, although there are service companies that just provide the driver.
1.9.3 Para-transit transport

Para-transit means “alongside-of” transit. It includes all public and private mass
transportation provided in the spectrum between private automobile travel and conventional,
fixed-route, fixed-schedule bus and rail transit. The broad definition includes carpools and
vanpools (shared ride modes), limousines, public autos (station cars), charter buses, shuttle
buses, exclusive and shared-ride taxicabs, livery vehicles, and bus transportation operating on
flexible routes and flexible schedules in response to individual requests for service, the latter
being termed “demand-responsive” or “dial-a-ride” services.
Types of Para-transit
Service in the 25 or so years since the term “para-transit” was first coined; there have been
many regulatory, social, and technological advances. Although these advances have had an
impact on para-transit, basic para-transit service modes have remained the same, although a
few new variations or name changes have come to be recognized:
 Commercially viable general public transportation,
 Exclusive-ride taxi,
 Shared-ride taxi,
 Commercially viable target market transportation,
 Children’s services,
 Subsidized general public transportation,
 General public dial-a-ride,
 Fixed-route feeder services,
 “Night owl” service substituting for fixed route transit,
 Route deviation,
 Service routes,
 Subsidized target market transportation,
 People with disabilities
 Senior services,

 Low-income workers
 Subsidized medical care recipients, and
 Other health and human service agency clients
1.10 Mass Rapid Transit Systems

Ministry of Urban Development, Govt. of India predicts an average city very low-
speed of around 6 to 8 kmph by 2030, which is the speed of a morning walker. The question
is simple, is it acceptable to us. It was during 1850’s that over 750000 commuters entered and
left London daily, either by mainline railways or by Road. The streets of London were
literally blocked for miles by the great variety of iron-tired vehicles of the day, all taking their
toll on the frayed nerves and tempers of the frustrated London commuter. The London press
of the day featured front page articles telling of the “scandalous state of London’s
transportation facilities”. It was learnt during 1950’s itself that mass transportation
and personal transportation cannot mix together. The same situation is prevailing on most of
the roads all over Indian cities and many a time people get down from their car and prefer to
walk, a better speed than crawling. Mass transportation is the responsibility of State
Government and MRTS is a better option as compared to any other mode. The other modes
like bus, auto-rickshaw, and share taxi to assist as a feeder service to MRTS and have equal
importance to improve the catchment area.
The Mass Rapid Transit System is popularly called MRTS and is highly in demand
for development of Metropolitan cities all over the world. MRTS on date is a network of
10641 Km, 9349 stations and 573 lines covering 184 cities worldwide. What does MRTS
means; Mass is defined as a large amount or number, such as a great body of the people and
Rapid means quick transport from one place to another. MRTS, therefore, transports large
number of human beings from one place to another as quickly as possible stopping at almost
every 2-3 minutes. The journey time is to be made small even when the transport system
stops frequently. The characteristics of MRTS are
 Meant for transport of large number of passengers at quick intervals.
 High carrying capacity of the transport system. Capacity is measured in terms of PHPDT
i.e. Peak Hour per Direction Traffic.
 Quick acceleration and maximum speed attained for rapid transport
 Higher standing capacity as compared to sitting capacity. The average standing time
during the journey is less than 20 minutes
 Comfortable environment either by natural or forced ventilation, control of CO2 along
with air conditioning
 Frequent service or less waiting time at Railway Station
There are two different features of MRTS namely Urban and Suburban.
The difference is basically in journey time, acceleration level, distance between adjacent
stations etc. Urban MRTS is underground, elevated or surface whereas suburban is surface
only.
Both the transport system is having importance in urban development. Suburban
network eases the pressure on urban settlement. MRTS-Sub-urban started in India by Indian
Railways in Mumbai and Kolkata, the most populous cities and met the public demand and
very soon became the lifeline of the city. Suburban network, limited to the existing rail

network under the charge of Indian Railways, is not enough to meet the growing public
demand of these two cities as well as other growing metropolitan cities.
1.11 Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS):

Bus rapid transit, also called a bus way or transit way, is a bus-based public transport system
designed to improve capacity and reliability relative to a conventional bus system. Typically,
a BRT system includes roadways that are dedicated to buses, and gives priority to
buses at intersections where buses may interact with other traffic; alongside design features to
reduce delays caused by passengers boarding or leaving buses, or purchasing fares. BRT aims
to combine the capacity and speed of a metro with the flexibility, lower cost and simplicity of
a bus system.
Major elements of bus rapid transit system

The major elements of bus rapid transit are described below.
Running ways: Running ways drive travel speeds, reliability and identity. Options range
from general traffic lanes to fully grade separated BRT transit ways
Stations: Stations, as the entry point to the system, are the single most important customer
interface, affecting accessibility, reliability, comfort, safety and security, as well as dwell
times, and system image. BRT station options vary from simple stops with basic shelter to
complex intermodal terminals with many amenities.
Vehicle: BRTS system can utilize a wide range of vehicles, from standard buses to
specialized vehicles. Options vary in term of size, propulsion system, design, internal
configuration, and horizontal/longitudinal control, all of which impact system performance,
capacity and service quality. Aesthetics, both internal and external are also important for
establishing and reinforcing the brand identity of the system.
Off-bus fare collection: Conventional on board fare collection slows the boarding process,
particularly when a variety of fares are collected for different destinations and/or classes of
passengers. An alternative would be the collection of fares upon entering an enclosed bus
station or shelter area prior to bus arrivals This system would allow passengers to board
through all doors of a stopped bus. This also includes smart cards and payment through credit
cards.
Intelligent transportation System (ITS): A wide variety of ITS technologies can be

integrated into BRT System to improve BRT System performances in terms of travel times,
reliability, convenience, operational efficiency, safety and security. ITS options include
vehicle priority, operations and maintenance management, operator communications, real
time passenger’s information, and safety and security systems.
Service and operation plan: Designing a service plan that meets the needs of the population
and employment centres in the area and matches the demand for service is a key step in

defining a BRT system. How it is designed can impact system capacity, service reliability,
and travels times, including wait and transfer times.
Benefits BRTS
Serves following benefits
Saving in travel time: Saving in travel time on the exclusive travel ways the person minutes
saved is more than the person minutes lost by people in automobiles, which means significant
saving in travel time.
Reduced congestion: Congestion has long been recognized as an environmental problem.

Other than causing delay, it causes noise and fumes and increases health risks to road users
and residents
Increased safety: By creating segregated bicycle lanes and redesigning intersections,

conflicts between motorized traffic and bicyclists can be reduced leading to a sharp decrease
in the number of accidents and fatalities for bicyclists and motorized two-wheelers.
Increased Revenue: Ability to generate revenue from new riders, new ways of collecting
fares, or new auxiliary revenue sources.
Reduced Congestion: The ability to attract riders from the automobile can help reduce or
limit the growth in congestion.
Economic productivity: Improvements to BRTS system design can save time for existing
BRT passengers, improve mobility for new BRTS passengers, and reduce congestion on the
road network, saving time for automobile users and freight carriers.
Quality of Life: Providing mobility alternatives and improving transit supportive

development can improve the quality of life of a region. Transit also supports community
preservation.
Improved Economic Opportunities: Providing additional mobility choices can enhance the
pool of employment opportunities a regional population can pursue and reduce costs
associated with more expensive modes. Retail establishments and other businesses benefit
from increased sales and labour force availability.
Job Creation: Transit investment has direct positive impacts on employment for the
construction, planning, and design of the facilities.
1.12 Metro rails

An increase in population has lead to the growth of traffic in India. To ease the traffic
situation in the country and make travel convenient for the people, the government has
introduced the metro rail in many cities.
India has introduced Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS), which is currently operating
successfully in 10 cities in India. Construction is going on in 5 cities namely Nagpur, Noida,
Navi-Mumbai, Pune and Metro link express for Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar, which would
be operational soon. Mass Rapid Transit System in India is commonly known as “Metro”. It
is a cheap mode of travel, which helps in reducing the energy consumption, is eco-friendly,
and is the reason behind the prevention of accidents. The modern design of metro coaches,

the stylish appearance of metro stations, and superior comfort facilities are some of the
reasons why metro is becoming popular in India. The journey appears to be more fruitful due
to the services like ATMs, food outlets, cafés and convenience stores at the metro stations
Namma Metro (Bangalore Metro) is the second largest operational metro in India after the
Delhi Metro. It also has an underground metro line which is the first underground metro line
of South India. Bangalore metro has 2 lines- Purple and green – and 41 stations. It was
opened in the year 2011. It is operational along a route of 42.3 kilometres in Bangalore and
approximately 34.37 kilometres is still under construction.
Advantages of Metro Rail

 The Metro Rail System has proven to be most efficient in terms of energy
consumption, space occupancy and numbers transported.
th
 Requires 1/5 energy per passenger km compared to road based transport system
 High-capacity carriers – very high volumes of peak hour peak direction trips.
 Eco-friendly – causes no air pollution, much less sound pollution.
 Low energy consumption – 20% per passenger km in comparison to road-based
systems.
 Greater traffic capacity – carries as much traffic as 7 lanes of bus traffic or 24 lanes of
car traffic (either way).
 Very low ground space occupation – 2 meter width only for elevated rail.
 Faster – reduces journey time by 50% to 75%.
Disadvantages of metro rail

 High initial cost: Structures like these cost a lot more
 Blockage to the skyline: Road, residential areas or any other locality underneath metro
line and metro stations are shadowed
 Road blockages during construction period
 Environmental Impact: Projects like metro many a times, need cutting of trees and hills
 Electricity consumption: Even if metro is a green technology (carbon free), it requires
huge amount of electricity to run (Overhead wires). In a country like India, where
majority of electricity is generated through thermal power, it doesn’t add up as Eco-
friendly
Comparison of systems
Content Metro rail system Bus rapid transit system
Speed, kmph 24 – 55 25 – 30
Catchment area Low High
Average cost/trip Rs. 45 – 50 Rs. 10 – 15
Required minimum 10 – 15 km 5 km
trip length
Space required 2 lanes for elevated corridor 2 – 4 lanes
Parking Needs parking facilities for Needs parking facilities for feeder
feeder services services
Air pollution Significantly decreases due to Expected to improves slightly if
required shifting of vehicles to MRTS BRTS is able to shift private
vehicles to its system

Coordination
Product Intermodal
Mode Speed Accessibility Cost Capacity
Options Capability
BRTS Broad Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate High
MRTS Broad Fast Moderate Low High High
1.13 Recommended questions

1. What is urbanization? State the causes of urbanization?
2. Explain the problems in urban transportation in the present scenario.
3. Explain the classification of transit system with example.
4. Write a note on BRTS and Metro trains.
1.14 Outcomes
planning.
2. Supervise the process of data collection about travel behaviour and analyze the data
for use in transport planning.
1.15 Further Reading

1. https://www.toppr.com/guides/civics/urban-livelihoods/urban-livelihoods-in-india/
2. http://www.geographynotes.com/articles/5-major-environmental-impact-of-transport-
development/249
3. https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4621
4. http://www.geographynotes.com/articles/4-main-stages-of-the-transportation-
planning-process-explained/219
5. https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=79940&printable
=1

Module – 2
Data Collection and Inventories
2.0 INTRODUCTION
2.1 DEFINITION OF STUDY AREA
2.2 ZONING
2.3 TYPES OF SURVEYS
2.4 OUTCOME
2.5 REFERENCE
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The first stage in the formulation of a transportation plan is to collect data on all factors that
are likely to influence travel pattern. The work involves a number of surveys so as to have an
inventory of existing travel pattern, an inventory of existing transportation facilities and an
inventory of existing land use and economic activities. It also helps in the building up of a
local authority database used for policy & priority determination or in allocating costs &
income on a jointly operated venture.
2.1 DEFINITION OF STUDY AREA

Transportation planning can be at the national level, regional level or at the urban level.
For planning at the urban level, the study area should embrace the whole conurbation
containing
the existing and potential continuously built-up areas of the city.
The imaginary line representing the boundary of the study area is termed as the ‘external
cordon’. The area inside the external cordon line determines the travel pattern to a large
extent and as such is surveyed in great detail.
The selection of the external cordon line for an urban transportation study should be done
carefully due to the following factors.
i. The external cordon lines should circumscribe all areas which are already built-up and
those areas which are considered likely to be developed during the period of study.
ii. The external cordon line should be compatible with previous studies and the area
of studies planned for the future.
iii. The external cordon line should be continuous and uniform in its course so that movement
crosses it once. The line should intersect roads where it is safe and convenient to carry out
traffic surveys.
2.2 ZONING
The defined study area is sub-divided into smaller areas called zones. The purpose of such a
sub-division is to facilitate the spatial quantification of land use and economic factors which
influence travel pattern. The data collected on individual household basis cannot be
conveniently considered and analysed unless they are aggregated into small zones. Sub-
division into zones further helps in geographically associating the origins and destinations of
travel. In large study projects, it is more convenient to divide the study area into sectors,
which are sub-divided into smaller zones.

A convenient system of coding of the zones will be useful for the study. One such system is
to divide the study area into 9 sectors. Each sector is sub-divided into 10 zones. A sub-zone
bearing a number 481 belongs to sector 4 and to zone 8 in that sector and is sub-zone 1 in that
zone.
Zones are modelled as if all their attributes and properties were concentrated in a single point
called the zone centroid. The centroids are connected to the nearest road junction or rail
station by centroid connectors. Both centroid and centroid connectors are notional and it is
assumed that all people have same travel cost from the centroid to the nearest transport
facility which is the average for a zone. The intersection from outside world is normally
represented through external zones. The external zones are defined by the catchment area of
the major transport links feeding to the study area. Although the list is not complete, few
guidelines are given below for selecting zones.
1. Zones should match other administrative divisions, particularly census zones.
2. Zones should have homogeneous characteristics, especially in land use, population etc.
3. Zone boundaries should match cordon and screen lines, but should not match major roads.
4. Zones should be as smaller in size as possible so that the error in aggregation caused by the
assumption that all activities are concentrated at the zone centroids is minimum.
5. The zones should have a homogenous land use.
6. Natural or physical barriers such as canals, rives etc can form convenient zone boundaries.
2.3 TYPES OF SURVEYS

Home-interview survey
Home-interview survey is one of the most reliable type of surveys for collection of origin and
destination data. The survey is essentially intended to yield data on the travel pattern of the
residents of the household and the general characteristics of the household influencing trip
making.
The information on the travel pattern includes number of trips made, their origin and
destination, purpose of trip, travel mode, time of departure from origin and time of arrival at
destination and so on. The information on household characteristics includes type of dwelling
unit, number of residents, age, sex, race, vehicle ownership, number of drivers, family
income
and so on. Based on these data it is possible to relate the amount of travel to household and
zonal
characteristics and develop equations for trip generation rates.
It is impractical and unnecessary to interview all the residents of the study area. Since
travel patterns tend to be uniform in a particular zone. The size of the sample is usually
determined on the basis of the population of the study area. And the standards given by the
Bureau of Public Roads as shown in below table.
Population of Study Area Sample Size
Under 50,000 1 in 5 households
50,000 – 150, 000 1 in 8 households
150,000 – 300,000 1 in 10 households
300,000 – 500,000 1 in 15 households
500,000 – 1,000,000 1 in 20 households

Over 1,000,000 1 in 25 households

Standard Practice now is instead to calculate the sample size which will achieve the desired
precision for key indicators at the required level of confidence. One such equation is given by
Traffic Appraisal manual.
n p(1p)N3 /[(E/1.96)2 (N 1) p(1p)N2 ]
Where,
n = required number of households in an area of interest
E = accuracy level
P =Proportion of households in the area with attributes of interest.
The usual procedure is for an interviewer to call on a household on a scheduled data and
to leave a copy of the home interview questionnaire. This questionnaire is broadly divided
into :
a) General household characteristics – number of residents, vehicles owned, income,
dwelling type.
b) Characteristics about family members – occupation, sex, age.
c) Individual travel information – trip origin and destination, purpose, land – use, travel
time and transport mode.
Once the questionnaire is ready, the next step is to conduct the actual survey with the help of
enumerators. Enumerators has to be trained first by briefing them about the details of the
survey and how to conduct the survey. They will be given random household addresses and
the questionnaire set. They have to first get permission to be surveyed from the household.
They may select a typical working day for the survey and ask the members of the household
about the details required in the questionnaire. They may take care that each member of the
household
should answer about their own travel details, except for children below 12 years. Trip details
of
children below 5 years are normally ignored. Since the actual survey may take place any time
during the day, the respondents are required to answer the question about the travel details of
the
previous day. There are many methods of the administration of the survey and some of them
a discussed below:
1. Telephonic: The enumerator may use telephone to an appointment and then conduct
detailed
telephonic interview. This is very popular in western countries where phone penetration is
very
high.
2. Mail back: The enumerator drops the questionnaire to the respondent and asks them to fill
the details and mail them back with required information. Care should be taken to design the
questionnaire so that it is self explanatory.
3. Face-to-face: In this method, the enumerator visits the home of the respondent and asks
the questions and fills up the questionnaire by himself. This is not a very socially acceptable
method in the developed countries, as these are treated as intrusion to privacy. However, in
many
developed countries, especially with less educated people, this is the most effective method.

Commercial Vehicle Survey

A similarly styled survey of non-residential land uses could be designed to collect
information on goods movements, but transport resources are rarely allocated to such an
ambitious project. Instead, urban freight flows are usually measured indirectly from
commercial
vehicle survey. Commercial vehicle surveys are conducted to obtain information on journeys
made by all commercial vehicles based within the study area. The addresses of the vehicle
operators are obtained and they are contacted. Forms are issued to drivers with a request that
they record the particulars of all the trips they would make.
Innovative Commercial Vehicle Tracking Methods
Roadside interviews are the most suitable avenue to collect data about intercity movements.
However, it is impossible to use roadside surveys in an urban environment due to safety
issues. In addition, with emerging privacy concerns, it is becoming increasingly difficult to
conduct roadside interviews. It would be almost impossible to conduct roadside surveys in
about a decade from now. MTO is currently in the process of investigating the use of
nonintrusive GPS data to supplement, and eventually replace, data collected form roadside
surveys. The number of trucks equipped with GPS receivers, which records the location of
the vehicle every few seconds, have been increasing steadily over the past few years. In
addition to providing detailed origin-destination information, The GPS technology provides
many other
potential benefits, including:
1. Coverage of urban freight movement with detailed route's and performance indicators.
2. Link level congestion analysis – travel time, speed
3. Near real-time international border transit time monitoring.
4. Tools and reporting systems to measure economic impacts delays due to incidents.
5. Fuel consumption and pollution analysis using GPS units that include engine data
retrievers.
6. Impacts of High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes on General Purpose Lane (GPL) traffic.
These survey can be carried out in different ways as follows –
1) Direct interview survey
2) Post card distribution & collection survey
3) Pre-paid questionnaires distribution & collection survey.
Stop Line Survey : It is through that response bias can be overcome or is not likely to be
serious.
It may be possible to dispense with the interview site altogether and instead hand out the
forms at
a natural stop-line, Such as at traffic signals, thus avoiding all disruption to traffic.
Intermediate Public Transport Survey
These survey can be carried out in different ways as follows:
1) Direct interview survey
2) Post card distribution and collection survey
3) Pre paid questionnaires distribution and collection survey
In order to assess the number of bus passengers passing through an external cordon,T he
survey can either be by direct interview with the passengers or by issuing post-card

questionnaires. Direct interview is likely to result in large delays and requires a large number
of interviews.
In order to minimize the delays, the interviewer may enter the vehicle and carry out the
interviews when the vehicle is in motion. Post-card questionnaires eliminates delays, but are
likely to evoke poor response or contain and element of bias. An external cordon rail survey
can be carried out by interviewing the passengers on trains. Alternatively, pre-paid
questionnaires may be distributed to persons residing at
stations outside the survey area. These questionnaires may also be collected at the stations
inside the survey area.
Cordon-Line Survey
These provide useful information about trips from and to external zones. For large
study area, internal cordon line can be defined and surveying can be conducted. The objective
of the survey is primarily to collect the origin and destination zones and for this many
suitable methods can be adopted. It could be either recording the license plate number at all
the external cordon points or by post-card method. Screen lines divide the study area into
large natural zones, like either sides of a river ,with few crossing points between them. The
procedure for both cordon-line and screen-line survey are similar to road-side interview.
However, these counts are primarily used for calibration and validation of the models.
Post-Card Questionnaire Survey
In this survey, reply-paid questionnaires are handed over to each of the drivers or a sample of
them at the survey points and requesting them to complete the information and return by post.
The method avoids delay caused to the drivers by the direct roadside interview method but
suffers from the disadvantage that the response may not be good. For this reason its use is not
generally recommended for developing countries. It is possible to get a good amount of
information from this method.
A good amount of publicity is needed before the actual survey in order to get favourable
response. It is reported that well planned and publicized post card questionnaire surveys have
yielded returns of 50% or more. This method can be used on roadways with higher traffic
volumes because they require less interaction time with the driver. Drivers may not have to
be directed off the roadway; rather, postcards can be quickly handed out in the traffic lanes to
every vehicle as they stop at the roadside station. Like the roadside interview, adequate
advanced warning signs and traffic control must be in place for the safety of the drivers and
observers. To complement roadside interviews, this method may be used when backups occur
upstream from the interview site. In this case, postcards may be handed to the drivers and
they are then permitted to leave. This will eliminate or reduce the delay and number of angry
drivers who are stopped to take the interview. This method can be used as an alternative or in
combination with roadside interviews (RSIs).
In this method, the same information is generally collected as in RSIs, but the survey is
conducted via a postcard that is handed to the driver, completed after the trip, and mailed
back. A given number of personnel could hand out more questionnaires than conduct
roadside interviews.
The problem with this method is the lower response rate than with a roadside interview. In
addition, more of the questions may be skipped or answered incorrectly.

Generally, response rates for this method are between 15% and 30%. Furthermore, a lot of
time has to be spent reducing returned survey forms, and more money is spent for printing
them. There may be a bias in this type of survey, if non respondents (such as certain vehicle
types or income levels) have different travel characteristics and demographics than
respondents. For example, surveys may not be completed for several reasons: refusal to
accept survey, failure to read it, failure to understand it, failure to complete it, and failure to
send it back.
Registration – Number Survey
In the registration address technique vehicle registration numbers are recorded and their
origin or destination is deduced from their registered address. Alternatively a questionnaire is
sent to the registered address in order to collect information on the trip details. For
commercial vehicles the registered address often bears no relationship to the trip origin or
destination, particularly for vehicles engaged in long distance travel. Furthermore, a mail
questionnaire would be subject to a low response rate in the same way as the postcardreply
technique. An added complication is that by the time a particular driver received a
questionnaire the exact details of the trip may have been forgotten. First of all, the area to be
surveyed is defined, and the roads intersecting cordon lines are identified. At each survey
point, one or two observers are stationed to record the data in each direction of travel. One
can call out the registration number of the vehicle and the other can record. Time should be
recorded at regular intervals. If actual time at entry and exit are noted, an estimate of the
journey speed of the vehicle can also be had. The type of vehicle and as well as the full
registration number are noted. The analysis consists of tallying the numbers of vehicles at
points of entry and exit.
License Plate Follow-Up Survey Technique
This technique uses one of methods described above in order to record license plates at a
particular roadside station. A list of license plates is then supplied to the Department ofMotor
Vehicle (DMV) to obtain contact information for the vehicle owner. A survey is sent to the
vehicle owner, who is then asked to respond to a survey of questions regarding the specific
trip on which their license plate was recorded. In order to obtain contact information of
vehicle owners from the DMV, the full license plate must be recorded. Depending upon the
recording method and the requirements of each DMV, the license plates may or may not have
to be transcribed into a specific format. Once the contact information is obtained from the
motor vehicles department, a survey of the vehicle owners can be conducted. It is critical that
the date, time stamp, location, direction of travel, and other relevant information (such as how
their vehicle was recorded and contact information obtained) be included in the information
provided to the vehicle owner. This survey is usually conducted via a telephone interview or
postcard mail-out with response via mail-in, telephone, and/or internet. License plate follow-
up surveys have resulted in both successful and unsuccessful OD studies. They are beneficial
in that they are unobtrusive like the license plate matching technique, but detailed
information (trip purpose, true origin and destination, etc.) can still be obtained from the
actual driver of the vehicle using that specific road. Below figure illustrates the types of trips
that can be obtained from the license plate follow-up survey technique. Like the license plate
matching technique, the lighter-shaded arrows represent the trips from one entry node to all
other exit nodes (E-E trips).

Tag – on – Vehicle Survey

In this method, drivers are stopped at roadside stations where a colour-coded identifier is
placed on the bumper, front window, or radio antenna of passing vehicles. Each roadside
station has one unique colour assigned to it. Data collectors at each station then record the
passing vehicles' tag color (if it has one) to determine the percentage of vehicles coming from
another station. Drivers are instructed to remove the identifier at their next destination. With
this method, a time stamp will not likely be obtained. The tag-on-vehicle method is a
combination of the VIS and matching techniques. Because the vehicles have to be stopped on
the roadway in order for a tag to be placed on their vehicle, it is considered a VIS. However,
the tags are monitored as they pass observers through subsequent stations on their trip, so it is
also a type of matching technique. The advantages of the tag-on-vehicle method are that it is
quicker to conduct than an RSI and easier to match between stations than license plates.
However, time stamps may not be collected, unless the vehicle is stopped again at the second
station to obtain that information. On the downside, some motorists may not like the idea of
physically attaching a tag to their vehicle, and may disapprove of its placement or remove it
before their destination. Still other motorists may leave it attached even after they arrive at
their destination, which may cause a significant number of false matches if the vehicle is
spotted later in the study. In addition, litter could become a problem if tags are not secured or
drivers do not dispose of them properly.
2.4 OUTCOME
After studying this course, students will be able to:
planning.
2. Supervise the process of data collection about travel behavior and analyze the data for use
in transport planning
2.5 REFERENCE
 Dicky, J.W., ‘Metropolitan Transportation Planning’, Tata McGraw Hill.
Papacostas,‘Fundamentals of Transportation Planning’, Tata McGraw Hill

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ATME College of Engineering

13th K M Stone, Bannur Road, Mysore – 570028

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT NAME: URBAN TRANSPORTATION AND PLANNING

DEPARTMENT VISION AND MISSION

Mission of the Department

Program outcomes (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

PSO 1 – To apply science, mathematics and mechanics to solve problems in engineering

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

PEO 1- Engaged in professional practices, such as construction, environmental, geotechnical,

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 1

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 2

1.3 Urban class groups

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 3

1.4 Transportation problems and identification

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 4

f. High infrastructure maintenance costs: Cities with an aging of their transport

g. Environmental impacts and energy consumption: Pollution, including noise, generated

2. Automobile Dependency: Automobile use is obviously related to a variety

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 5

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 6

1.5 Impacts of transportation

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 7

1.6 Urban transport system planning process

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 8

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 9

1.7 Modelling techniques in planning

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 10

1.8 Urban mass transportation systems:

d. Automobile competition: In view of cheap and everywhere road transport systems,

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 11

h. Self-driving vehicles: Development in information technologies let anticipate in the

1.8.2 Travel demand

1.9 Types of transit systems:

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 12

1.9.2 Private transit system

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 13

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 14

1.9.3 Para-transit transport

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 15

1.10 Mass Rapid Transit Systems

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 16

1.11 Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS):

Major elements of bus rapid transit system

Intelligent transportation System (ITS): A wide variety of ITS technologies can be

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 17

Reduced congestion: Congestion has long been recognized as an environmental problem.

Increased safety: By creating segregated bicycle lanes and redesigning intersections,

Quality of Life: Providing mobility alternatives and improving transit supportive

1.12 Metro rails

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 18

Advantages of Metro Rail

Disadvantages of metro rail

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 19

1.13 Recommended questions

1.15 Further Reading