POSIVA 2003 04 - Working Report - Web PDF

Working Report 2003-04
Host rock classification

Phase 2:
Influence of host rock properties
Annika Hagros
Kari Aikas
Tim McEvven
Pekka Anttila
February 2003
POSIVA OY
.:J FIN-27160 OLKILUOTO, FINLAND
Tel. +358-2-8372 31
Fax +358-2-8372 3709

Phase 2:
Annika Hagros
Kari Aikas
Tim McEvven
Pekka Anttila
February 2003

Phase 2:
Annika Hagros, Kari Aikas
Saanio & Riekkola Consulting Engineers
Tim McEvven
SAM Ltd
Pekka Anttila
Fortum Engineering Ltd
February 2003
Base maps: ©National Land Survey, permiss i on 41 /MYY/03
Working Reports contain information on work in progress

or pend ing completion .
The conclusions and v iewpoints presented in the report

are those of author(s) and do not necessarily
co inc ide with those of Posiva .
INSINOORITOIMISTO
SAANIO & RIEKKOLA OY SAATE 29.11.2002
SAATE TYORAPORTIN TARKASTAMISESTA JA HYVAKSYMISESTA
TILAAJA Posiva Oy
27160 OLKILUOTO
TILAUS 9577/02/AJH, 9649/02/AJH, 9734/02/A~ j

Jo/t.t.z. Z~3 ~d~~
YHTEYSHENKILOT A1mo Hautojarvi Posiva Oy
Kari Aikas Saanio & Riekkola Oy
TYORAPORTTI HOST ROCK CLASSIFICATION. PHASE 2: INFLUENCE

OF HOST ROCK PROPERTIES
Working report 2002-:XX
LAATIJAT Annika Hagros Saanio & Riekkola Consulting Engineers

Kari Aikas Saanio & Riekkola Consulting Engineers
TimMcEwen SAMLtd
Pekka Anttila F ortum Engineering Ltd
LAATUOIDENPUOLESTA ~~
Annika Hagros
TARKASTAJA
~~ie t..:::o;.: l:.-.....a --e::--<G--c--e-~
toimitusjohtaja
HYVAKSYJA
Reijo
toimi tusj ohtaj a
HOST ROCK CLASSIFICATION. PHASE 2: INFLUENCE OF HOST ROCK
PROPERTIES
ABSTRACT
This report represents Phase 2 of a project entitled Host Rock Classification, the
purpose of which is to develop a classification system that can be used to identify
potentially suitable volumes of rock for the repository at Olkiluoto. The report discusses
how the properties of the host rock can be expected to influence the long-term safety of
the disposal system, the layout and location of the repository and the constructability of
the rock mass. The examination of the host rock properties is specific to Olkiluoto and
has been carried out from the standpoint of geology, thermal properties, rock mechan-
ics, hydrogeology, chemistry and transport properties. The main objective of the work
has been to develop a basis for determining the most significant properties of the host
rock that affect the behaviour and response of the repository system and, thereby, to aid
in the selection of parameters for the classification system.
The properties of the host rock influence the long-term safety of the repository by
affecting the performance of the engineered barriers and the transport of radionuclides
in the near- and far-fields. The effect of the host rock on the performance of the
bentonite buffer and the canister is mainly related to the mechanical stability of the
deposition hole, the groundwater flux through the near-field, the chemistry of the
groundwater and the temperature in the near-field. The transport of radionuclides is
influenced by the properties of the host rock, via the extent of retardation that it offers,
and by the rate of groundwater flow and the groundwater chemistry.
The layout and location of the repository will be determined by factors at several
different scales, such as the location of significant fracture zones and the properties of
individual fractures intersecting the deposition holes. The most significant influences at
all relevant scales are discussed. The constructability of the rock mass is included by
considering the effect of rock properties on the excavation of the repository, on its
mechanical stability and rock support measures required, on the ingress of groundwater,
on the sealing measures required and on other technical aspects.
At the repository scale, the most important host rock properties are the location of
transmissive fracture zones, the strength/stress ratio, the orientations of the fractures, the
foliation and the maximum horizontal stress and the salinity of the groundwater. At the
tunnel scale, the most important parameters are the hydraulic conductivity of the rock
mass, the location of minor fracture zones, the fracture frequency and the frictional
properties of fractures. The most significant parameters at the canister scale are the
hydraulic conductivity, the fracture frequency, the fracture aperture and the fracture
trace length. ·
Keywords: nuclear waste, disposal, Olkiluoto, rock mass, classification, repository,

long-term safety, constructability
--------------------~~ ---
SIJOITUSKALLION LUOKITTELU. VAIHE 2: SIJOITUSKALLION OMINAI-

SUUKSIEN VAIKUTUS
TIIVISTELMA
Sijoituskallion luokittelu -projektin tarkoituksena on kehittaa luokitusjarjestelma, jonka

avulla voidaan arvioida kalliotilavuuksien soveltuvuutta loppusijoitustilojen rakentami-
seen Olkiluodossa. Tama raportti edustaa projektin vaihetta 2. Raportissa tarkastellaan
sijoituskallion ominaisuuksien vaikutusta loppusijoituksen pitkaaikaisturvallisuuteen,
loppusijoitustilojen layoutiin ja sijaintiin seka kallion rakennettavuuteen. Sijoituskallion
ominaisuuksia on tarkasteltu Olkiluodon kannalta seka eri alojen nakokulmasta (geolo-
gia, lampotekniset ominaisuudet, kalliomekaniikka, hydrogeologia, kemia ja kulkeutu-
misominaisuudet). Tyon ensisijaisena tavoitteena on ollut toimia pohjana kaikkein tar-
keimpien kallio-ominaisuuksien maarittamiselle ja siten edesauttaa luokitusparametrien
valintaa.
Loppusijoitustilojen pitkaaikaisturvallisuuden kannalta sijoituskallion ominaisuuksien

tarkeimmat vaikutukset liittyvat teknisten paastoesteiden toimintaan seka radionuklidien
kulkeutumiseen tilojen lahi- ja kaukoalueella. Sijoituskallion vaikutus bentoniitin ja
kapselin toimintakykyyn koskee paaasiassa sijoitusreian mekaanista pysyvyytta, pohja-
veden virtaamaa tilojen lahiymparistossa, pohjavesikemiaa seka lahialueen lampotilaa.
Radionuklidien kulkeutumiseen sijoituskallio vaikuttaa pohjaveden virtauksen ja ke-
mian seka kallion pidatysominaisuuksien kautta.
Loppusijoitustilojen layout ja sijainti maaraytyy useissa eri mittakaavoissa vaikuttavien

tekijoiden perusteella. Tallaisia ovat esimerkiksi merkittavien rikkonaisuusvyohykkei-
den sijainti seka sijoitusreikia leikkaavien yksittaisten rakojen ominaisuudet. Raportissa
on tarkasteltu eri mittakaavojen tarkeimpia vaikutuksia. Kallion rakennettavuuteen liit-
tyen on tarkasteltu kallio-ominaisuuksien vaikutusta tilojen louhintaan, niiden mekaani-
seen pysyvyyteen, tarvittaviin lujitus- ja tiivistystoimenpiteisiin, vuotovesiin seka mui-
hin rakentamiseen liittyviin seikkoihin.
Loppusijoitustilojen mittakaavassa kaikkein tarkeimpia kallion ominaisuuksia ovat

vettajohtavien rako- ja rikkonaisuusvyohykkeiden sijainti, kallion lujuus-jannityssuhde,
suurimman vaakajannityksen, liuskeisuuden ja rakoilun suunta seka pohjaveden suola-
pitoisuus. Tunnelimittakaavassa tarkeimpia parametreja ovat kallion vedenjohtavuus,
pienempien rako- ja rikkonaisuusvyohykkeiden sijainti, rakotiheys seka rakojen kitka-
ominaisuudet. Kaikkein tarkeimpina parametreina voidaan kapselimittakaavassa pitaa
vedenjohtavuutta, rakotiheytta, rakojen avaumaa seka rakopituutta.
Avainsanat: ydinjate, loppusijoitus, Olkiluoto, kallio, luokitus, loppusijoitustilat, pitka-

aikaisturvallisuus, rakennettavuus
PREFACE
This work has been performed under contract for Posiva Oy and has been supervised by
Dr. Aimo Hautojarvi on behalf ofPosiva.
The authors wish to thank Prof. John A. Hudson of Imperial College and Rock
Engineering Consultants, Johan Andersson of JA Streamflow AB, Go ran Backblom of
Conrox, Henry Ahokas of Fintact Oy, Margit Snellman and Aimo Hautojarvi of Posiva
Oy and Antti Ohberg and Erik Johansson of Saanio & Riekkola Consulting Engineers
for fruitful suggestions and comments to the text. We would also like to thank Petteri
Pitkanen of VTT Building and Transport and Ursula Sievanen and Paula Keto of Saanio
& Riekkola Consulting Engineers for supplying useful information, and Hanna Malm-
lund and Ari Gardemeister of Saanio & Riekkola Consulting Engineers for providing
figures for the report.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
TIIVISTELMA
PREFACE
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... 1
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 3
1.1 Background ........................................................................................ 3
1.2 Goal .................................... ............................................................... 4
1.3 Definitions .......................................................................................... 6
2 SCOPE OF WORK ..................................................................................... 7

2.1 General .............................................................................................. 7
2.2 Disposal concept ................................................................................ 8
2.3 Olkiluoto site ...................................................................................... 9
3 REQUIREMENTS OF THE HOST ROCK ................................................ 11

3.1 Regulations from the Finnish authorities .......................................... 11
3.2 International recommendations and national guidelines .................. 12
4 GEOLOGY ............................................................................................... 15
4.1 Topography and soil. ........................................................................ 15
4.2 Lithology ........................................................................................... 17
4.3 Structures ......................................................................................... 24
4.3.1 Contacts and dykes ....................................................................... 24
4.3.2 Plastic structures ........................................................................... 25
4.3.3 Regional fracture zones ................................................................ 27
4.3.4 Local fracture zones ...................................................................... 30
4.3.5 Individual fractures ........................................................................ 34
5 THERMAL PROPERTIES ........................................................................ 43

5.1 Thermal properties of the rock ......................................................... 43
5.2 Temperature .................................................................................... 46
6 ROCK MECHANICS ................................................................................. 51

6.1 Mechanical properties of rock material ............................................. 51
6.2 Mechanical properties of fractures ................................................... 56
6.3 In situ stresses ................................................................................. 59
7 HYDROGEOLOGY ................................................................................... 67
7.1 Hydraulic properties of fractured rock mass ..................................... 67
7.2 Hydraulic properties of fracture zones .............................................. 72
7.3 Groundwater properties ................................................................... 77
7.4 Boundary conditions ......................................................................... 78
2
8 CHEMISTRY ............................................................................................ 83
8.1 Groundwater chemistry .................................................................... 83
8.2 Chemical properties of fracture minerals .......................................... 93
8.3 Chemical properties of rock minerals ............................................... 96
9 TRANSPORT PROPERTIES ................................................................. 101

9.1 Groundwater flow ........................................................................... 101
9.2 Fracture aperture and geometry .................................................... 107
9.3 Properties of the rock mass along the flow paths ........................... 110
9.4 Groundwater chemistry .................................................................. 114
10 FACTORS INFLUENCING ROCK PROPERTIES .................................. 117

10.1 Repository construction and foreign materials ............................... 117
10.2 Disposal and engineered barriers .................................................. 120
10.2.1 Disposal of spent nuclear fuel ..................................................... 120
10.2.2 Engineered barriers ..................................................................... 121
10.3 Glaciation and other long-term changes ........................................ 124
11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................................... 131

11.1 Long-term safety ............................................................................ 131
11.2 Layout and location of the repository ............................................. 133
11.3 Constructability of the rock mass ................................................... 134
11.4 Implications for the rock mass classification .................................. 136
REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 141
APPENDIX 1: The influence of host rock properties on long-term safety,

repository layout and constructability .............................................................. 155
3
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Olkiluoto in Eurajoki has been selected as the site for the final disposal of spent nuclear
fuel from the Finnish nuclear power plants. Posiva Oy, which is jointly owned by two
nuclear power companies Teollisuuden Voima Oy (TVO) and Fortum Power and Heat
Oy, manages the final disposal task and the investigation and development work.
In Posiva' s programme for research, development and technical design (Posiva 2000) a
need was recognised for the development of a rock mass classification system. Its
development was also recommended by the Finnish Radiation and Nuclear Safety
Authority (STUK), in their Guide YVL 8.4 on the long-term safety of disposal of spent
nuclear fuel (STUK 2001), where it is stated that "the structures of the host rock of
importance to groundwater flow, rock movements or other factors relevant to long-term
safety, shall be defined and classified". The external review group assigned by STUK
have also recommended in their consensus report that a Finnish rock mass classification
scheme should be produced in order to determine during excavation, whether the rock
mass "quality'' is acceptable for disposal purposes. Furthermore, it has been suggested
that avoidance strategies (avoidance of adverse rock conditions or geological structures)
should be clarified (Ruokola 2000).
Posiva has stated that the identification of potentially suitable volumes of rock for the
repository is central to the progress towards planning its construction, and that a set of
criteria will be developed and applied to classify the target rock volumes, taking into
account both the safety requirements and the constructability of the rock mass. The
investigation and evaluation of the geological structure of the site for the purpose of
identifying suitable volumes of rock will be an iterative process (Posiva 2000).
In Sweden the role of the host rock properties has been discussed in the context of the
Swedish site selection programme. Andersson et al. (2000) have defined requirements
and preferences regarding the host rock and discussed the applicability of individual
host rock properties as suitability indicators that can be used in a given stage in the
siting process to assess whether the requirements and preferences are met. The report
also discusses the influence of the various host rock conditions on the functions of the
engineered and natural barriers.
In order to develop a classification system that can be used to identify potentially

suitable volumes of rock for the repository at Olkiluoto, a project entitled Host Rock
Classification has been launched. The outline of the project is presented in Figure 1-1.
This report represents Phase 2 of the project. In Phase 1 a report was published that
provided a review of the factors that need to be considered in determining the location
and layout of a repository (McEwen 2002). This report discusses how the properties of
the host rock influence the long-term safety of the disposal system, the layout of the
repository and the constructability of the rock mass. In Phase 3 of the project the
classification system will be developed.
4
PHASE 1
Review of factors that determine the location
and layout of a repository
PHASE2
PHASE3
Development of the classification system
Figure 1-1. Host Rock Classification project. The project phases and the main
objective.
1.2 Goal
The aim of this report is to examine systematically the influences of the various host
rock properties on the behaviour of the repository system, in terms of its long-term
safety, the layout and location of the repository and the constructability of the rock
mass. This work is designed to lead to the development of a rock mass classification
system for use at Olkiluoto. The main goals of the report are summarised in Table 1-1.
A starting point for this work has been the requirements on the host rock set by the
Finnish authorities, as well as the views of Posiva and other organisations on the role of
the natural barrier, a subject that has been discussed widely in several countries' site
selection programmes. Although the approach in this work is specific to Olkiluoto,
related studies carried out in other countries have also been taken into account, when
considered applicable to Olkiluoto. Sufficient flexibility must be incorporated into the
development of any classification system to allow for the uncertainties regarding the
actual subsurface conditions at Olkiluoto, which will be studied in more detail in the
commg years, particularly through the underground rock characterisation facility
ONKALO.
5
Table 1-1. The main goals of the report.
Phase 2 of the Host Rock Classification project - Main goals

• To examine the influence of host rock properties on
• long-term safety
• location and layout of the repository
• constructability of the rock mass
• To focus on Olkiluoto (the site selected for repository development)
• To consider all relevant scales:
• repository scale
• tunnel scale
• canister scale
• To form a basis for the selection of the classification parameters
The results of this report will be used in Phase 3 of the project as input to the develop-
ment of the classification system. The objective of this report is, therefore, to form a
basis for identifying the most relevant host rock properties that affect the behaviour and
response of the repository system at all relevant scales (repository scale, tunnel scale,
canister scale). It is also important in this regard to take account of any indirect
influences - in addition to the direct influences - especially when they may be of
assistance in classifying the rock mass. It has been recognised that many rock properties
are interdependent, and several coupled processes are expected to occur in the rock
mass surrounding the repository. These interactions have been discussed in the context
of the property or properties that are considered most relevant for the coupled process in
question. In addition to examining the influence of the host rock on repository behav-
iour, Chapter 10 includes an examination of the influence of external factors on the host
rock properties themselves, in order to take into account during the development of the
classification system potential future changes in the rock mass. Accordingly, Chapters
4 - 9 mainly consider the host rock properties in natural conditions, while the distur-
bances caused by the repository are discussed in more detail in Chapter 10.
It is intended that the classification system can be modified later, as required, as a result
of more detailed site-specific data becoming available during the construction of the
underground facility ONKALO and during other detailed investigations carried out in
the site confmnation stage at Olkiluoto.
The aim of developing a classification system is to try and ensure that the most suitable
volumes of rock will be used when locating the repository. This in turn will increase the
likelihood of the repository meeting the safety requirements.
6
1.3 Definitions
When the influence of the host rock on long-term safety is examined, the repository
near-field and far-field are usually discussed separately. The near-field is considered to
include the repository, the fuel canisters and the engineered barriers, as well as the rock
mass immediately adjacent to the repository. The far-field extends laterally as far as the
regional fracture zones, whereas the ground surface determines its upper boundary. It is
unnecessary to define its lower boundary precisely, however the far- field is considered
to extend at least to the maximum depth of the deep boreholes drilled at Olkiluoto
(approx. 1 km). For practical reasons, it is also not possible to define the boundary
between the near- and far-fields exactly, but the near-field rock is generally considered
to include the excavation damaged zone and the rock mass immediately adjacent to the
deposition holes.
The term EDZ refers to both the excavation damaged zone and the excavation disturbed
zone. These terms are discussed in more detail in Chapter 10 .1.
The term intact rock mass is used to refer to the fractured rock mass lying between the
fracture zones and the term rock material to rock samples with no macroscopically
visible fractures.
The term repository scale refers to the scale of the whole repository and is mainly
concerned with dimensions of up to a few kilometres. This scale is considered to
include factors that determine the location and orientation of the whole repository, and
since all the deposition tunnels are likely to have the same orientation, it also relates to
the orientation of the tunnels. The tunnel scale considers aspects that are relevant when
constructing single tunnels, the maximum dimension of which is a few hundred metres.
The canister scale refers to the scale of individual deposition holes, and relates to a
scale of some tens of metres at most (the separation of adjacent deposition holes is
likely to be approximately 10 m and the length of a deposition hole is 6.6 - 7.8 m).
7
2 SCOPE OF WORK
2.1 General
The examination of the host rock properties and their respective influences has been
carried out from the standpoint of geology, thermal properties, rock mechanics, hydro-
geology, chemistry and transport properties.
It is intended that the work should be applicable to
• the Olkiluoto site, a general description of which is given in Chapter 2.3. Chapters
4 - 9 provide a brief overview of the situation at Olkiluoto regarding the rock
properties in question;
• a repository constructed according to the KBS-3V concept, although the KBS-3H

concept is also discussed occasionally for comparison. Both of these concepts are
described briefly in Chapter 2.2.
There are also some limitations as to the examination of the host rock properties and
their influence on the behaviour of the repository. As was explained above, this work is
intended to form a basis for the development of the classification system and for the
selection of the classification parameters. When evaluating the importance of the
various influences, this ultimate objective has been borne in mind. Less attention has,
therefore, been paid to site-scale properties that are assumed to have been taken into
account in the site selection process. It has been assumed that these properties have
already been evaluated as being acceptable because Olkiluoto has been selected as the
site for the repository (Council of State 2000). The classification system should, there-
fore, concentrate on properties that have some variation within the site, in order to be
able to identify the most suitable host rock volumes, and it is, therefore, not meaningful
to incorporate site-scale properties, for example ore potential, into the classification
system (the suitability of the site can, however, be estimated by classifying smaller
volumes of the rock mass, as it will depend on whether a sufficient volume of suitable
rock is available for disposal purposes). In addition, properties with no significant
influence have been excluded from further consideration. It is apparent, however, that it
will not be possible to incorporate many of the remaining properties discussed in this
report into the classification system. This is due to the requirement for any such system
to be practical when using the observational method of design and construction (Posiva
2000). The idea of using the observational method is to recognise the probable,
favourable and unfavourable conditions in advance and to pre-establish design
alternatives based on these conditions (Backblom & Ohberg 2002). This method will be
discussed in relation to the classification system in the Phase 3 report.
It is clearly outside the scope of this work to describe in detail all features, events and
processes that could be of relevance in determining the performance of the repository.
Instead, the most important of such processes are summarised. In accordance with the
objective of this work, less emphasis has been placed on processes that are not
controlled to a significant extent by the properties of the host rock.
8
2.2 Disposal concept
In this report the spent fuel is assumed to be disposed of according to the KBS-3V
(previously termed KBS-3) disposal concept. However, the KBS-3H concept (previous-
ly termed MLH) is discussed as the alternative concept, where appropriate.
The current assumption is that the repository will be constructed at a depth of 400- 700
metres at Olkiluoto. Spent fuel assemblies will be packaged in copper-iron canisters that
can withstand the required mechanical load and are resistant to corrosion. The purpose
of the canister is to hinder the release of radionuclides into groundwater. The space
between the canister and the rock will be filled with highly compacted bentonite clay,
which keeps the canister in place, reduces the movement of groundwater around the
waste canister and, in case of canister failure, retards the transport of radionuclides into
the host rock. The tunnels and access routes into the repository will be backfilled with a
mixture of bentonite and crushed rock and will be sealed with concrete plugs to prevent
them from becoming major conductors for groundwater and also to limit inadvertent
human intrusion into the repository.
In the KBS-3V concept (Figure 2-1) the canisters are emplaced in vertical deposition
holes that are bored into the floors of the deposition tunnels. The deposition tunnels are
linked to a central tunnel. According to current plans, the first access to the repository at
Olkiluoto will be via an inclined ramp (access tunnel).
Figure 2-1. The basic repository layout according to the KBS-3 V disposal concept with
an access tunnel in addition to three shafts.
9
In the KBS-3H concept the canisters are emplaced in horizontal deposition holes that
have a diameter corresponding to that of the deposition holes in the KBS-3V concept
and have a length corresponding to that of the deposition tunnels in the KBS-3V
concept. The horizontal holes can be bored between a central tunnel and two side
tunnels, or alternatively they can be bored from the central tunnel without the use of any
side tunnels.
The fmallayout of the repository will be adapted to the bedrock conditions at Olkiluoto
and the repository can be constructed, for example, in one or more layers. Examples of
alternative repository layouts and their adaptation to the bedrock conditions at 0 lkiluoto
are presented by Aikas & Riekkola (2000).
2.3 Olkiluoto site
The island of Olkiluoto is located in Eurajoki, about 13 km north of the town of Rauma,
on the Gulf of Bothnia (Figure 2-2). The planned site of the repository is in the central
part of the island (Figure 2-3). The nuclear power plants are located in the southwestern
part of the island and the VLJ repository for low- and intermediate-level waste at Cape
Ulkopaa (the western part of the island).
The island has a very subdued topography and it forms a separate hydrological unit. The
groundwater table is close to the surface and fresh groundwater is found only at shallow
depth. Brackish groundwater is found at depths from approximately 40 m to 500 m and
saline water at depths greater than approximately 400 m (Anttila et al. 1999).
Figure 2-2. The location of Olkiluoto in Finland.

10
Location of the boreholes

KR1-KR18, KR15B-KR18B
Coordinate System :
Finnish Coordinate System, zone 1 J
(Proj ection : Gauss-Kruger) KR17B I
1
KR17A KR15B ..-
2.6.2002
Saanio & Riekkoia Oy/HM, KF .6.~~~1~
KR16B ~ b. KR1S~-'
LEGEND: KR16 KR18B
'KR14
K~ Core Drilled Borehole
---- :;'-
Figure 2-3. The island of Olkiluoto. The location of the deep boreholes in the
investigation area are also shown.
Olkiluoto is located in the western part of the Svecofennian province with the oldest
rocks in the area being supracrustal rocks that were deformed and metamorphosed
during the Svecofennian orogeny 1900 - 1800 million years ago. Migmatitic mica
gneisses, which grade into veined gneisses and are banded and foliated, are the most
abundant supracrustal rocks at Olkiluoto. Other rock types include granites and pegma-
tites, tonalites and granodiorites, tonalite gneisses, diabase and amphibolites. Most rock
types show the same three main fracture sets, one of which is parallel to the foliation
and migmatitic banding (Anttila et al. 1999).
The site is located in a block of rock surrounded by long, narrow crush zones (regional
fracture zones), which trend NW-SE and NE-SW, and within this block several smaller
(local) fracture zones are present (Anttila et al. 1999). The geometry and the properties
of the rock types and the local fracture zones are described in the Olkiluoto bedrock
model (latest revision by Saksa et al. 2002).
A detailed account of the site-specific characteristics of Olkiluoto is presented by Antti-

la et al. (1999), and a classification of the rock mass with respect to its constructability
is presented by Aikas et al. (2000).
~----------------------------------------------~·-- --
11
3 REQUIREMENTS OF THE HOST ROCK
3.1 Regulations from the Finnish authorities
The current requirements of the host rock have been formulated by the Finnish
Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority in Guide YVL 8.4 (STUK 2001) that specifies
the requirements given previously in the Government Decision (47811999) for the safety
of disposal of spent nuclear fuel. The Guide addresses the disposal of this spent fuel in a
repository in crystalline bedrock at the depth of several hundreds of metres and covers
its long-term safety. Requirements concerning the operational safety of a disposal
facility will be given in Guide YVL 8.5. This chapter gives a summary of the require-
ments of the disposal site and the host rock based on Guide YVL 8.4. The requirements
refer mostly to site-scale properties that have been evaluated as being acceptable at
Olkiluoto by selecting it as the disposal site and, therefore, provide only a loose
framework for this work.
The basic requirement for the geology of a disposal site, as stated in the Government
Decision (478/1999), is that the geological characteristics of the disposal site shall, as a
whole, be favourable for the isolation of the disposed radioactive substances from the
environment. An area having a feature that is substantially adverse to long-term safety
shall not be selected as the disposal site.
The characteristics of the host rock shall be such that it acts as an adequate natural
barrier. The natural barrier may be made up of
• the intact rock around the disposal tunnels, which limits the groundwater flow around
the waste canisters
• the host rock where low groundwater flow, reducing and otherwise favourable
hydrogeochemical conditions and the retardation of dissolved substances in the rock
limit the mobility of radionuclides
• the containment provided by the host rock against natural phenomena and human
actions.
In addition, the characteristics of the host rock shall be favourable with respect to the
long-term performance of the engineered barriers. Such conditions in the host rock as
are of importance to long-term safety shall be stable or predictable for at least several
thousand years. Thereafter reasonable estimates of the range of geological changes, due
to, for example, large-scale climatic changes, shall be provided and these changes must
be considered in the determination of the performance targets for the barriers.
Factors indicating the unsuitability of a disposal site may include
• the proximity of exploitable natural resources

• exceptionally high in situ stresses
• predictable anomalously high seismic or tectonic activity
• exceptionally adverse groundwater characteristics, such as the lack of reducing
capacity and high concentrations of substances which might substantially impair the
performance of the barriers.
12
The location of the repository shall be favourable with regard to the groundwater flow
regime at the site. The disposal depth shall be selected with due regard to long-term
safety, taking into account as a minimum
• the geological structures and litho logical properties of the host rock
• the trends in in situ stresses, temperature and groundwater flow rate with depth.
The structures of the host rock of importance in terms of groundwater flow, rock
movements or other factors relevant to long-term safety, shall be defined and classified.
The waste canisters shall be emplaced in the repository so that an adequate distance
remains to such major structures of the host rock which might constitute fast transport
pathways for the disposed radioactive substances or otherwise impair the performance
of the barriers.
3.2 International recommendations and national guidelines
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has published recommendations on

the properties of a host rock for a repository in their guide on the siting of geological
disposal facilities (IAEA 1994). Similar guidelines have also been presented jointly by
the nuclear safety authorities in the Nordic countries in the so-called "Flagbook" (Anon.
1993). The basic requirements of the host rock are largely similar to those formulated
by STUK (STUK 2001), although they are presented in more detail. The content of
these two international guides has been discussed by Anttila (1995) with reference to
the preparations for site selection in Finland by Imatran Voima Oy.
The guidelines from the IAEA (1994) related to the host rock concern the geological
setting, future natural changes, hydrogeology, geochemistry and the construction and
engineering conditions:
• The geological setting of a repository should be amenable to overall characterisation

and have geometrical, physical and chemical characteristics that combine to inhibit
the movement of radionuclides from the repository to the environment during the
time periods of concern.
• The host rock should not be liable to be affected by future geodynamic phenomena
(climatic changes, neotectonics, seismicity, volcanism, diapirism) to such an extent
that these could unacceptably impair the isolation capability of the overall disposal
system.
• The hydro geological characteristics and setting of the geological environment should
tend to restrict groundwater flow within the repository and should support safe waste
isolation for the required times.
• The physicochemical and geochemical characteristics of the geological and

hydro geological environment should tend to limit the release of radionuclides from
the disposal facility to the accessible environment.
13
• The underground characteristics of the site should permit application of an optimised

plan of underground workings and the construction of all excavations in compliance
with appropriate mining rules.
More specific recommendations are given for each host rock aspect addressed in these
guidelines. IAEA emphasises that the guidelines are not intended to be strict precondi-
tions. Instead, they state that the system of natural and engineered barriers should be
considered as a whole, when assessing the performance of the disposal system.
The recommendation regarding the geology of a disposal site published by the nuclear
safety authorities in the Nordic countries (Anon. 1993) is that the site should provide
good natural conditions for the containment and isolation of radioactive substances.
Thus the site should
a) have hydrogeological characteristics that provide low groundwater flow within the
repository, a long groundwater transit time from the repository to the biosphere and
favourable dispersal characteristics
b) have geochemical characteristics that contribute to a low corrosion rate of the

canister material, a low dissolution rate of the waste matrix as well as to a low
solubility and an effective retardation of the released radioactive substances
c) be located in a region of low tectonic and seismic activity
d) not be adjacent to any natural resources which are not readily available from other
sources
e) be easy to characterise.
The "Flagbook" also suggests that the geological medium becomes increasingly impor-
tant as a barrier, especially in the long term, after the engineered barriers have become
impaired. Even in a shorter term, the host medium needs to be such that it is able to
ensure that the engineered barriers operate as intended (Anon. 1993).
The general host rock characteristics have been discussed within the framework of sev-
eral national site selection programmes. The geological criteria used in the site selection
programme of Finland have been presented by McEwen & Aikas (2000). Similar geo-
logical criteria regarding the selection of a suitable disposal site have been formulated,
for example, in Canada (Everitt et al. 1994), Switzerland (Nagra 1994) and France
(Devillers 1997). The properties of the host rock, as well as the requirements and prefer-
ences that can be assigned to them, have been discussed in more detail by Andersson et
al. (2000) with reference to the selection of a disposal site in Sweden. The set of
requirements is broadly similar to those applied in the programme of site selection by
Posiva, although in some respects they are of a more quantitative nature (Posiva 2000).
14
15
4 GEOLOGY
4.1 Topography and soil
The topography of the Island of Olkiluoto is subdued, being in most places less than
5 m above sea level, with the greatest elevation of 18 m. The topographical map of
Olkiluoto is shown in Figure 4-1. The soil layers on the island consist mainly of sandy
till, and are known to be usually approximately 2 - 5 m thick, but in places are more
than 10 m thick. The thickness of soil in the investigation area is shown in Figure 4-2.
Sorted soil types, sand and gravel, occur only occasionally and outcropping bedrock
comprises only a few percent of the area (Hagros 1999).
The influence of topography and soil on long-term safety, repository layout and the
constructability of the rock mass is summarised in Appendix 1.
Influence on long-term safety
Even though the topography is rather subdued at Olkiluoto, it does provide the main
driving force for groundwater flow through the rock mass by determining the local
hydraulic gradient (see Chapter 7.4). Continuing uplift, due to glacial rebound, and the
effects of future changes in climate will alter the topographic profile, so that driving
heads will increase slowly with time for the next few thousand years (Lofman 1996,
1999a, 2000; discussion in McEwen 2002).
7.5
14 .7
Figure 4-1. Topographical map of Olkiluoto.

16
OLKILUOTO Finnish coordinate system,

Thickness of soil (m)
Thickness of zone 1 (Projection: Gauss-Kruger) <1
1- 2
soil HM/Saanio & Riekkola Oy 2- 3
3- 5
5- 7
7- 9
9- 11
> 11
Figure 4-2. Thickness of soil at Olkiluoto based on data from seismic surveys, bore-
holes and investigation trenches (Hagros 1999).
The soil types and their thickness influence the extent of infiltration and provide a
control on the geochemistry of the groundwater due, mainly, to the dissolution of
silicates, in particular biotite (Anttila et al. 1999).
Influence on repository layout and location
The topography has some influence on the location of the access tunnel entrance and the
shafts. Access routes to the repository will not be constructed in low-lying areas close to
the shore line, to prevent the creation of preferential discharge locations for ground-
water from the repository, and also in order to prevent the risk of flooding. Generally,
the more elevated areas are considered to be more favourable than low-lying areas for
construction purposes. The soil thickness may have some effect on the location of the
access routes, since construction could be complicated by thick(> 5 m) layers of glacial
material, which will, therefore, need to be avoided.
Influence on constructability
Apart from their influence on the construction of the access tunnel and shaft entrances,
the topography and the soil layers have no further effect on the construction of the
repository. Their influence on groundwater flow is unlikely to be of any relevance in
17
determining the ingress of groundwater into the repository, since this will be largely
determined by the hydraulic gradient created during construction, which is many times
greater than the natural gradient due to the topography.
Discussion
The subdued topography and mainly thin soil cover mean that neither property can be
regarded as being significant in determining the conditions in the host rock. They do,
however, determine some of the upper boundary conditions for the bedrock at Olkiluo-
to. The influence of surface conditions on long-term safety cannot be evaluated on the
basis of present conditions alone, since both the topography and the soil are likely to
alter due to climatic changes and, in particular, the effects of future glaciations. The
long-term changes that may have implications for host rock properties are discussed in
more detail in Chapter 10. 3.
4.2 Lithology
The bedrock at Olkiluoto consists mainly of mica gneisses and veined gneisses that
have been migmatised by granites and pegmatites. Other rock types present are tonalites
and granodiorites, tonalite gneisses, diabase and amphibolites (Anttila et al. 1999).
Information from deep boreholes demonstrates that mica gneiss (and veined gneiss)
makes up 78% of the rock mass, granite/pegmatite 15 %, tonalite (or tonalite gneiss)
6 % and amphibolite/metadiabase (or diabase) 1 %. The litho logical units and their
distributions are described in the lithological model of the site (Vaittinen et al. 2001,
Saksa et al. 2002). A surface map of the Olkiluoto litho logical model is shown in Figure
4-3.
The mineralogical composition of the mica gneiss varies, with a typical average of
about 30 % plagioclase, 30 o/o quartz, 10 % potassium feldspar, 25 % micas and 1 %
amphiboles. Pyrite, cordierite and sillimanite are relatively abundant in places. The
average composition of granite/pegmatite is typically about 20 % plagioclase, 25 %
quartz, 45 % potassium feldspar and 5 % micas, the composition of tonalite is about
40 % plagioclase, 25 % quartz, 10 % potassium feldspar and 25 % micas, whereas the
composition of amphibolite/metadiabase is estimated to be 20 % plagioclase, 5 %
quartz, 25 %micas and 40 % amphiboles (Aikas et al. 2000).
The grain size of mica gneiss varies from fine-grained (< 1 mm) to coarse-grained
(> 5 mm). There is typically more fine-grained material in the palaeosome and coarser
material in the neosome. The granite/pegmatite is mainly coarse-grained and tonalite
medium-grained (1 - 5 mm). The grain size of amphibolite/metadiabase varies from
fine-grained to medium-grained (Aikas et al. 2000).
18
Strike and dip direction

_._ oftheschistosity
Rock model2001/2
~
Micagnetss
Vemed gne1ss
Tonal1te/ Tonalte gneiss
Grarite/Pagmalite
Metad1abase
Amptibol1 te
Figure 4-3. Surface map of the Olkiluoto lithological model (bedrock model 200112,
Saksa et al. 2002).
The degree of weathering of the deep bedrock at Olkiluoto is almost exclusively classed
as either unweathered or slightly weathered (these classes refer to the Finnish engineer-
ing geological classification system, Gardemeister et al. 1976), with the most weathered
sections often being associated with dense fracturing. The surface bedrock is, however,
often weathered where thick soil layers are present. Below the depth of 40 m (where the
core drillings at Olkiluoto have usually started), no correlation between the degree of
weathering and the depth can be seen, nor is there any significant dependence between
the degree of weathering and rock type (Aikas et al. 2000).
The main rock type, mica gneiss, has a well-developed foliation which dips south-
southeast with intermediate to gentle dips (Figure 4-3) (Anttila et al. 1999). Evidence
from borehole core shows that the mica gneiss is moderately to strongly foliated,
whereas tonalites and granites are clearly less foliated, and some granitic sections not
foliated at all. The amphibolites and metadiabases display very variable degrees of fo-
liation, from none to strongly developed (Aikas et al. 2000, Gardemeister et al. 1976).
The average porosity is 0.23% in mica gneiss samples and 0.37% in pegmatite sam-
ples. These porosity values describe the amount of open pore volume for groundwater
penetration (Hakala & Heikkila 1997a).
The influence of the litho logical properties, which are considered to include the minera-
logical composition, grain size, foliation, degree of weathering and micro fractures and
19
porosity, on long-term safety, repository layout and the constructability of the rock mass
is summarised in Appendix 1.
The mineralogical composition has a major control over the thermal properties (thermal
conductivity and thermal diffusivity) of the rock mass, and the quartz and mica content
are particularly significant in this regard (Kukkonen & Lindberg 1995). The thermal
properties of the rock are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5.1. The mineralogy also
affects the strength properties of the rock mass (strength properties are discussed in
more detail in Chapter 6.1) and, via that, the mechanical stability of the underground
openings. In general, the variation in the uniaxial compressive strength between
different rock types is not large, however, the strength of granite/pegmatite is somewhat
higher than that of the other rock types (see Table 6-2) (Aikas et al. 2000).
The mineralogy of the rock mass influences its retardation properties, as mica, in
particular biotite, has the best sorption capacity of any of the rock-forming minerals at
Olkiluoto (Lindberg 2001). The extent to which this is important depends on the extent
of interaction between the radionuclides and the rock mass itself, rather than with any of
the alteration products in the fractures. Mica gneiss (the dominant rock type at Olkiluo-
to) has a higher cation exchange capacity than granitic rocks in general (Vieno & Nord-
man 1999). The mineralogy also influences the extent of matrix diffusion (Andersson et
al. 1989). Furthermore, it has an effect on the chemical properties of the near- and far-
fields, via processes such as the control on Eh conditions by the oxidation of ferrous
minerals and the buffering of pH by aluminosilicates (which is explained in more detail
in Chapter 8.2).
The grain size of the rock has some influence on the mechanical stability, via its
influence on the rock's strength properties (see Chapter 6.1), as some strength properties
are grain-size dependent (Andersson et al. 1998; see also discussion in Section 6 of
McEwen 2002). For example, the grain size often determines the maximum length of
the commonly occurring microcracks in rock material, which influences its strength.
The grain size may also influence the retardation properties of the rock mass, for
example the extent to which sorption is reversible (Hakanen & Huitti 2001).
The development of foliation in a rock mass results in the rock having anisotropic
properties, the most significant with respect to understanding and modelling the near-
field being its thermal and deformational properties. The anisotropic thermal properties
result in a non-uniform development of the temperature field. Where the foliation is
gently dipping or even horizontal, the vertical transfer of heat from the canisters will be
reduced and a larger canister spacing may be required. The mean anisotropy factor for
the thermal conductivity of the mica gneiss at Olkiluoto, however, is only 1.2 - 1.3
(Kukkonen 2000). The subject of thermal anisotropy is discussed in more detail in
Chapter 5.1. Of greater significance is likely to be the effect on the deformational
properties of the rock mass, with the structural anisotropy being reflected in an
anisotropy in the strength and elastic modulii (Wanne 2002; see also discussion in
Section 6 of McEwen 2002). Rock mechanical modelling of the rock mass will become
more difficult and, in parts of the rock mass that are well-foliated, the fracture pattern
20
may be different from that in less-foliated parts. Where sufficiently large blocks of well-
foliated rock are present, their failure characteristics will be modified from those in the
unfoliated rock mass and the in situ stress tensor may also be modified.
The potential effects of foliation in the far-field are effectively an up scaled version of
the effects considered for the near-field. The effect of a well-developed foliation in the
far-field can result in:
• Changes in the development of fracture networks, such that the transport pathways
are modified. Well-foliated rock is likely to possess fractures that are preferentially
developed parallel to the foliation, with the result that fracture connectivity may be
reduced from the level in a rock where there is a less well developed foliation. There
appears to be a general tendency for a rock with some planar fabric, whether it be
gneissic banding or well-developed foliation, to possess a less well-connected
fracture system than a rock with no such fabric.
• The presence of foliated rock can provide a suitable precursor to the subsequent
development of a brittle feature, such as a fracture zone (see discussion in Section
4.2 of McEwen 2002), although for this to be significant a large volume of the rock
would need to be well-foliated. At Olkiluoto there are several fracture zones that are
parallel to the foliation (dipping S-SE), and this also seems to be the orientation of
the major principal stress.
The degree of weathering and alteration can have a considerable influence on the
mechanical stability of the rock mass (see Chapter 6.1), as the strength of the rock mass
is dependent on the extent of the alteration (Andersson et al. 1998). Weathering is likely
to have taken place preferentially on fracture zones and fractures (Anttila et al. 1999,
McEwen 2002), where it may decrease their hydraulic conductivity (clay fillings associ-
ated with a high degree of weathering) as well as influence their sorption properties.
Any alteration may also affect other properties, such as the thermal conductivity (which
is mainly determined by the mineralogy of the rock, but may be reduced due to
weathering).
The extent of weathering and alteration of the rock mass are assumed to have an
important effect on its retardation properties (e.g. sorption). This effect has, however,
not been studied in sufficient detail, and at Olkiluoto it may also be of little significance
because the rock mass, in particular outside the fracture zones, is mostly unweathered.
Weathering and alteration will also influence the chemistry of the groundwater (see
Chapter 8).
The presence of microfractures and porosity in rock material will influence its
mechanical properties, in particular its stress-strain behaviour (Martin et al. 2001). At
Olkiluoto the porosity of the rock is probably so low (mainly< 1 %), however, that the
influence of the porosity itself on the rock strength may not be of any particular
significance, although the presence of microfractures has some significance for the
deformation properties and, in particular, the strength properties of the rock. The
influence of a low porosity on thermal properties is negligible (Kukkonen & Lindberg
1995). Neither does the porosity have any noticeable influence on the flow of
groundwater; however, it is important in determining the retardation properties of the
21
rock mass, in particular the extent of matrix diffusion, although it is only the accessible
porosity adjacent to the transport paths (normally the fractures) that is of interest here
(e.g. Vieno & Nordman 1999) and the porosity of the remainder of the rock mass distant
from the transport paths has only minimal influence on the rate of radionuclide
transport. However, as the location of the transport paths are unknown it is not possible
during a site characterisation programme to determine which parts of the rock mass,
away from the more transmissive fracture zones, might be important in determining the
transport of radionuclides.
The mineralogical composition of the rock mass influences the spacings of the deposi-
tion holes via its influence on the thermal properties. In particular, the quartz and the
mica content of the rock have a considerable effect on its thermal conductivity (Kukko-
nen & Lindberg 1995). In this context the most important factor is the rock type around
the deposition holes, i.e. whether it is mica gneiss (or tonalite) or granite/pegmatite,
whereas the mineralogical variation within any specific rock type is considered to be
less significant in this regard. The thermal properties of the rock are discussed in more
detail in Chapter 5 .1.
The orientation of the foliation and the extent of its development can have an important
effect on the stability of underground openings. At Olkiluoto, the plane of the foliation
commonly represents a plane of weakness. The most favourable orientation for tunnels
would be normal to the plane of the foliation, and since the foliation is expected to have
a moderate or gentle dip, it is more favourable to excavate the tunnels in the direction of
this dip (Bieniawski 1989). However, an optimised solution for the tunnel's orientation
needs also to take into account the orientation of crH (the maximum horizontal stress)
and the orientation of the main fracture sets, of which the most conductive fracture sets
are particularly important with reference to the grouting work. Where the foliation is
very gently dipping or even horizontal, it is not possible to locate the tunnels optimally
regarding the orientation of the foliation. The presence of foliation also affects the
thermal properties of the rock mass, so that the anisotropy in these properties needs to
be taken into account in determining canister spacings, although the anisotropy factor
for the mica gneiss is estimated to be only 1.2- 1.3. In the conditions at Olkiluoto,
where foliated mica gneiss is commonly present, it will not be possible to avoid foliated
host rock when locating all the deposition holes.
Weathered and altered zones will influence the layout and location of the repository,
should such zones be encountered at the repository depth. Deposition holes should not
be located near to extensively weathered zones.
In unweathered rocks, the mineralogical composition is usually the most important

lithological property that affects the drillability and blasting properties. It has a signifi-
cant influence on both the drilling rate and the abrasion hardness, the latter being mainly
determined by the quartz and feldspar content of the rock (Salminen & Viitala 1985).
The most favourable blasting properties are found in hard, brittle rocks rich in quartz
22
and feldspar. The presence of amphiboles and pyroxenes makes the rock tougher and
therefore harder to blast, and also mica-rich zones may require a greater charging of
shot holes (Aikas et al. 2000). The mechanical properties of the rock mass (particularly
rock strength) and, thereby, mechanical stability will also be influenced by its minera-
logical composition (see Chapter 6.1 ), as will its crushability. The content of radioactive
minerals (containing thorium or uranium), which are most likely to occur in granite and
pegmatite, may influence the requirement for ventilation due to the level of radon gas.
The grain size has some influence on the drilling rate and affects the mechanical
stability via its influence on the strength properties, particularly the strength of rock
material. It may also have some effect on the blasting properties, the crushability of the
rock and the quality of crushed aggregate. Only large changes in grain size are likely to
have a substantial effect on any of these properties.
In strongly foliated rock the drilling rate is dependent on the drilling direction. A well-
developed foliation may cause overbreak and result in excavated surfaces of poor
quality, if the direction of the tunnel is close to the strike of the foliation (Aikas et al.
2000). In such a case, fractures produced by blasting tend to grow preferentially in the
direction of foliation. A well-developed foliation also influences the design of rock
support, especially when the strike of the foliation is close to the direction of the tunnel.
This effect is due mainly to the influence of the foliation on the fracture characteristics
of the rock mass, for example the potential occurrence of slickensided fractures parallel
to the foliation.
A well-developed foliation influences the ingress of groundwater indirectly through its

control over the development of fractures, as one main fracture set is often roughly
parallel to the strike of the foliation (this influence is, however, only indirect and the
relation of foliation to the hydraulically conductive fractures has not yet been studied in
detail at Olkiluoto ). Foliation also influences the crushability of the rock, and the
roughness of the excavated surfaces in well-foliated rock is likely to make the compac-
tion of tunnel backfill material more difficult.
Extensive weathering and alteration influences the drillability as the drilling rate may
increase, but the holes may collapse and the drills jam. Strongly weathered rock may
require greater charging of shot holes in order to loosen properly, and may result in
excavated surfaces of poor quality (e.g. overbreak may occur). Extensive weathering
influences the mechanical stability of the rock mass by reducing its compressive and
shear strengths (see Chapter 6.1) and such rock may be difficult to support. Slight or
even moderate weathering, on the other hand, will have no practical impact on the
construction of a repository at Olkiluoto.
Weathering and alteration may increase the porosity and permeability of the rock mass
and, thereby, are likely to increase groundwater ingress and the requirement for grouting
and can also make grouting more difficult. However, weathering may also decrease the
permeability of fracture zones, for example via clay fillings. A weathered rock mass
may increase the level of maintenance of the subsurface drainage system, since sub-
stances dissolved from weathered material can precipitate in drainage pipes. Weathering
23
also influences the crushability and the quality of crushed aggregate- rock material that
is altered or liable to alter may not be suitable for tunnel backfill.
The porosity may have some effect on the stability of underground openings via its
influence on the strength properties (see Chapter 6.1 ), although at Olkiluoto this effect
may not be very significant, and it may also have some influence on the quality of
excavated surfaces. Only large changes in porosity are likely to be of significance here.
It will probably also have some influence on the crushability and on the quality of
crushed aggregate.
Discussion
In the conditions at Olkiluoto, the most significant safety-related influences of lithology

are associated with the thermal, mechanical and retardation properties of the rock.
Thermal properties are mainly determined by the rock's mineralogical composition, and
to some extent also by the foliation and the degree of weathering, and the rock type
(mica gneiss or granite) is the most important variable in this regard. Foliation intro-
duces an anisotropy into the thermal properties of the rock. If the dip of the foliation is
small, the vertical transfer of heat from the canisters is reduced and a larger canister
spacing may be required, although only when the anisotropy in the thermal properties is
significant (see Chapter 5.1 for further discussion). Mechanical properties, particularly
rock strength, are influenced by all lithological parameters considered in this context, of
which the most important property is likely to be the mineralogy. Foliation causes an
anisotropy in the mechanical properties and the strength of the different rock types
varies slightly. Mechanical properties influence the integrity of the canisters and the
isolating capacity of bentonite (discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.1 ). The retardation
of radionuclides (e.g. by matrix diffusion and sorption) is influenced by mineralogy,
weathering, porosity and possibly also by grain size.
Repository layout and location may be influenced by lithology, mainly via the effect of
mineralogy on thermal properties, which will determine the canister spacing. Lithologi-
cal changes are not likely to cause problems for the location of the repository (with the
possible exception of diabase dykes discussed in Chapter 4.3 .1 ), but strongly weathered
zones will need to be avoided if they are encountered at repository depths. The majority
of the rock mass at Olkiluoto contains a foliation, so it will not be possible to avoid it
when locating the repository. It will have to be taken into account when determining the
orientation of the deposition tunnels, although the orientation of crH may be more
significant in this respect.
Litho logical properties have a direct influence on the constructability of the rock mass.
Drillability and blasting properties are determined by the mineralogical composition,
grain size, foliation and degree of weathering. The crushability and the quality of
crushed aggregate are probably influenced by all properties examined here, of which
mineralogy, foliation and the degree of weathering are the most significant. The
mechanical properties of the rock will have an influence on the mechanical stability and
the support requirements in the repository, although these will also be affected by the in
situ stresses and the extent and type of fracturing. The ingress of groundwater and the
groutability of the rock mass are not directly influenced by the lithological properties,
24
except for a possible increase in inflow and difficulties in grouting work caused by
weathering. The variation in the rock engineering properties between different rock
types is not very significant at Olkiluoto (Aikas et al. 2000) and the influence of folia-
tion on the constructability is significant only if the tunnels are excavated sub-parallel to
the plane of the foliation.
4.3 Structures
4.3.1 Contacts and dykes
Information from boreholes shows that a relatively small-scale variation in lithology is

typical for the migmatised bedrock at Olkiluoto, and that lithological contacts are fre-
quent in core samples (Figure 4-4). In the migmatitic mica gneiss the contacts between
palaeosome (mica gneiss) and neosome (granitic veins) are sharp, whereas the contacts
between the mica gneiss and tonalite are often diffuse (Paulamaki 1989).
At Olkiluoto, pegmatite dykes are very common, running parallel to or cross-cutting the
foliation of mica gneiss. A few diabase dykes occur as narrow, planar bodies in the
lithological model.
Evidence from core material does not suggest a correlation between lithological
contacts and fracture zones and the majority of the contacts do not show degrees of
fracturing or weathering greater than those found in the more homogeneous parts of the
intact rock mass (Aikas et al. 2000). Nevertheless, some contacts or dykes may form
potential zones of weakness in the rock mass, as different rock types may have different
deformation characteristics. Diabase dykes, for example, are known to be associated
with increased levels of fracturing (Anttila et al. 1999).
The influence of contacts and dykes on long-term safety, repository layout and the
I
,.~
•
•. ,.:.~.~~.......
.
,. • ~t·r~~ ~~·?,.--,~~f'~ ...
'A q.-,.
:~,..
. . ._.",."?'t:
~
.
' -
Figure 4-4. Migmatitic mica gneiss/veined gneiss as core drilled rock samples (Rautio
1996).
25
Contacts between different rock types or dykes may influence long-term safety, e.g. by
forming transport routes for radionuclides, if they are associated with increased levels of
fracturing. The influence of fracturing on the near- and far-fields is discussed in Chapter
4.3.5.
Lithological contacts probably have no influence on the layout of the repository, but
diabase dykes, when associated with significant fracturing, may need to be avoided in
locating deposition tunnels or holes. The presence of strongly veined gneisses may also
need to be taken into account from the point of view of foliation (discussed in Chapter
4.2).
If contacts or dykes are associated with fracturing, they will have some influence on the
excavation process (drillability, blasting properties). Contacts zones or dykes that form
mechanical discontinuities may need support, and also grouting to prevent the ingress of
groundwater, where conductive fractures are present.
Discussion
The significance of lithological contacts is closely related to the possible presence of

increased fracturing. Studies at Olkiluoto do not, however, suggest that there is a clear
correlation between these two factors. The presence of contacts or dykes will probably
not need to be taken into account, except in the case of diabase dykes which may affect
the location of deposition tunnels or holes, as diabase dykes are likely to be associated
with increased levels of fracturing.
4.3.2 Plastic structures
All the rocks at Olkiluoto (apart from the diabase) have been subjected to several phases
of deformation. On the basis of refolding and cross-cutting relationships, five successive
plastic deformational phases have been defined (Paulamaki & Koistinen 1991). The
northwestern part of the site is weakly deformed, while the southeastern part is charac-
terised by intense deformation and migmatization. In the first deformation phase (D1)
small, intrafolial folds were formed. The next deformation phase can be sub-divided
into four deformation episodes, which included the formation of small asymmetrical
folds in phase D 2A and isoclinal folding of neosome veins in phase D2c. In deformation
phase D 3 the folding of migmatite produced NE-trending tight or chevron folds. The
small, local angular folds of deformation phase D 4 have N-S trending vertical axial
planes. At the site scale this phase of folding causes variations in the strike of the
lithological units. The latest identified plastic structures are folds associated with defor-
mation phase D 5. These are mainly just small flexures, with fold axes dipping southeast
26
(Anttila et al. 1999). Foliation, which 1s associated with some of the deformation
phases, is discussed in Chapter 4.2.
The shear zones at Olkiluoto, including cataclasites, were formed in conditions close to
the brittle-ductile transition and they are interpreted as representing brittle deformation
structures (Vaittinen et al. 2001). Where they exhibit a sufficiently high level of
fracturing, these zones are considered in a similar manner to fracture zones in this report
(see Chapters 4.3.3 and 4.3.4 below).
The only plastic structural property considered in this chapter is folding. The influence
of folding on long-term safety, repository layout and the constructability of the rock
mass is summarised in Appendix 1.
Folding of the rock mass makes it more difficult to understand the geology and also to
predict what rock types and structures are likely to be encountered in underground
construction. Folding can also be associated with more intense foliation, though this is
dependent on the type of folding and its tightness. Folding can result in the juxtaposition
and repetition of different rock types in the near-field and can, therefore, also result in
changes in the distributions of fractures. Since folding influences the orientation (dip
and strike) of foliation it may also influence the thermal properties of the rock mass in
the immediate vicinity of the canisters (see discussion on foliation in Chapter 4.2), as
well as the orientation of fractures and fracture zones in the far-field.
The effect of folding on the repository layout is related to its effect on the orientation
(dip and strike) of the foliation. Thereby it could affect the orientation of the deposition
tunnels (although only large-scale folding is relevant here) or, via thermal anisotropy,
the canister spacings (see discussion on foliation in Chapter 4.2). Although a multi-
phase folding makes it more difficult to predict the rock types and structures that will be
encountered underground, folded rock mass cannot be avoided when locating the
repository, because it is ubiquitous in the rock mass at Olkiluoto.
The effects of folding can be seen in changes in the quality of excavated surfaces and
the requirements for support and grouting, via its influence on the orientation of folia-
tion and, thereby, also on the orientation and distribution of fractures.
Discussion
The importance of folding is closely linked to its effect on the orientation of the
foliation (foliation was discussed in Chapter 4.2), which needs to be taken into account,
for example, when determining the orientation of the tunnels. In addition to foliation,
folding may influence the orientation of fractures (see Chapter 4.3.5) and fracture zones
(Chapter 4.3.4). Folding itself does not have any significant influence on either long-
27
term safety or the constructability of the rock mass, and is, therefore, not a significant
factor from the point of view of classification.
4.3.3 Regional fracture zones
Fracture zones are divided in this report into regional and local fracture zones. Regional
fracture zones are considered to include the fracture zones of categories I and II defined
by Kuivamaki (2001). Local fracture zones include the fracture zones of smaller size
(category Ill or IV). They are considered to correspond to the local fracture zones
defined in the structural model of the Olkiluoto site and are discussed in Chapter 4.3.4.
Regional fracture zones in the Olkiluoto area have been studied recently by Kuivamaki
(2001). The concept of regional fracture zones and their position in the hierarchy of
fracture zones is discussed by Anttila et al. (1999), McEwen & Aikas (2000) and
McEwen (2002). All regional fracture zones near the Olkiluoto site (within the distance
of 15 km) belong to the category II by Kuivamaki (2001). The nearest category I
fracture zone has been observed at a minimum horizontal distance of some 15 km to the
northeast of the island at the contact of the rapakivi massif and the Satakunta Sandstone
(category I fracture zones can be seen in Figure 6-3 in Chapter 6.3).
The Olkiluoto site is part of a regional bedrock block 11 x 3.5 km in size and oriented
WNW-ESE. The block is surrounded by regional fracture zones in the north, south and
east. The western boundary of the regional block is supposed to be located approx. 6 km
west of the Olkiluoto site. The length of such regional fracture zones may be tens of
kilometres (Anttila et al. 1999, Kuivamaki 2001) and they are at least several hundred
metres to several kilometres away from the proposed repository area (Figure 4-5). They
are considered to represent the theoretical outermost boundaries to the repository area,
although in practice the location of the repository is limited by local fracture zones (see
4.3 .4) or the present shore line of Olkiluoto.
The properties of regional fracture zones considered in this chapter are their location,
orientation and length. The influence of regional fracture zones on long-term safety,
repository layout and the constructability of the rock mass is summarised in Appendix
1.
Regional fracture zones define the far-field boundaries of the repository area. The
locations of groundwater discharge are also determined to a significant extent by the
location and hydraulic properties of the regional fracture zones (see Lofman 1996,
1999a, 2000). The orientation of these fracture zones may influence the orientation of
groundwater flow and these structures also tend to determine the boundaries of the
groundwater flow model. Regional fracture zones also have an effect on the in situ
stress distribution and they are important in deciding on the boundaries and boundary
conditions for mechanical models (see Hakami et al. 2002).
28
Rock typoo (Wor1dng report 2001..28)
Mlca enelss
Oranb , porfWrttic lf'l."lte, pe.,nattte
Figure 4-5. Regional fracture zones ("category 11" fracture zones) in the Olkiluoto
area. The nearest observed "category I " fracture zone lies at a minimum horizontal
distance of some 15 km from Olkiluoto (Kuivamaki 2001).
Regional fracture zones may affect the stability of the near-field, due to the fact that a
seismic event might occur associated with a regional fracture zone, resulting in the
displacement of a fracture intersecting a deposition hole, which could result in canister
failure. The location and length of the regional fracture zone determine the possible
damage to the canister, although the seismic event may be as much as 10 km away. The
largest seismic event possible on any fracture zone is dependent on its length, so that
only the largest regional fracture zones may be of relevance here. The orientation of the
fracture zone may also have some influence. The most likely cause of large seismic
events is post-glacial faulting, so that any such events are unlikely in the next few tens
of thousands of years. Post-glacial faulting and the associated seismicity are more likely
to have an influence on the far-field, since the probability of a canister failure is minor
even in the case of a relatively large event. The largest seismic events are likely to be
associated with the largest fracture zones ("category I" fracture zones) which are located
at a minimum horizontal distance of 15 km from the Olkiluoto site, according to
Kuivamaki (2001). Seismic events associated with these zones should have no effect on
the near-field, since events that occur at distances greater than 10 or 15 km from the
repository are very unlikely to produce damage to the canisters by means of block
movements. A displacement of> 10 cm in the deposition hole is assumed to be required
to damage the canister, and according to numerical simulations for Olkiluoto, such
displacements have been associated with earthquakes with magnitudes of approximately
5.5 - 7 (La Pointe & Hermanson 2002)
29
Regional fracture zones determine the theoretical outer bounds of the potential reposi-
tory area, but have little control on the details of repository location or layout, which
will be mainly determined by local fracture zones (see Chapter 4.3.4) and also the
present shore line of Olkiluoto. Regional fracture zones have been taken into account
when determining the boundaries of the area selected for the site investigations (see
discussion in McEwen & Aikas 2000, where the impact of such structures in the site
selection and site characterisation programmes is discussed, and McEwen 2002, where
the concept of the respect distance is considered). The probability of a canister failure
(see above) can probably not be influenced much by changing the distance of the reposi-
tory to regional fracture zones; the predicted displacement in a fracture intersecting a
deposition hole is linearly dependent on the distance between the seismic event and the
fracture, and this distance can be varied only by a fraction of the total distance (by some
hundreds of metres at most, the total distance being probably some kilometres) (La
Pointe et al. 2000).
Regional fracture zones provide the regional setting for the groundwater flow regime
and, as such, provide some control over groundwater flow rates through the repository,
although local fracture zones (see Chapter 4.3.4) are more important in this regard. The
regional fracture zones do not have any noticeable influence on the constructability of
the rock mass, because the repository will be located at a considerable distance from
them for reasons of long-term safety. They may, however, require some seismic
monitoring.
Discussion
Regional fracture zones, which may be several tens of kilometres long, determine the
outer bounds of the regional repository block. They will not have any noticeable
influence during the construction phase, since the repository will not be located very
close to any regional fracture zone (at least several hundred metres away). In the long-
term, the presence of these structures may pose a seismic risk to the repository, but it is
unlikely that this risk can be taken into account when determining the exact location of
the repository, which is mainly controlled by the position and orientation of local
fracture zones within the investigation site, as well as the shore line at Olkiluoto. Due to
the size of the regional block, it will not be possible to locate the repository several
kilometres away from all regional fracture zones surrounding it. Within the site, the risk
of canister failure due to post-glacial faulting and the related seismic events can be
taken into account by avoiding locations for deposition holes that are intersected by
very long fractures (at least tens of metres long) (see Chapter 4.3.5).
30
4.3.4 Local fracture zones
The latest reported bedrock model (Saksa et al. 2002) recognises 77 local fracture zones
(structures) at the Olkiluoto investigation site, of which some are clearly outside the
proposed repository area. The average width of the observed fracture zones is 5 m and,
on average, one fracture zone is found per 100 m of borehole length. The average length
of all fracture zones in the model is approximately 600 m (some of them are, however,
likely to extend outside the model area). Some fracture zones have not been observed
directly, but are based on the interpretation of lineaments, seismic surveys and other
geophysical techniques. Fracture zones observed by deep boreholes are defmed on the
basis of fracture frequency, hydraulic conductivity and principal component analysis
(various sets of parameters, of which the most frequently used are resistivity (long
normal array), Young's modulus and the number of open or filled fractures) (Vaittinen
et al. 2001). Fracture zones in the central part ofOlkiluoto at a depth of 400 m, based on
the latest structural model (Saksa et al. 2002), are shown in Figure 4-6.
The properties of local fracture zones considered in this chapter are their location,
orientation, length and width. The influence of local fracture zones on long-term safety,
1. The hydraulic properties of fracture zones are discussed in Chapter 7 .2.
~ Drilledborehole
. struc11Jresof
lherockmodel
R27 15.J.20112
KF, _ & _ O y
85 Only pre liminary results ofboreholes KR13 and KR14
'
havebeen usedinthe rockmodel.
Figure 4-6. Fracture zones (structures) of the Olkiluoto investigation area at a depth of
400 m (bedrock model version 2001/2, Saksa et al. 2002).
31
Transmissive local fracture zones control the general groundwater flux and the direction
of the flow through the repository. Their hydraulic impact is dependent on the distance
of the fracture zone from the repository margin (Elert et al. 1991 ), thus on the location
of the zone. At the scale of the canister, the flow is determined more by the local
fracture network (see 4.3.5 below and Chapter 7). The distance from any such fracture
zone to a waste canister is referred as the respect distance and is important in assessing
the suitability of the site for waste disposal (see McEwen 2002, for an extensive
discussion on this subject). Poteri & Laitinen (1999) considered site-to-canister scale
flow and transport for the Olkiluoto investigation site, where the flow and transport
through the fracture network from the canister to the nearest fracture zone was
modelled. Fracture zones intersected by tunnels were judged to influence transport
resistance.
The orientation (dip and strike) of the fracture zones influences the groundwater flux
through the repository. The hydraulic impact of the presence of vertical and horizontal
fracture zones has been studied by Elert et al. (1991). The presence of horizontal frac-
ture zones above the repository with enhanced hydraulic conductivities may result in a
decrease in the groundwater flow through the repository (Carlsson et al. 1989). At
Olkiluoto, the fracture zone R20 may have such an effect. The flow of groundwater
through the repository has been modelled for current climatic conditions and for
expected future conditions, when continuing uplift will have altered the location of the
coast and the potential locations of discharge (Lofman 1999a, 2000). The orientation of
the fracture zones with respect to the orientation of the deposition tunnels is also of
relevance, as more hydraulic connections between the repository and a near-lying
fracture zone are likely to be present when the zone is parallel to the tunnels compared
with the situation that it is perpendicular to them.
Radionuclide transport in the far-field is assumed to occur much more rapidly within
fracture zones than in the rock mass between fracture zones. The transport resistance
may, therefore, be directly influenced by the distance from the repository to the fracture
zones. At the scale of the far-field, also the orientation, length and width of fracture
zones will have some effect on groundwater flow and radionuclide transport. The length
of fracture zones influences their potential hydraulic connection with other fracture
zones or with discharge areas and thereby may also influence the possible release of
nuclides to the biosphere.
Local fracture zones in the vicinity of the repository may have some effect on long-term
mechanical stability. In order for a fracture zone to pose a seismic risk to the repository,
it would probably have to be either very long or very close to the canisters. Its
orientation may also have some influence.
32
The presence of local fracture zones has a major control over the layout of the reposi-
tory. Their potential impact on repository design and respect distances is extensively
discussed by McEwen (2002) and examined by Aikas & Riekkola (2000) for the Olki-
luoto site by considering several different ways of adapting the repository to the rock
mass (this work has been updated subsequently). In the designs presented by Aikas &
Riekkola (2000) the deposition tunnels are located so as to avoid those fracture zones
that were considered to be either hydrogeologically or geotechnically significant. In the
latest update of the adaptation work, respect distances of 50 m and 25 m have been used
for hydraulically conductive fracture zones and 10 m for geotechnically significant
(> 5 m thick) fracture zones. A fracture zone may, therefore, intersect a deposition
tunnel, if its properties are deemed not to be too unfavourable, either hydro geologically
or geotechnically. It is, however, very likely that the presence of such a structure would
influence the locations of individual deposition holes.
Gently dipping major local fracture zones are likely to set limits to the repository depth,
and structures R20 and R21 are important in this regard (Vaittinen et al. 2001). Steeply
dipping fracture zones tend to affect the lateral positioning of the repository. The
volume of rock that is rendered unacceptable for locating a deposition tunnel, i.e. the
zone around the structure defined by the respect distance, may be dependent on the
length and width of the structure. It may also be necessary to define different respect
distances for structures with different orientations (see discussion in McEwen 2002),
though there has been no definite decision yet on how respect distances should be
defined and what their magnitudes should be. The length of fracture zones within the
block of rock considered for repository development may also influence the location of
deposition tunnels.
The presence (location) of fracture zones may complicate the excavation work, for
example where fractured or weathered zones are intersected by tunnels. The orientation
of fracture zones is of relevance, since it is easier to penetrate fracture zones that are
normal to or at high angles to tunnels. Accordingly, it is usually easier to excavate the
tunnels through steeply-dipping fracture zones, whereas gently-dipping fracture zones
are easier to penetrate with vertical shafts.
The length of a fracture zone does not directly influence its effect on constructability,
except where a tunnel is excavated along its length. The width of a fracture zone
influences the length of intersection with a tunnel and thereby influences the extent and
duration of possible difficulties during excavation work.
The presence of fracture zones is likely to increase the amount of support required, if
fracture zones with poor geotechnical properties are intersected by tunnels or shafts.
The length of intersection between a tunnel and a fracture zone will determine the extent
of any support - ideally a high intersection angle should be maintained so as to
minimise this length. As with excavation, the support requirements will also be made
easier if there is a high intersection angle between the fracture zone and the tunnel. The
33
length of a fracture zone does not in itself influence its mechanical properties, though it
increases the chance of a fracture zone intersecting more than one tunnel.
Groundwater ingress into a repository, as well as the requirement for and extent of any
grouting, is related to the transmissivity of the fracture zones intersected by tunnels or
shafts, the number of such intersections and the intersection lengths of the tunnels with
the fracture zones, which are determined by the location, orientation and width of
fracture zones. The width of a fracture zone influences its transmissivity (T = K·L) 1 and,
thereby, the amount of groundwater ingress, although its transmissivity is largely
determined by its hydraulic conductivity, and any correlation of transmissivity with
width may be poor (transmissivity is discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.2). The
length of the fracture zone influences the number of hydraulic connections and thereby
may increase groundwater ingress.
The presence of fracture zones with a low mechanical strength is likely to require the
use of additional monitoring for rock mass movement, and similar additional monitor-
ing could also be required where tunnels intersect fracture zones at unfavourable angles.
An increase in the width of a fracture zone also increases the likelihood of such moni-
toring.
Discussion
Fracture zones are usually clearly more transmissive than the remainder of the rock
mass, and they are also likely to be geotechnically its weakest part. In terms of long-
term safety they are, therefore, one of the most significant components of the rock mass.
At Olkiluoto the mean separation of fracture zones is 100 m (Vaittinen et al. 2001), and
hence they will strongly influence the location and layout of the repository. Deposition
tunnels will be located at sufficient distances from transmissive fracture zones, but it
may be possible to allow some fracture zones, particularly those without enhanced
hydraulic conductivities compared with the intact rock mass, to intersect such tunnels.
Respect distances to fracture zones have been extensively discussed by McEwen (2002)
and will not be examined here in more detail.
The influence of local fracture zones on long-term safety depends on how well they can
be avoided. The location of transmissive fracture zones in the vicinity of the repository
affects their hydraulic impact. Groundwater flow and radionuclide transport conditions
in the far-field are largely determined by the presence and orientation of fracture zones,
particularly those with significant transmissivity. The hydraulic properties of fracture
zones are discussed in more detail in Chapter 7 .2.
The influence of local fracture zones on constructability is determined by the number

and properties of fracture zones that have to be intersected by tunnels or shafts. The
most important structural property of these fracture zones is their orientation -
excavation is easier if they are intersected at as high an angle as possible. Their length
will only be relevant if the tunnel is excavated along a fracture zone, and their width
1
The hydraulic width of a fracture zone is not necessarily the same as its physical width. It is always
likely to be less, as only parts of the zone will be conductive.
34
mainly affects the length of the intersection, although the orientation of the fracture
zone with respect to the direction of the tunnel is also of significance in this regard.
The fracture zones at Olkiluoto are probably the most important features of the rock
mass that need to be studied in ONKALO, and also of significant importance for the
development of the rock mass classification system. At present, there is insufficient
information on the properties and geometry of the fracture zones at Olkiluoto, as most
modelled zones have been intersected by only one borehole. The experience at Aspo
suggests that it is almost impossible to predict the exact location and the extent of a
certain minor fracture zone on the basis of surface data and only one borehole
intersection (Stanfors et al. 1997). Although there are more deep boreholes (extending
to a depth of > 500 m) drilled at Olkiluoto than there were at Aspo, the predictive
capacity of the current structure model at Olkiluoto is not likely to be very great, at least
not when considering minor fracture zones.
4.3.5 Individual fractures
In outcrops the main rock types of Olkiluoto show the same three main fracture sets
(Figure 4-7). One moderately- to steeply-dipping fracture set is parallel to the foliation
and one perpendicular to it. The third set, which is less well developed, intersects these
at an oblique angle. In all of the main rock types at Olkiluoto investigated by boreholes
two or three steeply-dipping fracture sets and one gently-dipping fracture set have been
observed, the orientation of the two most prominent fracture sets being parallel to the
foliation (strike 070- 090°) and perpendicular to it (strike 160- 190°) (Aikas et al.
2000).
All observations (investigation

trenches and outcrops)
(N = 2945)
Figure 4-7. Distribution of the fracture directions at Olkiluoto, observed from surface
mapping (Paulamaki et al. 1996). Each ring in the rose diagrams represents 5 % of the
distribution, N = number of observations. All rock types are included (there are no
significant differences between different rock types).
35
Most of the rock mass outside the modelled fracture zones is only sparsely or slightly
fractured, i.e. the fracture frequency is usually less than 3 fractures/m (Aikas et al.
2000), whereas within fracture zones the fracture frequency is typically > 7 fractures/m.
This fracture frequency has been used as one of the criteria in defming fracture zones in
the Olkiluoto bedrock model (Vaittinen et al. 2001 ), however, it is not the only criterion
and not all fracture zones have fracture frequencies as high as this .. The distribution of
the fracture frequency in the intact rock mass as a function of depth and rock type is
presented in Table 4-1.
The average fracture trace length observed in outcrops and investigation trenches is
2.3 m, but fractures with large trace lengths are not well represented in surface data due
to truncation effects. According to borehole radar measurements, which provide esti-
mates of the trace lengths of the longest fractures (or fracture zones), fractures with
trace lengths of over 10 m have an average separation of 15 m in deep boreholes,
whereas the average separation of fractures or fracture zones with trace lengths of over
30 m is approximately 80 m (Aikas et al. 2000). At Olkiluoto, fracture trace length has
also been observed in the VLJ repository for low- and intermediate-level waste. The
trace length varied between 1 - 80 m (fractures < 1 m were not mapped), although 90 %
were less than 5 m long, and the most common length was 2 m (Ikavalko & Aikas
1991). The VLJ repository is located within the uppermost 100 m of the bedrock in the
western part of the island.
Table 4-1. Distribution offracture frequency in the intact rock mass at Olkiluoto as a
function of depth and rock type (N =observed borehole length) (Aikiis et al. 2000).
Depth range Sparsely Slightly Abundantly Densely N

and rock type fractured fractured fractured fractured (m)
!Fracture (< 1 (1- 3 (> 3-10 (> 10
density(%) fractures/m) fractures/m) fractures/m) fractures/m)
Depth range
0-200 m 28 54 17 0 2469
200-400 m 36 49 15 0 1346
400-600 m 33 50 16 1 992
>600m 39 44 16 1 975
Rock type
Mica gneiss 31 51 17 1 4381
Granite/ 33 52 15 0 917
pegmatite
Tonalite 51 40 9 0 444
Amphibolite/ 25 53 22 0 36
metadiabase
36
Tight, open and filled fractures are all common at Olkiluoto and typical fracture filling
minerals are pyrite, carbonates and clay minerals. The roughness of fracture surfaces is
usually described as being irregular or curved (for large-scale roughness) and rough or
semi-rough (for small-scale roughness). The extent of fracture alteration varies, the
proportion of weathered fractures being approximately 0 - 15 % in boreholes (Karanko
et al. 2000, Aikas et al. 2000). The fracture aperture can be measured only for fractures
with apertures greater than 0.3 - 1.0 mm (by borehole TV), and thus the aperture has
been measured for only 11 %of all fractures, the mean aperture of these being 2.3 mm.
Taking all fractures into account, the mean aperture would have to be significantly
lower than this. The calculated theoretical hydraulic aperture of hydraulically
conductive fractures is typically between 10 - 100 ~m (Sievanen 2002).
The properties of the fractures, such as their frequency, width and frictional properties
do not vary significantly as a function of depth, if the uppermost 40 m of the rock mass
is not taken into account (deep boreholes drilled at Olkiluoto have usually started from
this depth) (Aikas et al. 2000).
The influence of fracture properties, which include the number of fracture sets, the
fracture frequency, trace length, roughness, fracture filling, alteration, aperture and
fracture orientation, on long-term safety, repository layout and the constructability of
the rock mass is summarised in Appendix 1. The hydraulic properties of fractures are
discussed in Chapter 7 .1.
Fractures in the near-field provide the only means by which radionuclides can be trans-
ported by advection through the rock mass to a more transmissive fracture zone and,
thereby, to the biosphere2 . The rate of transport of radionuclides by diffusion through
unfractured rock is many orders of magnitude slower, although diffusive transport does
take place into the rock immediately adjacent to the fractures (a process known as
matrix diffusion, see Chapter 9). The fracture network in the near-field is, therefore, of
prime importance for assessing the long-term safety of a disposal concept and in
determining the release rates of radionuclides from the canisters to the biosphere, in the
situation where the engineered barriers have failed (Vieno & Nordman 1999).
The significance of the properties of the fractures is similar in the far-field as it is in the
near-field, although the scales are very different. The transport paths in the far-field will
sample larger sections of the fracture network and, therefore, are likely to be influenced
by larger fractures that are less likely to be present in the near-field. This is partly
because of the difference in scale and partly because deposition holes will be located, if
possible, so as not to intersect the larger fractures, in order to avoid good hydraulic
connections and potential transport routes, and to minimise the seismic risk (La Pointe
& Hermanson 2002).
2
There are, however, several different transport paths within the near-field, some of which do not require
any transport through the intact rock mass, e.g. those that consist of transport via the repository structure
itself to a transmissive fracture zone.
37
The connectivity of the fracture network and, therefore, the hydraulic connectivity of
both the near- and far-fields is dependent on the number of fracture sets, as well as
being dependent on the orientation of the fractures, their frequencies and their trace
lengths. An increase in trace length increases the number of potential flow paths. Trace
length in itself may influence the transport resistance, but this dependence is estimated
to be weak (Poteri & Laitinen 1999). In the near-field, fracture frequency is assumed to
have an influence on the release rates of radionuclides from the bentonite into the
geosphere (Vieno & Nordman 1999). The number and the trace length of fractures
intersecting a deposition hole will also influence the induced displacement on a fracture
in the case of an earthquake, with a possible consequence of canister failure. Only the
longest fractures (at least tens of metres long) are, however, likely to be associated with
any noticeable displacement (La Pointe & Hermanson 2002) and one that could result in
damage to a canister. The predicted displacement on a fracture is assumed to be linearly
dependent on fracture radius and fracture frequency (La Pointe et al. 2000).
There needs to be some limit to the fracture frequency, as too great a frequency may
influence the integrity of the canister and reduce the isolating capacity of bentonite by
affecting the stability of the rock mass. An excessive number of fractures is likely to be
associated with an increase in hydraulic conductivity, though this is not necessarily
axiomatic, but is more likely to be associated with a reduced rock mass strength and
lower modulii and, therefore, with generally poorer deformation characteristics of the
rock mass. The fracture roughness is also significant here, as the shear resistance of
fractures and their dilatational characteristics are important factors in determining how
the rock mass will respond to applied stresses. Excessive deformation of the rock mass
is undesirable, as one of the main purposes of the rock is to protect the engineered
barriers and to ensure that they behave in an acceptable and predictable manner for long
periods of time. An extensive discussion of the requirements for rock mass stability for
a KBS-3 type repository, including all the characteristics of fractures discussed in this
section, is presented by Martin et al. (200 1) and the subject of rock mass stability is also
discussed in relation to its impact on locating a repository by McEwen (2002).
Besides roughness, the frictional properties of fracture surfaces are determined by the
type and the thickness of the fracture filling and the alteration of fracture surfaces, and
these are also important for the stability of the rock mass. Fracture fillings can be of
many types, from those that are intimately cemented to the surrounding rock to those
that are friable and which may be removed easily. The removal of fracture fillings, due
to the construction process or due to processes, such as subsequent groundwater ingress
and oxidation, may influence the long-term stability of the rock mass. Such fractures
may require some stabilisation (e.g. by grouting).
The type of fracture filling influences the groundwater chemistry and also directly the
retardation properties of the rock mass; for example, fracture fillings containing iron
hydroxides, clay minerals or calcite are favourable for the sorption of many
radionuclides (see Chapter 8.3) (Vieno & Nordman 1999). Fractures that are filled with
certain clay minerals and may have undesirable geotechnical characteristics, may have
desirable retardation properties and a compromise needs to be made here between these
two competing attributes. In addition to the fracture filling itself, the rock surrounding
the fracture may have suffered alteration. This process is likely, in many cases, to have
38
weakened the rock mass, by reducing the shear strength of the fracture, thereby
allowing easier sliding, and this factor is taken account in current geotechnical rock
mass classification systems, e.g. the Q-system of Barton et al. (1974); Aikas et al.
(2000).
Alteration has some influence on the retardation properties of the rock mass. Besides
having a direct effect on sorption onto fracture surfaces, alteration also influences the
chemistry of the groundwater and thereby the sorption properties of radionuclides (see
Chapter 8).
The fracture aperture has a significant influence on the hydraulic conductivity (see
7 .1.1) and, thereby, it controls the flow rates into deposition holes. An increase in
fracture aperture, if associated with rapid groundwater flow, may result in the removal
of some of the compressed bentonite and the erosion of backfill (Carlsson et al. 1989,
Andersson et al. 2000). The apertures of fractures in the near-field will influence the
release rates of radionuclides from the bentonite into the geosphere, as the aperture is
one of the factors determining groundwater fluxes. The aperture is also included in the
equation defining the transport resistance (WL/Q) of migration paths (Vieno &
Nordman 1999). The apertures themselves do not, however, need to be measured, as the
WL/Q distributions can be obtained by measuring the transmissivity distributions (see
discussion in Chapter 9.2). The aperture influences transport properties such as ground-
water flow, transport velocity, hydraulic conductivity, filtration and ion exclusion
(Strom 1998). The aperture distribution controls the channelling of fracture network,
which has major implications for the rates of transport and the extent of retardation in
fractures.
The orientation of fractures may influence the direction of groundwater flow and solute
transport if they exhibit strong preferred orientations. The effect of any preferred
orientation on groundwater flow is not, however, necessarily strong, as there are other
factors, such as the hydraulic connectivity of the network and the magnitude and anisot-
ropy of the in situ stress tensor that may provide more control. It has been suggested by
Pusch & Hokmark (1991) that some fractures that are oblique to the orientation of the
deposition holes and tunnels may have a significant effect on block movements and
thereby on the axial conductivity of the tunnel and its associated EDZ.
Fractures are the main determinant in controlling the layout of the repository, together
with the presence of fracture zones and the orientation of crH and the foliation, in that
they determine the geomechanical and hydro geological properties of the rock mass. The
deposition tunnels need to be oriented and located optimally with all these attributes in
mind and there will have to be some trade-off between competing effects. 3-D
numerical modelling may be a useful tool in determining the optimal geometry. With
respect to the orientation of fractures, a favourable tunnel orientation would be
perpendicular to a vertical or sub-vertical main fracture set (Aikas & Riekkola 2000).
As there appears to be (at least) two vertical fracture sets at the possible disposal depth
at Olkiluoto, the tunnels should be oriented to intersect both these fractures sets at a
39
high or moderate angle. An increase in the number of fracture sets reduces the
possibilities of locating the tunnels at high or moderate angles to all fracture sets.
The frequency of fractures may influence the location of the deposition holes and could
increase the size of the repository if a sufficiently large number of locations for
deposition holes are rejected. The trace length distribution of fractures may influence
the definition of the respect distances to fracture zones. Deposition tunnels should not
be allowed to intersect many zones with abundant fillings of swelling clay as this might
risk the long-term stability of the repository. Where such zones are intersected, deposi-
tion holes should not be located at the intersections. The location of deposition holes is
also likely to be influenced by the existence of large fracture trace lengths, the level of
fracture roughness (e.g. the occurrence of slickensided fractures), zones of strong
alteration or large fracture apertures. Large apertures associated with large inflows will
need to be avoided (unless they can be grouted), because they would make the emplace-
ment of bentonite very difficult and cause erosion of bentonite in long term.
The number of fracture sets and the fracture frequency influence the drillability and
blasting properties and, thereby, the properties of the excavated surfaces, as does the
roughness of the fractures and the types of fracture fillings and any alteration of the
fractures. Densely fractured rock tends to split along existing fracture surfaces which
may extend outside the excavation profile and these circumstances would require a
denser set of perimeter shot holes in order to reach a satisfactory quality of excavated
surface. Fracture roughness has also a minor influence on blasting properties, as it
increases the shear strength of fractures. If the orientation of the main fracture sets is
close to the long axis of the tunnel, drilling becomes more difficult and a poorer quality
of excavated surfaces may result. Where the strike of fractures is perpendicular to a
tunnel, excavation is more difficult against the dip of the fractures than in the direction
of their dip (Bieniawski 1989). Large fracture apertures may be associated with large
inflows of groundwater and, thereby, cause difficulties for excavation (this is related to
hydraulic conductivity, see Chapter 7.1 ).
The requirements for support are likely to be increased by an increase in the number of
fracture sets and in the fracture frequency (see discussions by Aikas et al. 2000, and
Martin et al. 2001). The former increases the number of potentially loosened blocks, the
latter influences the block size. An increase in fracture trace length also increases both
the size and the number of potentially loosened blocks and thereby may increase the
requirement for support. This issue is particularly significant if the fractures have a low
roughness and are filled with soft material or are extensively altered, so that they have
unfavourable frictional characteristics. Such conditions can result in overbreak and
increase the requirements for temporary or permanent support. If the fracture filling
consists of swelling clay, then the requirements for support can increase considerably.
Large fracture apertures, if associated with large inflows of groundwater, may increase
the requirement for support and make the application of any such support more difficult
(see Chapter 7.1). Fracture orientation is also important here, and difficulties in the
support work and increased requirements for support are related to the same orientations
that also make the excavation more difficult (see above).
40
The requirements for grouting are influenced by many of the same rock properties that
influence the requirements for support. The number of fracture sets and the trace length
have an important influence on the connectivity of fractures and, therefore, on the
hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass. These properties have a significant influence
on the ingress of groundwater and grout take. The hydraulic conductivity and the extent
of groundwater ingress is determined mainly by fracture apertures, however, and may
also be influenced by the fracture frequency. Fracture fillings have also some influence,
as clay fillings, for example, may decrease the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass.
The groutability of the rock mass is affected by all fracture properties discussed here.
The fracture aperture influences the penetration of cement grout, and therefore fractures
with very small apertures are more difficult to grout. As to fracture frequency, the
occurrence of closely-spaced open fractures or broken (very densely fractured) rock
makes grouting more difficult. Fracture frequency also influences the spacing of grout
holes. The fracture roughness influences the penetration of grout in fractures and the
portion of the fracture plane that can be sealed, which is of particular significance for
fine fractures. The fracture filling may hinder the penetration of cement grout in
fractures, and the removal of fracture fillings can also affect the grouting result (clay
fillings may cause particular problems in this regard). The orientation of the main
fracture sets with respect to the long axis of the tunnel influences the optimal orientation
of grout holes, as fractures close to this orientation are more difficult to grout. In all,
fractures that are the easiest to grout are usually those which have moderate to large
apertures, no fillings or alteration, are widely spaced, and orientated perpendicularly to
the tunnel axis (Sievanen 2001, Backblom 2002). The properties of the grout itself and
the grouting procedures obviously have an important effect as well. The factors that
influence the grout spread and the sealing effect have been analysed in more detail by
Eriksson (2002).
The requirements for rock mechanical monitoring are likely to increase if the fracture
frequency is high, as there is a greater chance of rock mass movement and failure.
Current site investigation data do not suggest, however, that there are extensive volumes
of the rock mass which have high fracture densities, but which are not considered part
of any fracture zone (see Table 4-1) (Aikas et al. 2000). The requirements for rock
mechanical monitoring may also be influenced by fracture filling (particularly soft,
removable fillings) and alteration, as they influence the stability of fractures. Large
aperture of fractures intersecting the deposition holes may also complicate the
emplacement of bentonite via large inflows (related to hydraulic conductivity, Chapter
see 7.1 ), and such fractures would either need to be grouted or the deposition holes
should be rejected.
Discussion
The long-term safety of a repository is controlled by fractures in the host rock in two
main ways. Firstly, the fractures and their properties determine the hydrogeological and
transport conditions in both the near- and far-fields; secondly, they influence the
mechanical stability of the rock mass, most importantly the stability of the near-field.
All fracture properties considered in this chapter (the number of fracture sets, fracture
41
frequency, trace length, roughness, fracture filling, alteration, aperture and orientation)
have implications for the hydrogeological conditions, whereas the mechanical behaviour
of the near-field is mainly determined by properties such as fracture frequency, the
presence of removable fracture fillings and frictional properties in general (fracture
roughness, alteration, filling). The fracture trace length also influences the magnitude of
the potential displacement on a fracture due to an earthquake (the determination of the
trace length of very long fractures (tens of metres) may, however, be problematic in a
tunnel). The fracture frequency and aperture are the most important fracture properties
affecting the release of radionuclides from the bentonite into the geosphere and,
together with all other fracture properties, they influence the transport of radionuclides
in the geosphere. Retardation on fracture surfaces is assumed to be influenced mainly by
the fracture filling.
The influence of fracture properties on the repository layout and location is important in
two main ways. The orientation of the deposition tunnels will be influenced by the
orientation of the main fracture sets, although other factors, such as the orientation of
crH, can also be important in this regard (in particular at greater depths). Fracture
properties, e.g. aperture, fracture frequency and trace length, will also probably
influence the locations of the canisters, as both the mechanical and the hydro geological
conditions around the deposition holes need to be taken into account. The properties of
the fractures in the far- field, with respect to the transport conditions, may be more
difficult to take into account when determining the location of the repository (transport
properties are discussed more closely in Chapter 9). Fracture properties may also not be
the main issue when determining the depth of the repository, as they have not been
observed to vary significantly as a function of depth.
The constructability of the rock mass is largely dependent on the properties of the
fractures. All the properties discussed above appear to have some influence on
construction, mainly on the quality of the excavated surfaces, the requirement for
support and the groutability of the rock mass, as well as the extent of groundwater
ingress, via the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass. Construction problems are
likely to result from the extensive occurrence of densely fractured rock, abundant clay
or high inflows (due to the presence of open fractures), particularly if they are
associated with difficult grouting conditions.
42
43
5 THERMAL PROPERTIES
5.1 Thermal properties of the rock
The thermal properties of rock are determined mainly by its mineralogical composition.
The average thermal conductivity of feldspars and micas is typically 2- 2.5 W/(m·K),
however the conductivity of quartz is significantly higher at 7.7 W/(m·K). Most miner-
als are thermally anisotropic, and micas (biotite, muscovite) are particularly significant
in this respect, showing large variation in thermal conductivity depending on the direc-
tion of measurement. Thermal properties are also temperature-dependent and thermal
conductivity and diffusivity decrease and heat capacity increases with increasing
temperature (Kukkonen & Lindberg 1995, Kukkonen 2000).
The thermal properties of the rock types at Olkiluoto are presented in Table 5-1. The
values are based on laboratory measurements on samples taken from seven deep
boreholes over a depth range of 100- 550 m. The Olkiluoto mica gneiss is thermally
anisotropic and heterogeneous due to variations in its texture, mineral composition and
the orientation of migmatitic banding and foliation. The mean anisotropy factor is
1.2 - 1.3 (Kukkonen 2000).
The influence of the thermal conductivity, heat capacity, thermal diffusivity and the
coefficient of thermal expansion on long-term safety and repository layout is summa-
rised in Appendix 1. These properties are considered to have no influence on the con-
structability of the rock mass.
Table 5-1. The thermal properties of the main rock types of Olkiluoto. The results are
averages, standard deviation (when available) is given in brackets, N = number of
samples (Kjorholt 1992, Kukkonen & Lindberg 1995, 1998, Aikiis et al. 2000). The
properties of mica gneiss (except for the coefficient of thermal expansion) are based on
Kukkonen (2000).
Rock type/Parameter Thermal Heat Diffusivity Coefficient of

conductivity capacity (lE-06 m2/s) thermal
(W/(m·K)) (J/(kg·K)) expansion
(1E-06/°C)
Temperature range 20-22 oc 60-99 oc 20-22 oc 10-60 oc
Mica gneiss 2.7 784 1.33 9.5
N=42 N=42 N = 42 (2.4)
N=3
Granite/pegmatite 4.2 778 1.18
(0.5) (6.0) (0.06)
N=2 N=2 N=2
Tonalite 2.7 797 1.23
(0.9) (3.5) (0.06)
N=2 N=2 N=2
44
Temperatures in the rock mass are expected to increase in the immediate vicinity of the
repository due to radiogenic heat production from the spent fuel. Depending on the
thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the rock, considerable differences in rock mass
temperatures may arise (Kukkonen & Lindberg 1995). The value of thermal diffusivity,
which depends on the thermal conductivity, the heat capacity and the density, is such
that the heat from the spent fuel canisters spreads into the surrounding rock volume
relatively slowly. The value of the thermal diffusivity has, therefore, a marked effect on
the maximum canister temperature (Kukkonen 2000, Raiko 2001 ). All these properties
influence the temperatures in the near-field and thereby affect the canister, the bentonite
and the spent fuel. These effects are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5.2. The
influence of the heat capacity is probably less significant than · that of the thermal
conductivity, because sensitivity analyses have shown that the maximum temperature at
the canister/bentonite interface is less dependent on the heat capacity than on the
thermal conductivity (Raiko 1996). The thermal properties of the rock will control the
development of the thermal gradient in the far-field, which will have some influence on
groundwater flow (see Chapter 5.2). The value of the thermal conductivity will also be
important during periods of glaciation and permafrost, as it influences, for example, the
depth of formation of permafrost (Ahonen 2001).
The coefficient of thermal expansion influences the isolating capacity of the canister and
the bentonite via thermo-mechanical effects associated with the temperature rise in the
near-field. These effects are caused by the thermal expansion of the near-field rock,
which could result in the redistribution of stresses, changes in the properties of fractures
etc., and are also dependent on the deformation properties of the rock (Chapter 6.1). The
significance of the thermal expansion is probably less in the far-field, where the
temperatures are lower, but there may be some indirect influence on, for example, the
hydraulic conductivity (see Chapter 7.1) due to the deformation of rock mass caused by
thermal expansion.
The maximum temperature on the surface of the canister and in the bentonite buffer is
limited to the design base temperature of 100 oc (Raiko 2001). Since the temperature
gradient in the near-field will be highly dependent on the thermal conductivity and
thermal diffusivity, these properties are of fundamental importance for the layout design,
affecting the separation of canisters, disposal tunnels and, where relevant, repository
layers. All of these will influence the size of the repository. According to current
calculations, the separation of canisters is 10 m (9.5 m for fuel from the Loviisa power
plant), the separation of tunnels is 25 m and the separation of repository layers (in case
of a two-storey repository) is 100 m. In the calculations, the properties of dry bentonite
have been used (thermal conductivity 0.75 W/(m·K)), which results in conservative
temperatures, at least in the long-term, as the thermal conductivity of saturated bentonite
is approximately twice as large as that of dry bentonite (Raiko 2001).
Thermal conductivity and diffusivity, which are mainly determined by the mineralogical
composition of the rock, may show noticeable variation at the near-field scale. Another
45
potentially important issue is thermal anisotropy, which at Olkiluoto is mainly due to

the presence of foliation. Where the foliation is likely to result in significant thermal
anisotropy (i.e. where the foliation is well-developed), its most advantageous orientation
would be vertical and as perpendicular to the tunnels as possible (Lofman 2001 ). The
most disadvantageous situation would be the presence of a well-developed, sub-
horizontal foliation, which would reduce the vertical heat transfer from the canisters and
therefore require a larger canister spacing. However, the average anisotropy factor for
the mica gneiss at Olkiluoto is estimated to be only 1.2- 1.3 (Kukkonen 2000), so it is
unlikely that the canister spacing needs to be modified on the basis of thermal
anisotropy.
Heat capacity needs to be taken into account in the thermal calculations and the overall
layout design, but it will probably not need to be considered at the near-field scale, as
there is negligible variation in the heat capacity between different rock types (Table
5-1). The same applies to the coefficient of thermal expansion (Andersson et al. 2000).
Discussion
Uncertainties regarding the thermal properties of the rock mass at Olkiluoto are caused
by the small number of samples used for thermal property determinations, and are of
particular concern for rock types other than mica gneiss. In the current thermal
dimensioning of the repository at Olkiluoto, the parameters thermal conductivity, heat
capacity, density and thermal diffusivity are assumed to be constant, and the local
variation in these properties has only been considered by leaving a margin of 5 oc in the
calculations (Raiko 2001 ). The significance of the foliation and the resulting thermal
anisotropy of the mica gneiss has, however, been studied separately, and it has been
concluded that it has only a minor influence. According to these calculations, if the
anisotropy factor is less than 2.5, the maximum canister temperature does not exceed
the limit value whatever the dip or strike of the foliation is (Lofman 2001). The
estimated average anisotropy factor for the mica gneiss at Olkiluoto is 1.2 - 1.3.
Generally the anisotropy factors of gneisses reported in literature may reach 2.2 at most
(Kukkonen & Lindberg 1995). It is unlikely, therefore, that the overall thermal
dimensioning of the repository should need to be changed due to the effect of the
thermal anisotropy.
At the canister scale, the local thermal conductivity and diffusivity may be more
difficult to predict. Micas often form extensive layers in which the mica flakes are in
contact, thereby producing thermally-resistive layers between more conductive quartz
and feldspars (Kukkonen & Lindberg 1995). Such resistive layers may be of
importance, if they are very close to a canister, where their effect on the temperature
rise might exceed the margin of 5 oc used in the calculations. It may, therefore, be
necessary to consider how the local thermal conductivity around the canisters can be
shown to be sufficiently large. The heat capacity and the coefficient of thermal
expansion are not expected to show any significant variation at this scale.
46
5.2 Temperature
The average temperature in the rock mass at Olkiluoto at 500 m depth is 12 °C, based on
temperature logging data from several boreholes (Paulamaki & Paananen 1995, Paana-
nen & Paulamaki 1995, Julkunen et al. 1995). At shallow depths the temperature is
about 6- 6.5 oc (Julkunen et al. 1995). The average temperature gradient is estimated to
be 1.4- 1.5 oC/100 m (Raiko 2001). The temperature gradient lies in the range of
1.2 - 1.6 °C/1 00 m in different boreholes, but locally even lower gradients of
0.7- 0.9 °C/100 m are found at 500 m depth (Okko et al. 1990a, 1990b, Julkunen et al.
1995, Aikas et al. 2000).
Temperatures in the rock mass will rise due to the radiogenic heat production of the
spent fuel. The expected heat flux from the repository and the resulting thermal gradient
in the rock mass have been discussed by Raiko (200 1) for different repository layouts.
The development of maximum temperatures in the repository as a function of time in
outlined in Figure 5-1.
MAXIMUM TE:rviPERATURES IN REPOSITORY
100
. .. .... ...
. .. . . .. . .
90
.. ..
80 ........ . .
.
'
70
... ~--- ---- ~-- .... ' .'
..-.. 60 ,.- ,...,..,- -~
u
...._, 50
,. ..... ~ .................. . ~
~
,.,. "' /~
~-
--
~ ·······CANISTER
40 ~-----
~ SURFACE
~
30 ----DISPOSAL HOLE
20 EDGE
--ROCK BETWEEN
10 TUNNELS
0
2 5 10 20 50 1()() 200 500 1000 2000
TIME (a)
Figure 5-l. The development of maximum temperatures in the repository and the
surrounding rock mass as a function of time according to Raiko & Salo (1 999). The
initial ambient temperature of the rock mass is assumed to be 10 °C (this figure is not
specific to Olkiluoto). The canister surface temperature is calculated using the proper-
ties of dry bentonite.
47
The ambient temperature and boundary conditions, as well as the temperature in the
near-field, will be discussed in this chapter. The influence of temperature on long-term
safety, repository layout and the constructability of the rock mass is summarised in
Appendix 1.
The ambient temperature and boundary conditions (annual mean temperature, geother-
mal gradient) are not considered to have any significant implications for long-term
safety at Olkiluoto where the temperature of the rock mass at the planned disposal depth
and the geothermal gradient are reasonably low (see above). The ambient temperature
will, of course, influence the temperature of the near-field, which in turn will affect the
canister, the bentonite and the spent fuel (see below), but in practice the maximum near-
field temperature will be controlled by the repository layout, and specifically by the
canister spacing. The temperature at the ground surface (annual mean temperature) has
no influence on the maximum near-field temperature, because the heat pulse from the
repository reaches the ground surface long after the temperature in the vicinity of the
canisters has begun to decrease (SKB 1999b). In the far- field, the temperature has a
limited influence on groundwater flow and groundwater chemistry (Andersson et al.
1998). The effects of future temperatures are discussed in Chapter 10.3.
The temperature in the near-field, which will rise significantly due to the heat produc-
tion of the spent fuel, is an important determinant in the performance of the engineered
barriers, and has a particular significance for the bentonite buffer. The temperature of
the bentonite will not be allowed to rise above 100 °C, as its chemical stability will be
compromised if this temperature is exceeded for long periods of time (Raiko 1996). The
effect of elevated temperatures on the bentonite may be associated with the thermally-
induced conversion of montmorillonite to either beidellite or illite, depending on the K+
concentration, and illitisation (conversion to illite) would affect adversely the swelling
capacity of the bentonite. Other possible thermal effects include changes in its hydraulic
conductivity and rheology (Andersson et al. 1989). The isolating capacity of the
bentonite may also be reduced by thermo-mechanical effects (Andersson et al. 1998).
Temperature also influences the integrity of the canisters, both mechanically (through
thermal expansion or other thermo-mechanical effects) and possibly also by chemical
effects, e.g. the corrosion of copper at high er concentrations (see Chapter 8.1). In
addition, the temperature has some effect on the dissolution of the fuel (Eng et al. 1994,
Andersson et al. 1998).
Since the temperature influences the density and viscosity of groundwater, it may have
some effect on groundwater flow in both the near- and far-field. Heat transport from the
near-field to the far-field results in thermally-driven groundwater flow, but because this
effect is subordinate to other driving forces, the importance of heat transport in
determining groundwater flow will be limited (Andersson et al. 1998). An increase in
temperature also changes the chemistry of the groundwater and results in thermo-
mechanical effects that may change the properties of fractures and fracture zones (e.g.
closure of fractures due to the thermal expansion of the rock mass) and, thereby,
influence the rates of groundwater and radionuclide transport. The temperature rise will
48
also have a minor influence on the mechanical properties of the rock, for example the
rock mass stiffness, although these effects are expected to be minor at the proposed
temperatures (< 100 °C). The elevated temperatures will probably cause precipitation of
calcite (both close to the canister and in the far-field) and accelerated dissolution of
silicates. As the rock mass subsequently cools, it is expected that fractures will dilate
slightly, calcite will redissolve and silica will precipitate (Vieno & Nordman 1999). The
influence of the temperature rise on the mechanical behaviour of the rock mass IS
discussed in more detail in Chapter 10.2.1.
The temperature rise in the far- field, caused by the heat flow from the near-field, will
also influence the solubility and sorption of many radionuclides (Andersson et al. 1989).
For example, the solubility of Ra, Sr, Tc and U has been observed to be temperature-
dependent (Bruno et al. 1997).
The thermal, hydrogeological and mechanical processes caused by the heat flow have
different characteristic temporal and spatial scales. The mechanical changes tend to be
concentrated in the near-field, whereas the temperature and pressure variations can
extend well to the far- field. Furthermore, these three effects have different sensitivities
to geological structures, for example, thermal transfer is not sensitive to the presence of
fractures, whereas hydraulic pressures and, especially, mechanical effects are
considerably more sensitive to their presence. The coupled T-H-M (thermo-hydro-
mechanical) processes related to nuclear waste disposal have been studied in the
DECOY ALEX programme, which aims at developing numerical models to allow the
coupling of these processes to be predicted (Jing et al. 1999).
The ambient temperature and boundary conditions at Olkiluoto are well known and
have been taken into account in thermal calculations used to determine the repository
layout and the canister hole spacing. Since the ambient temperature of the rock mass
increases with depth, it has a potential effect on the repository depth, but at Olkiluoto
this will probably be of no importance, since the geothermal gradient is reasonably low
(1.4- 1.5 °C/100 m). The final repository layout will be designed so that the tempera-
ture in the near-field will not exceed 100 °C, and this can be achieved by modifying the
distance between adjacent canisters, adjacent disposal tunnels and the layers of a multi-
level repository.
The temperature has no practical influence on the constructability of the rock mass. The
effect of the high near-field temperatures (up to almost 100 °C) on the performance of,
for example, grouting materials may need to be studied, but at present they do not seem
likely to have any influence on the selection of suitable materials.
49
Discussion
The temperature is an important parameter in the disposal system, as it affects long-term

safety, in particular with reference to components of the near-field system, but to some
extent also of the far-field. In the near-field, temperature influences the performance of
the bentonite and the canister, as well as the rate of dissolution of the fuel. The barrier
which is most sensitive to elevated temperatures is the compressed bentonite, and it is
for this reason that there is a specified maximum temperature limit for the bentonite. It
has been estimated that even if a temperature of about 130 oc were maintained for
several thousands of years this would not, however, affect the required long-term
performance of the bentonite, although the extent of illitisation would depend also on
the availability of K+ (SKB 1992). The thermal period of the repository will continue
for thousands of years, but the maximum temperature at the canister surface will be
reached some 10 - 20 years after repository closure (Crawford & Wilmot 1998, Raiko &
Salo 1999).
The effects of temperature on the far-field are less obvious, but the heat flux from the
near-field is expected to have some effect on groundwater flow and chemistry, on the
properties of fractures and fracture zones, via thermo-mechanical effects, and on the
solubility and sorption of several radionuclides. The effect of elevated temperatures on
radionuclide solubility is, however, of no consequence if the canister remains intact as
long as is expected, i.e. well beyond the thermal period of some thousands of years. In
this case the influence of temperature on the radionuclide transport properties of the
rock is also of no significance, so long as any thermally-induced changes are reversible
(for example, if the fractures closed by the thermal expansion of the rock mass
subsequently dilate on cooling before any radionuclide release has occurred).
50
51
6 ROCK MECHANICS
The mechanical stability of the bedrock is one of the main tasks to be analysed in
evaluating the long-term safety of the disposal of spent fuel. The mechanical properties
of rock influence both the isolating and retarding functions of the repository, but they
are also of importance from the design and construction point of view. The rock mass is
normally in a static condition under the prevailing loads. This equilibrium can be
disturbed by load changes, e.g. due to the excavation of tunnels, or by changes in the
mechanical properties of the rock. Instability can lead to deformation of the rock mass,
and failure can occur if the strength of the rock is reached.
Preliminary analyses made to date indicate that the Olkiluoto site provides favourable
rock mechanics conditions to a depth of at least 500 m which remain stable during the
pre- and post-closure phases of the repository (Johansson & Rautakorpi 2000). Further
analyses are, however, needed to study the mechanical behaviour of the host rock from
the viewpoint of the constructability and long-term safety of the repository.
6.1 Mechanical properties of rock material
The term rock material used here refers to the intact rock to be tested in the laboratory,
which does not contain any macroscopically visible fractures or other discontinuities
(although microfractures are likely to be present). When fracturing and rock material are
considered together, the term rock mass is used.
The mechanical properties of rock can, in general, be described on a plot of stress

versus strain by a linear portion and a non-linear portion, both of which are dependent
on the strength of the rock material. The linear, or elastic, portion of the stress strain
plot can be explained using elasticity theory in the form of the modulus of elasticity
(Young's modulus, E) and Poisson's ratio (v). The parameters are determined by labo-
ratory testing of drill core samples.
The non-linear portion of the stress strain plot is generally described with a flow
function and a flow rule, and several empirical relationships have been developed for
modelling this non-linear or plastic behaviour, e.g. the Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek and
Brown failure criteria. The parameters used in modelling the mechanical response of the
rock mass to applied loads are uniaxial compressive strength (aucs), confining stress
( a3), crack damage stress ( acd), crack initiation stress (aci), tensile strength (at), cohesion
(c), friction angle (~) and density (p) (as used in the preliminary rock mechanical
modelling by Johansson and Rautakorpi (2000)).
The strength and deformation properties of the rock types of the Olkiluoto investigation
site have been determined from six boreholes using loading tests (Matikainen &
Simonen 1992, Kuula 1994, Johansson & Autio 1995, Tolppanen et al. 1995, Hakala &
HeikkiHi 1997a, 1997b). The majority of testing has been carried out on the mica gneiss
and the results of the loading tests demonstrate that the mica gneiss is a brittle rock
which loses a significant part of its strength (30- 60 %) immediately upon reaching its
peak strength and at the same time a clear fracture surface is created (Hakala & HeikkiHi
52
1997b, Aikas et al. 2000). The strength and deformation properties of the rock types at
Olkiluoto are presented in Tables 6-1 and 6-2.
The main rock type mica gneiss is a markedly heterogeneous material with regard to its
strength. This heterogeneity is well described by the 95 % confidence limits of the
standard deviation of the maximum uniaxial compressive strength, which are
76- 138 MPa (Hakala & Heikkila 1997a). Granite/pegmatite has a somewhat higher
strength than mica gneiss, whereas tonalite and amphibolite/metadiabase have a lower
strength (see Table 6-2) (Aikas et al. 2000).
The drilling parameters DRI (Drilling Rate Index) and CAI (Cerchar Abrasion Index)
have been determined only for mica gneiss and tonalite at Olkiluoto (Table 6-3). The
estimation of those parameters for the other rock types has been made on the basis of a
literature review. The Vickers hardness of the rock types was calculated on the basis of
the average mineral composition calculated from thin section analysis (Aikas et al.
2000).
Table 6-1. Strength and deformation properties of the rock types at Olkiluoto. The
values presented are arithmetical means, with standard deviations in brackets,
N =number of samples. The sample diameter varied from 42- 62 mm (Aikas et al.
2000).
Rock type/ Peak O'cd- crcr Tensile Young's Poisson's

Property strength strength strength strength modulus ratio
O'ucs (MPa) (MPa) crt (MPa) E (GPa) V
(MPa)
Mica 109.2 90.5 49.5 10.8 61.5 0.23
gneiss (27.9) (24.5) (12.2) (2.9) (8.3) (0.05)
N=59 N=49 N = 50 N=24 N= 109 N= 109
Granite/ 133.8 107.5 30.1 69.6 0.30
pegmatite (18.5) (23.7) (8.3) (5.7) (0.04)
N=5 N=2 N=2 N=5 N=5
Tonalite 109.5 64.5 0.28
(7.8) (1.7) (0.02)
N=4 N=4 N=4
cr ucs -strength = uniaxial compressive strength, maximum strength
crcd-strength = stress level at which uncontrolled microfracturing begins in sample
crci-strength = stress level at which the micro fracturing begins in sample
Tensile strength crt = determined by Brazilian test (the direct tension test (N = 18) gave a value
7.6 MPa for mica gneiss)
53
Table 6-2. The range of uniaxial compressive strengths for the four main rock types at
Olkiluoto from laboratory testing and Rock Tester field measurements (Aikas et al.
2000). The value presented for amphibolite/metadiabase is a rough estimate based on
Rock Tester field measurements from only 4 samples.
Rock type Uniaxial compressive strength crucs (MPa)

Mica gneiss 80- 140
Tonalite 80- 110
Granite/pegmatite 115 - 150
Amphibolite/metadiabase 100
Table 6-3. Drilling parameters and calculated Vickers hardnesses according to the
mineral composition (Aikas et al. 2000).
Rock type/ DRI 1> DRI 2> CAI 1> Strength Vickers Vickers
Property index index index (MPa) (average) (range)
defined) (literature)
Mica gneiss 45 50-70 4.3 80- 140 713 382-948
(s = 4.3) (s = 0.1)
Granite/ - 45- 65 (gr) - 115- 150 807 720- 895
pegmatite 55- 75 (pg)
3)
Tonalite 55 45-65 3.7 3) 80- 110 672 535- 822
(s = 3) (gr) 4) (s = 0.4)
Amphibolite/ - 40- 60 (afb) 100 559 410- 708
metadiabase 30-45 (db)
1) Johansson & Autio 1995
2) Naapuri 1995
3) Tonalite in the VLJ repository at Olkiluoto, Johansson & Autio 1995
4) No values for tonalite were available, so the value for granite is applied here
The influence of the mechanical properties of rock material, which include deformation
properties, strength properties and drilling parameters, on long-term safety, repository
layout and the constructability of the rock mass is summarised in Appendix 1. The
drilling parameters are considered to have no influence on long-term ~afety or the layout
and location of the repository.
The deformation properties of the rock, i.e. the Young's modulus and the Poisson's
ratio, are estimated to have only minor significance for the long-term safety of the
repository. They do have some influence on the isolation function of the canister and the
bentonite in the near-field, via their effect on the deformation of the deposition hole.
The possible geometrical changes in the deposition hole caused by the elastic deforma-
tion of the rock mass do not have any significance for safety or the performance of the
engineered barriers (SKB 1999b). For the far-field rock there might be some effect due
54
to the probable formation of new hydraulically conductive fractures, in the case of a

failure of the rock mass. As the mechanical properties of rock are to some extent
dependent on the temperature, some changes in these properties will be induced by the
temperature rise due to the disposal of spent fuel, although this effect is considered to be
of minor importance. These effects, as well as the time-dependency of the mechanical
properties, are discussed in Chapter 10.
The strength properties of the rock, which control the non-linear or plastic portion of
the stress strain plot, are of significance for the isolation properties of the near-field,
where the performance of the engineered barriers (canister, bentonite) might be
impaired by a failure of the rock on the wall of a deposition hole. Such a failure would
result in mechanical effects in the form of volume expansion of the failed rock, so that
the bentonite would undergo additional compression and, in an extreme case, damage to
the canister could result (SKB 1999b). It is assumed that an instantaneous deformation
of the wall of the deposition hole of > 100 mm would be required to damage the
canister. Smaller levels of deformation might not immediately damage the engineered
barriers, but any fracturing that results in the development of large fracture apertures
around the deposition hole could also result in erosion of the bentonite, and may enable
the bentonite to swell without confinement and thus lose some of its swelling pressure.
Significant deformation of rock, whether instantaneous or cumulative, could also
decrease the diffusion distance through the bentonite (Andersson et al. 2000). The
strength properties of the rock mass are also important for controlling the flow of
groundwater in the near- and far-fields, as failure of the rock mass could result in the
creation of new conductive pathways if the rock strength were to be exceeded. Exten-
sive formation of new fractures could also degrade the retention properties of the rock
mass (Andersson et al. 2000).
In the foliated mica gneiss at Olkiluoto, any failure is expected to take place along the
plane of the schistosity (Hakala & HeikkiHi 1997b) and a similar situation has been
observed to apply to the foliated tonalite (Autio et al. 2000). If the strength of the rock is
exceeded this is likely to involve the generation of microcracks and could result in the
development of acoustic emissions, spalling (slabbing) and rock bursts (Tolppanen et al.
1995).
The strength of the rock material determines the stability of the deposition tunnel or
deposition hole in a situation where stress-induced brittle failure is expected, i.e. at
depths where the in situ stresses are high (Martin et al. 2001). The other factors that
influence the mechanical stability in such an environment are the in situ stress boundary
condition (see Chapter 6.3) and the geometry of the excavation. The heterogeneity in
the strength properties of the mica gneiss at Olkiluoto needs to be taken into account in
any analysis. Differences in strength can also be expected between different rock types.
The variation in the magnitude of the in situ stresses is, however, expected to be even
greater, particularly if different disposal depths are considered. Stress-induced failure is
discussed in more detail in the context of the distribution of in situ stresses in Chapter
6.3.
55
The deformation properties Young's modulus (E) and Poisson's ratio (v) are parameters
used for estimating the rock mechanical stability, and thus they can be considered to
have, indirectly, minor influence on the design of the repository layout. The strength
properties are important for the layout and location of the repository, especially for the
choice of its depth, via their effect on rock stability that is largely determined by the
strength/stress ratio (aucslcrH). If the ratio were very low, rock spalling might cause
abandonment of deposition holes which, in turn, would increase the size of the
repository. The strength/stress ratio decreases with depth due to an increase in the
magnitude of the in situ stresses. The strength of the rock types (particularly mica
gneiss) is, however, not depth-dependent (at least over the depths considered for
repository development) but may vary at the small scale due, for example, to variations
in the rock's mica content. The rock mass strength in itself may, therefore, be difficult
to take into account when determining the layout and location of the repository at a
specific depth, except possibly at the canister scale, i.e. when selecting suitable canister
locations. Strength properties are, however, important for the overall tunnel design (e.g.
tunnel profile and pillar dimensions).
Because the Young's modulus and the Poisson's ratio are input parameters for stability
calculations, they are also of indirect importance for determining the extent of any rock
support. These deformation properties have also a minor influence on the excavation
and the crushability of the rock.
Strength properties (especially compressive and tensile strength), which are very much
dependent on the rock type, influence the constructability of the rock mass and the
requirement for support, which is largely determined by the strength/stress ratio (see
Chapter 6.3). Heavy spalling would alter the tunnel cross section, thereby making
backfilling more difficult. Rock strength also influences the drilling rate and the blasting
properties and the crushability of the rock.
The drilling parameters of rock, such as the DRI-index, the CAI-index and the Vickers
hardness, are of importance only from the construction viewpoint. They mainly describe
the rock mass's drillability (its drilling rate and abrasion hardness), and its crushability.
These are highly dependent on the litho logical and textural properties of the rock, such
as the quartz content or the extent of development of schistosity. According to Salminen
& Viitala (1985), the rock material properties that mainly determine the drilling rate are
its tensile strength and grain size.
Discussion
The deformation parameters Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio have, in general,
only a minor influence from the point of view of long-term safety, repository layout and
location, and constructability. Their influence is more indirect via their use as input
parameters in stability calculations and their variation at Olkiluoto is probably not large
enough to be significant. The strength properties of the rock material, which determine
56
the plastic response of the rock to applied stresses, have an important influence on all
the aspects from the location, design and construction of the repository to the long-term
safety of the disposal system in both the near- and far-field. The strength values vary
considerably within the different rock types, especially so in the case of mica gneiss,
which is heterogeneous, particularly regarding its texture and mineral composition.
The drilling parameters are considered to be important only for the constructability of
the repository. The heterogeneous nature of the rock will mean that its drilling
properties are likely to vary considerably, but this seems unlikely to result in any serious
problems for the drilling or crushing operations. The significance of the drilling
parameters is also reduced by the fact that the repository (in the case of the KBS-3V
concept) will be excavated mainly by using the drill and blast method instead of full-
face tunnel boring.
6.2 Mechanical properties of fractures
The mechanical behaviour of the rock mass is affected by the geometry and the
properties of the fractures it contains. The mechanical properties of the fractures are
dependent on the waviness and roughness of the fracture surfaces, the quality and
thickness of the fracture fillings, as well as the strength of the surrounding rock. The
properties of fractures are particularly significant in determining the mechanical
behaviour of fracture zones, where the fracture frequency is higher and the frictional
properties of fractures probably more unfavourable than in the intact rock mass.
When the deformation properties of fractures are considered, the relationship between
the normal stress across their surface and the associated normal deformation is usually
determined with the aid of the normal stiffness (Kn), which is dependent on the normal
stress. Accordingly, the shear movements which are taking place in the direction of
shear are determined with the aid of the shear stiffness (K5), which is also stress-
dependent.
The strength properties of fractures, of which the shear strength is considered the most
important, are dependent both on the rock strength and the properties of the fracture
surface itself. For analysing the stability of the rock mass the following parameters need
to be determined: joint compressive strength (JCS), roughness (Jr, JRC), alteration (Ja),
friction angle ( ~ ), cohesion (c) and dilatation (i). The mechanical properties of fractures
at Olkiluoto have not been measured in the laboratory, but have usually been estimated
on the basis of the geological description of fractures. Some joint tests have, however,
been performed in the VLJ repository, indicating a friction angle of 26- 35°and a
cohesion of660- 900 kPa (Kuula & Johansson 1991).
The influence of the mechanical properties of fractures, including their deformation and
strength properties, on long-term safety, repository layout and the constructability of the
rock mass is summarised in Appendix 1.
57
In general, the mechanical stability of an excavation in a low stress environment, where

structurally-controlled failure predominates, is determined by the properties of the
fractures. An example of this condition would be an underground opening at shallow
depths where wedge-type blocks, driven by gravity loading, are able to fall or slide from
the roofs and sidewalls of tunnels (Martin et al. 2001). The possible effect of fractures
on the mechanical stability of a repository at Olkiluoto is currently being modelled.
According to earlier 3DEC modelling (Tolppanen et al. 1995), the presence of fractures
slightly reduces the general stress concentrations around the deposition tunnels. This
effect is, however, dependent to a significant degree on the properties ascribed to the
fractures, and their properties were not studied in detail as part of this modelling nor
have been studied subsequently.
The deformation properties of fractures are expected to be important in the near-field

due to their influence on the integrity of the canister and on the isolation capacity of the
bentonite buffer, via their effect on the deformation of the deposition hole. Any other
influence they might have on the rock mass in the near-field is likely to be less
significant. The construction of the repository, the thermal load associated with the
disposal of spent fuel and the load imposed by a thick ice sheet have been shown to
cause shear displacements of a few millimetres at most, which would be of limited
significance for the stability of the canister (Shen & Stephansson 1996, Johansson &
Hakala 1991). The properties of the far-field are probably only slightly affected by the
deformation properties of the fractures. The deformation of fractures affects their
transmissivity because of changes in the fracture aperture, and this is particularly
significant when normal deformations are concerned. Shear deformations can cause
aperture changes due to the roughness and waviness of the fracture surfaces. Except in
the immediate vicinity of the repository, however, these changes can be expected to be
relatively small compared with the anticipated large spatial variability in the transmis-
sivity of the fractures. Extensive movements along existing fractures or fracture zones
could, however, have a detrimental influence on the retention properties of the rock
mass (Andersson et al. 2000).
The strength properties of fractures are of importance for the long-term safety of the
repository via its rock mechanical stability and block behaviour, especially in the near-
field when the integrity of the canister and the isolation capacity of the bentonite are
concerned. Loosening of unstable blocks from the tunnel roof, after the repository has
been backfilled and closed, may increase the hydraulic conductivity of the repository in
the direction of the tunnel axis (SKB 1999b). The strength properties of fractures can be
considered to have only a minor influence on the groundwater flow in the far-field.
The deformation properties of fractures may be important in determining the layout of

the repository, as they could influence the location of the deposition holes. In addition,
the strength properties of fractures might have some influence on the location of the
deposition holes, especially in the case where strongly slickensided or open fractures are
present that could influence the way in which potential displacement of the rock could
58
take place. It should be noted, however, that only relatively extensive fractures are
likely to be associated with any significant displacements. The mechanical properties of
fracture zones may influence the location of deposition tunnels, as geotechnically-
significant major local fracture zones should be avoided (McEwen 2002).
The deformation properties of fractures are used as input parameters for rock stability
calculations and could be significant in determining the design of rock support systems.
Otherwise these properties are likely to have only a minor influence, if any, on
construction, although they may affect the excavation or grouting conditions to a small
extent. The blasting properties of the rock mass might be slightly affected by the
frictional properties of fractures, such as their roughness and friction angle.
The strength properties have an important influence on the stability of the rock mass
and influence the requirement for rock support. Strength parameters can be used as
input parameters for both stability calculations and rock mass quality classifications.
During the construction and operation of the repository the shear strength of the
fractures closest to the excavations will be increased due to the reduction in pore water
pressure in the fractures compared with the natural groundwater pressure under
saturated conditions (SKB 1999b). If fracture zones with poor mechanical properties are
intersected by, for example, the access tunnel, this will increase the requirement for rock
support measures.
Discussion
The deformation properties of fractures are considered important only in relation to

long-term safety, and here mainly associated with the mechanical stability of the near-
field rock around the deposition hole. Otherwise their significance is quite limited, both
in determining the layout and location of the repository, and from the point of view of
construction.
The strength properties of fractures are, in general, of considerable significance in

determining the overall stability of rock mass, thereby influencing many aspects
considered here. They are expected to have an important influence on the long-term
safety of the repository via their effect on the properties of the rock mass in the near-
field, and the shear strength of fractures needs to be carefully considered in determining
the location of deposition holes. From the construction point of view, they mainly in-
fluence the requirements for rock support in association with any structurally-controlled
failure. The effect of fractures on the stability of a repository at Olkiluoto is currently
being modelled and, due to the lack of measurement data, the possible value ranges for
the mechanical fracture parameters are estimated on the basis of the geological descrip-
tion of fractures. If the modelling results indicate that the fracture properties have a
significant influence on the stability of the repository, considering the possible value
ranges at Olkiluoto, they need to be determined more accurately using, for example,
large samples from the ONKALO underground facility.
59
6.3 In situ stresses
The rock mass is subjected to stresses which depend both on the weight of the overlying
rock and on loads of tectonic origin. When a tunnel is excavated, a redistribution of
stresses takes place and a local state of stress is created around the rock opening. This is
why the in situ (and induced) stresses are important input parameters for almost all
types of modelling of rock mechanical stability. In the following section other future
loads and seismicity are also briefly discussed. These external events can be regarded,
in addition to the in situ stress, as variable boundary conditions in rock mechanical
calculations.
The stress distribution at Olkiluoto has been studied by measuring the in situ stresses in
four boreholes over a depth interval of 300- 800 m using both the hydraulic fracturing
and the overcoring method (Klasson & Leijon 1990, Ljunggren & Klasson 1996). The
depth dependence of the principal stresses is shown in Figure 6-1. The average horizon-
tal stress ratio (crH/crh) is 1.8, which is a typical value for Finland at a depth of 500 m
(Tolppanen & Johansson 1996). The orientation of crH is east-west, based on the results
of the hydraulic fracturing method (Figure 6-2a), however, even northwest-southeast
and north-south orientations have been measured. Based on the results of the overcoring
measurements, the major principal stress (cr 1) dips down to the southeast (Figure 6-2b)
with a mean dip of24° and a range of3- 34° (Aikas et al. 2000).
50
45
+ Sig-H •• •
•
._
Sig-h
Sig-V
••
40
- - - Linear (Sig-V)
- -unear (Sig-h)
35
-Linear (Sig-H) •••
•
Ci 2
30 y =0.056 Z- 1.98, R =0.79, Z > 300 m
D..
~
aH :
2 •• •
y =0.028 Z + 0.94, R =0.83
.. •-·~
,-... _.-- --• - .•.
tn
tn
25 ah:
•
• •
...m...
Cl)
20
0 v: y =0.034 Z - 5.05, R2 =0.68
• •
15 a_. -- ..
.......... --- 11 -
10
•••
1 -- --- ·
1'}"1 - - - - - -
_
-! - - •
5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Depth (m)
Figure 6-1. Depth dependence of the stress components at Olkiluoto (Aikiis et al. 2000).
60
N
HF = Hydraulic fracturing
KRx = Core drilled borehole
Main direction of the schistosity
HF-KR2, KR4, KRIO, 300-800 m
s
a)
Principal stress orientations
VECTOR/LEVEL
Sigma 1/Level1 [5]

Sigma 1/Level 2 [5]
Sigma 1/Level 3 [5]
Sigma 2/Level1 [5]
Sigma 2/Level 2 [5]
Sigma 2/Level3 [5]
E Sigma 3/Level1 [5]
Sigma 3/Level2 [5]
Sigma 3/Level 3 [5]
Equal Angle
Lower Hemisphere
45Poles
45 Entries
b)
Figure 6-2. a) The orientation of the maximum horizontal in situ stress (a-H) at Olkiluo-
to based on the hydraulic fracturing method; b) the orientation of the principal stress
vectors ( O"J, a-2, a-3) based on the overcoring method, plotted on a lower-hemisphere
projection (Malmlund & Johansson 2002).
Future loads can be divided into loads from the repository (near-field) and loads on the
rock mass as a whole (regional). The former include, for example, the thermally-
induced stresses due to the heat output of the canisters and the swelling pressure of the
buffer and backfill material, and are typically well known and measurable. In contrast,
knowledge of the regional loads, such as those due to glaciation, permafrost and sea
level changes are more or less generic, and hard to measure. Crawford & Wilmot (1998)
have considered the most likely future changes in a repository at Olkiluoto.
61
The current seismicity of the Olkiluoto area is similar to other parts of Finland and is
low (earthquakes of M:::; 5.0 have been observed, Figure 6-3). This means that
additional precautions do not need to be taken into account in relation to this factor from
the point of view of rock stability. At certain periods in the future, the seismicity is
likely to increase, for example, during the next major glacial phase of retreat in
approximately 100 000 years. Seismicity in the Olkiluoto area has been studied by Saari
(2000).
Figure 6-3. Earthquake observations and the largest fracture zones (category I) in a
large area surrounding Olkiluoto. Macroseismically- (before 1965) and instrumentally-
located (1965 - 1995) earthquakes are shown by light and dark blue symbols, respec-
tively. Years of occurrence and magnitudes for the closest (distance < 100 km) and
largest (M:::; 3.5) events are given. The shaded areas outline the A-P-P and B-L seismic
zones (Anttila et al. 1999).
62
The influence of the stress distribution, future loads and seismicity on long-term safety,
1. Seismicity is considered to have no influence on the constructability of the rock mass.
The stress distribution, both in its magnitude and direction, is of importance for the
long-term safety of the disposal system. The magnitude of the in situ stresses influence
the near-field performance of the repository, in particular the integrity of the canisters
and the isolation capacity of the bentonite, via the stability of the deposition holes. In
the far- field the strength of the rock mass could be exceeded if stresses were sufficiently
high and new hydraulically conductive fractures could form or existing fractures be
made more conductive.
At the depth of the repository the predominating failure mode is likely to be stress-
induced brittle failure. Stress-induced failure (spalling) has been observed to occur on
the boundary of underground openings in hard rocks when the maximum tangential
stresses on the boundary of the opening exceed approximately 0.3 to 0.4 of the uniaxial
compressive strength of the rock material measured in the laboratory. Spalling may
occur preferentially along fractures parallel to the surface of the excavation, or along
fractures parallel to the major principal stress (axial splitting). If tensional stresses are
generated, rock can fail due to the tensile failure of rock bridges and unravelling mecha-
nisms dominate (Martin 1998, Martin et al. 2001). Extensive stress-induced failure of
the deposition hole could damage the engineered barriers (the canister and the bentonite
buffer) and spalling could also enhance the hydraulic conductivity of the near-field rock
mass.
Large differences in the magnitude of the principal stresses result in a more pronounced
stress anisotropy around the tunnels and deposition holes, which could result in, for
example, greater shear movements on fractures of the near-field. In the long-term, some
convergence of the walls of deposition holes could occur if the rock creeps due to high
stresses, which could result in an increase in the density and, thereby, the swelling
pressure of the bentonite (SKB 1999b). The magnitude of the in situ stresses also
influence the extent and the geometry of the EDZ around the repository (NEA 2002).
Future loads on the repository will mainly influence its long-term behaviour. In the
near-field these influences are directed to the integrity of the canister and the isolation
properties of the bentonite via the stability of the deposition hole. The elevated
temperatures associated with the disposal of spent fuel are expected to cause significant
increases in stresses in the rock mass around the repository (in the immediate vicinity of
a deposition hole the increase in the principal stress could be as much as 40 - 45 MPa,
see Chapter 10.2.1 and Johansson & Rautakorpi 2000), and rock mechanical modelling
has shown that closure of fractures, minor fracture displacements and yielding of the
walls of the deposition tunnels and holes can be expected (Shen & Stephansson 1996,
Johansson & Hakala 1991). Groundwater flow conditions could change significantly in
the future, for example, beneath a warm-based glacier, where high hydraulic heads
might be generated and changes in the conductive fracture network could occur. These
63
phenomena will affect both the near- and far-fields. The effects of the future loads on
the mechanical conditions of the repository are discussed in more detail in Chapter 10.
Seismic effects (seismicity) could influence both the near-field and the far-field. The
integrity of the canister and the isolation properties of the bentonite might be endan-
gered if the stability of the deposition hole were to be reduced. Failure of the rock on the
boundary of the hole could result in the formation of new fractures or the closure of
existing ones, thereby changing the prevailing groundwater flow conditions. According
to numerical simulations for Olkiluoto, possible canister damage may be associated with
earthquakes with magnitudes of approximately 5.5 - 7 (La Pointe & Hermanson 2002),
although the proper placement of the deposition holes reduces the likelihood of such
damage to low levels.
The stress distribution is important in determining the layout of the repository, because
it has a strong influence on the depth and the orientation of the deposition tunnels. The
strength/stress ratio needs to be taken into account in determining the depth of the
repository, as this ratio decreases with depth due to an increase in stress (Figure 6-1 ). A
low strength/stress ratio may result in rock spalling or even rock bursts. At the canister
scale, rock spalling could result in the rejection of deposition holes, which would tend to
increase the excavated repository volume. Minor spalling could, however, be accepted
in other parts of the repository, i.e. in the deposition tunnels, central tunnels and reposi-
tory access tunnel and shafts.
The orientation of the major principal stress (cr 1) or the maximum horizontal stress (crH)
influences the orientation of the deposition tunnels - the most favourable orientation
being parallel to crH (cr 1). When the minimum horizontal stress (crh) is normal to the long
axis of tunnels the stress concentrations around a deposition tunnel and a deposition
hole are minimised, thereby increasing the stability of the openings (Aikas et al. 2000).
When estimating the stability of deposition holes and deposition tunnels, the combined
effects of the orientation of the tunnels with respect to crH and the depth of the
repository need to be taken into account, as has been demonstrated by rock mechanical
modelling at Olkiluoto (Johansson & Rautakorpi 2000). If the deposition tunnels are
oriented parallel to crH, the deposition hole and the associated deposition tunnel are
stable at the depth of 500 m and above, according to the modelling results. At depths of
600- 700 m, the crack initiation strength (crci) will be exceeded in the deposition hole. If
the orientation of the tunnel axis is perpendicular to crH, the crack initiation strength will
be exceeded at the top of the deposition hole even at the depth of 500 m (Johansson &
Rautakorpi 2000). At a depth of 500 m, the magnitude of crH is approximately
25- 30 MPa (see Fig. 6-1). It should be noted here that, although Johansson &
Rautakorpi (2000) discuss the orientation of the deposition tunnels with respect to crH
(because they have mainly used stress data from hydraulic fracturing measurements),
this is a fully 3-D problem, and the actual principal stress components (cr 1, cr 2, cr 3) have
been used in later modelling (unpublished). Hakami et al. (2002) have reviewed
methods for numerical analysis of in situ stress conditions.
64
A further factor that needs to be taken into account is the potential disturbance to the
stress field caused by nearby, large-scale structures such as fracture zones. The
magnitude and orientation of the stress may be altered over distances of at least tens of
metres away from such structures (Leijon 1993, McEwen 2002) and this needs to be
taken into account when locating the repository and when deciding on the required
respect distances to fracture zones. The deposition tunnels themselves do not affect the
stress field of the adjacent tunnels if their separation is at least 25 m (SKB 1992).
To some extent the expected effects of future loads can be taken into account in the
design of the repository. These loads can affect the dimensions and layout of the reposi-
tory and also its depth. The expected levels of seismicity might be thought to influence
the location of the repository at Olkiluoto. Any significant earthquakes are expected to
occur only on existing major (i.e. regional scale) fracture zones, and the repository
needs therefore to be located far enough from such zones. This matter has been recently
evaluated by La Pointe & Hermanson (2002) at the four study sites in Finland, including
Olkiluoto, and in fact this factor is likely to have little influence on the location of a
repository at Olkiluoto.
The stress distribution, particularly the stress magnitudes, could have a marked effect
on the excavation of the repository, for example by affecting drilling and blasting
operations, because high stresses might hinder rock excavation by jamming the drill
rods or, in the extreme, the drill holes could even collapse. The stress magnitudes also
affect the stability of the rock mass and determine the requirements for support (which
also depend on the rock strength), as stress magnitude is one of the key factors in the
stability calculations. High stresses tend to increase the requirements for additional
support measures (such as longer bolts or thicker shotcrete), particularly at major under-
ground intersections in the repository (Martin et al. 2001).
The requirement for rock support depends on the strength/stress ratio and the associated
occurrence of spalling or rock burst. In a stable rock mass (one with a high
strength/stress ratio) no temporary support is generally required. If minor spalling
occurs, local support may be required and the rate of construction will be reduced. If
spalling becomes common, occasional rock bursts may also be expected, and systematic
temporary support will be required, which will significantly slow down the construction
work. During the operational phase of the repository in such an environment, support
structures may be damaged and may require maintenance. If rock burst predominates,
the stability of the excavations will be endangered. The construction work will become
considerably slower due to extensive temporary and permanent support work. Stability
problems that require additional support and the maintenance of damaged structures
may occur during the operation of the repository.
Fracture apertures are also affected by in situ stress magnitudes, and thus the amount of
groundwater ingress and the extent of any grouting will also be influenced by the in situ
stresses (see Aperture in Chapter 4.3.5). Spalling or rock burst caused by high stresses
may affect the tunnel profile to such an extent that the compaction of the backfill
becomes more difficult.
65
The effect of future loads can be taken into consideration in the design of the support
measures, at least regarding the predictable near-field loads (thermally-induced stresses
due to the heat output of the canisters and the swelling pressure of the bentonite). Other-
wise, the effects of future loads on the constructability can be considered negligible.
Discussion
The stress distribution is regarded as important from the viewpoint of long-term safety,
design and construction of the repository. The rock stresses, together with the rock
strength, govern the overall stability of the rock, both in the near- and far- fields, and for
this reason it is important to have a good knowledge of the stress distribution, both in
magnitude and direction. The investigations made to date at Olkiluoto indicate
favourable conditions for rock construction, and the stress values measured do not differ
markedly from those found typically in Finland. Some uncertainties, however, still
remain regarding the stress orientation, and additional data are also needed for the
evaluation of the strength/stress ratio in more detail. Recent rock mechanical modelling
suggests, however, that the deposition tunnels and holes will be stable to a depth of
400- 500 m (Johansson & Rautakorpi 2000).
The anticipated magnitudes of the future loads are used as boundary conditions in rock
mechanical calculations, however only boundary conditions for the near-field can be
well estimated, whereas those for the far- field are more uncertain. The influences of
these boundary conditions are mainly long-term in nature, and concern the stability of
the rock mass adjacent to the deposition holes. Possible future changes in groundwater
flow conditions are also probable, both on the local and regional scale. Future boundary
conditions are hard to predict, and the way in which they can be taken into account in
the design of the repository, for example, is quite limited.
Although the current seismicity in Finland is low, it is very likely to increase in the
future, in particular during the retreat phase of the next glaciation. Any significant
earthquakes are expected to be associated with the existing major fracture zones. This
factor was taken into account during the site selection process (e.g. McEwen & Aikas
2000), and the investigation areas were located far away from the main regional fracture
zones. The level of current and future seismicity will influence the long-term safety of
the repository via its effect on the stability of the rock mass, both in the near- and far-
fields. In order to limit the effect of seismic activity the repository has to be located
sufficiently far from the larger fracture zones, which could have potential for rock
movements. The existence of such zones can be estimated, for example, by
microseismic monitoring and GPS measurements of rock movements. At the canister
scale the effect of seismic activity can be reduced by judicious location of the deposition
holes, so that they are not intersected by fractures with a trace length of tens of metres
or more (only fractures of this length are likely to be associated with any noticeable
displacement) (La Pointe & Hermanson 2002).
66
67
7 HYDROGEOLOGY
7.1 Hydraulic properties of fractured rock mass
The distribution of groundwater flows in crystalline rock is dependent, according to

Darcy's law, on the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass and the hydraulic gradient.
The hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass is determined by the connectivity of its
fracture network and the hydraulic properties of the individual fractures, though in frac-
ture zones this can be complicated by the extent of weathering. Hydraulic connections
in a fracture network are determined by the frequency and the spatial distribution of the
hydraulically conductive fractures in the rock mass, by their length and orientation
distributions and by their shape (SKB 1999b ).
According to the cubic law, the transmissivity of a fracture with a uniform aperture is
directly proportional to the cube of the fracture aperture. Consequently, even relatively
small variations in the aperture of a fracture may cause major variations in its
transmissivity.
The flow properties of an individual natural fracture are mainly determined by the
fracture aperture and the roughness of the fracture surfaces. Since the aperture can vary
considerably in the plane of the fracture (Hakami 1995), the main part of the flow is
concentrated (channelled), according to the cubic law, in those parts of the fracture
plane where the aperture is greatest (SKB 1999b). The majority of the groundwater flow
in a fracture may, therefore, take place within channels in the fracture plane which can
have a wide variety of geometrical forms.
Due to its anisotropic nature, the hydraulic conductivity can be represented as a tensor
with principal directions (Marsily 1986). The anisotropy of the hydraulic conductivity
(permeability) has been studied, for example, at Stripa, Sweden, where the mean
permeabilities measured in boreholes were observed to depend on the orientation of the
borehole with respect to the major principal stress (Gale et al. 1987).
The hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass is usually measured from investigation
boreholes by isolating individual measurement sections from the rest of the borehole
using packers. The measuring methods used at Olkiluoto are the HTU method and the
so-called difference flow measurement method (Ahokas 1999). Measurements have
been conducted using measurement intervals of 2, 7, 10 and 31 m (the effect of the used
measurement interval on the calculated mean conductivity has been discussed by
Ahokas (1999)). The measurement range for hydraulic conductivity is approximately
1E-04- 1E-11 m/s.
Figure 7-1 illustrates the results from hydraulic conductivity measurements with 2 m
and 30 m packer intervals plotted against depth. The measurements indicate that the
uppermost 250 m of the bedrock is more conductive than the deeper bedrock, although
the variation in hydraulic conductivity is large. The majority (approximately 85 %) of
the measured values of hydraulic conductivity of the intact rock mass lie, however, at
the lower limit of the measuring range, i.e. most of the rock mass has a very low
hydraulic conductivity. This is in agreement with the concept that the flow of ground-
68
water in the intact rock mass at Olkiluoto is concentrated in relatively sparse hydrauli-
cally conductive fractures.
lgK, m/s
-11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5
0
+.
~
i ++ +++ * + -1-t. ++
-i#: ++
+
+
~ -r+ +-++- + + *+ ++
100
.'f, 0
..+~ "lf"t- + -f+f- + T ++-+ +
+ + ()~+ +* r ++ + +
+ 0++ + -+i-
0 .t,+ +~ +6 # +
200
~<> + +'~
V 0
++
+~ ~
+* + + ++
0 +9t + +
+ +
300 ~ 0
+ +'0 + -r -r
8 + + +o+ o + +
~
+ +O +
400 1"\
:t
0
0 0 ++ + +
f +
E 60 + +
...
£
Q.
Cl)
500 0 """ +
~+
'C +*++
~+to++ + +
+ PATU K2m
600 +
+++
+
+ + o srru K30m
0
++
700 + -r
0 +
+ -t+ + + +
0 +-t
800 """
+ +
t-+ +
0 + +
900
0
-t
0
0
1000
Figure 7-1. The measured hydraulic conductivities in the intact rock mass of the SITU
and PATU investigation phases at Olkiluoto plotted against depth (Ahokas 1999).
Approximately 85 % of the measured values lie at the lower limit of the measuring
range.
69
When studying the average separation of hydraulically conductive fractures in the intact
rock mass as a function of depth, it has been observed at Olkiluoto (Ahokas 1999, .Aikas
et al. 2000 and Sievanen 2002) that the rock mass near the surface (0- 100 m depth) is
clearly more conductive than at greater depths. The average separation of hydraulically
conductive fractures in the depth interval of 0 - 100 m is approximately 5 - 10 m,
whereas in the depth interval of 400 - 500 m, their average separation is 5 - 10 times
greater than this, depending on the chosen lower limit for hydraulic conductivity of the
fractures taken into consideration (1E-08 m/s or 1E-09 m/s). Data on the average
separation of the hydraulically conductive fractures can be used to determine the flow
porosity of the rock mass (Ahokas 1999).
The correlation of transmissivity with the dip direction and dip of the hydraulically
conductive fractures was found to be weak in a data set derived from four investigation
boreholes over a depth interval of 300 - 600 m (Sievanen 2002).
The hydraulic properties of the fractured rock mass are discussed here in terms of its
hydraulic conductivity. The influence of the hydraulic conductivity on long-term safety,
1.
The hy draulic conductivity of the rock mass is the most important rock mass property
influencing the groundwater flow. The groundwater flow in the rock mass surrounding
the repository can influence the long-term safety of disposal in three ways:
• Firstly, it may influence the corrosion conditions in the repository by transporting

corrosive substances (ions, gases, colloids, microbes) into the environment of the
waste canisters.
• Secondly, high flow rates, in association with large apertures, may cause erosion of
the bentonite buffer and the backfill material and affect their density (Andersson et
al. 2000). Very large apertures are, however, unlikely to occur around a deposition
hole, because they would make the emplacement of the bentonite difficult and would
therefore be avoided (or grouted).
• Thirdly, the groundwater flow is, in practice, the only phenomenon that can transport
radionuclides to the biosphere (by advection), when the canisters have lost their
integrity by corrosion or due to mechanical damage caused by, for example,
earthquakes. In addition to advection, radionuclides can be transported by diffusion
(mixing caused by the thermal movement of molecules in a solution). Diffusion,
however, contributes to the retardation of the radionuclide transport, as the nuclides
are removed from fast transport routes and dispersed into larger volumes of rock
mass (see Chapter 9 for further discussion).
In terms of the retention of radionuclides in the near-field, it is advantageous if the

Darcy velocity? in the rock mass surrounding the canisters is small, because in this case
3
The Darcy velocity (Darcy flux) , or specific discharge (q) describes the average velocity of water in an
open conductor, such as in a pipe. In a porous medium, for example in sand or in fractured rock mass, the
70
significant retention would occur at the buffer/rock transition zone. If the hydraulic
conductivity at the scale of the canister hole is lower than 1E-08 m/s, the Darcy velocity
will hardly exceed a value of 0.01 m/a, and this is important because for a Darcy
velocity greater than this, the retardation of radionuclides is expected to be negligible.
In the far-field, the hydraulic conductivity influences the transport times and dose rates
of radionuclides. With regard to this transport, it is an advantage if only a limited
portion of the rock mass possesses a hydraulic conductivity at a scale of 30 m in excess
of 1E-08 m/s, because then the transport resistance of the rock mass is likely to be
considerable (Andersson et al. 2000). From the standpoints of retardation and transport
it would, therefore, be preferable to avoid locating the deposition tunnels and deposition
holes in those parts of the rock mass where the hydraulic conductivity is greater than
1E-08 m/s.
In order for the bentonite buffer to act as intended, it is necessary for it to be saturated
by groundwater and to remain continuously saturated. Only then will it attain and
maintain its important properties of a uniform swelling pressure, a sufficient thermal
conductivity (a value for dry bentonite has, however, been used in the thermal
calculations) and a very low hydraulic conductivity (approximately 1E-13 m/s after
complete saturation). The saturation should preferably take place in a uniform manner
so that the waste canister remains located in the centre of the deposition hole. In order
for this to occur the near-field rock surrounding a deposition hole needs to have a
certain minimum hydraulic conductivity, although if its conductivity is so small that the
saturation time would be substantially prolonged, the bentonite could be wetted
artificially (Andersson et al. 2000). The excavation damaged zone formed around the
deposition holes should contribute to the uniform wetting of the bentonite due to its
expected higher hydraulic conductivity (Pusch & Hokmark 1991).
The hydraulic conductivity controls the groundwater flux through the repository and
thus may, in principle, have some influence on its location and depth. The hydraulic
conductivity is, however, very unevenly distributed in the rock mass at Olkiluoto, and it
is likely that the layout and location of the repository will be mostly determined by the
hydraulic properties of a few transmissive fracture zones (Chapter 7.2) rather than by
the hydraulic properties of the rock mass in general. The hydraulic conductivity of the
intact rock mass at Olkiluoto at the planned disposal depth of 400- 500 m is so low
(Sievanen 2002) that its effect on the location of the repository is likely to be very
limited. It might be thought necessary to reject specific deposition holes due to locally
high inflows of groundwater, and this might increase the size of the repository. The
rejection of such deposition holes may be necessary if the hydraulic conductivity at the
canister scale exceeds the value of 1E-08 m/s, and the rock mass cannot be sealed
sufficiently well by grouting. Current data suggest that only 1 % of the rock mass at the
planned disposal depth at Olkiluoto has a hydraulic conductivity higher than this
proposed limit value, and only 5 % of the rock mass has a hydraulic conductivity higher
than 1E-09 m/s (measured from 2 m test sections) (Sievanen 2002).
Darcy velocity signifies the water flux per unit area of the water-conducting formation (aquifer). It does
not relate to the actual velocity of the flowing water (Fetter 1994).
, -~·-~~-~ ~-
71
1
The hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass influences the excavation, support require-
ments and sealing of the rock mass as well as the emplacement of the bentonite buffer.
The hydraulic conductivity has a significant influence on the amount of groundwater
ingress and thereby possibly also the requirement for pumping. At Olkiluoto, the
immediate effects on the excavation and the support requirements are estimated to be
minor at the planned disposal depth of 400 - 500 m, because most of the rock mass has
such a low hydraulic conductivity (see Figure 7-1). Hydraulically conductive sections
may locally slow down the excavation and support work, if shot holes or bolt holes need
to be grouted in such sections before the shot holes can be charged or the bolts installed.
Large inflows may also make the application of shotcrete more difficult.
There needs to be limited ingress of groundwater in order for the bentonite buffer to be
emplaced in the deposition hole. In Sweden, Andersson et al. (2000) suggest that for
reasons of long-term safety, inflow into a deposition hole should be less than 10 1/min,
although no final decision has been made regarding such a limit. This limit would
require the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass surrounding the deposition hole to
be no greater than 1E-08- lE-07 m/s. This requirement could always be met by
grouting the rock mass surrounding the deposition hole, however, it may be decided that
such grouting should be restricted or not allowed for reasons of long-term safety. If this
were the situation, it would be necessary to abandon and backfill such a hole and drill a
new deposition hole (though testing in trial holes drilled down the centre line of a
proposed deposition hole in advance of its construction, is likely to reduce the incidence
of this occurring). High inflows of groundwater can also make the backfilling of the
tunnels more difficult and increase the requirement to install sealing structures (e.g.
concrete plugs).
The maximum allowable inflow into the repository largely determines the extent of
required sealing measures. The rock mass at the planned disposal depth is expected to
have such a low hydraulic conductivity, that it cannot be further sealed to any
significant extent by cement grouting, except for sparsely occurring water conductive
fractures. If, however, the aim is to seal all inflows, even very small ones (i.e. where the
rock mass has a conductivity of K > 1E-09 m/s), in order to prevent the upconing of
saline groundwater, the amount of required grouting work will increase many-fold, but
the total inflow into the repository will be reduced only slightly. All potential inflows
that require grouting should be observed by probe holes before driving the tunnel, so
that sealing can be carried out by pre-grouting. In order to do this, a sufficient number
of probe holes will be required. A large number of probe holes and grouting sessions
will delay the excavation and support work if several tunnels cannot be excavated or
several tunnel faces need to be grouted simultaneously.
Discussion
The flow of groundwater in the rock mass is, following Darcy' s law, dependent on the
hydraulic gradient and the hydraulic conductivity. The hydraulic gradient is a boundary
condition (see Chapter 7.4) that cannot be significantly influenced. The hydraulic
72
conductivity of the rock mass surrounding the repository and the groundwater flow in
the repository environment can, however, be influenced in two ways. Firstly, the
repository can be located in that part of the rock mass that has as low a conductivity as
possible. This means in practice that the tunnels will need to be positioned so that they
do not intersect any significant hydraulically conductive fracture zones and so that they
intersect less significant local fracture zones and hydraulically conductive fractures at a
favourable angle in order to make grouting easier. This seems to be possible at
Olkiluoto, because there are few significant hydraulically conductive fracture zones, and
most of the intact rock mass between them has a low conductivity. Sections of rock
mass with a high conductivity(> lE-08 m/s) occur only sparsely in the intact rock mass,
and they can be avoided when locating the deposition holes. Their spatial distribution in
the rock mass can be studied from detailed underground investigations, but the current
borehole data are not sufficient to establish the spatial distribution of K values in the
intact rock mass. It should be noted that in the current bedrock model of Olkiluoto all
borehole sections with a very high conductivity (> 5E-07 m/s) have been assigned to
modelled fracture zones, the avoidance of which is discussed in Chapter 7.2.
Secondly, the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass surrounding the repository can be
influenced by sealing measures, for example by grouting with a water-cement suspen-
sion. The cement is expected to remain in the fractures of the rock mass for thousands
of years (Alcom et al. 1992). Although the intact rock mass at Olkiluoto has a low
conductivity, the intersection of hydraulically conductive local fracture zones and frac-
tures by the repository cannot be avoided. The sealing of these by grouting is important,
in order to keep the total inflow into the repository as low as possible. This is necessary
for controlling the risk ofupconing of saline groundwater.
It may prove difficult to locate the zones of inflow for the purposes of grouting before
driving a tunnel, if they are channelled. Observing them beforehand would be important
because sealing can best be achieved by pre-grouting. The more channelled these zones
of inflow are, the larger the number of probe holes will be required to find and grout
them. The groutability of such zones should be taken into account when orienting the
tunnels - if possible, they should be oriented with respect to hydraulically conductive
fracture zones and fractures so that these features can be easily intersected by pre-
grouting holes.
7.2 Hydraulic properties of fracture zones
The hydraulic properties of fracture zones are generally described by means of their
transmissivity, which is defined as the product of their mean hydraulic conductivity and
their thickness. The unit of transmissivity is m2/s. Because fracture zones are likely to
be weathered and more densely fractured than the surrounding rock mass and often also
continuous, they usually constitute the main groundwater flow routes in the rock mass.
If a fracture zone contains significant amounts of clay or the fractures are otherwise
non-conductive, its transmissivity may also be low.
The transmissivities of the fracture zone intersections in the site investigation boreholes
and used in the Olkiluoto bedrock model2001/2 (Saksa et al. 2002) are shown in Figure
7-2 (Sievanen 2002). The transmissivities measured from the cemented fracture zone
73
intersections (those intersections that had to be stabilised during drilling) have been
increased in the figure by a factor of 10, because it has been estimated that cementing
reduces the transmissivity by a factor of 10 (a rough approximation). The depth-
dependence of transmissivity has been estimated from the data and illustrated by three
visually fitted curves that have been used to defme three transmissivity classes of
fracture zones, A, B and C (these classes were chosen subjectively for the purposes of
flow modelling). It can be seen from the figure that the depth-dependence of transmis-
sivity is significant in the upper part of the bedrock, but reduces with depth. The
transmissivity seems to decrease by about two orders of magnitude from the surface
down to a depth of500 m.
2
log (T, m /s)
-11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3
0
.R39/K~:: 3
+j R18/KR7
100 ------------------- --~---- ----- ------- '

-- ~ - R64i"KR12 ___ ------ T
'
: • R10N KR3 :
: + R1q/KR
+ ! R65/ KR12 i R60/ KR11 , , , i
200 ----- --------- -------' -- ------------------:--------------- ----- --:-- -------------------:------------
: R49/ K + R4Q/ KR3 :
- ------- Ri9sii< ·-- --- R 19 Bf~R
: ~ + + : +
-----------------:---------------------
R20NKR7 :
: : • RZ/ KRp R9 ,R5 R20C/ ' :
. + R34/ KR2 : : : ' '
: • R6~ KR11 :R4~KR3 . R35/ K!u , : + R20B/ KR7 i
: : + 5~/ KR6 : : R46/ KR4 : ~ :
300 --------------------- ---------------------:-··-Riocii<Ff --- =~~-~ ---------------:·-- -----------------:--~~~i~- ~ -- ·· r·R3i f20NKR 4- ---------------------
1
: : ~ : R1B/KR5 + : R72/ KR3 :
1
R20B/ KR4
1
:
: R68/ K, 12 + R6V/ KR12 R17A/K R10 + : : : :
+ ~14/ KR2 ~42/ KR ~56tKtf?V KRS : i i i
400 -------------------··j··-------------------j··-R43- -Rt*R54i~Rii _______________ -- · ;u~~~ -R20A/~R9 ·------ -------·-·j·-------------------·j··--------------- ----
i R69/ KR• : i ' : i + R20B/KR9
u; i R5~/ K i :
.a
E 500 _ _ _ r_ ~~~~~~- _______ 1
j__ -----------•~aa~:K~~---- -~-~~f~~~~~----------+tRf. , ~-~-1--------i:::.------------------
~. ·n~':vKR,; ..:................•F :.: .,~'f. '~B/'~...:. . .... ~.~~'~ . . . . . . . .,. . ..

1
N'
600 .................
700 --------------------- .··············

•:. "["~ ~R7 ~VKR::i ~R-7-0-/·.K-R-1_2
----- tjR~iifd~----------:- • .• ___ _ ---------t·-------------------·j··-------------------
800
900
1000
Figure 7-2. Measured transmissivities of the fracture zones in the bedrock model
2001/2 and the depth-dependence of transmissivity in fracture zone classes A, B and C
(Sievanen 2002).
74
When examining the dependence of the hydraulic properties of the fracture zones at
Olkiluoto on their direction and their dip, it was observed that the gently-dipping
fracture zones are hydraulically more conductive than others, and the south-east dipping
fracture zones (with moderate dips) are more conductive than fracture zones with other
dip directions (this might be related to the observation that the minor principal stress is
perpendicular to the SE dipping fracture zones). For gently-dipping conductive fracture
zones, however, no dependence on the dip direction was observed (Vaittinen et al.
2001).
The hydraulic properties of the fracture zones are discussed here in terms of their
transmissivity. The influence of the transmissivity on long-term safety, repository layout
and the constructability of the rock mass is summarised in Appendix 1.
Major regional and local fracture zones usually control the groundwater flows in the
rock mass and may form considerably faster transport routes for groundwater than the
intact rock mass (Andersson et al. 2000). The location, orientation and transmissivity of
fracture zones (as well as the related head distributions) determine the groundwater flux
through the near- and far-fields, by controlling the boundary conditions for this flow
(the influence of the location and orientation of fracture zones has been discussed in
Chapters 4.3.3 and 4.3.4). A highly transmissive fracture zone can be associated with a
greater risk of transporting significant amounts of radionuclides released from the near-
field to the biosphere in a shorter time, compared with fracture zones or fractures with a
low transmissivity. The transmissivity of individual fracture zones may differ by several
orders of magnitude, and therefore this property is likely to have a strong effect on the
transport rates of radionuclides.
The transmissivity within a single fracture zone may also vary considerably. This
implies that a fracture zone should be intersected by several boreholes in order to
establish its properties. For example, at a depth of approximately 300 m, the Canadian
Underground Research Laboratory is intersected by a sub-horizontal fracture zone
(Fracture Zone 2), through which roughly 40 investigation boreholes have been drilled.
Some parts of the zone were observed to have a very low transmissivity, whereas other
parts were highly transmissive, the differences in transmissivity being as much as 5 - 6
orders of magnitude (Chandler 1999t. If fracture zones have not been intersected by an
adequate number of boreholes, as is the case for many of the fracture zones of the
Olkiluoto bedrock model, they should perhaps be regarded as potential hydraulically
conductive fracture zones.
If transmissive fracture zones are intersected by deposition tunnels or are located close
to them, they may have a significant role in supplying corrosive substances into the
near-field, as well as in other processes discussed above in terms of the hydraulic
conductivity of the rock mass (Chapter 7.1 ). Fracture zones are likely to have a higher
hydraulic conductivity than the intact rock mass, as values higher than 1E-08 m/s have
4
This is a very substantial, low angle fracture zone and it may be that it displays a greater range of
transmissivities than do the smaller fracture zones that are present at Olkiluoto.
75
been commonly observed, and in such zones negligible retention of radionuclides can
be expected.
The location of fracture zones with high transmissivities is one of the most important
factors that will control the layout and location of the repository at Olkiluoto. The
intention is to locate the deposition tunnels so that they are not intersected by such
fracture zones (these may, however, intersect the central tunnels, access tunnel or
shafts). To ensure the long-term safety of the repository, a respect distance will be left
to such structures when positioning the repository and the factors that may need to be
considered .when determining such a distance have been discussed in Phase 1 of the
Host Rock Classification Project (McEwen 2002). In the preliminary adaptation of the
repository layout to the situation at Olkiluoto, a respect distance of 50 m has been used
for the most significant hydraulically conductive zones (transmissivity class A, see
Figure 7-2), and 25 m for the less hydraulically conductive zones (transmissivity class
B). Local, narrow fracture zones with a low transmissivity and with mechanical
properties that are not considered problematic from the constructability point of view
are allowed to intersect the deposition tunnels. One example of adapting the repository
is shown in Figure 7-3.
r(J.
I~
If 01
I; 0
If 0
I; 3
;/ m
I
Area available for

deposition tunnels
17 .1.2002
Area used for deposition tunnels Snnio &Ri • kkolaO)IIHM
Figure 7-3. An example of adapting the repository layout to the situation at Olkiluoto at
a depth of 400 m. Transmissive fracture zones are shown in blue.
------------------~ --- -
76
The location of the hydraulically conductive fracture zones and their respect distances
also influence the positioning of the repository accesses and the central tunnels. The aim
is to locate the repository at Olkiluoto without unnecessarily intersecting any hydrauli-
cally conductive major fracture zones, in order to minimise the amount of groundwater
ingress leaking into the repository. This contributes to minimising the possible upconing
of saline groundwater into the repository and, thereby, to ensuring an acceptable
performance for the bentonite buffer and the tunnel backfill. If new fracture zones are
encountered during the construction of the repository, they will be taken into account, as
required, in the repository layout (i.e. by application of the observational method, see
Backblom & Ohberg 2002).
Although the intention is to locate the repository away from fracture zones with high
transmissivities (transmissivity classes A and B, Figure 7-2), it may not be possible to
avoid intersecting such fracture zones in the access tunnel, the central tunnels or the
shafts. It may also be impossible to avoid the deposition tunnels intersecting some
minor local fracture zones with moderate transmissivities. In Sweden, Andersson et al.
(2000) suggest that fracture zones with a transmissivity lower than lE-05 m 2/s will not
constitute any serious problems during construction. At Olkiluoto there are only a few
fracture zones with a measured transmissivity greater than this (Figure 7-2) and these
are mainly located at shallow depths.
The intersection of hydraulically conductive fracture zones influences the excavation,

the support system and the sealing of the tunnels. The main effect of these zones is that
they slow down the excavation work and thereby increase construction costs. The
magnitude of these effects depends on the quality and quantity of the required rock
engineering measures, which, in turn, are dependent on the properties of the fracture
zone to be intersected, the most relevant properties being its groutability, its mechanical
properties and its intersection length in a tunnel or a shaft. The transmissivity of the
fracture zones intersected by tunnels influences significantly the amount of groundwater
ingress and the grout take, which are also dependent on the inflow limits determined for
the repository. Where high inflows are not properly sealed by pre-grouting, the charging
of shot holes and the application of support (shotcrete, bolts) is made more difficult. The
presence of hydraulically conductive fracture zones may also complicate the backfilling
of the tunnels, as well as increase the requirement to install sealing structures.
Discussion
It is important to know the location and properties of the major hydraulically conductive
fracture zones in a volume of rock, so that they can be taken into account when locating
the repository within the rock mass and, where necessary, so that they can be intersected
in a controlled manner. Sufficient geological investigations need to be carried out to
ensure that all of the most significant hydraulically conductive fracture zones have been
observed. Because the properties of these zones may vary considerably in different parts
of the rock mass, sufficient knowledge of these variations should be acquired over the
potential repository area. The properties of the less significant, local fracture zones
77
should be analysed statistically (their frequency, orientation distribution, etc.).

ONKALO will have an important role in the verification of hydraulic data acquired
from previous studies. This is particularly relevant for the minor fracture zones that
have mostly been intersected by only one borehole; at Aspo, for example, the location
and transmissivity of the most significant transmissive fracture zones were fairly well
predicted on the basis of surface and borehole data (Rhen et al. 1997).
7.3 Groundwater properties
The groundwater at Olkiluoto shows significant compositional variation, which is partly

depth-dependent; for example the salinity (TDS = total dissolved solids) increases with
depth. A general description of the chemical composition of the groundwater at Olki-
luoto has been given in Chapter 8.1. The temperature of the groundwater (as a part of
the rock mass) has been discussed in Chapter 5.2. This Chapter focuses on the hydro-
geological significance of the groundwater properties and the properties considered here
are density and viscosity. The influence of these properties on long-term safety is
summarised in Appendix 1. These properties are considered to have no influence on the
repository layout or the constructability of the rock mass.
Groundwater flow, which is mainly driven by topographical variations, is also influ-

enced by the density differences in the groundwater. The most significant factor that
causes density differences at Olkiluoto is the variation in groundwater salinity (Lofman
1995). The correlation between groundwater density (kg/m3) and TDS (g/1) (at a
temperature of 25 °C) has been derived specifically for the Olkiluoto groundwater by
Heikkinen et al. ( 1996):
Density= 0.741·TDS + 998 (7-1)
The significance of density for the groundwater flow is generally greater in areas with
low hydraulic gradients and large concentration differences. Denser water tends to flow
downwards, and the presence of a stable density stratification caused by the increase in
salinity with depth would decrease the flow of groundwater from the repository to the
biosphere and would, therefore, be advantageous in terms of long-term safety (Rosen &
Gustafson 1993). At Olkiluoto, however, the salinity distribution is not in a steady state
with the present level of the groundwater table and the results of Lofman's modelling
(Lofman 1999a) do not suggest that lower flow rates are present in those parts of the
rock mass where saline groundwater is present. The relationship between the saline and
the fresh water is constantly changing due to the isostatic land uplift and will change
further due to other long-term processes that are discussed in more detail in Chapter
10.3.
The flow properties of the water depend on its viscosity. The viscosity is dependent on
the temperature, but also on the salinity, and an increase in temperature reduces the
viscosity. Due to the heat generated by the spent fuel the temperature near a canister
may approach 100 °C, and the viscosity of the water is reduced to about one quarter of
its viscosity at the temperature normally present at a depth of 500 m (SKB 1999b).
78
Temperature also affects the density of the groundwater. The decrease in the viscosity
and density of the water caused by the heat from the spent fuel will influence the
groundwater flow in the vicinity of the repository (Lofman 1995). Density variations
due to the thermal evolution of the repository will, however, be relatively small, and the
heat generation of the fuel will be of fairly minor importance in terms of groundwater
flow (Andersson et al. 1998, Vieno & Nordman 1999).
The density and viscosity of the groundwater influence the hydraulic conductivity (K),
although this effect is of minor importance in practice, as the permeability (k), due to its
much larger variation, has a stronger effect on the hydraulic conductivity than does the
viscosity, and the effect of a change in density is even smaller. An increase in viscosity
- as well as a decrease in density - reduces the hydraulic conductivity (Lofman 1995,
Andersson et al. 2000). Via their effect on groundwater flow, the density and viscosity
have also a minor influence on the transport of radionuclides in the near- and far- field.
Discussion
The density and viscosity of groundwater influence the groundwater flow and thus have
a minor influence also on the transport of radionuclides. In the present conditions at
Olkiluoto, however, the effect of these groundwater properties on the flow is subordi-
nate to other driving forces, and their significance might be even less in the future, due
to the isostatic land uplift and the resulting increase in topographical gradients. Only in
the very long term (beyond the next glacial phase) may density differences become the
main driving force for groundwater flow, in a situation where Olkiluoto is beneath the
sea. Nevertheless, the density variations need to be taken into account in hydrogeologi-
cal modelling. If the temperature and salinity are known, density and viscosity can be
determined using published data.
7.4 Boundary conditions
When the hydrogeological boundary conditions are considered, the gradient for the
groundwater' s hydraulic head is regarded as the most important driving force for
groundwater flow (the ultimate driving force being precipitation). On a large scale, the
hydraulic gradient that is mainly caused by topographical variation does not vary as
much as the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass, which is the main determinant of
the groundwater flux at depth (Andersson et al. 2000). The variation in the groundwater
table at Olkiluoto, as well as the hydraulic heads measured in shallow boreholes in the
uppermost sections of permanent multi-level piezometers, can be seen in Figure 7-4.
79
6793000
6792000
• long-term monitoring
• deep boreholes
t:. spring -95
679tl00 -!------------+----------+---------+-------'--'---'==--~'--'-'-'-____.:;__._____ ___.

1523000 1524000 1525000 1526000 1527000
y
Figure 7-4. Measured means of hydraulic head in shallow boreholes in the uppermost
sections ofpermanent multi-level piezometers. Equipotentials for the groundwater table
are also shown (Ahokas et al. 1997, Anttila et al. 1999).
Hydraulic head distributions at greater depths at Olkiluoto have been measured by

several methods. The most reliable values are based on the long-term monitoring of
water levels over several years in multi-packered boreholes. Below a certain depth the
hydraulic fresh water head increases with depth due to the increasing salinity. This can
be seen in Figure 7-5 where the hydraulic fresh water heads in deep boreholes at
Olkiluoto have been presented as a function of depth (Anttila et al. 1999). A distinction
has to made between the gradient in freshwater head that is more appropriate to take
account of when considering horizontal groundwater movement and the gradient in
environmental head (that takes into account the density of the groundwater) that is of
more interest for vertical groundwater flow. The considerable salinities at depth at
Olkiluoto mean that it is important to consider both heads.
The hydrogeological boundary conditions discussed here are the hydraulic head and the
hydraulic gradient. The influence of the boundary conditions on long-term safety, re-
pository layout and the constructability of the rock mass is summarised in Appendix 1.
80
Hydraulic head, m.a.s.l.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0
-100 ---------------- . ---------------- ---~--- --------------- ----~-- ---------------
-200 -------------------J----------------------·----------------------
' '
-300
u; -400
cU
e -500
-
.s:£
a.
Q)
0
-600
-700
-800
-900
-1000
Figure 7-5. Hydraulic fresh water heads in deep boreholes at Olkiluoto as a function
of depth (Anttila et al. 1999) (m.a.s.l. =metres above sea level).
Hydraulic head (pressure) influences the groundwater flux through the near-field and
thereby affects the performance of the engineered barriers. The gradient in head
determines the flow of water through the bentonite (Vieno et al. 1992) and an increase
in head may increase, for example, the supply of corrosive substances to the surface of
the canister. Similarly, although at a larger scale, the hydraulic head gradient influences
the groundwater flux through the far-field and, thereby, influences the transport of
radionuclides in case of canister failure. Fracture zones may cause noticeable variations
in the head distribution, which will have an effect on the groundwater flux through the
near- and far-fields.
Hydrostatic pressure at depth is determined by the hydraulic head, and could have, at
least theoretically, some additional influence on the integrity of the canisters (in
addition to the influence related to groundwater flow). However, the canisters have been
designed to withstand the hydrostatic pressure at a depth of 700 m (7 MPa). It has also
been demonstrated that the additional hydrostatic pressure of 27 MPa due to a 3 km
thick ice sheet does not cause a failure of the canisters (Raiko & Salo 1999).
Hydraulic gradient is a boundary condition that, according to Darcy' s law and together
with the hydraulic conductivity, determines the distribution of groundwater flows in
rock mass. The hydraulic gradient influences, for example, the groundwater flow rates
into the deposition holes, whereas the direction of the hydraulic gradient with respect to
81
the deposition tunnels influences the groundwater flow rate in the tunnels and in the
EDZ. The magnitude and direction of the hydraulic gradient influence the groundwater
flux through far-field rock as well. Because the hydraulic gradient drives the ground-
water flow, it also drives the advective transport of radionuclides (SKB 1992). Further-
more, the hydraulic gradient influences the transport resistance, although other factors,
such as the flow-wetted surface area and the transport length and, in particular, the
hydraulic conductivity, may be more important in this regard (Andersson et al. 2000).
The hydraulic head and the hydraulic gradient will influence the location of the shaft
and access tunnel entrances, as it is intended that they should be located in the more
elevated areas of the island (in groundwater recharge areas), where the groundwater
table is also higher; in any case far away from the shore line and above the water level
in the reservoirs at Olkiluoto.
Since the canisters have been designed to withstand the hydrostatic pressure of a water
column of 700 m, which is the greatest possible depth for the repository, the hydraulic
heads and the related hydrostatic pressures have no further influence on the depth of the
repository in this respect.
The hydraulic gradient may influence the orientation of the deposition tunnels, as the
tunnels and their EDZ are likely to increase the groundwater flow in the axial direction
of the tunnels, especially where they are oriented in the direction of the hydraulic
gradient, i.e. in the direction of the flow. However, other factors such as the orientation
of the major principal stress or the strike of the foliation will probably determine the
orientation of the deposition tunnels in practice. The direction of the hydraulic gradient
will also be of minor importance in this respect, if the groundwater flow is dominantly
vertical, as is suggested by the current groundwater flow modelling of Olkiluoto by
Lofman (1999a).
High hydrostatic pressures (head) present at depth may cause difficulties in construction
work, when associated with a sufficiently high hydraulic conductivity. High hydrostatic
pressure (approx. 4 MPa at 400 m depth) may cause problems with drilling and make
the charging of the shot holes more difficult as the holes may need to be grouted before
they can be charged. In open fractures, the hydrostatic pressure reduces the normal
stress acting on the fracture surface and, thereby, also reduces the shear strength of these
fractures, which may decrease the stability of the rock mass. A high hydrostatic pressure
can also make, for example, the application of shotcrete more difficult, if the ground-
water inflows are not sealed properly by pre-grouting. In addition, the hydraulic head
influences the amount of groundwater ingress and the requirement for grouting, and a
high hydrostatic pressure can make grouting more difficult (Tolppanen & Kokko 2000).
However, such problems are more obviously determined by the local hydraulic conduc-
tivity, which is likely to show a considerably larger variation at the tunnel scale than the
hydraulic head.
82
The hydraulic gradient has no direct influence on the construction of the repository. The
natural hydraulic gradient determined by the topography at Olkiluoto has no noticeable
influence on the ingress of groundwater into the open repository, as the amount of
groundwater ingress will be determined by the much larger hydraulic gradient formed
during the repository construction and operation.
Discussion
The hydraulic head and the hydraulic gradient are closely linked hydrogeological
boundary conditions that control the flow of groundwater in crystalline rock in many
ways. The hydraulic gradient, which is mainly determined by topographical variations,
provides the main driving force for groundwater flow through the rock mass. The
hydraulic head and the hydraulic gradient influence the groundwater flux through the
near- and far-fields and thereby affect the performance of the engineered barriers as
well as the transport of radionuclides in the case of a canister failure. If the direction of
the hydraulic gradient is parallel to the orientation of the deposition tunnels, the ground-
water flow rate in the axial direction of the tunnels may be increased. It is possible,
therefore, that the hydraulic gradient may have some significance when determining the
orientation of the deposition tunnels. Otherwise the hydrogeological boundary condi-
tions are likely to have minor influence on the layout of the repository. The location of
the repository at Olkiluoto is, however, influenced by these boundary conditions, as the
repository and, in particular, the shaft and access tunnel entrances, are intended to be
located in the areas where the groundwater table is clearly above sea level and also
above the water level in the reservoirs.
Regarding the constructability of the rock mass, the high hydrostatic pressures which
will be encountered at depth need to be taken into account. If associated with a
sufficiently high hydraulic conductivity, these high pressures may cause problems in
drilling and blasting, as well as in supporting and grouting of the rock mass. The
hydraulic gradient that is formed during the construction of the repository is many times
greater than the natural gradient, which will thus have no specific influence on the
amount of groundwater ingress into the open repository.
It needs to be emphasised here that coupled hydro-mechanical relationships exist

between the response of the groundwater system to the construction of the repository
and the damage to the rock mass caused by this construction. The development of
transmissive pathways through the rock mass due to the construction process, where
few or none existed beforehand, results in a greater connectivity of the fracture network,
which will change the groundwater flow pattern., whilst the formation of underground
openings results in a redistribution of the stresses which, in turn, affects the flow of
groundwater.
83
8 CHEMISTRY
8.1 Groundwater chemistry
The salinity (TDS =total dissolved solids) at Olkiluoto increases with depth (Figure
8-1 ). Fresh groundwater (TDS < 1 g/1) is found only at shallow depths. Brackish
groundwater (1 g/1 < TDS < 10 g/1) is found at depths varying between 40 m and 500 m
("depth" refers here to borehole length). Below 400- 500 m saline water is observed. At
present, the observed maximum TDS is 75 g/1 (Ruotsalainen et al. 2000). The amount of
Cl also increases with depth, exceeding 5 g/1 approximately at the depth of 400 m. The
hydrochemistry of Olkiluoto seems to contain a well-developed profile derived from the
effects of climatic and shoreline changes from modem times, through former Baltic Sea
stages to preglacial times. Five end-member types affecting the groundwater composi-
tion have been identified (Pitkanen et al. 1996, 1999). At a depth of 500 m the main
water type changes from brackish Na-Cl water to saline Ca-Na-Cl water (Figure 8-2)
(Anttila et al. 1999).
TDS, mg/1
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000
0
100
-
~l, ~
200
,.
~b.-0 +KR1
~
0 KR2
300
!:::.j b.KR3
E 400
nf. ~11!
-
.£:
cQ).
c
500
600 ~
~
•
oKR4
e KRS
• KR8
700
800 • ~·
<:
KR9
b. KR1 0
900
::tc Shallow gw's
1000
0 Baltic seawater
Figure 8-1. TDS as a function of depth for Olkiluoto groundwaters. Shallow ground-
waters represent water samples from springs, groundwater pipes, wells and surface
waters. Baltic Sea water represents sea water samples taken off-shore Olkiluoto from
the Gulf of Bothnia. Deep groundwaters are from deep boreholes KRJ- KR5,
KR8- KRJO (Anttila et al. 1999).
84
Na- Cl- S04

~
Figure 8-2. Illustrated cross-section (view to north) of hydrogeochemical and hydro-

geological conditions in the bedrock of Olkiluoto based on an interpretation of hydro-
geochemistry (Pitkanen et al. 1999). Changes in colours describe the alteration in
water type. Blue arrows represent flow directions. Rounded rectangles contain the main
sources with estimated 8 3 C data, and sinks affecting pH and redox conditions.
Rectangles show measured/calculated 8 3C(DIC) of selected groundwater samples.
Generalised fracture zones (coded by R) are combined on the basis of the bedrock
models by Saksa et al. (1996). Boreholes KR2 and KR4 are combined due to their
similar hydrogeological character (Anttila et al. 1999).
The pH values of borehole groundwater samples at Olkiluoto have a moderate range

from 7.3 to 8.3, being slightly to fairly alkaline. Redox measurements suggest the
prevalence of fairly reducing conditions in the boreholes (Eh -50 ... -270 mV). Eh
decreases with depth in certain boreholes, though large variations exist in the data
(Figure 8-3). There are large differences in the concentrations of the main components
of Olkiluoto groundwater, also in the concentrations of the redox-sensitive species,
sulphate, sulphide, iron and methane (Anttila et al. 1999). The chemical conditions
discussed here refer to natural conditions, whereas the disturbed conditions are
discussed in Chapter 10.
85
200
100 Il.
._
••
+KR1
DKR2
0 •o--..A
A A.
.. Il l V V
6_KR3
~
> 0 oKR4
E_ -100 ... ....
..... u e KR5
.s::::
w
6.
• ~ • • KR8
-200 -6.- ~------o
oKR9
-300 • l 6. KR10
-400
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Depth, m
Figure 8-3. Eh as a function of depth for Olkiluoto groundwaters from deep boreholes
(KRJ- KR5, KR8- KRJO) (Anttila et al. 1999).
The hydrogeochemical parameters considered in this chapter are TDS, Eh, pH, er,
sol-, HCo3-;col-, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, No3-, N02-, NH4+, HPol-, Hs-;s 2-, Fe, Mn,
U, Si, AI, F-, Rn, N 2, H2, CH4, C02, Ar, He, DOC, acetates, humic and fulvic acids,
microbes and colloids. The influence of groundwater chemistry on long-term safety,
1.
The salinity (TDS = total dissolved solids) of groundwater is an important parameter at

Olkiluoto, where the present groundwater at the proposed range of disposal depths is
expected to be brackish or saline. TDS has significant influence on both the near- and
far-field. In the near-field, the salinity may have an impact on the bentonite's stability
and on the diffusion and sorption of radionuclides in bentonite, for example the
diffusion of Cs+ and Sr2+. A very high TDS impairs the swelling capacity and increases
the hydraulic conductivity of bentonite buffer and particularly the bentonite/crushed
rock backfill, due to the fact that the backfill has a lower density than the buffer
(Andersson et al. 1998, Vieno 2000). At concentrations higher than 100 g/1 the buffer's
swelling capacity may have declined by more than a half for a bentonite with a density
of 2000 kg/m3 (Andersson et al. 2000). The canister is not directly affected by the TDS,
but a high chloride content in combination with a low pH (< 6) and a high temperature
(80 - 100 °C) may cause corrosion of copper (see er below) (King et al. 2002).
In the far-field, the TDS influences the groundwater flow through its effect on the
groundwater density (see Chapter 7.3), and a high salinity can even be considered as
86
advantageous if it is associated with a stable density stratification which decreases the

flow of groundwater from the repository to the biosphere (Rosen & Gustafson 1993).
The TDS also influences matrix diffusion, via its effect on the groundwater flow
velocity, and the enhanced matrix diffusion due to high salinity may compensate for the
unfavourable chemical effects of saline water (Vieno et al. 1992). The level of salinity
also influences the retardation properties (solubility, sorption, diffusivity) of many
radionuclides, the most significant effect being the reduced sorption of cations (e.g. Sr,
es, Ra) in saline water (Vieno 2000).
The redox potential (Eh) of groundwater is of primary importance for the performance
of the canister, since it is designed to be stable in oxygen-free reducing conditions,
which are expected to prevail at the disposal depth. In oxidising conditions the corrosion
of copper may be significantly enhanced by localised pitting corrosion (Vieno 2000).
Redox conditions have important influence on the dissolution of the fuel, as the
oxidation rate of the U02 matrix controls the release rates of radionuclides into the
groundwater (TVO 1992). Eh also influences the retardation and transport (Ki, Da) of
nuclides in bentonite, for example the diffusion and sorption of Tc, U and Np (Vieno et
al. 1992), and the retardation of redox-sensitive radionuclides in the geosphere (Ki, De
in the rock), for example the solubility of Tc, U and Np is significantly lower and their
sorption in the rock is higher in reducing conditions (Vieno et al. 1992).
The pH of groundwater influences the corrosion of copper, as low pH (< 6) in

combination with a high er concentration may cause general corrosion of copper (see
er below). It also influences the stability of bentonite, e.g. a high pH causes dissolution
of montmorillonite and accessory minerals and affects the retardation (sorption)
capacity of bentonite, as well as the rate of dissolution of the fuel. pH is one of the most
important parameter affecting the solubility of many radionuclides; for example, it
influences the hydrolysis of several important actinides, such as Pu and Am, the
solubility of which is increased by decreasing pH (Bruno et al. 1997, Vuorinen et al.
1998, Ollila & Ahonen 1998, Andersson et al. 1998). High pH values reduce the
solubility and increase the sorption of many radionuclides, with the possible exception
of alkaline earth metals such as es and Sr (Gascoyne 2002).
Increased levels of chloride (Cl) may cause localised corrosion of copper (pitting and
stress corrosion cracking) in oxidising conditions. Even moderate concentrations of er
can contribute to the deepening of corrosion pits by the formation of soluble complexes
with copper that continuously diffuse away from the pits. The pitting attack is, however,
expected to slow down as the er concentration in the pits increases (Vieno 2000,
Puigdomenech & Taxen 2000). On the basis of currently available experimental and
thermodynamic data, it is not possible to totally exclude the possibility that copper will
also corrode in the absence of oxygen, in saline groundwater with a high chloride
content (in combination with a low pH (< 6) and a high temperature (80- 100 oe)),
supported by the electrochemical reduction of water (King et al. 2002). There is
generally a lack of experimental studies performed in strictly controlled anoxic condi-
tions at high temperature and pressure and especially in relevant conditions with mass
transfer limitations. Additional studies are required to quantify the extent of corrosion
and corrosion mechanisms under these conditions. The level of er also influences the
,-- ----
87
extent of retardation in bentonite (e.g. the rate of diffusion of radionuclides in bentonite)

and in the geosphere (Andersson et al. 1998).
Sulphide (HSlS) is expected to be the most important oxidant for copper, having a
potential to cause general corrosion of copper (King et al. 2002). The sulphide content
in the Olkiluoto groundwater is generally less than 2- 3 mg/1 (Anttila et al. 1999). The
dissolution of impurities in the bentonite buffer will supply sulphide for canister
corrosion, however, and the sulphide content of groundwater might be less important, at
least until these impurities are exhausted after some hundreds of thousands of years
(Crawford & Wilmot 1998). On the other hand, HS- influences redox conditions by
reacting with oxygen, and thereby also influences the dissolution of the fuel and the
retardation ofradionuclides (see Eh above) (Andersson et al. 1998).
Sulphate (SO/) may be reduced by bacteria to sulphide with the aid of such reducing
agents (electron donors) as dissolved organic matter (DOC = dissolved organic carbon)
or the dissolved gases hydrogen (H2) and methane (CH4), and thereby it may influence
the corrosion of copper. Although the quantity of S042- is probably not a corrosion-
limiting factor, the quantity of bacteria, organic matter or hydrogen gas may be
(Andersson et al. 1998). The level of sulphate also influences the rate of radionuclide
transport, as it may form complexes with radionuclides (Vuorinen et al. 1998).
Another influence of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is that the decomposition of

organic matter by microbes consumes oxygen from groundwater during recharge and
thereby contributes to reducing conditions (see Eh above) (Pitkanen et al. 1999).
Dissolved gases in groundwater, such as H 2 and CH4 , may also be important for the
migration of radionuclides from the repository, as gas bubbles can take up radionuclides
and act as carriers, if a separate gas phase is present. Other gases, such as nitrogen (N2),
carbon dioxide (C0 2), argon (Ar) and helium (He) may act similarly (Andersson et al.
1998). High C02 may also influence the pH, via its effect on the calcite-groundwater
equilibrium (e.g. dissolution/precipitation processes).
Carbonates (HC0 3-/CO/-) may affect the stability of the canister, as a high carbonate
content may cause pitting in copper. Pitting of copper in the presence of carbonates
occurs exclusively at high positive potentials, where Cu(II) is stable. Such conditions
are not likely to occur in the repository environment (Saario et al. 1999). The presence
of carbonate also influences the dissolution of the U02 fuel (Bruno et al. 1998) and the
solubility of many radionuclides. It can form complexes with most actinides, for
example with Am (Andersson et al. 1998, Bruno et al. 1997, Vuorinen et al. 1998).
The concentration of cations (Na +, Ca 2 +, Mg2 +) is important for the stability of the
bentonite, as low concentrations (< 4 mg/1) can destabilise the bentonite gel, which is
converted to colloidal particles and can then be transported by moving groundwater (see
Colloids below) (Laaksoharju et al. 1995, Andersson et al. 1998, SKB 1999b). Divalent
cations (Ca2+, Mg 2+) are the most important in this respect. At Olkiluoto, the concentra-
tion of these cations is expected to be sufficiently high (i.e. > 4 mg/1) (see Chapter 10.3
for the possible impact of glacial meltwaters on cation concentrations); however, there
can be problems if their concentrations are excessive. The calcium-rich waters at Olki-
luoto, for example, may reduce the swelling pressure and increase the permeability of
88
the bentonite by accelerating the ion exchange of Ca2+ in the porewater for Na+ in the
clay minerals. This process is, however, considered to have only a moderate effect on
the performance of highly compacted bentonite (Vieno & Nordman 1999). The ben-
tonite is also affected by the presence of potassium (K), as illitisation will reduce its
swelling capacity. This reaction requires relatively high temperatures and if the
temperature of the bentonite remains below the design limit of 100 °C, the process is
expected to be extremely slow (SKB 1999b). The presence ofNa+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ also
influences the extent of radionuclide retardation in the rock, as, for example, the
sorption of Cs+ and Sr2+ on the minerals is directly dependent on the concentration of
other cations in the groundwater (Andersson et al. 1998, 2000).
Nitrogen compounds, such as nitrate (N0 3 ), nitrite (N0 2 ) and ammonium (NH4 +), as
well as acetates can cause stress corrosion cracking in copper. It is highly unlikely,
however, that sufficient nitrate and nitrite will be present within the repository to cause
this effect (Andersson et al. 1998; Saario et al. 1999; King et al. 2002). N0 3 -, NH4 + and
phosphate (HPO/) are nutrients and stimulate bacterial growth. Their presence could,
therefore, influence the transport of radionuclides or the isolating capacity of the canis-
ter (in the situation where the bentonite buffer has failed, see Microbes below) (Anders-
son et al. 1998). HPol- may also have some influence on the rate of radionuclide
transport due to its potential for forming strong complexes (Wingefors 1995). Humic
substances (humic and fulvic acids) can also form complexes with some radionuclides
and thereby influence their solubility and sorption (Andersson et al. 1989, 1998). In
addition, fluoride (F) may have a similar effect on radionuclide transport, as well as
some influence on radionuclide diffusion in bentonite, due to its potential for forming
complexes, e.g. with U (Wingefors 1995).
Sulphate-reducing bacteria (microbes) produce sulphide and thereby might contribute to

the corrosion of copper, which was discussed above (see HS-/S 2- and sol-). However, it
has been observed that bacteria are unable to be active in compacted bentonite, so they
will have no influence on a canister that is properly protected by the bentonite buffer
(Pusch 1999). Oxygen-consuming microbes have a significant role in maintaining
reducing conditions (see Eh above). Microbes will also influence the transport of
radionuclides in several different ways. Microbes often occur as biofilms on fracture
surfaces that may hinder the diffusion of radionuclides into the rock matrix. They may
also contribute to the sorption and precipitation of strontium. Migration of radionuclides
sorbed onto microbes is considered to be of minor importance (Vieno & Nordman
1999). Bacteria may also cause the generation of colloids (e.g. iron hydroxide particles)
and colloidal particles can take up radionuclides and act as carriers (Andersson et al.
1989, 1998). However, colloids can also cause retardation, as filtration and entrapment
may deplete the colloid population and immobilise radionuclides (Vieno & Nordman
1999). Colloids may form in the near-field at the bentonite-rock interface due to the
effect of low cation concentrations (see Na+, Ca2+ etc. above), which are most likely to
be associated with a glacial scenario (see Chapter 10.3).
Particles larger than colloids may cause retardation by eo-precipitation. For example,
the precipitation of oxides/hydroxides of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) can extract
radionuclides from the groundwater. Fe2+, on the other hand, also influences the
isolating capacity of the canister by providing protection against oxygen, and via its
- - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - ,
89
control of redox conditions it also influences the dissolution of the fuel and the
retardation of radionuclides (see Eh above) (Andersson et al. 1998). The presence of
Mn2+ can also provide a similar protection against oxygen.
Silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al) have some influence on the isolating capacity of
bentonite (Andersson et al. 1998). The precipitation of Si in the bentonite can, for
example, reduce the swelling capacity of the bentonite buffer. Si and AI are, however,
already present in the bentonite minerals (SKB 1999b).
TDS and the Ct concentration of the groundwater increase with depth at Olkiluoto and
in order to avoid unacceptably high TDS or er concentrations it may be necessary to
locate the repository at a shallower depth (a maximum allowable TDS concentration of
100 g/1 has been proposed in Sweden (Andersson et al. 2000), and a concentration of
35 g/1 has been suggested in Finland as a design basis (Vieno 2000)). The increase in
salinity is somewhat irregular, however, and the upconing of highly saline water due to
repository construction needs also to be taken into account. The extent of such
upconing, and thereby the detrimental effect of increased salinity in the area of
deposition holes, may be reduced by locating the repository in a rock mass with a low
hydraulic conductivity (avoiding fracture zones with good hydraulic connections to
deep, highly saline groundwaters ). Preliminary calculations (Sievanen 2002) indicate
that the total inflow into the access tunnel will be greater than the total inflow into the
actual repository (the central tunnels and deposition tunnels that are simultaneously
open), which is mainly due to the fact that the uppermost bedrock is significantly more
conductive than the bedrock at the disposal depth. It may, therefore, also be advanta-
geous to locate the access tunnel near the repository margin, in order to prevent the most
pronounced upconing from occurring in the area of the deposition tunnels.
Other hydrogeochemical parameters, such as Eh and pH, will not affect the depth of the
repository in practice, since acidic, oxidising waters are expected to be present only at
very shallow depths.
The TDS needs to be taken into account during the construction phase as well, although
most of the construction-related influences of salinity are due specifically to high levels
of chloride and some other ions discussed below. Because high levels of salinity have
undesirable effects on bentonite and need to be avoided for the safe long-term disposal
of spent fuel, there is a preference to minimise the upconing of saline water. This can be
done by minimising the ingress of groundwater, and in this way the level of salinity can
be seen to influence the sealing requirements of the repository.
Redox conditions (Eh) may have some influence on the corrosion rate of steel in support
materials and technical installations, as the corrosion of steel is possible only when there
is enough oxygen present (Leinonen 1997). However, oxygen will be present in the
repository during the construction phase due to ventilation (see Chapter 10.1 ).
90
pH influences the corrosion of concrete (e.g. shotcrete) and cement grouts, because
acids corrode the compounds of hardened cement paste. They change the calcium com-
pounds of the cement paste into calcium salts, so that the internal structure of the
cement paste is completely destroyed. pH also influences the corrosion of steel. The
corrosion risk of steel in steel-concrete structures increases significantly if the pH of
concrete decreases below 9 (Finnish Concrete Association 1992, Leinonen 1997).
Chlorides (Cl) accelerate the corrosion of steel and steel-concrete structures. The
penetration rate of chlorides into concrete is primarily dependent on the compactness of
the concrete. The thickness of the concrete covering is of prime importance with regard
to the initiation of corrosion of the reinforcement, since such corrosion can only
commence when the chloride content of the concrete exceeds a certain critical value at
the surface of the reinforcement within the concrete (this critical value is not a fixed
value, as it depends, for example, on the pH of the concrete pore water). When this
value is exceeded the passive film protecting the reinforcement is broken and corrosion
may commence (Finnish Concrete Association 1992, Leinonen 1997). In the repository
a high chloride content will increase the corrosion of excavation equipment and
technical installations, affect the choice of support materials and methods and increase
the requirement to repair steel structures and steel-concrete structures. In a similar
manner to TDS, the chloride content can be seen to influence the sealing requirements
in order to minimise the upconing of saline water. On the other hand, the presence of
chlorides may largely hinder the damaging effect of sulphates on concrete (see below)
(Finnish Concrete Association 1992).
Sulphide (HSl~) may cause corrosion of concrete and cement grouts. Dissolved
hydrogen sulphide may accelerate the localised corrosion (pitting) of steel in steel-
concrete structures. Microbes may reduce sulphate to sulphide and thus influence the
corrosion of concrete and cement grouts (Leinonen 1997).
Sulphate (SO/-) ions penetrate concrete and react with the hardened cement paste. The
volume of the reaction products is greater than the original volume of the cement paste,
which causes the concrete to expand and crack irregularly. Cracking further facilitates
the penetration of sulphates into concrete, and its structure may be completely
destroyed. The damage caused by sulphates to concrete is influenced by the amount of
sulphate present and the presence of moisture. In the repository a high sulphate
concentration (a concentration of sol-> 3000 m /1 corresponds to a strongly aggressive
environment) could influence the choice of suitable grouting agents and increase the
requirement to repair concrete structures. Sulphates may also cause corrosion of steel,
when associated with a temperature rise (Finnish Concrete Association 1992, Leinonen
1997).
Bicarbonate (HC0 3-) has some influence on the corrosion of steel. In the presence of
chloride and sulphate ions the corrosion rate is reduced by the increase in HC03-
concentration. An increase in Ca 2+ concentration (in the presence of HC0 3-) also
reduces the corrosion rate of steel (see also C0 2 below) (RIL 1981). Carbonates (CO/)
may also cause corrosion of cement grouts and influence the durability of concrete by
causing the precipitation ofMg(OH) 2 and Ca(OH) 2 in concrete (Vuorinen et al. 1989).
91
Magnesium (Mg2 +) salts react with cement paste, whereupon the magnesium may
replace calcium in the hydration products. The reaction products lack the strength
properties of the original calcium compounds and the concrete binder is destroyed (RIL
1979). Thus the Mg in groundwater corrodes concrete and possibly also cement grouts,
and increases the requirement to repair concrete structures.
Ammonium (NH4 +) salts, excluding carbonate, oxalate and fluoride, can be damaging to
concrete because they react with the calcium hydroxide of cement paste producing
soluble calcium salts and free ammonia, which is released as gas (RIL 1979). NH4+may
also corrode cement grouts, as well as increase the requirement to repair concrete
structures in the repository.
Methane (CH4) is a flammable gas that can form an explosive gas mixture with air (SFS
1998) and may thus influence the operational safety in the repository. CH4 dissolved in
groundwater can enter the repository via groundwater ingress and be released from the
water into the tunnel air. The amount of released methane will depend on the rate of
ingress and the concentration of methane in the groundwater. Since CH4 is abundant in
the groundwater at Olkiluoto, the safety of the working environment needs to be
ensured by proper ventilation and by monitoring the rate of groundwater ingress and the
methane content of the groundwater. Hydrogen (H2) is also a flammable gas and may
thus have a similar effect. Although hydrogen has been observed in the saline ground-
water at Olkiluoto, it is not as abundant as methane (Pitkanen et al. 1999).
Carbon dioxide (C0 2) reacts chemically with the free calcium hydroxide of cement
paste forming calcium carbonate, in other words the concrete is carbonated. When C0 2-
rich groundwater comes into contact with the carbonated surface of concrete, calcium
carbonate changes into readily soluble calcium bicarbonate and moves away from the
concrete, causing it to corrode. The hardness of the water influences the corrosive effect
of C02, as in hard water some of the C0 2 is unable to react with concrete. Chemically
free, corroding C0 2 is called aggressive C0 2 (RIL 1979, Finnish Concrete Association
1992, Leinonen 1997) and the presence of aggressive C0 2 increases the requirement to
repair concrete structures. During the construction phase C0 2 will be introduced in the
repository through ventilation.
Radon (Rn) in bedrock is transported into excavations mainly through the leaking
groundwater, from which it is released into the air. Radon levels can be controlled by
efficient ventilation and drainage. Therefore the radon content of the groundwater will
influence the requirement for ventilation, particularly during the operation and closure
phases, as well as the construction costs of the drainage system during the construction
phase. Uranium (U) may also need to be taken into account in a similar manner. At
Olkiluoto, however, the content of U is probably so low that normal ventilation is
sufficient to eliminate any risks involved in it. The radon content of the groundwater
needs, however, to be studied.
Precipitation of iron (Fe) can cause plugging of drainage pipes in shotcrete or in the
subsurface drainage system. Humic and fulvic acids may slowly corrode concrete and
possibly also cement grouts (Finnish Concrete Association 1992, Leinonen 1997). The
92
content of humic and fulvic acids is, however, so low at depth that this effect will be
insignificant.
Discussion
The most important parameters controlling the rate of general corrosion of copper under
the repository conditions expected for the KBS-3 disposal concept are the rates of mass
transport of species to and from the canister surface, the availability of 0 2 (redox
conditions), the influx of er ions from the groundwater, and the supply of sulphide ions
to the canister (King et al. 2002). Oxygen can also corrode the canister by pitting, which
is considered more harmful than the general corrosion of copper. Damage to the canister
due to stress corrosion cracking is believed to be unlikely (King et al. 2002).
The stability of the bentonite is mostly dependent on the total salinity and the concentra-
tion of cations (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+). A very high TDS would impair the swelling
capacity of the bentonite and increase the hydraulic conductivity of both the bentonite
buffer and particularly the bentonite/crushed rock backfill. A moderate concentration
(> 4 mg/1) of Ca2+ and Mg2+ is required to prevent the destabilisation of the bentonite
gel. K+ may influence the swelling capacity of the bentonite by illitisation, but the
process requires relatively high temperatures (around 100 °C) and is expected to be
extremely slow in the conditions of the repository.
The dissolution of the spent fuel is mainly determined by the level of redox, as the
oxidation of the U0 2 matrix is required for the release of radionuclides. Redox
conditions also influence the solubility, retardation and transport of nuclides in the near-
field and far-field, together with some other parameters, of which pH, carbonate content
and TDS are probably the most important. Sorption that is affected by ion exchange is
directly dependent on the concentration of other cations in the groundwater and thus on
its salinity.
As the redox conditions at Olkiluoto are reducing from shallow depths downwards, the
only chemical parameters that might influence the location of the repository are
probably TDS and the er concentration, both of which increase with depth in the
groundwater. The repository should, therefore, not be located too deep (not substantially
deeper than 500 m) as the effect of these parameters is, for the most part, detrimental to
both long-term safety and repository construction.
The chemical properties of groundwater that are the most important for the construction
of a repository are chloride and sulphate content, pH, aggressive C0 2, ammonium and
magnesium. The most significant influence of these parameters is the increased corro-
sion of steel or concrete and cement grouts, which affects the durability of excavation
equipment, support materials and grouting agents. Most of these effects will be due to
the very high chloride content at Olkiluoto, while the concentration of the other
substances appears to be so low at the possible disposal depths, that they will not cause
any difficulties in the construction. Methane, hydrogen and radon may need to be taken
into account from the point of view of operational safety.
93
8.2 Chemical properties of fracture minerals
Fracture mineral studies at Olkiluoto have focussed on existing (or geologically-recent)

water-conducting fractures. Detailed fracture mineral investigations (e.g. Gehor et al.
1996, 1997, 2001) show similarities in low-temperature fracture mineral assemblages
among the drill core samples. The most common minerals are calcite, iron sulphides
(pyrite, pyrrhotite), graphite and clay minerals (illite, montmorillonite, kaolinite,
vermiculite). The coexistence of minerals can be classified into 7 assemblages as shown
in Figure 8-4. The mineral assemblages represent groups of minerals, which have been
found on certain fracture surfaces of the drill core or consist of the fracture minerals
found on adjacent fracture surfaces. Strictly, therefore, minerals belonging to an
assemblage are not necessarily in contact or in chemical equilibrium with each other
(Anttila et al. 1999).
0.00
KR3 KR5 KR8
-200m
-400m
-600m
-BOOm
Clay minerals
Fe sulphide - clay minerals
Calcite - clay minerals
• Calcite
Calcite - Fe sulphide
Calcite - Fe sulphide - clay minerals
Calcite - Fe sulphide - clay minerals +1- graphite
Calcite - Fe sulphide - clay minerals - graphite
Missing sample
Figure 8-4. Occurrence of fracture mineral assemblages in the core samples from
Olkiluoto (Gehor et al. 1997).
94
The fracture minerals considered here with respect to their chemical properties are
calcite, clay minerals, iron sulphides, iron hydroxides and other minerals. The influence
of the chemical properties of fracture minerals on long-term safety, repository layout
and the constructability of the rock mass is summarised in Appendix 1.
Calcite is a common fracture-coating mineral at all borehole depths at Olkiluoto, and is

likely to affect the groundwater chemistry. Trends of alkalinity, pH, and saturation of
calcite may be closely related to the dissolution-precipitation behaviour of fracture
calcite and silicate hydrolysis (Pitkanen et al. 1999). The calcite in fractures may,
therefore, affect the long-term safety of the repository via its effect on the groundwater
chemistry, whose influence on the near- and far-fields is discussed in Chapter 8.1 (see
pH, HC0 3-/CO/-, Ca2+) and will not be repeated here.
Calcite has also direct influence on the retardation of radionuclides. Fracture filling
calcite is known to be a significant sink for REE (rare earth elements), Ba, Sr, U and to
some extent also for Th. Rapid calcite precipitation is suggested to increase the trace
element content, whereas later recrystallisation may cause a release of trace elements to
the fluid phase (Landstrom & Tullborg 1995).
Clay minerals in fractures influence the concentration of several cations in groundwater.

Ion exchange reactions taking place in clay minerals influence the N a+ and Ca2+ content
of groundwater, whereas the concentration of K+ and Mg2+ is reduced by uptake in
smectite clays (montmorillonite) and precipitation reactions (SKB 1999b). The
influence of these cations on long-term safety is discussed in Chapter 8.1 (see Na+, Ca2+,
Mg 2+, K+).
Clay minerals have a direct influence on the retardation of nuclides, as they generally
have a high sorption capacity due to their large contact surfaces and their high cation
exchange capacities. This ion exchange capacity can be very element-specific (e.g. Cs
on illite). The Rb/Cs ratio and the Sr content in groundwater may be controlled by
reactions with clay minerals. It is likely that clay minerals are significant in retaining
REEs, Th, U and Ra. Even small amounts present within the fractures and fracture
zones can significantly influence the migration of radionuclides (Landstrom & Tullborg
1995).
Iron sulphides may influence the redox conditions in the near- and far-fields (see Eh in
Chapter 8.1), as the oxidation of iron sulphide minerals in fractures is a potential sink
for oxygen (Pitkanen et al. 1999). Iron sulphides may also influence the sulphide
content of groundwater and, thereby, the corrosion rate of copper (see HS-/S 2- in
Chapter 8.1) (Ahonen 1995).
Iron hydroxides, particularly ferric oxyhydroxides, can oxidise dissolved sulphide and
thus protect the canister from sulphidic corrosion (Ahonen 1995). Several radionuclides
sorb strongly on fracture fillings containing iron hydroxides and this influences trans-
port rates (Vieno & Nordman 1999)- fresh precipitates of Fe-oxyhydroxide have been
95
observed to be effective scavengers of REEs, Se, Ra, Th, U and Ba. It is, however, not
clear which processes dominate the uptake - sorption or eo-precipitation (Landstrom &
Tullborg 1995). It should be noted that there has been only one observation of ferric
oxyhydroxides at Olkiluoto (indicating an efficient redox buffering in the surface bed-
rock), but these minerals are expected to be formed by reactions with oxygen introduced
in the repository environment during the construction of the repository.
Other fracture minerals may also have importance for long-term safety. In addition to
iron oxides, other Fe2+ bearing minerals, such as biotite and chlorite, can react with
oxygen and contribute to reducing conditions. Biotite is also one of the most important
minerals present in the bedrock at Olkiluoto for the retardation of radionuclides due to
its high sorption capacity (see Chapter 8.3).
Fracture filling minerals with potential to affect the retardation of radionuclides or the
groundwater composition have been found at all depths and in all deep boreholes at
Olkiluoto. The chemical properties of fracture minerals will, therefore, have no
influence on the location of the repository (the influence of the mechanical properties of
fracture fillings was discussed in Chapters 4.3.5 and 6.2).
The chemical properties of fracture minerals will probably have no influence on the
constructability of the rock mass. There may be some chemical incompatibility between
fracture fillings and grouting materials (Sievanen 2001 ), but there is insufficient
information regarding this effect to influence the design of the grouting work.
Discussion
The chemical properties of fracture minerals have importance for long-term safety by
their effect on the chemical composition of groundwater and by directly influencing the
retardation properties of the rock mass. Regarding the retardation properties, many
radionuclides sorb strongly onto calcite, clay minerals or iron hydroxides. Regarding the
chemistry of the groundwater, its pH and alkalinity are influenced by calcite, its redox
conditions by iron sulphides and other Fe2 + bearing minerals (biotite, chlorite) and its
cation concentrations by clay minerals. The sulphide concentration in groundwater is
influenced by iron sulphides and the presence of other iron-containing minerals that
may dissolve in the groundwater (at Olkiluoto e.g. iron in silicates) and thus limit the
sulphide solubility. The influence of the groundwater chemistry on the near- and far-
fields was discussed in Chapter 8.1. The redox and pH buffering capacity of fracture
minerals is particularly significant in situations where large amounts of chemically-
adverse groundwaters are introduced in the repository environment, for example due to
the construction of the repository, or later during glacial cycles.
The chemical properties of fracture minerals have no influence on the location or layout
of the repository. It is also unlikely that they will have any influence on the constructa-
bility of the rock mass.
96
8.3 Chemical properties of rock minerals
The chemical composition of rock minerals and the whole rock chemistry have been
analysed from drill core samples at Olkiluoto (e.g. Gehor et al. 1996, 1997, 2001). On
the basis of petrographic and geochemical investigations of the core samples, three main
palaeosome types can be distinguished: mica gneisses, quartzitic gneisses and
amphibolitic palaeosomes. Between these end members, there is a continuous series,
which can be seen in both the mineral and the chemical composition of the palaeosome.
In moving from the pelitic to the more quartzitic compositions, the percentage of quartz
increases and that of biotite decreases (Gehor et al. 1996, Anttila et al. 1999). The
average mineralogical composition of the rock types at Olkiluoto was described in
Chapter 4.2.
The average anorthite content of plagioclase is 20 % in the palaeosomes of the mica

gneiss migmatites, 15 o/o in granites and pegmatites and 40 % in amphibolites (Figure
8-5). The Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratio of biotite is typically 0.6 at Olkiluoto, with no significant
differences between rock types. The sulphur content in the mica gneisses, quartzite
gneisses and granites is typically very low, less than 0.2 %, the highest measured
content being, however, over 3 % in a sample with dots and thin veins of pyrite.
Hematite and magnetite have been identified as accessory iron oxide minerals (Gehor et
al. 1996, 2001).
The rock minerals considered here with respect to their chemical properties are quartz
and feldspars, micas, sulphur-rich minerals, iron oxides and other minerals (some of
these minerals are also common as fracture minerals and have been discussed accord-
ingly in Chapter 8.2). The influence of the chemical properties of rock minerals on long-
term safety and the constructability of the rock mass is summarised in Appendix 1.
These properties are considered to have no influence on the layout and location of the
repository.
Quartz and feldspars are the most abundant minerals in the rocks at Olkiluoto. Their
chemical properties may have some effect on the long-term safety mainly through their
influence on the chemical composition of the groundwater. For example, aluminosili-
cate (mainly plagioclase) hydrolysis buffers pH conditions and may thus influence
copper corrosion, the isolating capacity of bentonite and radionuclide solubility (see pH
in Chapter 8.1) (Pitkanen et al. 1999). Also, the content ofK-bearing minerals (e.g. K-
feldspar) influences the K+ content of groundwater and thereby, for example, the
illitisation of bentonite (see K+ in Chapter 8.1) (Carlsson et al. 1989). The only direct
effect of the chemical properties of quartz and feldspars on the retardation of
radionuclides is negative, since pure oxides, such as quartz, have normally the lowest
sorption capacity (Wingefors 1995).
97
Or
Ab An
. I
Ea toaite
3~~--~-,--~--r-~--~~.~~~
ideropllyllitc
Tremolite TrRt
B. c.
Act4 Magaesio-Hbl
ctiaolite
Hbl .~
~
Ferro-
Actinolite
Fe-
Act
Hbl
Ferro-Hbl
:6Bo
••
.
11 • •
~
••
I
0 2~~--._~--~--~·~--~~·~~~
8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 0

TSi Pblogopite Fe/(Fe+Mg) Anaite
• Mica gneiss migmatite Quartzitic palaeosome

+ Apatite-rich palaeosome • Amphibolite
o Tonalite/mica gneiss & Hornblende-pyroxene gneiss
• Pegmatite + Granite/other granitoid
Figure 8-5. Classification diagrams based on the chemical composition of minerals at

Olkiluoto. A. plagioclase, B. amphibole and C. biotite (Gehor et al. 2001).
One of the influences of micas is that the content of biotite and muscovite influences the
K+ content of groundwater in a similar manner to that of other K-bearing minerals (see
above) (Carlsson et al. 1989). The groundwater chemistry is also affected by the
oxidation of ferrous silicates (for example biotite), which consumes dissolved oxygen
98
effects of which have been discussed in Chapter 8.1 (see Eh). Micas have a direct
influence on the retardation of radionuclides in rock due to their high sorption capacity.
Biotite is known to have the highest sorption capacity of the rock-forming minerals at
Olkiluoto (Lindberg 2001 ).
The influence of sulphur-rich minerals (mainly pyrite and pyrrhotite) is closely related
to the sulphide content and the redox level of the groundwater, as was discussed in
Chapter 8.2. The oxidation of ferrous sulphides consumes oxygen from groundwater
and thereby contributes to the reducing conditions (see Eh in Chapter 8.1) (Pitkanen et
al. 1999). The amount of pyrite and especially pyrrhotite and their grain size may also
influence the sulphide content of groundwater and thereby the corrosion of copper (see
HS-/S 2- in Chapter 8.1 ). Calculations indicate that the concentration of sulphide in
groundwaters is controlled by the solubility of iron monosulphide (mainly pyrrhotite)
(Ahonen 1995). The solubility of iron disulphide (pyrite) is low in reducing conditions
but may become important in the long-term. The groundwater's sulphide and Fe(II)
content influences the redox conditions and thereby also the stability of the bentonite
and spent fuel, as well as the transport and retardation of radionuclides (see Eh in
Chapter 8.1) (Andersson et al. 1998).
The presence of iron oxides may be important for the stability of the canister, as
minerals containing ferric iron can oxidise dissolved sulphide and thus protect the
canister from sulphidic corrosion (Ahonen 1995). The most likely ferric minerals to
react with sulphide are, however, the secondary ferric oxyhydroxides (see Chapter 8.2),
whilst the primary ferric minerals, such as hematite, might not be significant in this
respect.
The content of iron oxides influences the sorption properties of the rock matrix. For
example, hematite is an efficient sorbent especially for transition elements and some
actinides (Vieno & Nordman 1999).
In addition to those minerals discussed above, other minerals may also be important for
the retardation of radionuclides. Like biotite, other iron-bearing minerals, such as
hornblende, have a high sorption capacity. On the other hand, pure carbonates (e.g.
calcite) have normally a low sorption capacity (Wingefors 1995).
The chemical properties of the rock matrix have no significant influence on the
constructability of the rock mass. However, radioactive minerals (particularly in
granite/pegmatite) may increase the level of radon gas in the repository and, therefore,
increase the requirement for ventilation.
Discussion
The chemical properties of rock minerals influence long-term safety by affecting the
groundwater chemistry and the retardation of radionuclides, in a similar manner to the
fracture minerals discussed in Chapter 8.2. Regarding the chemistry of the groundwater,
its pH conditions may be buffered by the hydrolysis of aluminosilicates (plagioclase),
~------------------------------------------------ --- -
99
its redox conditions are affected by the oxidation of ferrous sulphides or ferrous silicates
(biotite), its K+ content is influenced by the content of K-bearing minerals (K-feldspar,
biotite, muscovite), and its sulphide content by the amount of pyrrhotite, pyrite and iron
oxides. However, the groundwater chemistry is dependent on reactions with fracture
minerals (Chapter 8.2), as well as by large-scale processes such as mixing, and small-
scale variations in lithology may not have any significant control, even at the local level.
As regards the retardation of radionuclides, biotite has the best sorption capacity of the
rock-forming minerals at Olkiluoto, and hematite and hornblende may also be efficient
sorbents, whereas pure oxides and carbonates, such as quartz and calcite, have normally
the lowest sorption capacity. However, it has been suggested that the rock composition
is notably less significant for the sorption of most elements than the groundwater
composition (Carbol & Engkvist 1997, Vieno & Nordman 1999).
The chemical properties of the rock matrix are not considered to have any influence on
the repository location or layout. The only construction-related influence is that
radioactive minerals (particularly in granite/pegmatite) may increase the requirement for
ventilation through radon gas levels.
100
101
9 TRANSPORT PROPERTIES
9.1 Groundwater flow
The rate of flow of groundwater through the repository is an important factor to

consider in determining its long-term safety, as it has a major effect on the rate of
radionuclide transport from a canister to the biosphere. In Chapter 7 the hydraulic
properties of the rock mass flow are considered partly from the point of view of long-
term safety, whereas this Chapter considers the significance of solute transport, as
compared simply with groundwater flow. The transport properties of the rock mass have
more impact on long-term safety than they do on the layout and location of the
repository or on its constructability. These two latter subject areas, and in particular the
repository layout and design do, however, need to consider the transport properties of
the rock mass, and these are also discussed.
What is required regarding the location of the repository and, in particular, with regard
to the location of the canisters within it, is the avoidance of fast pathways within the
rock mass. Wherever possible, effort should be concentrated on trying to isolate the
waste from these faster pathways, which are represented by the fracture zones and to a
lesser extent by the HCFs (hydraulically conductive features). This isolation also needs
to extend to the requirement to limit, as far as possible, the formation of hydraulic
connections between these faster pathways. This can be achieved by locating the
repository so as to limit the number of intersections of fracture zones by the access
ramp, the vertical shafts and the repository tunnels, and also by sealing such zones
where they are intersected.
Flow and transport modelling up to the scale of the repository has been carried out by
Poteri & Laitinen (1999) for Olkiluoto. Flow and transport has been considered through
the intact rock mass, via the EDZ and also via fracture zones from the repository to a
depth of 300 m, which represents the maximum depth for a water well.
The influence of the groundwater flow with reference to the transport properties of the
rock mass on long-term safety, repository layout and the constructability of the rock
mass is summarised in Appendix 1.
In TILA-99 (Vieno & Nordman 1999), flow rates around deposition holes for the four
investigation sites are presented, based on calculations from Poteri & Laitinen (1999).
Flow rates through cross sections of 1 x 5 m 2 were based on the transmissivities of the
simulated fracture network and on the range of hydraulic gradients from the regional-to-
site scale flow simulations. The total flow rates in the rock mass around the deposition
holes (Qdephote) selected for use in the near-field transport analysis in TILA-99 are listed
in Table 9-1. The 95th percentiles referred to in this table are only descriptive in nature
and the associated data values should not be considered as statistical parameters. At
each site half or more of the deposition holes were predicted to be located where the
total flow rate in the rock mass around each hole (but not including the adjacent EDZ in
the floor of the deposition tunnel) was, at most, 0.5 1/a. The estimates of the 95th
102
percentile of the flow rates varied from 5 1/a at Olkiluoto under present day climatic
conditions to 50 1/a at some of the other sites. The median value for all the sites was 0.5
1/a.
The values selected for use in TILA -99 were based on the estimates from Poteri &
Laitinen (1999) and their values calculated for Olkiluoto are presented in Table 9-2. The
ranges of percentiles of the flow rates presented in the upper part of Table 9-2 were
calculated using the minimum and maximum values of the hydraulic gradients in the
rock around the different parts of the repository layouts assumed by Poteri & Laitinen
(1999), and took the transmissivities from the simulated fracture network. The maxi-
mum values of the gradients used may be overly conservative for this near-field analysis
Table 9-1. Total flow rates in the rock mass around the deposition holes (Qdephole) -
values selected for use in assessment calculations for TILA-99 (Vieno & Nordman
1999).
Case Qdepbole (1/a)

Non-saline groundwater
"Median" value for all sites 0.5
Romuvaara and future Olkiluoto (95th percentile) 10
Kivetty and future Hastholmen (95th percentile) 50
A ''very wet" location 200
Saline groundwater
"Median" for present day Olkiluoto and Hastholmen
0.5
Present day Olkiluoto (95th percentile)
5
Present day Hastholmen (95th percentile)
25
A ''very wet" location
100
Table 9-2. Upper part of table: Simulated flow rates through 1 x 5 m2 cross sections of
the rock mass and Lower part of table: 95 1h percentiles of the flow rate for Olkiluoto
through cross sections of 4 and 6m 2 (from Poteri & Laitinen 1999).
Gradient (%) Percentiles of flow rate (1/a)

50%. 75%. 95°/o
Olkiluoto 0.5 - 2.0 0.02 -0.1 0.1 - 0.3 0.4 - 1.4
Gradient (%•) All Upper cut-off Upper cut-off

measurements (k < lE-07 m/s) (k < lE-08 m/s)
4m2 cross section 0.7 5.2 1.8 0.9
2
6m cross section 0.7 13 3.8 1.4
103
(as they were derived from larger-scale modelling and also because of the way in which
the repository was simulated). The 95th percentiles of the flow rates (in the lower part of
Table 9-2) are based on another conceptual approach. They were derived from the
statistics of the hydraulic conductivity measurements and the average gradients in
different parts of the repository5 .
Of interest to Olkiluoto is that, according to these site-scale simulations, there is no

difference in the driving forces between the present day situation, with saline ground-
water at depth, and a future situation, when no such groundwater is present.
The groundwater flux through the near-field influences the magnitude of the release of
nuclides in the event of canister failure, influences the stability of the canister, due to
the influx of corrodants and, for more extreme fluxes (or for higher fluxes concentrated
on a small number of fractures with large apertures), can erode the bentonite6 (SKB
1999b). Suggestions have been made as to the maximum flux that should be permitted,
in particular on the scale of the deposition hole. For example, one of the preferences
listed by SKB associated with the conditions that should be taken into account when
locating a repository in the rock mass (Andersson et al. 2000), is that it is preferable that
canister positions are located in parts of the rock mass that are associated with Darcy
velocities of less than 0.01 m/a (3E-10 m/s) on the scale of the canister hole, since lower
fluxes increase the retardation of important radionuclides. Similarly, Hautojarvi et al.
(1995) suggested that deposition holes would be rejected if flow rates were shown to be
excessive and Posiva suggested at the Haikko Workshop that a low groundwater flux
across the cross sectional area of a deposition hole of< 10 1/a would be preferable and
that a reasonably low flux of< 1000 1/a would be acceptable for each deposition tunnel
(Andersson & McEwen 2000). These suggested maximum fluxes, from both Posiva and
SKB, and those presented in TILA-99 provide a good indication of the range of fluxes
that is likely to be acceptable.
In a repository of the KBS-3 type, groundwater flow and fracture apertures (see Chapter
9.2 for a discussion on fracture apertures) influence the retardation of radionuclides
(Moreno & Gylling 1998). The influence is limited, however, as calculations carried out
as part of SR 97 (SKB 1999a) have shown that at a Darcy velocity in excess of
approximately 0.01 m/a, retardation is no longer dependent on groundwater flow. The
importance of this retardation is further dependent on which nuclides are being consid-
ered and on whether there are other limitations to transport in the near-field. SR 97 also
demonstrates that, if the release of radionuclides is limited by a small hole in the
canister, the transition from buffer to rock is of little importance. SKB concluded that,
5
The reasons for selecting cross sectional areas of 4 m2 and 6 m2 is because the hydraulic conductivity
measurements were made over 2 m lengths and, in order to make use of these data in their modelling,
Poteri & Laitinen (1999) combined adjacent measurements to produce intervals of 4 m and 6 m respec-
tively.
6
For this to take place would require an aperture in excess of approximately 0.5 mm, according to SKB
( 1999b). Modelling of the process of bentonite extrusion into fractures suggests that a fracture aperture of
0.1 - 0.5 mm will result in only a small bentonite intrusion distance. For significant erosion to occur, the
apertures would possibly have to be much larger than this. A value as large as 1 cm has been suggested by
Andersson et al. (2000).
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - ------ -- -
104
because of the potential variabilities in the release mechanisms of radionuclides, it was

not possible to define any preferred maximum value of groundwater flow on the scale of
a deposition hole, even if it were possible to specify an approximate upper limit where
the groundwater flux influences the release from the near-field.
In SKB' s view, therefore, there is no reason to require absolute limits to be placed on

the groundwater flux or on fracture apertures on the scale of a deposition hole, although
they consider that preference should be given to low fluxes and small apertures. They
argue that, as long as the buffer is in place and remains so, this, together with the
solubility limits for radionuclides, will provide considerable retardation of any release
from a damaged canister. It is, however, a requirement that the groundwater flux and the
fracture apertures not be so large that the buffer is damaged by erosion. Apertures in
excess of 0.5 mm are needed for the buffer to be damaged (SKB 1999b). The require-
ment of avoiding fractures with large apertures can always be met by a suitable choice
of deposition hole location. Fracture apertures are discussed in more detail in Chapter
9.2.
The Darcy velocity on the scale of a deposition hole is a calculated parameter and
exhibits considerable spatial variation. For example in SKB 91 (SKB 1992) the Darcy
velocity at Finnsjon was calculated to lie in the range 1E-05 ... 0.1 m/a. For the various
sites (Aspo, Finnsjon, Giddi) that were considered as part of SR 97, the calculated
Darcy velocities lie within the same range (Walker & Gylling 1998; Walker & Gylling
1999; Gylling et al. 1999) and also display considerable spatial variation within each
site.
During a site investigation programme, groundwater flows can be calculated from

modelling that uses permeabilities estimated from hydraulic tests in boreholes. These
modelling results provide statistical information that can be used to judge the spatial
variability of the Darcy velocity on the scale of a deposition hole. There are also
methods for the direct measurement of groundwater flux in a section of a borehole, e.g.
Rouhianen (1993). These methods, however, only provide information at a number of
points that can then be used for statistical sampling. It is only during detailed characteri-
sation or later, during repository construction, that the flux in individual deposition
holes can be evaluated.
The groundwater flux on the scale of a deposition hole represents, therefore, a useful
indicator during a site investigation programme of the general suitability of the site. It
is, however, of only limited importance at this stage, since it is also necessary to take
into account the uncertainties in estimating the spatial variability of this attribute. This
implies that, although it is necessary to determine the groundwater flux for each
potential deposition hole location, it is sufficient to demonstrate on the repository scale
only that there is a reasonable likelihood, and not an absolute necessity, of being able to
find considerable portions of the rock mass that have Darcy velocities of less than
approximately 0.01 m/a.
The transport of radionuclides through the far-field takes place mainly by advection in
open fractures. The ground water flow in the far- field is controlled by the properties of
the fracture network, the distribution, orientation and hydraulic properties of the fracture
105
zones and the hydraulic heads, which provide the driving force for flow. The hydraulic
properties of the rock mass and these driving forces are discussed in Chapter 7.
If a radionuclide did not interact with the surrounding rock, its transit time would be
determined by the travel time of the groundwater Ctw), which can be expressed by
(Andersson et al. 2000):
L
fw= - (9-1)
q&J
Where:
L is the length of the transport pathway
q is the Darcy velocity and
s1 is the porosity of the rock
(This equation relates to flow within a porous medium and the concept of porosity here
is different from that in a fractured rock.)
Radionuclides do, however, react with the surrounding rock mass, by both diffusing into
it and, for the majority ofradionuclides, sorbing onto it. Transport in the far-field, where
such retardation and dispersion take place due to matrix diffusion, is modelled by
Posiva using the streamtube concept (Vieno & Nordman 1999). The characteristics of a
transport route can, therefore, be described by means of a single parameter, which takes
into account the distribution of groundwater flow in the fracture system and the effect of
matrix diffusion.
The properties of the transport route, which are described by parameter (u) for a given
species, are proportional to 1/Q, where Q is the flow rate in a fracture (or more correctly
in the channel within the fracture). The extent to which the intact rock mass lying
between the fracture zones is significant in determining the transport through the far-
field, depends of the relative hydraulic conductivities of the fracture network and the
repository system itself, with its array of parallel deposition tunnels, together with their
associated EDZs. Poteri & Laitinen (1999), whose work provided the input to the
groundwater-mediated transport for TILA-99, analyse potential release routes though
the repository to a fracture zone which include both the EDZ and the intact rock mass.
Their selection of the main parameters of the transport routes are listed in Table 9-3.
The flow rate assumed for the EDZ is consistent with the conclusions of the ZED EX
experiment at Aspo (Olsson et al. 1996). Based on this work, it was stated that the rock
within the EDZ possessed an axial hydraulic conductivity that was an order of
magnitude higher than in the surrounding intact rock mass. The thickness of the EDZ
beneath the floor of the deposition tunnels was assumed by Poteri & Laitinen (1999) to
have a thickness of 1 m, a value which was regarded as being conservative. For
example, the results of the ZED EX experiment indicated that the thickness of the EDZ
in the floor of the blasted tunnel was, at most, 80 cm (Olsson et al. 1996). These
2
assumptions resulted in the total cross sectional area of the EDZ being 5 m .
106
Table 9-3. Main parameters of the transport routes to 300 m depth (the assumed
maximum depth of a water well) used for transport modelling and as input to TILA-99
(from Poteri & Laitinen 1999).
Parameter Component of the Selected value Source

transport route
Thickness of barrier EDZ Average transport length in Conservative value of
the EDZ 50 m selected
Intact rock mass Transport length through in Particle tracking in site-

tact rock mass scale porous medium
model
Fracture zone Realistic path length Particle tracking in site-

scale porous medium
model
Flow rate EDZ Maximum driving force in Site-scale porous medium

the repository and kEnz model (kEnz assumed to be
lE-09 m/s)
Intact rock mass Simulated flow rate Canister-scale DFN model

distribution around
deposition holes
Fracture zone Maximum driving force and Site-scale porous medium

transmissivity along flow model
path
The maximum hydraulic gradient within the repository was estimated to be 0. 7 % for
0 lkiluoto and in the intact rock mass around the repository the maximum gradient was
estimated to lie in the range 0.5- 2.0% (Poteri & Laitinen 1999). The hydraulic
gradient within the EDZ was taken as lying somewhere between these figures, though
no modelling was carried out to determine its actual value.
The resulting flow rates along the EDZ are 1 - 1.5 1/a, which are about ten times greater
than the DFN-simulated flow rates around the deposition holes, as would be expected,
based on the anticipated hydraulic conductivity of the intact rock mass compared with
that of the EDZ. The character of the flows is, however, different in that the flow rate
around the deposition holes depends more on the local value of the flow rate (i.e. on the
presence and properties of the local fractures), whereas the flow in the EDZ is over a
larger volume of the rock mass, where the flow is determined by regions of lower
conductivity.
The influence of the hydraulic properties of the rock mass on the layout and location of
a repository has been discussed in Chapter 7. The rate of groundwater flow can have an
influence on the location of the deposition holes, as is discussed above in relation to the
107
long-term safety of the repository. Most importantly, the repository needs to be located
away from transmissive fracture zones. If such zones will, however, be intersected, or if
they lie close to the repository, the formation of fast hydraulic connections to the zones
must be prevented by appropriate sealing.
The influence of the hydraulic properties on the constructability of the rock mass has
been discussed in Chapter 7.
Discussion
The flow of groundwater is an important factor to consider in assessing the long-term

safety of a disposal facility. It has been suggested that there should be a maximum
acceptable flux of groundwater both on the scale of the repository but also, and more
significantly, on the scale of a deposition hole. This maximum acceptable flux can be
related to a maximum acceptable Darcy velocity, again on the scale of the deposition
hole, so that the retardation of important radionuclides can take place to an acceptable
degree.
This preference for a low flux of groundwater then leads back to the requirements to
locate the repository, and more particularly the deposition tunnels and deposition holes,
in those parts of the rock mass that are associated with acceptable groundwater fluxes
and sufficiently far away from transmissive fracture zones (a subject that is discussed in
Chapter 7) and, in this way, the transport properties of the rock mass affect the layout of
the repository.
The influence of the hydraulic properties on the constructability of the rock mass has
also been discussed in Chapter 7 and there are no further requirements imposed in this
area by the transport properties.
9.2 Fracture aperture and geometry
The fracture aperture has an important effect on the transport of radionuclides, however,
as is discussed below, it is not possible to know the distribution of fracture apertures in
a rock mass. Any discussion of fracture apertures has, therefore, to consider the subject
firstly from a theoretical standpoint and then show that the lack of knowledge regarding
the distribution of apertures does not preclude being able to demonstrate that a site is
suitable for the disposal of radioactive waste.
Compared with the distribution of fracture apertures, more information will be available
on the geometry of the fracture network and its connectivity will have an important
influence on the resistance to the transport of radionuclides, as it will determine the
transport distance.
The influence of the aperture and the fracture geometry with reference to the transport
properties of the rock mass on long-term safety, repository layout and the constructabil-
ity of the rock mass is summarised in Appendix 1.
- - - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - - -
108
The aperture of fractures has previously been discussed in Chapter 9.1 with reference to
groundwater flow and in Chapter 4.3.5 with reference to other aspects of the near- and
far- fields. The fracture aperture appears in the equation defining the transport resistance
of a fracture network (RT) (Vieno & Nordman 1999):
WL WL tw
Rr= - = = (9-2)
Q uW2bv 2bv
where:
W is the width of the flow channel (m)

Lis the transport distance (m)
Q is the flow rate in the channel (m3/a)
u is the velocity of the groundwater flowing in the fracture (m/a)
2bv is the volume aperture of the fracture (m)
fw is the groundwater transit time
The transport resistance is equal to WL/Q, and is defined in such a way that it is the
distribution of the flow rate within the fracture network that is being considered, i.e.
WIQ and its integral along the migration path. The groundwater transit time defined in
this concept of the advection - matrix diffusion model is only valid when it is associated
with a specific volume aperture, as is the case in Equation 9-2.
A slightly different approach to modelling the transport resistance is taken by Jussila

(2000), in which the physical parameters of the rock mass are conceptualised differently
from those in TILA-99. The results of this modelling are, however, similar to those of
Vieno & Nordman (1999) and the implications of the value of the transport resistance in
determining the potential suitability of the rock mass for disposal purposes are the same.
In TILA-99 it is assumed in the reference case calculation of the transfer of radionu-

clides from the bentonite into the rock mass that 2bv = 200 Jlm. It is also assumed that
the volume aperture is ten times the hydraulic aperture (2bH), so that 2bH = 20 J-Lm.
Sensitivity analyses are carried out in TILA-99 for volume apertures in the range 43 <
2bv < 680 J-Lm. It is, however, not possible to know the distribution of fracture apertures
and Poteri & Laitinen (1999), in their discussion on the heterogeneity of conductivity
fields, assume that the extent of flow channelling within the plane of individual
fractures can be approximated by a correlated lognormal transmissivity field. The
correlation length that they use in their analysis of 0.5 m, is close to the length of 0.4 m
assumed by Winberg (1997) in his analysis of the transmissivity field at Asp6.
The distribution and magnitude of apertures and the fracture geometry, therefore,
influence the connectivity of fracture networks and, thereby, affect transport times and
flow rates, by determining the distribution of flow within and between fracture surfaces
(Strom 1998). It is not, however, possible to obtain sufficiently detailed information on
the distribution of fracture apertures, and flow and transport modelling bypasses the
109
need for such data by making assumptions as to the likely distribution of values and by
carrying out sensitivity analyses.
As is discussed above in Chapters 9.1 and 4.3.5, only apertures that are exceptionally
large are significant in the immediate vicinity of a deposition hole, where their presence
could result in erosion of the bentonite.
Poteri & Laitinen (1999) estimated the transport resistances (WL/Q) for migration paths
leaving the repository, basing their selection of migration paths on the regional to site-
scale groundwater flow modelling of Lofman (1999a, 1999b). Values of WL/Q for
migration paths at Olkiluoto are listed in TILA-99 for both present-day and future
conditions and with and without the EDZ. As initially indicated in TILA-96 (Vieno &
Nordman, 1996), values of WL/Q of the order of 10 6 a/m would result in negligible
releases to the biosphere, and where a large proportion of the statistical distribution of
migration paths have values of> 104 a/m, this is likely to provide adequate conditions
for repository development (Andersson et al. 2000). It is likely that there will always be
a considerable uncertainty in the estimation of the transport resistance and also that it
will be spatially very variable. The combination of these two factors means that it is
unlikely to be possible to use its value and range as a means of providing a definitive
criterion for defining significant volumes of the rock mass that are most suitable for
locating deposition holes. Its value could, however, be used in a less prescriptive
manner and more as a preference- as it is viewed by SKB (Andersson et al. 2000), i.e.
the avoidance of more transmissive pathways in the rock mass.
The discussion presented in Chapter 9.1 regarding groundwater flow is directly relevant
here with respect to fracture apertures and fracture geometry, in that, it may still be
possible to determine the suitability of single deposition holes by applying this
preference for a maximum value of WL/Q (and thereby, by implication, maximum
values for fracture apertures and fracture connectivity - although the values of these
parameters would not be determined specifically). In this manner it would be possible to
ensure that deposition holes were not connected directly to fast transport pathways (i.e.
those with a low transport resistance).
There is a strong coupling between the transport resistance and the fracture size
distribution, however, the dependence of the resistance on the mean fracture size is not
strong - increasing the mean fracture size by a factor of 5 only increases the
corresponding resistance by a factor of 2 (Poteri & Laitinen 1999). Site-scale modelling
has shown that the EDZ may play an important role in defining transport paths through
the repository. The mean radius of fractures within the EDZ is less than that in the
surrounding intact rock mass (approximately 0.5 m and, therefore, possibly about one
tenth of that in the remainder of the rock), with the result that the transport resistance in
the EDZ is correspondingly smaller.
The aperture of a fracture could influence the location of a deposition hole, but only
where the aperture was extremely large. The potential effect of an aperture of this
magnitude is discussed in Chapters 9.1 and 4.3.5.
110
The geometry of the fracture network has an influence on the layout of the repository
via its effect on the constructability (see Chapter 4.3.5 , where the influence of fractures
on repository layout and location have been discussed, considering aspects of both long-
term safety and constructability). It is less clear, however, the extent to which the
geometry of the fracture network could have an influence on the location and orienta-
tion of the deposition tunnels from the standpoint of radionuclide transport. Certain rock
types or structural units (related to, for example, folding) could be distinguished by
having specific levels of connectivity of the fracture network or have distributions of
fracture sizes that are different from other rock types or units and, in this way, their
transport properties could be different. There is no evidence at present, however, to
suggest that such a situation exists at Olkiluoto. It is also possible that the fracture
connectivity changes significantly with depth - again this would mean that this factor
would need to be taken into account in locating the repository.
It is likely, however, that such effects would only be visible on the scale of the deposi-
tion holes and they have been discussed in terms of groundwater flow in Chapter 9 .1.
The influence of fracture aperture and geometry (orientation, number of fracture sets
etc.) on the constructability of the rock mass has been discussed in Chapter 4.3.5 .
Discussion
As is discussed above, it is not possible to know the distribution of the apertures of

fractures in the rock mass, in particular those values that have a direct influence on the
value of the transport resistance. It is possible, however, to make qualitative compa-
risons of different rock types, as different rock types or different structural units may be
associated with different distributions of aperture values or differences in the form of
the fracture network. Furthermore, it is generally not even necessary to know the
aperture distribution if the transmissivity distribution is known, and this can be
measured through hydraulic tests. Only when the aperture of a fracture in the vicinity of
a deposition hole is so large that it may result in the erosion of bentonite, will the value
of the aperture itself have a direct impact on the suitability of the hole. Fractures with
large apertures could also be associated with high inflows that might prevent the
successful emplacement of the bentonite buffer if no grouting were carried out (and the
use of cementitious grout adjacent to the buffer might be considered unacceptable (see
Chapters 7.1 and 9.1)).
9.3 Properties of the rock mass along the flow paths
Included here are the sorption properties of the rock mass which, to a large extent in
crystalline rock are determined by:
• the porosity of the rock mass, especially that adjacent to the flow paths,
• the pore structure and its connectivity - this will determine the penetration depth of
the matrix diffusion and
111
• the mineralogy of the rock and, more importantly, the extent and mineralogy of
fracture infills and alteration products present.
These three attributes of the rock mass may well be interrelated, in that the connectivity
of the pore structure, for example, may be determined by the extent of past minerali-
sation and alteration episodes. There may have been several of these over a long period
of time, with a complex overprinting of the effects of each of these events.
The influence of the properties of the rock mass along the flow paths with reference to
the transport properties of the rock mass on long-term safety, repository layout and the
Posiva's radionuclide transport models use the concept of the streamtube, as is

discussed above in Chapter 9 .1. Flow paths and groundwater flow in the assessment
models are described in terms of series of streamtubes, where each streamtube is
represented by groundwater flow, porosity and length, with matrix diffusion being the
only phenomenon considered to cause retardation and dispersion (Vieno & Nordman
1999). Within each streamtube transport is described in 1-D and can be solved using
simple models. The spatial variability of the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass and
the variable boundary conditions mean that the flow within different streamtubes will
differ.
Determining the location of flow paths in the rock is not possible deterministically,
however, the distribution of the groundwater flow over the flow paths is important and
the properties of the rock mass along the flow paths determine the rate of transport of
radionuclides through the rock. This subject is discussed extensively in recent safety
assessments, such as TILA-99 and SR 97 and in associated reports, such as Andersson
et al. (1998, 2000).
The type of information on the properties of the rock mass along the flow paths that is
required in order to assess the rate of radionuclide transport at a specific site consists of:
• A detailed examination of the distribution of the fractures in the intact rock mass.
This will need to be done over the scales of relevance to the disposal concept and
suitable investigations and experiments are planned in the ONKALO.
• Information on fracture infills and coatings and the properties of matrix adjacent to
fractures, in order to determine the extent of retardation and sorption mechanisms. A
comparison will be necessary between what can be measured in situ and similar
measurements in the laboratory.
Some of this information will come from the laboratory and some from the site. Rather
than attempt to measure in great detail the various properties of the rock that determine
flow and transport, it would be more sensible to try and reduce the inherent
uncertainties by carrying out long-term tracer tests at a variety of scales. Tracer tests
with durations of several years would be required to investigate attributes of the rock
mass relevant to transport, such as the variability of channelling in the fracture network
112
and the specific surface area available for matrix diffusion. Small-scale testing would
also be required to provide data on a small number of channels. Long-term pump tests,
over periods of several months, would provide the necessary information on the
connectivity of the fracture network and would also increase confidence that there were
no unexpected fast pathways.
In migration models used in safety assessments the sorption of radionuclides dissolved

in the groundwater is described using the sorption coefficient KI (which neglects non-
linear sorption processes) which describes the distribution of the radionuclides between
the water and the rock. KI values depend on both the groundwater chemistry, mainly the
redox, and the mineralogy. Normally conservative values for KI are chosen.
Matrix diffusion is determined by the microstructure of the rock mass adjacent to

fractures and models of this process assume a limited or a maximum penetration depth
in order to define the volume of the rock that is accessible to diffusion (the various
waste disposal organisations make different assumptions regarding the extent of matrix
diffusion and the way it is modelled). The microstructure of the rock mass adjacent to
fractures is complex, so that there can be a considerable heterogeneity in the distribution
of pore geometries - which results in the depths of penetration for different radionu-
clides being limited statistically.
Sensitivity analyses of migration models (e.g. Vieno & Nordman 1999) show that the
sorption data, matrix diffusivity and matrix porosity are important for determining the
retention properties of the rock mass.
As is argued above, it seems unlikely that it will be possible to select large volumes of
the rock mass that are inherently more suitable based on their transport properties,
although it should be possible to select suitable volumes on the scale of a deposition
hole. The constraints on repository depth and location will, however, be determined by a
combination of both the groundwater flux through the rock mass (see Chapter 9.1 ), and
the properties of the rock mass along the flow paths. The extent of radionuclide
retardation in the intact rock mass depends on both of these and on the length of the
flow paths.
It is the flow path length that is significant here, as it has a bearing on the minimum
respect distance that is acceptable between the deposition tunnels and the nearest
transmissive fracture zone, or on the separation of any deposition hole from the nearest
transmissive fracture (see discussion in McEwen 2002). The large inherent variability of
the properties of the rock mass along the flow paths may mean, however, that a
conservative approach will need to be adopted and that considerable respect distances
will always need to be selected.
113
The properties of the rock mass along the flow paths could influence the constructability
of the rock mass, as the construction methods employed could affect the transport
properties to a greater or lesser extent. This could be important in two ways:
• the construction process could result in the development of new, more rapid
transport routes through the rock mass, e.g. via the EDZ, and the scale and
properties of the EDZ are dependent on the construction method employed,
• the use of chemical additives to the rock mass could change the rock mass
properties, e.g. by the use of chemical grouts, or due to the oxidation of chemically-
sensitive species in the rock mass, e.g. pyrite, that could block some existing
transport paths or affect the properties of others.
The potential effects of these changes could influence the choice of the construction
process, in that there could be requirements to minimise the EDZ, which could require
the use of specific construction techniques. Poteri & Laitinen (1999) model the effect of
the EDZ and show that, for some of the cases they considered, the contribution of the
EDZ to the transport resistance was significant (see Chapter 9.1). The use of grout will
reduce the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass and will also tend to reduce its
porosity (and, therefore limit the extent of matrix diffusion). It is likely, however, that
the former of these effects will be more significant, and the use of grout is likely to be
generally advantageous from a transport perspective. Its use may, nevertheless, need to
be limited due to the adverse reaction between cementitious materials and bentonite.
Discussion
The properties of the rock mass along the flow path are important aspects to consider
both at the laboratory scale and in situ. They have an impact on the long-term safety of
the disposal system, via the extent to which they determine the rate at which
radionuclides are released from the repository into a transmissive fracture zone and
thence to the biosphere. These properties also affect the magnitude of the respect
distance between the repository and the fracture zones and, therefore, influence the
location and layout of the repository. The methods used to construct the repository are
also likely to be influenced by the requirement not to effect adversely these properties.
It is unlikely that the values of the matrix porosity, and therefore the extent of matrix
diffusion, will be a factor in selecting specific volumes of the rock mass, as its
variability may not be significant. Only where its value is significantly (greater than 100
times) lower than that normally found in crystalline rocks in Finland would it become
important in its own right.
--------------------------------------------------------------------- - -- - -- --
114
9.4 Groundwater chemistry
Groundwater chemistry is discussed in detail in Chapter 8.1, what is of particular

interest here is the direct effect of groundwater chemistry on flow and transport. Its
effect on flow and transport is, as is explained below, confined to its influence on the
density of the groundwater and to the chemistry of the groundwater along the flow
paths.
The influence of the geochemistry with reference to the transport properties of the rock
mass on long-term safety, repository layout and the constructability of the rock mass is
summarised in Appendix 1.
The chemistry of the groundwater influences the stability of the canister and bentonite
and also the solubility ofradionuclides (see Chapter 8.1 and e.g. Andersson et al. 1998).
It also influences the transport and retardation of radionuclides (see Chapter 8.1) and a
knowledge of the chemical evolution of the site is required to demonstrate that a
sufficient scientific understanding of the environment has been obtained. This is
required so that a robust approach can be taken in assessing the long-term safety of the
site.
A stable geochemical environment is required for an extended period of time to

maintain the integrity of the waste canister, implying that groundwater of unsuitable
composition should not be allowed to flow through the repository for any more than
short intervals. The chemical parameters of interest for long-term safety, such as Eh,
pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), etc. have all been considered in Chapter 8.1. The only
direct influences of groundwater chemistry on flow and transport that remain are the
salinity and the effect of chemistry on radionuclide transport along the flow paths.
The salinity is important in that it determines the density of the groundwater and, hence,
the hydraulic gradients that drive the flow (see Chapter 7.4). Changes in groundwater
density are considerable at Olkiluoto and need to be taken into account in groundwater
flow modelling (see modelling by Lofman 1999a), so that a depth-dependent salinity
model is employed, based on salinity data from the hydrochemical investigations in the
boreholes (see review in Anttila et al. 1999). The equations defining the salinity [C 0(z),
g/1] employed by Lofman (1999a) are, for three different depth ranges:
Co(z) = -0.04982z (0 -5:2 :::;-1 00 m) (9-3)

Co(z) = 3.582e-0.0033z (-100 -5:2 :::;-900 m) (9-4)
Co(z) = 72.0 (-900 -5:2 :::;-1500 m) (9-5)
A linear model is assumed to a depth of 100 m, beyond which an exponential fit has
been made to measured TDS values (see Figure 4-17 ofLofman 1999a), with a constant
density assumed for depths of greater than 900 m. This salinity model represents present
day conditions and was considered reasonable for modelling the groundwater flow, as
its main objective was to characterise the evolving flow conditions, not in the near
future but for periods of up to thousands of years in the future.
115
It is not known what the spatial variability of the groundwater density might be and,
therefore, whether local-scale density gradients could be operative on the scale of the
repository. It is thought that the effect of any such variability on transport will be minor
with respect to the topographically-driven flow.
The retention properties of the rock are determined primarily by the groundwater flow
coupled with matrix diffusion. The chemistry of the groundwater along the flow paths is
important, since it influences the amount of sorption and the possible transport
mechanisms. The parameters that are considered to be important in this regard are listed
in Table 9-4.
Sorption that is affected by ion exchange processes, for example the sorption of Sr2+ and
Cs+ on minerals in the rock, is directly dependent on the concentration of other cations.
Sorption can, however, be reduced by the presence of colloids. The solubility and
mobility of U, Np and Tc are very sensitive to redox conditions. The pH influences the
hydrolysis of radionuclides such as Pu and Am, and carbonate forms complexes with
them (Andersson et al. 1998).
Radionuclides can also form complexes with humic substances and by doing so change
their chemical characteristics. Radionuclides can also become attached to colloidal
particles and can, thereby, move more rapidly than they would otherwise, and gas
bubbles and bacteria can provide similar roles. Other chemical processes, such as eo-
precipitation, have the opposite effect and can remove radionuclides from solution or
delay their migration.
There is, therefore, a general preference for the rock to possess good sorption properties,
little organic complexation and negligible colloid transport, although it is not possible to
state the requisite magnitudes for these factors.
The influence of groundwater chemistry on repository layout and location has been
discussed in Chapter 8 .1.
Table 9-4. Groundwater chemical parameters that are important to consider in deter-
mining radionuclide transport (modified from Andersson et al. 1998).
Level of importance Parameter

Very important pH, Eh, Fe +, HS-, HC0 3-, er, Na+, Ca2+, dissolved gases, e.g.
2
C02, CH4, colloids and bacteria
Less important SO 42-, HPO 32-, F , HS- , Fe3+, Mn2+

116
The influence of groundwater chemistry on the constructability of the rock mass has
been discussed in Chapter 8.1.
Discussion
The effect of groundwater chemistry on flow and transport is, as is explained above,
confined to its influence on the density of the groundwater and to the chemistry of the
groundwater along the flow paths. Other aspects of groundwater chemistry are
discussed in Chapter 8.1.
Chemical data are required for a variety of purposes in assessing the suitability of
specific volumes of host rock for disposal. The requirements on quality in the sampling
and analysis of groundwater are rigorous, as extreme values are often chosen to test the
consequences of unfavourable cases, and a single extreme value could lead to unneces-
sarily conservative assumptions in a safety assessment. It is also not always possible to
carry out repeat sampling of groundwater at a later date, as subsequent hydraulic testing
and other activities may have been carried out that may have irreparably altered the
initial conditions. The implications are that groundwater sampling has to be properly
integrated with the other parts of the investigation programme and such sampling
represents one of the most significant aspects of the investigations at a site. There is,
fortunately, extensive experience of groundwater sampling and testing in low perme-
ability crystalline rocks in many different countries and the significance of obtaining
suitable, high quality groundwater samples is sufficiently well appreciated.
117
10 FACTORS INFLUENCING ROCK PROPERTIES
10.1 Repository construction and foreign materials
The properties of the host rock will be subject to several changes due to the construction
of the repository. These changes, which can be either reversible or irreversible, are rapid
in comparison with the slow processes typically occurring in a bedrock environment
such as at Olkiluoto. The repository construction and the associated materials intro-
duced in the repository environment (referred here as foreign materials) will cause
mechanical, hydraulic and chemical disturbance in the host rock.
The excavation of the repository is planned to be carried out by the drill and blast
method, whereas the deposition holes - also the horizontal deposition holes in the
alternative KBS-3H concept - will be bored by full-face boring. The foreign materials
are considered to include all materials that are not directly related to the disposal or the
backfilling (these are discussed in Chapter 10.2) and they are for the most part
associated with rock support measures and the sealing of the rock mass (by grouting and
possibly also by hydrostatic lining). In addition to these introduced materials, it is
expected that also some materials that were not introduced on purpose will remain in the
repository environment (organic residue etc.).
Mechanical impact
The removal of rock in connection with the excavation of the repository causes a major
stress redistribution around the underground openings. The stress concentrations devel-
oped depend on the geometry of the opening and on the direction and magnitude of the
in situ stress field (Elert et al. 1991, Shen & Stephansson 1996). The effect of the stress
redistribution will be taken into account in rock mechanical modelling and in stability
calculations. The excavation will also have an influence on the level of seismic activity
by inducing microearthquakes in the rock mass near the excavated openings. These
seismic events can be monitored and can be distinguished from the natural events (Saari
1999).
The excavation of the repository is also expected to cause mechanical damage and
disturbance in a zone surrounding the excavated opening. This zone is referred here as
the EDZ, and it is considered to include both the so-called excavation damaged zone
and the excavation disturbed zone. In the damaged zone, which comprises the part of
the EDZ that is closest to the opening, development of new fractures and re-opening or
elongation of existing fractures may occur (Elert et al. 1991, NEA 2002). These changes
are likely to enhance the hydraulic conductivity of the damaged zone, and, in particular,
its axial conductivity is expected to increase. These changes are assumed to be mainly
irreversible and the damaged zone around the tunnels may thus form a preferential
pathway to radionuclide transport. Outside the excavation damaged zone, i.e. the zone
of induced fracturing, the excavation disturbed zone is formed. In this zone the stress
redistributions discussed above may cause block movements, aperture changes on
natural fractures and elastic deformation of the rock (but any changes in this zone are
recoverable). Changes in hydraulic properties depend on aperture changes and hence on
the fracture orientation, extent and connectivity, but it seems that no significant changes
118
in hydraulic conductivity are likely to be associated with the disturbed zone outside the
actual damaged zone (Emsley et al. 1997). The transport properties of the EDZ have
already been discussed in Chapter 9.
The boring of the deposition holes is also expected to cause some mechanical damage.
In the Research Tunnel at Olkiluoto it has been observed that a zone of higher porosity
is formed around the deposition holes and the hydraulic conductivity of this zone is
greater than that of undisturbed rock (Autio 1997). A damaged zone that is very narrow
and not connected to significant water-conducting fracture zones acts mainly as a sink
for radionuclides (Vieno et al. 1992). The increased hydraulic conductivity of the
damaged zone around the tunnels and holes needs to be taken into account in safety
assessment calculations, and may be particularly significant in a case where the dam-
aged zone forms a preferential pathway for radionuclides from the deposition holes into
a fracture zone intersecting the repository. The influence of the mechanical damage on
the thermal properties of the rock is probably minor (the damaged zone around the
deposition holes may, however, contribute to the uniform wetting of the bentonite and
thereby increase its thermal conductivity).
The mechanical impact of the repository construction will be slightly different for the
two alternative disposal concepts, KBS-3V and KBS-3H (previously termed MLH).
There will be differences in the stress concentrations, and a KBS-3H repository may be
mechanically more stable than a KBS-3V repository (Johansson & Rautakorpi 2000).
Regarding the EDZ, it has been observed that full-face boring, which would be used in
the construction of the horizontal deposition holes in the KBS-3H concept, causes less
damage compared with excavation by drill and blast (Emsley et al. 1997), the method to
be used to construct the deposition tunnels in the KBS-3V concept.
Hydraulic impact
The excavation of the repository will have a major hydraulic impact, which will,
however, be mainly reversible. From the beginning of the construction phase ground-
water will flow into the repository from the surrounding rock mass. Water will be
pumped out of the repository, and this draining effect will continue as long as the
repository remains open, although the inflows will be limited to some extent by sealing
measures and by keeping only a part of the repository open at any one time. This will
considerably change the hydraulic head distribution in the repository area, and a
hydraulic gradient that is significantly greater than the current value of 0.01 (1 %) will
be created. In the situation where the repository is located at the depth of 500 m, and the
distance to a significant fracture zone is 50 m, the hydraulic gradient between the two
will be approximately 10. The consequence of this is that inflows into, for example,
deposition holes will also be several orders of magnitude greater while the repository is
open. Groundwater drawdown is expected to occur in the area around the repository, as
well as upconing of more saline groundwater from greater depths, the chemical effects
of which are discussed below. After the repository has been closed, the repository and
the surrounding host rock will return to saturated conditions in a few years, and a hydro-
geological environment similar to that of the pre-construction phase will develop.
119
In groundwater flow modelling, the repository is assumed to affect the flow pattern only
locally (Vieno & Nordman 1999). The influence of the mechanical damage caused by
the excavation on the hydraulic properties of the rock mass surrounding the repository
was discussed above. Since the hydraulic conductivity is expected to increase mainly
along the axis of the tunnels, an increase in groundwater flow is most likely in the case
where the tunnels are constructed parallel to the main direction of groundwater flow, i.e.
in the direction of the prevailing hydraulic gradient. In the vicinity of the repository the
hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass may also be locally lowered due to sealing
measures (mainly cement grouting). It has been estimated that such cement-based seals
will maintain a low hydraulic conductivity for tens of thousands to hundreds of
thousands of years (Alcom et al. 1992, Vieno & Nordman 1999).
Chemical impact
The hydraulic impact discussed above is expected to give rise to so-called upconing of
saline groundwater from greater depths. Consequently the chemical composition of the
groundwater in the repository area will change, and the salinity (TDS) in the vicinity of
the deposition holes will increase, which may be harmful for example for the perform-
ance ofthe bentonite (see Chapter 8.1).
The introduction of surface air in the repository excavations through ventilation will
lead to the creation of oxidising conditions in the repository and the surrounding rock
mass. These conditions are not expected to prevail very long, however, as the oxygen
will be consumed within a few hundred years after repository closure, mainly by the
oxidation of pyrite in the bentonite, and reducing conditions will be reasserted (W ersin
et al. 1994, Crawford & Wilmot 1998).
The foreign materials introduced in the repository environment will also have some
chemical effect. Foreign materials consist mainly of shotcrete, rock bolts and steel
fabrics, cement grouts, organic compounds and battery acid (sulphuric acid). In general,
however, the amount of these materials will be negligible compared with the amount of
materials introduced as part of the engineered barrier system (mainly bentonite buffer
and bentonite/crushed rock backfill) and the amount of chemical components in the
groundwater entering the repository, with the possible exception of calcium which is
abundant in cement-based materials (Jones et al. 1999). The most important chemical
effect will be the pH rise associated with the use of cement in sealing and rock support.
The degradation of cementitious grouts will create a local high pH aqueous environment
(Crawford & Wilmot 1998). The potential use of low pH materials is being studied
(Gascoyne 2002).
Other materials with potential importance are organic compounds and nutrients (nitro-
gen and phosphorus compounds) which may stimulate bacterial growth and thereby
influence, for example, the corrosion of copper canisters (by the reduction of sulphate to
sulphide), as well as cause formation of complexes and thereby affect radionuclide
transport (see Chapter 8.1). Steel is the most abundant foreign material besides cement,
but the amount of it will be much less than the amount of iron in the engineered barriers
and groundwater (J ones et al. 1999). It is, however, estimated that whilst the repository
is under oxidising conditions, iron oxides will precipitate (Ahonen 1995) and thus
120
change the fracture mineralogy in the vicinity of the repository, as was discussed in
Chapter 8.2. Some mineralogical changes induced by the repository construction and
foreign materials may be irreversible.
In addition to the effects listed above, the construction and operation activities in the
repository will cause other chemical disturbances that may, however, be important only
by making it more difficult to obtain representative groundwater samples. As to the
chemical effects discussed above, it is necessary to take the expected changes in
groundwater chemistry into account, for example by estimating the salinity of the
groundwater that will be drawn into the repository due to upconing, instead of only
measuring the salinity of the groundwater that is present at this depth during the
repository construction phase.
10.2 Disposal and engineered barriers
10.2.1 Disposal of spent nuclear fuel
The spent nuclear fuel will be disposed of in the repository according to the disposal
concepts described in Chapter 2.2. One of the major effects of the disposal on the host
rock is the temperature rise generated by radioactive decay of the spent fuel. The
influence of this temperature rise on long-term safety and repository layout has already
been discussed in Chapter 5.2. Regarding the properties of the host rock itself, the
radiogenic heat will mainly affect stress magnitudes and the mechanical properties of
the rock mass, its fracturing properties, the groundwater flow and chemistry of the
groundwater as well as the thermal properties of the rock. The expected thermal
evolution of the rock mass has been discussed by Crawford & Wilmot (1998) and Raiko
(2001). In addition to these thermally-induced effects, the spent fuel may also have
some influence on the host rock through radiation effects.
Thermal effects
The heating of the host rock will cause it to expand, which in turn may result in closure
of fractures in the vicinity of the repository. Some fractures may re-open due to the
subsequent cooling of the rock mass, and this cooling will continue for thousands of
years after the maximum temperatures have been reached (which should occur around
10 to 20 years after repository closure). The response of fractures to this thermal phase
may result in shear displacement along fracture surfaces (Crawford & Wilmot 1998).
On the basis of the maximum expected temperature rise, the thermally-induced stresses
in the deposition area will range between 15 and 30 MP a. In the immediate vicinity of a
deposition hole, however, the increase in the principal stress could be as much as
40 - 45 MPa. In general, all principal stresses will increase, as well as the degree of
confinement, which will have the result that the mechanical situation will remain stable,
although minor spalling may occur on the walls of the deposition holes due to an
increase in the tangential boundary stress. Modelling results indicate that thermal
stresses are unlikely to have a very significant effect on the overall rock mechanical
stability of the repository near-field at Olkiluoto (Johansson & Rautakorpi 2000).
121
Regarding the chemical properties of the host rock, the increase and subsequent
decrease in temperature may cause precipitation and subsequent re-dissolution of calcite
in fractures in the host rock. The increase in temperature will also accelerate the
dissolution of silicates, which may then precipitate on cooling (Crawford & Wilmot
1998).
The temperature rise will directly influence groundwater flow by affecting the density
and viscosity of groundwater and causing thermal convection, though only to a limited
extent, and the localised groundwater convection caused by the increased thermal
gradient will not significantly alter the overall groundwater flow regime (Vieno &
Nordman 1999) (in saturated conditions, the groundwater will not boil even near the
canisters due to the high pressure). The thermal expansion and subsequent contraction
of the rock mass will influence the hydrogeological conditions via changes in the
aperture of fractures. The hydraulic conductivity of the host rock should, therefore,
decrease during the heating period, as a direct result of the closure of fractures. This
effect is not straightforward, however, as groundwater flow, heat transport and rock
deformation are coupled processes. In some cases the hydraulic conductivity may even
slightly increase, if the effect of reduced dynamic viscosity of the groundwater exceeds
the effect of the aperture changes (Johansson & Hakala 1991). The hydraulic
conductivity of the rock mass is also influenced by the above-mentioned precipitation
and dissolution of minerals within fractures.
Temperature has also some effect on the thermal properties of the rock. The heat
capacity increases slightly with increasing temperature, whilst the thermal conductivity
and diffusivity decrease (Kukkonen & Lindberg 1995). This has been taken into account
in thermal calculations by using values for the thermal properties of the rock which have
been determined at temperatures close to the expected near-field temperatures.
Radiation effects
The effects of radiation on the host rock are minor and restricted to the near-field rock
in the immediate vicinity of the canisters. Radiolysis due to gamma and neutron
radiation will have some impact on groundwater chemistry near the canisters (Anders-
son et al. 1989). Gamma radiation will result in the production of hydrogen, which will
dissolve in the porewater of the bentonite and will be dispersed by aqueous diffusion
(Vieno & Nordman 1999).
10.2.2 Engineered barriers
Engineered barriers considered here include the copper-iron canisters, the bentonite
buffer, the bentonite/crushed rock backfill and the concrete plug structures used as
tunnel seals. They will have some influence on the mechanical, hydraulic and chemical
conditions in the host rock, and these influences will be discussed below in more detail.
In addition, the engineered barriers have an indirect influence on the thermal properties
of the rock, as their thermal properties (particularly the thermal conductivity of the
bentonite) affect the evolution of the temperature field in the geosphere. Similarly, the
engineered barriers will have some influence on other thermal and radiation-related
effects discussed above (Chapter 10.2.1 ), as the fuel is separated from the host rock by
122
the canister and the bentonite buffer, which control the transport of heat and signifi-
cantly reduce the radiation into the near-field rock. A cross-section through deposition
tunnels and holes and the engineered barriers are shown in Figure 10-1.
Influence on mechanical conditions
The bentonite in the deposition holes will swell upon saturation creating a swelling
pressure of 7±2 MPa. The swelling pressure will produce stress changes in the
surrounding rock, but its main effect will be to increase the confmement (i.e. the minor
principal stress) and hence it will not decrease the overall stability of the deposition
hole. Tunnel backfilling will also provide the rock with additional support (Johansson &
Rautakorpi 2000). The effect of the swelling pressure of bentonite on the rock
mechanics conditions in the host rock is thus minor compared with the effect of, for
example, repository excavation or the development of thermally-induced stresses (Shen
& Stephansson 1996).
In addition to the swelling pressure of bentonite (both in the deposition holes and in the
tunnel backfill), the engineered barriers may interact mechanically with the near-field
rock in some other ways, for example by the thermal expansion of the bentonite, but
these effects are unlikely to be very significant (SKB 1999b).
TVO Fortum
3500 3500
0
0 0
~ 8V
Fill of crushed
rock and
bentonite
0 0
0 0
0 0
..- ..-
Compacted
bentonite
blocks 0
0
(0
0 (0
0
tO
1"--
Canister for
spent fuel
I I
I 1752 I
I~
'I
I I
: ~ 1752 , :
Figure 10-1. Dimensions of deposition tunnels, deposition holes and engineered

barriers for fuel from the Olkiluoto (TVO) and Loviisa (Fortum) nuclear power plants.
123
Influence on hydrogeological conditions
The repository will be backfilled with a mixture of crushed rock and bentonite, and this
mixture is expected to have a higher hydraulic conductivity than the surrounding rock
mass outside the EDZ. In particular, the conductivity in the uppermost part of a
deposition tunnel may be greater than in the remainder of the tunnel, partly due to the
difficulties in compacting the backfill in that part of the tunnel, and partly due to the
expected erosion processes which may result in a further enhancement of conductivity
along the uppermost part of the tunnel (Carlsson et al. 1989, Elert et al. 1991). Ground-
water flow in the repository area may be increased particularly along the axes of the
tunnels. On the other hand, the flow in the tunnels may be reduced by the insertion of
concrete plug structures that will be used to seal the tunnels after backfilling, although
these structures have not been specifically designed to serve any long-term safety
purpose (Haaramo 1999). The swelling of the bentonite in the backfill is also expected
to reduce its hydraulic conductivity and possibly seal the interface between the backfill
and the EDZ. Bentonite may also extrude into fractures in the EDZ, thereby reducing
their hydraulic conductivity (Crawford & Wilmot 1998). It is difficult to judge the
combined effect of all these competing processes.
The hydraulic conductivity of the bentonite buffer is very low (approx. 1E-13 m/s after
full saturation) and its presence will affect the groundwater flow around the deposition
holes. Its swelling may result in bentonite penetrating any fractures intersecting the
deposition hole, thereby reducing the hydraulic conductivity of the near-field rock mass.
It is assumed by Carlsson et al. (1989) that fractured rock with fracture apertures of
1 - 2 mm will be sealed to a distance of several decimetres from the holes in a relatively
short time. This would offer the possibility of locating deposition holes in somewhat
more fractured rock, provided that the apertures of the fractures intersecting the hole
were not too great and the fractures were not too long (Carlsson et al. 1989).
Influence on chemical conditions
The chemical environment of the repository is significantly affected by the presence of

the engineered barriers. The chemistry of the groundwater in the host rock is buffered
(i.e. maintained at a particular composition) by reactions with the bentonite in contact
with the fluid (Crawford & Wilmot 1998).
Of primary importance are the redox conditions in the repository, which will, as
discussed earlier, be temporarily oxidising at the time of the repository closure (see
Chapter 10.1 ). Reducing conditions will be restored within a few hundred years, mainly
by the oxidation of pyrite in the bentonite and this oxidation will be accelerated by the
temperature rise caused by radiogenic heat production (at least the MX-80 bentonite
contains sufficient amounts of pyrite to consume all initial oxygen left in the repository
(SKB 1999b), but this might not be the case for other bentonite types). Minor amounts
of 0 2 will also be removed by oxidation of the surface of the copper canisters (W ersin et
al. 1994, Crawford & Wilmot 1998).
124
Dissolution of carbonate impurities in the bentonite will buffer the pH in the near-field
to alkaline values, and this buffering will continue for thousands of years. Sulphide will
also be supplied mainly by the dissolution of impurities in the bentonite buffer
(Crawford & Wilmot 1998). Furthermore, the buffer and the backfill may affect the
N a/Ca ratio of the groundwater and also act as a sulphate and carbonate source, thereby
influencing the concentration of these species in the groundwater. The buffer and the
backfill may also act as a source of colloids and gas, by, for example, the corrosion of
the canister producing hydrogen, the microbial degradation of organics in the bentonite
buffer (H 2 and C0 2) etc. (Skagius et al. 1995).
Tunnel seals (plug structures) of concrete are expected to have a similar effect on the
groundwater chemistry as the cementitious foreign materials discussed in Chapter 10.1,
i.e. they may contribute to the local increase in the pH of groundwater (Crawford &
Wilmot 1998).
The engineered barriers control the chemical conditions in the repository area in many
ways, and are particularly important during the first thousands of years after repository
closure. Sulphide, for example, will be supplied by the dissolution of impurities in the
bentonite in the deposition hole for hundreds of thousands of years. However, as the
impurities in the bentonite are exhausted, the sulphide supplied by the groundwater will
gain more importance (Crawford & Wilmot 1998). Because of the chemical impact of
the engineered barriers, very small-scale variation in groundwater composition deter-
mined before disposal takes place may be of little significance, at least regarding the
chemical parameters that are influenced by the engineered barriers, namely redox
conditions, pH, sulphide, etc.
10.3 Glaciation and other long-term changes
During the life-time of the repository, the Olkiluoto site is expected to experience major
climatic changes that are related to the alternation of glacial and interglacial periods.
The next ice sheet is expected to reach the site in approximately 40 000- 50 000 years
time, and will be preceded by the development of periglacial permafrost. The ice sheet
will reach a maximum extent in 55 000 to 70 000 years, followed by a period of rapid
glacial retreat. The second glacial period is expected to persist from approximately
100 000 to 120 000 years. Beyond this, the timing of climatic changes becomes more
difficult to estimate, but the pattern of glacials and interglacials is assumed to persist for
millions of years (Crawford & Wilmot 1998).
The prediction of future climatic changes involves major uncertainties, and the climatic
evolution discussed in this chapter represents only one possible scenario. This scenario
has been presented by Crawford & Wilmot (1998), and it has also been used in the
TILA-99 safety assessment (Vieno & Nordman 1999). The presence of a warm-based
ice sheet is a conservative assumption from the viewpoint of long-term safety, although
it is not necessarily more probable than the presence of a cold-based ice sheet.
125
Influence on geological conditions
The glacial advances expected to occur during the life of the repository will repeatedly
change the topography and the soil layers at Olkiluoto. The advancing ice sheet erodes
the surface of the bedrock and removes any loose deposits, however, the erosion rate is
extremely low and, at the expected rates of erosion, it will probably take at least tens of
millions of years for the repository to be exposed (Crawford & Wilmot 1998).
The current soil layers at Olkiluoto will be eroded during the next glacial advance, and
new deposits will form during the subsequent deglaciation and the following interglacial
period. A similar cycle of erosion and deposition will continue as long as glacial cycling
persists.
Influence on thermal conditions
The thermal impact of future climatic changes on the repository near-field is expected to
be minor compared to that caused by the spent fuel. The possibility of permafrost
reaching depths of 400- 500 m cannot, however, be ruled out (Forsstrom 1999). The
importance of future climatic changes on the thermal conditions is obviously greater in
the far-field, particularly at shallow depths, than it is in the near-field.
Influence on mechanical conditions
The growth of thick ice sheets will cause changes in stress in the underlying rocks, and
in the region surrounding the ice, where compensation for the mass of ice can cause
uplift (known as forebulge ). Similarly, the removal of a thick ice sheet will change the
stress regime, often much more quickly than changes induced by tectonic activity or due
to the growth of an ice sheet - which tends to take considerably more time than its
retreat (Crawford & Wilmot 1998).
Except at the ice margins, stress gradients induced by ice loading and the subsequent
isostatic response will be low. There will be some increase in the horizontal stresses in
the crust. The weight of ice will, however, increase the vertical stress more significantly
and the stress regime will change from predominantly strike-slip to that of normal
faulting (Saari 1992). The increase in vertical stress will tend to close all but vertical
fractures and will inhibit movement on faults, thereby allowing a build-up of strain
energy from tectonic stresses, which may be released upon deglaciation. This stress
relief will occur by movement along existing major fracture zones, though there is no
evidence for large-scale post-glacial faulting having previously occurred in the Olki-
luoto area. Because of this, and also because the site will be some distance from the
expected ice margin (during periods of maximum ice thickness), the effects of glacia-
tion on the stress regime at Olkiluoto will not be significant (Crawford & Wilmot 1998).
The temperature variations that can occur due to climatic changes are small in relation
to those generated by the spent fuel and are judged generally to be of subordinate
importance for the thermomechanical behaviour of the host rock (SKB 1999a).
126
Due to the long times scales related to nuclear fuel disposal, the time-dependency of the
host rock's mecanical properties need to be considered. This is particularly important
because the temperature increase caused by the disposal is expected to enhance the
amount of creep in crystalline rocks. This issue is, however, difficult to study, because
testing can only be conducted in the range of medium to high strain rates, and it remains
unclear, how these results can be applied to engineering applications of, for example, a
billion times greater duration than the test period (Hudson & Harrison 1997).
Influence on hydrogeological conditions
The hydraulic boundary conditions at Olkiluoto are currently changing due to isostatic
uplift and the associated lowering of the relative sea level. Continuing land uplift over
the next 10 000 years is expected to cause a fall in the relative sea level of up to 40 m at
Olkiluoto and as a result, hydraulic gradients will increase and meteoric groundwater
will be driven down to greater depths. The cooling of the climate is expected to lead to
the development of permafrost (in approximately 20 000 years), which will be
discontinuous at first, with taliks present beneath lakes and rivers (Figure 10-2), and
thus have little effect on recharge of the deep groundwater system. Once continuous
permafrost is established, the deep groundwater system will be essentially isolated from
the surface and recharge will cease (Crawford & Wilmot 1998, Ahonen 2001). The
effects of permafrost have been discussed in more detail by Gascoyne (2000).
As the climate continues to cool, a regional ice sheet is expected to develop, and reach
the Olkiluoto site by approximately 50 000 years. Permafrost will initially persist
beneath the toe of the ice sheet, which will be below freezing point with no basal
melting. The growing thickness of the ice will lead to an increase in groundwater heads,
which will in turn increase the flow velocities beneath the warm-based part of the ice
sheet and also beneath the permafrost at the toe. The low hydraulic conductivity of the
rock mass in the vicinity of the site will limit the amount of recharge of glacial melt-
water, however, recharge rates will be elevated over those observed at the present day
Contlnuowa pam1111froal Diacontinuou• pennafroat
o a (Jcm)
__. Groundwater taw Parmmo.t
• Lake. aea Unfrozen ground
Figure 10-2. Illustration of continuous and discontinuous periglacial permafrost and

the corresponding groundwater flow conditions (Boulton et al. 1999).
127
(assuming a warm-based ice sheet) (Crawford & Wilmot 1998). Besides the influx of
meltwater, groundwater flow beneath an ice sheet will be driven by the compression of
the bedrock (Boulton et al. 1999).
During interglacials the hydraulic boundary conditions at Olkiluoto are mainly con-
trolled by shoreline displacement. Olkiluoto may at times be covered by freshwater
lakes and the sea, and due to isostatic uplift rise above sea level again. When the site
becomes covered by a lake or the sea (which is most likely to occur immediately
following deglaciation), the hydraulic gradients will diminish and the groundwater flow
will be driven by density differences alone.
The hydraulic properties of the host rock will be affected by glacial loads and other
long-term changes in the state of stress through their control on fracture properties. An
increase in the vertical stress will serve to close fractures and reduce the horizontal
hydraulic conductivity (Crawford & Wilmot 1998).
Influence on chemical conditions
The effect of long-term climatic changes on groundwater chemistry are associated with
three major processes. Firstly, during periods of permafrost saline groundwater can
form beneath the permafrost due to the exclusion of dissolved ions when ice forms. This
may produce a downward percolating saline front which could extend to greater depth,
via density gradients, along large-scale fracture zones, and consequently increase the
TDS and chloride content near the repository area. Such a process might take over
thousands of years to occur (Forsstrom 1999). Processes related to permafrost have been
discussed in more detail by Ahonen (200 1) and Gascoyne (2000).
Secondly, non-saline and oxidising meltwater under the ice sheet (assuming that it is
warm-based) and in the marginal ice or at the ice front might infiltrate into the bedrock
due to large differences in groundwater heads. These waters will probably be character-
ised by low ionic strength, oxygen saturation and low carbonate content, due to a virtual
absence of microbial activity. In this case, deeply penetrating fracture zones would
facilitate the downward infiltration of alkaline, highly oxidising groundwaters to some
depth (Forsstrom 1999). Any such recharge of glacial meltwaters is not, however,
expected to alter the prevailing reducing conditions at the repository depth (Crawford &
Wilmot 1998, Vieno & Nordman 1999), except possibly for short periods. The low
ionic strength of these meltwaters may be problematic, as too low cation concentrations
(particularly Ca and Mg) can be unfavourable for the stability of the bentonite buffer
and give rise to colloidal transport (Chapter 8.1) (Posiva 2000; Laaksoharju et al. 1995).
Thirdly, with both the lowering and rising of the relative sea level during the glacial
cycle, groundwater of both marine and non-marine origin may infiltrate the rock mass,
leading to a mixing of groundwater types (Forsstrom 1999). Isostatic uplift allows
freshwater to displace brackish and saline waters at depth along fracture zones with high
hydraulic conductivity. Before the next glaciation, the brackish sulphate-rich and fresher
groundwaters presently above the repository depth will start to replace the saline
groundwaters currently at repository depth (Crawford & Wilmot 1998); in 10 000 years,
fresh groundwater may extend below the repository depth (Lofman 1999a) (Figure
128
10-3). The present groundwater system at Olkiluoto shows the influence of past phases
of glacial - interglacial cycling and the penetration of recharge waters with different
chemistries. Similar mixing profiles can be expected to develop in the course of future
glaciations (Crawford & Wilmot 1998).
Base case
t = p:re.!!ent (initial state)
C (TDS)
t =100 years A.P. [g/1]
z = - 500
R27 Rl8 Rll Rl R2l RlOHY REPOSITORY
t = 1000 years A.P.
70
R l OHY REPOSITORY
t =10000 ynrrs A.P.
u~
East
Figure 10-3. The development of the salinity (TDS) concentration at Olkiluoto (for
present day, 100 years, 1000 years and 10 000 years) (Lofman 1999a).
129
In addition to the chemical changes caused by climatic vanatlon, the evolution of

groundwater chemistry and geochemistry will be controlled by water-rock interaction,
for example ion exchange and the dissolution and precipitation of minerals. In principle,
the salinity of the groundwater increases with time due to water-rock reactions. Climate-
induced hydrogeological and hydrochemical changes are, however, expected to be the
most significant determinants for the long-term chemical evolution in the host rock
(which will in the near-field be also influenced by the engineered barriers for at least
hundreds of thousands of years).
Influence on transport conditions
The long-term changes in transport conditions reflect the changes in hydrogeological

and chemical conditions described above. In the near-field, the supply of corrodants
depend on the groundwater fluxes, which may vary considerably during the interglacial
- glacial cycling. Groundwater flows are most likely to increase when the melting or ice
marginal zone passes over the repository. During periods when an ice sheet overlies the
site, the flow towards the canister may be accelerated by the pressure gradient caused by
the ice sheet and the related increase in hydrostatic pressure (SKB 1999a).
Groundwater flows will be reduced during periods when the site is covered by the sea
(or a freshwater lake), as well as during periods of permafrost. A continuous permafrost
layer may form a barrier for radionuclide transport, although unfrozen domains (taliks)
beneath major lake and river systems are potential transport routes (Ahonen 2001).
Changes in the fracturing properties or the deformation of the rock mass caused by
stresses related to glacial loads may result in changes in the flow paths. Freezing of
groundwater may also cause widening of fractures, a process that may be partially
irreversible (Boulton et al. 1999). Furthermore, there may be some long-term changes in
the pore structure of the rock matrix, for example due to the healing of microcracks,
which may affect matrix diffusion. Chemical changes due to, for example, the
infiltration of oxidising groundwaters will change the solubility and speciation of
radionuclides and influence their retardation in the rock, for example by sorption. There
is, at present, however no evidence to suggest that oxidised groundwaters did penetrate
to great depths in Finland and Sweden (Crawford & Wilmot 1998).
130
131
11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In this report several host rock properties and their influence on the repository have
been examined as part of the development of a rock mass classification system that can
be used to identify potentially suitable volumes of rock at Olkiluoto in which the reposi-
tory can be developed. These host rock properties have been discussed from the stand-
point of geology, thermal properties, rock mechanics, hydrogeology, chemistry and
transport properties, and their influence has been considered with reference to long-term
safety, the location and layout of the repository and the constructability of the rock
mass.
11.1 Long-term safety
The long-term safety of the repository can be considered in terms of two fundamental
safety functions, the isolation of the waste from moving groundwater and the retardation
of any radionuclides that are released from failed canisters.
The isolation function
The waste is isolated in the repository by the fuel matrix, the copper-iron canister and
the bentonite buffer. The main role of the host rock in the near-field is to provide stable
mechanical and chemical conditions for the engineered barriers and to limit the ground-
water flow in the vicinity of the canisters.
The mechanical stability of the deposition hole is influenced by factors at various scales.
At the scale of an individual deposition hole, stability is influenced by the mechanical
properties of the rock mass surrounding the hole, which are mainly determined by the
strength properties of the rock material and by the properties of the fractures that
intersect the hole (e.g. thick clay fillings or large apertures may reduce stability). At a
larger scale, the stress distribution around a deposition hole, in particular the magnitude
of crH (which is mainly determined by the depth of the repository), has a significant
influence on the hole's stability, which is largely determined by the strength/stress ratio
of the near-field rock mass. If even larger scales are considered, the location and length
of local and regional fracture zones, as well as seismic activity (related to seismicity)
and future loads on the repository, may influence the near-field stability via post-glacial
faulting and earthquakes. The near-field stability of the repository has an important
impact on the performance of the engineered barriers, which may not operate as
envisaged if the wall of a deposition hole suffers a displacement of greater than 0.1 m,
according to current understanding. Large displacements can be associated with exten-
sive fractures, so the trace length of fractures intersecting deposition holes may also be
of importance.
The performance of the engineered barriers is also dependent on the chemical and
hydrogeological conditions in the near-field, which are closely related. The rates of
groundwater flow in the near-field are determined by the hydraulic conductivity of the
rock mass, by the location, orientation and transmissivity of fracture zones and by the
hydraulic boundary conditions (hydraulic head, hydraulic gradient). The groundwater
flux through the near-field influences the stability of the canister, due to the influx of
132
corrodants, whereas more extreme fluxes (or equivalent fluxes, but concentrated on a
small number of fractures with large apertures) could result in erosion of the bentonite.
This latter effect could occur where large fracture apertures are present, however, such
apertures could be avoided when locating deposition holes. The flow rate also will
determine the rate of saturation of the bentonite buffer (and the buffer has to be
saturated in order to act in its role of protecting the canister; however, saturation is not
necessitated by the thermal dimensioning of the repository).
The most important chemical parameters of the groundwater which determine the
performance of the bentonite are K, Na +, Ca 2 +, Mg2+ and TDS, although the concentra-
tions of the four cations are expected to be within an acceptable range at Olkiluoto (at
least in present conditions), and the TDS is likely to cause problems only for the
swelling capacity of the bentonite in a bentonite/crushed rock tunnel backfill (other
backfill materials are also being considered at Olkiluoto ). The performance of the
highly compacted bentonite in the deposition holes is unlikely to be compromised by
the salinity of the groundwater over the range of possible disposal depths at Olkiluoto.
The performance of the canister is mainly dependent on the groundwater' s redox
potential (Eh), on the amount of HS and Fe 2 + in the groundwater and on minerals such
as iron sulphides, iron oxides and ferrous silicates in fracture infills and the rock. The
concentration of er may also be of relevance for the corrosion of the copper canister.
The chemical parameters with the greatest influence on the performance of the fuel
matrix are Eh, HS and Fe 2+, all of which relate to the redox conditions in the
groundwater. At Olkiluoto the groundwater is expected to be reducing over the range of
the potential disposal depths, although there is a large variation in the measured data.
The prevalence of reducing conditions is indicated, for example, by the lack of ferric
oxyhydroxides in the fractures. In addition, the redox conditions in the repository near-
field will be greatly influenced by the oxidation of any pyrite in the bentonite, as well as
by the reducing capacity of the iron in the canisters. This is likely to compensate for the
possible small-scale variation in the redox potential of the groundwater.
Another major determinant in the performance of the engineered barriers is the

temperature in the near-field, which is influenced by the thermal properties of the rock.
The most significant effect of a rise in temperature will be on the chemical stability of
the bentonite, although the host rock will also be affected due to thermo-mechanical
effects.
The retardation function
In case the isolation fails (e.g. due to an earthquake or corrosion of the canisters), the
properties of the host rock should retard the transport of radionuclides from the
repository to the biosphere. The retardation function of the repository is also related to
the near-field, as significant retardation may occur in the bentonite buffer and in the
near-field rock in the case of a canister failure. The transport of radionuclides in the
near-field is mainly influenced by the same properties that affect the isolating capacity
of the engineered barriers, most notably the groundwater flow, the fracture aperture and
geometry and the groundwater chemistry. In the far-field the hydraulic conductivity of
the rock mass and the transmissivity of the fracture zones play an important role in
determining the groundwater flux, which is an important factor in defining the transport
133
resistance of the fracture network. The solubility of the radionuclides released from the
near-field is determined by several hydrogeochemical parameters, of which Eh, TDS,
pH and HC0 3- are probably the most important. The properties of the rock mass along
the flow paths assume greater importance in the larger volumes of the far-field,
compared with the near-field, in determining the rate of transport of radionuclides. The
retardation properties of the intact rock mass are not expected to vary to any notable
extent at Olkiluoto, except at the small scale, due mainly to mineralogical variations.
The location and transmissivity of the fracture zones that are likely to represent the
faster transport paths for radionuclides are considered more important in this respect.
11.2 Layout and location of the repository
The layout and location of the repository at Olkiluoto will be determined by factors at
several different scales. At the largest scale (site scale and above), the repository will be
located within a block determined by the regional fracture zones. This condition will be
fulfilled by locating the repository within the investigation area at Olkiluoto, and it is
the location and orientation of local fracture zones that will mainly determine the
location of the repository within this area. Decisions regarding the required respect
distances to such structures are likely to take account of, for example, the length, width
and transmissivity of the fracture zones or the trace length distribution of fractures in
the rock mass surrounding the repository.
The depth of the repository is likely to be influenced by several host rock properties.
The range of depth considered for repository development is 400- 700 m, so that some
factors, such as the redox potential of the groundwater, are assumed to have no further
effect in this regard. The most significant factor in determining the depth of the
repository will probably be the strength/stress ratio, which is determined by the strength
properties of the rock and the stress distribution, in particular the magnitude of crH.
Another potentially important factor is the groundwater salinity (TDS and the Ct con-
centration), which influences both the long-term safety and the construction conditions.
Since the salinity increases with depth at Olkiluoto, its effect is similar to that of the
strength/stress ratio, and, considering both these effects (and the defined minimum
depth of 400 m), a depth range of 400 - 500 m would appear to be the most suitable for
the repository. When the salinity of the groundwater is considered, the possible
upconing of highly saline groundwater during the phase of repository operation needs to
be taken into account. This upconing may be reduced, for example, by optimal location
of the repository in the intact rock mass (so that there is, for example, limited
intersection of transmissive fracture zones) and by selecting suitable locations for the
repository access tunnel and shafts. The location of these is also influenced by the
surface topography and by the soil layers, as more elevated areas away from the shore
line and with a thin soil cover are preferred.
The most significant host rock properties that influence the orientation of the deposition
tunnels are the stress distribution (particularly the orientation of crH), the strike of the
foliation and the orientation offractures. The most preferable orientation for the deposi-
tion tunnels would be parallel to crH and perpendicularly to the main (hydraulically
conductive) fracture sets and the strike of the foliation. At Olkiluoto, it would appear
that all these conditions cannot be met simultaneously, and that a compromise solution
r----------------------------------~ ~ ~ -
134
will have to be reached. The significance of the orientation of crH increases at greater
depths, due to the increase in the magnitude of crH with depth.
The layout of the repository, more specifically the separation of adjacent canisters and
the separation of repository layers in a multi-level repository, is influenced to a signifi-
cant extent by the thermal properties of the rock (mainly its thermal conductivity and
thermal diffusivity), which affect the temperature in the near-field. According to the
latest thermal calculations at Olkiluoto, the separation of canisters should be approxi-
mately 10 m and the separation of deposition tunnels 25 m. In the case of a multi-level
repository, the separation of the layers needs to be 100 m. Since a depth range of
400- 500 m is considered best suited for the repository, the maximum number of re-
pository layers would appear to be two (unless the risks related to a lower strength/stress
ratio and a higher salinity are considered acceptable). The foliation of the mica gneiss
introduces some anisotropy into the thermal properties of the rock, but this will proba-
bly have only a minor influence, except perhaps at the canister scale.
In addition to the thermal properties, the locations of deposition holes will also be
influenced by other properties of the rock mass in the immediate vicinity of the holes
(or at their planned locations). The rejection of canister locations may increase the size
of the repository and may require some modifications to its layout. In this report
preliminary suggestions have been made as to which properties of the rock mass might
result in the rejection of canister locations. Such properties include high inflows (related
to a hydraulic conductivity in the immediate vicinity of the hole of> 1E-08 m/s), large
fracture apertures, a high fracture frequency and a low strength in relation to the stress
(which would result in spalling of the wall of the deposition hole). When locating the
deposition holes, minor local fracture zones or even individual fractures with a large
trace length may need to be avoided. It is proposed that major local fracture zones (with
a high transmissivity or unfavourable geotechnical characteristics) will not be permitted
to intersect the deposition tunnels.
As the locations of the canisters reflect the long-term safety aspects at the near-field
scale, the location of the whole repository should take account the long-term safety at
the scale of the far-field. The retardation of radionuclides in the far-field can be best
achieved by locating the repository away from regional or major local fracture zones, as
was discussed above. Locating the shaft and access tunnel entrances in groundwater
recharge areas (where the groundwater table is clearly above sea level) should further
contribute to longer transport times, at least under current climatic conditions. The
retardation properties of the intact rock mass (outside the fracture zones) are more
difficult to take into account when locating the repository. Some heterogeneity in these
properties can be expected, but it is likely to be at such a small scale, that it will be of
little significance when determining the location of the whole repository, although it
could affect the selection of suitable locations for deposition holes.
11.3 Constructability of the rock mass
The constructability of the rock mass has been evaluated by considering the effect of
rock properties on the excavation of the repository (including drilling and blasting), on
its mechanical stability and rock support measures required, on the ingress of ground-
135
water, on the sealing measures (grouting) required and on other technical aspects. The
construction of the repository should be carried out in a such a manner as to result in the
least possible damage to the favourable properties of the host rock, for example its
retardation properties. This needs to be taken into account when designing the construc-
tion programme, in deciding on the construction methods to be used and on the extent of
rock support and sealing. This latter factor is important due to the potentially adverse
chemical effect of the support and sealing materials left in the repository after closure.
The excavation will be directly influenced by the drilling and blasting properties of the
rock, which are determined by several lithological properties (mineralogical composi-
tion, grain size, foliation and the degree of weathering), fracture properties (number of
fracture sets, fracture frequency, fracture orientation and frictional properties), as well
as by the strength properties and drilling parameters. The variation in the rock
engineering properties between different rock types at Olkiluoto is not very significant,
however, and although small-scale heterogeneity occurs, its effect will be of limited
importance at the scale of the repository.
The mechanical stability of the repository is assumed to be mainly influenced by the

strengthJstress ratio, i.e. the strength properties of the rock (particularly crucs) and the
stress distribution (particularly the magnitude and direction of crH). Below a depth of
500 m at Olkiluoto, spalling is likely to occur on tunnel walls and rock support meas-
ures will probably be required. The mechanical properties of fractures will probably
also play an important role, and the occurrence of dense fracturing (high fracture
frequency), especially when associated with unfavourable frictional properties, is likely
to increase the requirement for temporary and permanent support. If fracture zones are
avoided, the rock mass at the disposal depth is, however, expected to be only slightly
fractured.
The extent of groundwater ingress into the repository is dependent on the hydraulic
conductivity of the rock mass, which is largely determined by the hydraulic aperture of
fractures and the connectivity of the fracture network. The transmissivity of fracture
zones intersecting the repository may have a significant effect on the total inflows,
because the conductivity of the intact rock mass is generally very low at Olkiluoto (for
the most part <lE-10 m/s). Major fracture zones will be avoided when locating the
deposition tunnels, but it is possible that some transmissive fracture zones will be
intersected by the central tunnels or the repository accesses (shafts and access tunnel).
The requirements for grouting in the repository will depend significantly on the decision
as to how great an inflow is acceptable, which, in turn, is related to the intention of
minimising the upconing of saline groundwater and limiting other hydraulic impacts of
the repository. Sealing the most conductive sections of the rock mass is probably a
simple task, but reducing the conductivity further (below 1E-09 m/s) may be very
difficult. The potentially adverse chemical impact of grouting needs also to be taken
into account, and such considerations may impose some limitations on the amount of
cement that it is desirable to use.
Other significant construction-related issues include the effect of groundwater chemistry

on the corrosion of steel or concrete and cement grouts, which, in turn, will affect the
durability of the excavation equipment as well as the support and grouting materials.
136
The high salinity of the groundwater at Olkiluoto, particularly the high content of Ct,
needs to be taken into account in this respect and, although it does not make the
construction conditions unacceptable, it is likely to influence the construction costs. The
relatively high CH4 concentration in groundwater may have importance from the point
of view of operational safety and may require special attention when designing the
repository ventilation system, and H 2 or Rn may have a similar effect.
11.4 Implications for the rock mass classification
The ultimate goal of the development of the rock mass classification system is to devise
a system that can be used to identify potentially suitable volumes of rock mass for
locating the repository at Olkiluoto. The classification process will be multidisciplinary
in nature, and will involve the measurement of important parameters, which will then be
used for the evaluation of the suitability of different volumes of the rock mass. Existing
empirical rock mass classification systems are based on precedent practice, i.e. on
experience in underground construction, but here a different approach is required, as
there is no precedent practice with regard to a repository in crystalline rock, and with
specific regard to the long-term safety aspects of the system. There is, however,
considerable experience in constructing tunnels of dimensions similar to those planned
for the repository at Olkiluoto, at similar depths and in similar rock types. In order to
utilise this information, the classification system could be, at least partially, based on an
existing classification system, with necessary modifications.
The classification system developed in this project will be specific to Olkiluoto.

Accordingly, this report has focused on those rock properties and effects that may be
relevant when locating a repository at the Olkiluoto site. The main objective of this
report has been to develop a basis for identifying the most significant properties of the
host rock that affect the behaviour and response of the repository system and, thereby,
to aid in the selection of the classification parameters.
All the properties of the host rock discussed in this report have at least some influence
on the repository system, either in terms of its long-term safety or its constructability, or
both. It is, however, not possible to include all these parameters in a rock mass classifi-
cation system that is intended to be practical. It is necessary, therefore, to recognise
which parameters are most relevant, and to exclude from further consideration those
that either have only a minor influence on the repository system, or are unsuitable for
other reasons.
The following conclusions can be drawn with reference to the host rock properties
discussed in this report, regarding the development of a rock mass classification system:
1. The importance of several parameters is clearly scale-dependent, and the classifica-

tion system should take account of the scale. Some parameters are only significant
at such a large scale, that they cannot be incorporated in the classification system
itself, but rather need to be examined separately when evaluating the safety of the
repository as a whole. Such parameters include the location, orientation and length
of regional fracture zones and the seismicity. These can be taken into account indi-
rectly, for example, by avoiding very long fractures when locating the deposition
137
holes; the relevant parameter in this case would be the fracture trace length (its
determination in a tunnel may, however, be problematic). The number of parame-
ters that are significant only at small scales is substantially greater, but such
parameters may still be useful in the rock mass classification system, if the system
takes a suitable account of small scales. The smallest conceivable scale would be
the canister scale, i.e. properties that influence the suitability of rock mass to host
deposition holes. Parameters that are considered to be insignificant at Olkiluoto at
this scale (i.e. they have no effect on the suitability of deposition hole locations)
include, at a minimum, microfractures and porosity and drilling parameters.
2. The properties of the rock mass that are significant in terms of long-term safety and
the constructability are often closely linked, and it can be reliably assumed that
favourable construction conditions generally indicate favourable conditions for safe
disposal. There are at least two main reasons for this. Firstly, many host rock
properties directly influence the conditions that are considered as being either
favourable or unfavourable from the point of view of both safety and construc-
tability. There are, for example, very few properties of the rock mass that are
advantageous in one of these areas, whilst simultaneously being - in some respect -
disadvantageous in the other area, and even for such properties the overall effect on
both constructability and long-term safety is probably similar (for example, clay
fracture fillings may be beneficial for retardation, but considering their negative
effect on long-term mechanical stability, their overall effect on long-term safety is
probably negative, i.e. similar to their effect on constructability). Secondly, good
constructability implies that less support and grouting are needed, which will
reduce both the potentially harmful chemical impact of cementitious material and
the hydraulic impact of the repository itself. Accordingly, it might be possible, at
least in theory, to base the classification system on aspects of either long-term
safety or constructability. It needs to be considered, however, whether the require-
ments for certain properties, or their acceptable ranges, may be different with
regard to long-term safety or constructability.
3. When assessing the suitability of certain volumes of rock for disposal purposes, the
coupling between rock properties and the physio-chemical processes that take place
in a rock mass need to be taken into account. Many rock properties are inter-related,
and some favourable properties (or parameter values) may compensate for certain
properties that in some other conditions might be considered unfavourable. It may
be difficult, therefore, in certain cases to set limit values to individual parameters.
The rock mass classification system will be designed to determine the volumes of
rock that are most suitable for disposal purposes, by taking into account the overall
suitability of the rock mass. This can best be done by considering combinations of
properties rather than by considering each property independently. When the classi-
fication parameters have been selected, it needs to be determined, how the potential
coupling effects related to the parameters will be dealt within the classification
system.
4. Many properties of the rock mass at Olkiluoto will be affected by the construction
of the repository and by the related activities of rock support and sealing. The
classification system needs to take these changes into account and it needs to be
138
determined which parameter values, that might have been measured several times,
will be used in the classification process. For example, there is the possibility of
determining certain parameters immediately after excavation or at some later time,
and samples can also be obtained from deep boreholes before the start of con-
struction. The value of a parameter may vary, depending on where, when and how
it was measured, and a methodology needs to be developed in order to decide
which of these values will be used in classifying the rock mass. Numerical model-
ling can be used to predict the construction-related changes in rock properties, and
it needs to be decided, whether any modelling will be directly related to the
classification work.
5. The influence of the engineered barriers needs to be taken into account. The
bentonite buffer and the copper-iron canister are expected to buffer the chemical
conditions in the near-field, so that less emphasis can be placed on the small-scale
variation in the chemical environment of the repository. The main role of the host
rock is to keep the bentonite and the canister in place by providing sufficient
mechanical stability. With regard to the chemical stability of the engineered
barriers, of greatest importance are the hydrogeochemical parameters that could
adversely affect the stability of the bentonite, i.e. K, Na +, Ca 2+, Mg 2+ (the
concentrations of which are, however, expected to be within an acceptable range at
Olkiluoto, at least in present conditions).
6. The strength/stress ratio is assumed to be the most important parameter in

determining the mechanical stability of the repository. The influence of fractures on
the stability of the proposed underground openings is, however, being studied, and
the results of this modelling will need to be taken into account in any assessment.
The mechanical properties of the rock are relevant only when they have an
important influence on the stability, for example, the properties of the fractures are
less significant if no structurally-controlled failure is expected to occur. It is not
sufficient to consider only the short-term stability of the open repository, as its
long-term stability needs also to be taken into account in any safety assessment.
Due to the impact of future loads, the requirements of long-term stability may be
more severe than those considered in the short-term. Conversely, the occurrence of,
for example, spalling may be more relevant in terms of operational safety rather
than in terms of long-term safety, particularly when the supporting effect of the
tunnel backfill is taken into account.
7. The chemical composition of groundwater at a given location is likely to change

fairly rapidly compared with other rock mass properties, because the groundwater is
flowing, and the representativeness of an individual groundwater sample may,
therefore, be questionable. This makes it difficult to include hydrogeochemical
parameters in a rock mass classification system that should be able to evaluate the
suitability of a volume of rock mass at a specified location, particularly if smaller
scales are considered. At a large scale, the groundwater chemistry is likely to be of
relevance when determining the depth of the repository. Parameters such as TDS
and the er content, which show a reasonably clear depth-dependence, indicate
more favourable conditions at shallower depths, and the risk of upconing of more
saline groundwater further emphasises the necessity of avoiding great depths
---------------------------------- ----
139
(>>500 m) for repository development. With regard to other chemical parameters, it

needs to be investigated whether there is any evidence which might contradict the
current belief that generally favourable conditions exist regarding parameters such
as Eh , pH, Ca 2 +, Mg2+ etc. The upconing of highly saline groundwater is probably
the most significant risk related to the groundwater chemistry, and it can be
minimised by locating the repository in a rock mass with a low hydraulic
conductivity (avoiding fracture zones with good connections to deep, highly saline
waters) and by sealing the most conductive sections.
8. The retention properties of the host rock will be difficult to take into account in
developing the classification system, because no significant variation in these
properties can be determined over large volumes of the rock mass. The transport
resistance of the rock mass cannot be accurately measured, except locally, but it
might be possible to take it into account when considering a preference for a
specific groundwater flux or a certain connectivity of the fracture network, etc. The
transport of radionuclides can best be taken into account by locating the repository
at a sufficient distance from significant (transmissive) fracture zones and by setting
some limitations on the rate of groundwater inflow into deposition holes. It will
also be an advantage, if the apertures of fractures intersecting the deposition holes
are not too large (so that no erosion of bentonite occurs) and the strength of the
near-field rock is sufficiently high in relation to the stress (so that the rock adjacent
to the hole does not fail) .
9. The hydrogeological, chemical and mechanical conditions in the host rock are
expected to change significantly in the future due to the continuing isostatic land
uplift and expected long-term climatic changes, in particular the impact of glacial
cycling. The longer the time scales that are considered, the more speculative any
presented climate scenarios become. It is not possible to predict accurately the
impact of these changes and their influence is, therefore, difficult to take into
account in any classification system, except possibly at a very general level and by
leaving wide margins for uncertainty. It may, therefore, be necessary to exclude
very long time scales from further consideration when developing the classification
system. Focusing on shorter time scales can also be justified by the fact that the
radioactivity of the disposed waste decreases significantly during the first few
thousands of years after disposal.
10. At the repository scale, the most important host rock properties are the location of
transmissive fracture zones, the strength/stress ratio, the orientations of the frac-
tures, the foliation and the maximum horizontal stress and the salinity of the
groundwater (TDS). At the tunnel scale, the most important parameters are the
hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass, the location of minor fracture zones, the
fracture frequency and the frictional properties of fractures. The most significant
parameters at the canister scale are the hydraulic conductivity, the fracture fre-
quency, the fracture aperture and the fracture trace length.
140
141
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APPENDIX 1: The influence of host rock properties on long-term safety, repository layout and constructability
Property/ Long-term safety Repository Excavation Mechanical Groundwater

Influence Layout and (Drilling, Stability & Rock Ingress &
Near-field Far-field
Location Blasting) Support Grouting
4GEOLOGY ,,•,: ' ·., '' ·,., '·
4.1
Topography
and soil
4.1.1 Influences groundwater Influences groundwater May influence the No influence No influence No influence
Topography flow in the near-field via flow in the far-field via location of the ramp
boundary conditions (see boundary conditions (see and shaft entrances
7.4) 7.4)
4.1.2 Soil layers Minor influence on near- Influences groundwater May influence the No influence No influence No influence
field ground water flow and flow and chemistry location of the ramp
chemistry and shaft entrances
4.2 Lithology
4.2.1 Influences isolating Influences retardation Influences canister Influences drillability Influences mechanical No influence
Mineralogical capacity of canister and properties of rock, e.g. hole spacing via (drilling rate and abra- stability via strength 1--'
bentonite via sorption capacity: thermal properties (see sion hardness, which properties (see 6.1.2) Ul
composition Ul
-thermal properties (see - biotite has the best 5.1); especially the depends mostly on
5.1); especially the quartz sorption capacity of the quartz and mica quartz and feldspar
and mica content has a rock-forming minerals of content has a content)
noticeable effect on thermal Olkiluoto noticeable effect on
conductivity; - mica gneiss has a higher thermal conductivity Influences blasting
-strength properties (see cation exchange capacity properties, e.g.
6.1.2) that affect rock than granitic rocks - the presence of
mechanical stability - see also Chemical amphiboles and
- chemical properties, see properties of rock pyroxenes makes a
8.3 minerals (8.3) rock harder to blast;
- mica-rich zones may
require greater
Influences matrix diffusion Influences matrix
charging of shot holes
diffusion than normal
4.2.2 Grain size Influences long-term May influence retardation No influence Influences drilling May influence No influence
mechanical stability via properties of rock, e.g. rate; may have some mechanical stability
strength properties (see sorption of radionuclides influence on blasting via strength properties
6.1.2) - - - - - -- - - -
pro_l)~rties (see 6.1.2)
Near-field Far-field Location Blasting) Support Grouting
4.2.3 Foliation Foliation causes anisotropy May influence the May influence the In strongly foliated Strong foliation Strong foliation
that affects deformation preferential development orientation of tunnels: rock the drilling rate is (especially when the influences
properties (see 6.1.1) and of fractures or fracture a favourable dependent on the strike ofthe foliation groundwater ingress
thermal properties (see 5.1 ), zones in the plane of orientation is drilling direction is close to the indirectly via
influencing e.g. the foliation and thereby perpendicular to the direction ofthe tunnel) fracturing (see 4.3.5);
spreading of heat from the influence the development strike of the foliation Strong foliation may influences the design one main fracture set
repository and thereby the of migration paths cause overbreak and of support, mainly via is often parallel to the
temperature distribution in Foliation causes result in a poor quality fracturing properties strike ofthe foliation
the near-field (5.2.2) thermal anisotropy of excavated surfaces, (see 4.3.5), e.g. the
that may influence the if the direction of the occurrence of
canister hole spacing tunnel is close to the slickensided fractures
and overall layout strike ofthe foliation
4.2.4 Degree of Influences rock mechanical Influences retardation May have some Strong weathering Strong weathering Weathering may
weathering stability via strength properties ofrock (e.g. influence (weathered influences drillability influences mechanical increase porosity and
properties (see 6.1 .2) sorption), partly via zones may need to be (drilling rate may stability via strength thereby (indirectly)
groundwater chemistry avoided) increase, but holes properties (see 6.1.2) increase groundwater
May influence (decrease) (see 8) may collapse and ingress and the
1--'
thermal conductivity (see drills may jam) Strongly weathered requirement for Vl
5.1.1) rock may be difficult grouting via increased 0\
Strongly weathered to support hydraulic conductivity

rock may require (see 7.1.1); may also
greater charging of decrease the ingress
shot holes and may (e.g. via clay fillings)
result in a poor quality
of excavated surfaces Weathering makes
( overbreak may occur) grouting more difficult
4.2.5 Some influence on rock No noticeable influence No influence Some influence on the Some influence on No noticeable
Micro fractures mechanical stability via on groundwater flow quality of excavated rock mechanical influence
and porosity strength properties (see surfaces stability via strength
6.1.2) Influences retardation properties (see 6.1.2)
properties (matrix
Influences matrix diffusion diffusion, sorption)
in the near-field
4.3 Structures
4.3.1 Contacts
and dykes
4.3.1.1 Contacts May be associated with May be associated with May have influence on May be associated Influence rock May be associated
and dykes fracturing (see 4.3.5) and fracturing (see 4.3.5) and layout (e.g. diabase with fracturing (see strength (see 6.1.2) with fracturing (see
thereby influence e.g. near- thereby influence e.g. dykes with associated 4.3.5) and thereby and rock mechanical 4.3.5) and thereby
field stability transport routes of fracturing) influence drillability stability (contacts are influence groundwater
radionuclides and blasting properties potential zones of ingress
weakness)
4.3.2 Plastic
structures
4.3.2.1 Folding Influences strike and dip of Influences strike and dip Influences strike and Influences the quality Influences the design Influences strike and
the foliation (see 4.2.3) and of the foliation (see 4.2.3) dip of the foliation of excavated surfaces of support via strike dip of the foliation
thereby thermal properties and thereby may (see 4.2.3) and thereby via strike and dip of and dip of the foliation (see 4.2.3) and thereby
(see 5.1) influence the orientation may influence the the foliation (see (see 4.2.3) the orientation of
of fractures and fracture orientation of tunnels 4.2.3) fractures, which
zones and (via thermal affects the grouting
anisotropy) the result
canister spacing ~
4.3.3 Regional U\
-.....)
fracture zones
4.3.3.1 May influence near-field Determines the far-field Determines the No influence No influence on short- No noticeable
Location stability (possible canister boundaries; locations of theoretical boundaries (repository will not be term stability influence on
failure due to post-glacial ground water discharge, of the possible located near regional groundwater flow in
faulting and earthquakes) potential post-glacial repository area fracture zones) the possible repository
faulting and earthquakes; area
effect on the in situ stress
distribution
4.3.3.2 May have some influence May influence the Influences the No influence No influence No influence
Orientation on near-field stability (via orientation of theoretical maximum
post-glacial faulting and groundwater flow size of the possible
earthquakes) repository area
4.3.3.3 Length May influence near-field Influences the largest No influence No influence No influence No influence
stability (possible canister potential seismic event
failure due to post-glacial that can be associated
"--" ""--
faulting and earthquakes) with a fracture zone
4.3.4 Local
fracture zones
4.3.4.1 Possible influence on long- Influences groundwater Location of layout- May complicate the Increases the amount Increases groundwater
Location term mechanical stability flow and radionuclide determining fracture excavation work, e.g. of required support, if ingress and grout take,
transport; distance to zones influences the if fractured or fracture zones with if hydraulically
Distance from the repository may influence size of the repository weathered structures poor mechanical conductive fracture
repository margin affects transport resistance block(s) which are intersected by properties are zones are intersected
the hydraulic impact of directly influences tunnels intersected
transmissive fracture zones; layout; location of
fracture zones intersected fracture zones within
by tunnels influence the repository block(s)
transport resistance may influence e.g.
canister positions
4.3.4.2 Dip and strike of Influences groundwater Influences the size of Steeply dipping The length of The length of
Orientation transmissive fracture zones flow and radionuclide the repository block(s) fracture zones are intersection (depends intersection (depends
influence the hydraulic transport and layout; gently easier to excavate on both dip and strike) on both dip and strike)
environment of the dipping fracture zones through with tunnels influences the amount has a minor influence ~
repository area may set limits to (gently dipping are of required support on groundwater Vl
00
repository depth, easier with shafts); ingress (a greater
Possible influence on long- steeply dipping fracture zones that influence on the
term mechanical stability fracture zones to its strike perpendicularly required grouting
horizontal location to tunnels are easier to work)
excavate through
4.3.4.3 Length Possible influence on long- Influences groundwater May influence the re- Length itself does not Length itself does not Influences the number
term mechanical stability flow and radionuclide qui red respect distance directly influence the directly influence the of hydraulic
transport via e.g. and thereby the size of constructability of a mechanical properties connections and may
connectivity with other the repository fracture zone; of a fracture zone thereby increase
fracture zones or block(s); length of influences excavation (short-term stability); groundwater ingress
discharge areas fracture zones within if a tunnel is excavated influences support if a
the repository block along a fracture zone tunnel is excavated
may influence the along a fracture zone
location of tunnels
4.3.4.4 Width No influence (if not located Influences groundwater May influence the Influences the length The length of Influences ground-
near the deposition holes) flow and radionuclide required respect of intersection and intersection (depends water ingress (via
transport distance and thereby thereby the extent and on width) influences transmissivity) and the
the size of the duration of possible the amount of required required grouting
repository block(s) difficulties in support work (also via the
excavation work length of intersection)
4.3.5
Individual
fractures
4.3.5.1 Number May be related to May be related to Influences the possi- Influences drillability Increase in the number Influences ground-
of fracture sets connectivity of fracture connectivity of fracture bilities of locating and blasting properties of fracture sets water ingress via
network and, therefore, to network and, therefore, to deposition tunnels and thereby the quality increases the hydraulic conductivity
hydraulic connectivity of hydraulic connectivity of perpendicularly to the of excavated surfaces requirement for (see 7.1.1)
near-field rock far-field rock main fracture sets (see support
4.3.5.8) Influences the
connectivity of
fractures and thereby
also the groutability of
rock mass
4.3.5.2 Fracture Influences the connectivity Influences the May influence the Fracture frequency Higher frequency May increase
frequency of fractures and thereby the connectivity of fractures location of deposition influences drillability increases the require- significantly the
number of potential flow and thereby the number of holes and thereby may and blasting properties ment for support (in hydraulic conductivity
paths; influences the release potential flow paths increase the size of the particular when (see 7 .1.1) and thereby
rates of radionuclides from repository if canister May influence the associated with groundwater ingress
the bentonite into the positions are rejected quality of excavated unfavourable frictional
geosphere surfaces properties) Influences spacing of
grout holes and
......
U\
May influence canister groutability of rock \0
integrity and isolating mass; occurrence of
capacity of bentonite via closely spaced open
rock mechanical stability fractures or broken
(very densely
fractured) rock makes
grouting more difficult
4.3.5.3 Fracture Influences the connectivity Increase in fracture trace Trace length distribu- No influence Increase in fracture Influences the
trace length of fractures around the length increases the tion may influence the trace length may connectivity of
deposition holes number of potential flow definition of respect increase the fractures and thereby
paths distances to fracture requirement for both groundwater
May influence near-field zones support ingress and the
stability (canister failure groutability of rock
caused by fracture May influence the mass
displacement) location of deposition
· ---
holes
4.3.5.4 Influences response of the Influences response of the May influence the Unfavourable Unfavourable Influences groutability
Roughness rock mass to thermal rock mass to thermal location of canister frictional properties of frictional properties of ofrock mass i
loading and applied stresses loading and applied holes (e.g. the fractures influence the fractures (e.g. (influences penetration
and, therefore, to near-field stresses and, therefore, to occurrence of quality of excavated slickensides) cause of grout in fractures
changes in rock mass far-field changes in rock slickensided fractures) surfaces stability problems and the portion ofthe
conductivity and transport mass conductivity and (overbreak) and fracture plane that can
properties transport properties Fracture roughness increase the be sealed, especially
increases shear requirement for for fine fractures)
strength of fractures temporary and
and thereby has a permanent support
minor influence on
blasting properties
4.3.5.5 Fracture Removal of fracture fillings Influences groundwater Occurrence of Unfavourable Unfavourable fric- Influences ground-
filling may influence long-term chemistry and retardation abundant clay fillings frictional properties of tional properties of water ingress via
stability and create new properties, e.g. sorption may influence the fractures influence the fractures cause stabil- hydraulic conductivity
flow paths (several elements sorb location of canister quality of excavated ity problems (over- (see 7.1.1) .......
strongly on fracture holes surfaces break) and increase 0\
0
Influences groundwater fillings containing iron the requirement for Influences groutability
chemistry and retardation hydroxides, clay minerals temporary and of rock mass (hinders
properties (see Chemical and calcite) (see Chemical permanent support the penetration of
properties of fracture properties of fracture cement grout in
minerals, 8.2) minerals, 8.2) Swelling fracture fractures) ; removal of
fillings (clay) may fracture fillings can
increase significantly affect the grouting
the requirement for result (particularly
support clay fillings)
4.3.5.6 Influences retardation Influences retardation Strong alteration may Unfavourable Unfavourable May influence
Alteration properties (partly via properties (partly via influence the location frictional properties of frictional properties of groutabi lity of rock
groundwater chemistry, see groundwater chemistry, of canister holes fractures influence the fractures cause mass
8) see 8), e.g. sorption quality of excavated stability problems
surfaces ( overbreak) and
Influences mechanical increase the
properties of fractures (see requirement for
4.3.2) and thereby near- temporary and
field stability permanent support
4.3.5.7 Influences the flow rates Influences the transport May influence the May influence May influence the Influences
Aperture into deposition holes via properties of migration location of canister excavation via large requirement and groundwater ingress I
hydraulic conductivity (see paths (e.g. transport holes inflows (see Hydraulic application of support via hydraulic !
7.1.1) resistance WLIQ, flow, conductivity, 7.1.1) via large inflows (see conductivity (see
velocity, hydraulic Hydraulic 7.1.1)
May influence the loss of conductivity, filtration, conductivity, 7 .1.1)
bentonite clay and erosion ion exclusion); aperture Influences groutability
of backfi 11 (associated with distribution controls the of fractures
rapid groundwater flow) channelling of fracture (penetration of cement
network grout); fractures with
Aperture of fractures in the very small apertures
rock around deposition are more difficult to
holes will influence the re- grout
lease rates of radionuclides
from the bentonite into the
geosphere; has influence on
transport resistance (WL/Q)
of migration paths
4.3.5.8 Fracture May influence preferential May influence May influence the Ifthe orientation of May increase the Orientation of main
orientation direction of groundwater preferential direction of orientation of the main fracture sets is requirement for fracture sets with ........
0\
flow and solute transport groundwater flow and tunnels: a favourable close to the direction support, if close to the respect to the direction ........
solute transport orientation is of the tunnel , drilling direction of the tunnel of the tunnel
Influences the connectivity perpendicular to a becomes more influences groutability
of fractures around (vertical or sub- difficult and a poorer and the optimal
deposition holes vertical) main fracture quality of excavated orientation of grout
set surfaces may result holes; fractures close
to the direction of the
tunnel are more
- - -
difficult to grout
Near-field Far-field Location Grouting
Blasting)
..
Support
~· . .. "•· '·
sTIIDMAL
PROPDTIE$ i
5.1 Thermal
properties of
tbe rock
5.1.1 Thermal Influences temperature in Influences groundwater Influences canister No influence No influence No influence
conductivity the near-field (see 5.2.2) flow (via temperature, see hole spacing and
which affects canister, 5.2.2); overall layout (and
bentonite and fuel thereby the size of the
Influences e.g. the repository); is affected
formation of permafrost mainly by mineralogy
(4.2.1) and foliation
(4.2.3)
5 .1.2 Heat Minor influence on Minor influence on Minor influence on No influence No influence No influence
capacity temperature in the near- groundwater flow (via canister hole spacing
field (see 5.2.2) temperature, see 5.2.2) and overall layout """""
0\
(negligible variation N
between different rock
types)
5.1.3 Thermal Influences temperature in Minor influence on Influences canister No influence No influence No influence
diffusivity the near-field (see 5.2.2) groundwater flow (via hole spacing and
which affects canister, temperature, see 5.2.2) overall layout; is
bentonite and fuel affected mainly by
mineralogy (4.2.1) and
foliation (4.2.3)
5.1.4 Influences isolating No direct influence Minor influence on No influence No influence No influence
Coefficient of capacity of canister and (deformation of rock mass canister hole spacing
thermal bentonite via thermo- leads to changes in and overall layout
mechanical effects (stress hydraulic conductivity, (negligible variation
expansion
redistributions, changes in see 7.1.1) between different rock
fractures) types)
5.2
Temperature
5.2.1 Ambient Influences temperature in Minor influence on Minor influence on No influence No influence No influence
temperature and the near-field (see 5.2.2) ground water flow and disposal depth,
boundary which affects canister, chemistry canister hole spacing
bentonite and fuel and overall layout
conditions
5.2.2 Influences canister integrity Influences temperature in Influences canister No influence No influence No influence
Temperature in (via thermo-mechanical the far-field and thereby hole spacing and
the near-field effects, e.g. thermal ground water flow and overall layout (e.g.
expansion, and chemical chemistry, and the separation of
effects) and fuel dissolution solubility and sorption of repository layers in a
many radionuclides multi-level repository)
Influences the chemical
stability, hydraulic Thermo-mechanical
conductivity, rheology and effects may change
swelling capacity of properties of fractures and
bentonite; influences fracture zones and thereby
isolating capacity of influence radionuclide
bentonite via thermo- transport (elevated ~
mechanical effects temperatures will cause 0'\
precipitation of calcite w
Influences groundwater and dissolution of
flow via density and silicates)
viscosity of ground water
(see 7.3.1); elevated
temperatures will cause
precipitation of calcite and
dissolution of silicates, e.g.,
precipitation of calcite close
to the canister
Influences mechanical
behaviour of the rock mass;
minor influence on me-
chanical properties of rock
Influence
!
Layout and (Drilling, Stability & Rock Ingress &
, .. Near-field Far-field
,
I

.;.. .,.: 1.,,.
' -.; 1 ~ .·:' ;-~.: ..· < . , ~1 F-.~''. ·. ~~-- ........... .. .,_...., ..
. ,,,,..: t:~~··,, -· . ,:· ,-f;~ .~. :>~-.it~' :·~ L .;:>r . :-~~:.. . . .
··~·"!'~•· ·~·
·
-., ~1
~- 'i''!
. ··.' .•
-·;·
T
·_, <
~
·~~ - > ~
· .2.. ,•
<!lli ' ...... " ' '; .;;,r•..•.,.,•... ··. .' b.·.· ........ ~ ::c .,._ '. ,.., .,,.,.:<! ~~' :' .... '' ... ·""- ." h~
6.1 Mechanical
properties of
rock material
6.1.1 Minor influence on canister Influence groundwater Minor influence Minor influence Influence rock No influence
Deformation integrity and isolating flow via formation of stability; input
properties capacity of bentonite via the conductive fractures parameters for
deformation of the stability calculations
-Young's
deposition hole
modulus (E)
-Poisson's ratio
(v)
6 .1.2 Strength Influence canister integrity Influence groundwater Influence rock Influence drilling rate Influence rock Minor influence
properties and isolating capacity of flow via formation of stability e.g. via (crucs• crt) and blasting stability and the
bentonite via rock conductive fractures if strength/stress ratio properties (Oucs• <lt) ; requirement for '""""'
0\
-uniaxial ~
mechanical stability rock strength is exceeded ( Oucsf<JH) and, dependence on support, e.g. via
compressi ve
therefore, repository lithological and strength/stress ratio
Strength ( Oucs) depth ( Oucsl<lH); input
structural properties
-confining (see 4.2, 4.3) parameters for
stress ( cr3) Spalling due to low stability calculations
-crack damage strength/stress ratio
str ( <Jcd) may lead to rejection
-crack initiation of canister holes and
str ( crci) thereby increase the
size of the repository
-tensile strength
(at)
Influence the
-cohesion (c) dimensioning of the
-friction angle repository (tunnel
(cp) profile, pillars etc.)
-density (p) and thereby layout
6.1.3 Drilling No influence No influence No influence Describe the drillabil- No influence No influence
parameters ity (drilling rate,
-DRI-index abrasion hardness);
dependence on
-CAI-index lithology (see 4.2)
-Vickers
hardness
6.2 Mechanical
properties of
fractures
6.2.1 Influence canister integrity Minor influence May influence the Minor influence Influence rock Minor influence
Deformation and isolating capacity of location of canister stability; input
properties bentonite via the holes parameters for
deformation of the stability calculations
-normal
deposition hole Mechanical properties
stiffness (Kn)
of fracture zones may
-shear stiffness influence the location
(Ks) of deposition tunnels
6.2.2 Strength Influence canister integrity Minor influence on May influence the Minor influence on Influence rock mass No influence
..........
properties and isolating capacity of ground water flow location of canister blasting properties via stability; input 0\
bentonite via rock holes (e.g. the friction properties parameters for Vl
-joint
mechanical stability and occurrence of (roughness, alteration, stability calculations
compressi ve
block behaviour slickensided or open friction angle)
strength (JCS) fractures)
-roughness On
JRC) Mechanical properties
-alteration Oa) of fracture zones may
-friction angle influence the location
of deposition tunnels
(<j>)
-cohesion (c)
-dilatation (i) __ L _ _
6.3 In situ
stresses
6.3.1 Stress Influences canister integrity Influences groundwater Influences rock stabil- Influences drilling and Influences rock Influences
distribution and isolating capacity of flow via formation of ity e.g. via strength/- blasting (high stresses stability (key factor groundwater ingress
bentonite via rock conductive fractures stress ratio and, rrtightcausejanrurrting for stability and grouting via
mechanical stability therefore, repository of drill rods and calculations) fracture properties,
depth; the direction of collapsing of drill e.g. aperture (see
cr 1 (crH) influences the holes) High stresses rrtight 4.3.5.7)
orientation of increase requirements
deposition tunnels for extra rock support
e.g. due to spalling
Spalling due to high I
stresses may lead to

rejection of canister
holes and thereby
increase the size of the ~
repository 0\
0\
6.3.2 Future Influences canister integrity Influences groundwater May influence the No influence May influence the No influence
loads and isolating capacity of flow via changes in water dimensioning and the design of the support
bentonite via rock conductive fracture layout of the measures
-near-field (heat
mechanical stability network and the repository
output, swelling generation of high
pressure etc.) hydraulic heads, e.g.
Influences groundwater
-regional flow via changes in water beneath warm-based ice
(glaciation, conductive fracture network sheets
permafrost, sea and the generation of high
water) hydraulic heads, e.g.
beneath warm-based ice
sheets
6.3.3 Seismicity Influences canister integrity Influences groundwater Influences repository No influence No influence No influence
and isolating capacity of flow via changes in water location with respect
bentonite via rock conductive fracture to the regional fracture
mechanical stability network zones (see 4.3.3);
influences canister
locations
7HYDRO-
GEOLOGY I
7.1 Hydraulic
properties of
fractured rock
mass
7 .1.1 Hydraulic Influences canister integrity Influences the transport May influence Large inflows make Influences the Influences
conductivity via supply of corrodants times and dose rates of repository location and underground requirement for significantly the
(see 8.1) radionuclides depth via limitations construction, e.g. the support amount of
on the desirable limit charging of shot holes, groundwater ingress
Influences saturation (and of groundwater flux more difficult Large inflows make (and thereby possibly
thereby swelling pressure through repository; the the application of the requirement for
and thermal properties) of size of the repository support (shotcrete, pumping) and grout
bentonite; very high flow may be affected if bolts) more difficult take
rates may erode buffer and canister positions are
backfill and affect their rejected due to large
density inflows
Low K of fractures
intersecting the canister
.......
hole causes retardation of 0'\
-......)
nuclides in the buffer/rock
transition zone
7.2 Hydraulic
properties of
fracture zones
7 .2.1 Trans- Location, orientation and Location, orientation and Has important Large inflows, which Large inflows make Influences
missivity transmissivity of fracture transmissivity of fracture influence on location are possible with the application of significantly the
zones (and the related head zones (and the related of repository; transmissive fracture support (shotcrete, amount of
distribution) influences head distribution) transmissive fracture zones, make bolts) more difficult ground water ingress
groundwater flux through influences groundwater zones cannot be underground and grout take
near-field, by controlling flux through far-field; allowed to intersect construction more
boundary conditions for this transmissive fracture the deposition tunnels difficult
flow zones may form fast (although they may
transport routes for intersect e.g. the
radionuclide transport access tunnel)
7.3
Groundwater
properties
7 .3.1 Density Influence hydraulic Influence hydraulic No influence No influence No influence No influence
and viscosity conductivity (7.1.1) and conductivity (7 .1.1) and
groundwater flow via groundwater flow via
density variations caused by density variations caused
salinity (8.1.1) and by salinity (8.1.1) and
temperature (5.2); minor temperature (5.2) and
influence on near-field thereby influence
transport transport of nuclides
7.4 Boundary
conditions
7 .4.1 Hydraulic Influences groundwater flux Influences groundwater Influences the location High hydrostatic Influences the shear Influences the amount
head through near-field; flux through far-field of shaft and access pressure may cause strength of open of groundwater ingress
increases the flow of water tunnel entrances problems with drilling fractures and may .........
0\
through bentonite and the charging of decrease the stability High hydrostatic 00
shot holes (if of the rock mass pressure makes
sufficiently large grouting more difficult
hydraulic High hydrostatic pres-
conductivity) sure makes e.g. the ap-
plication of shotcrete
more difficult
7 .4.2 Hydraulic Influences flow rates into Magnitude and direction May influence the No influence No influence Gradient determined
gradient deposition holes influence groundwater orientation of by topography has no
flux through far-field deposition tunnels noticeable influence
Direction of hydraulic on groundwater
gradient with respect to Influences the advective ingress (hydraulic
tunnels influences the transport of radionuclides gradient during
ground water flow rate in the and the size of transport construction and
tunnels and EDZ resistance operation influences
groundwater ingress)
8
CHEMISTRY
8.1 ~
,,
Groundwater ] 0
chemistry
8.1.1 TDS Influences bentonite's Influences groundwater Influences repository See er (8.1.4) See er (8.1.4) Influences the sealing
stability and the diffusion flow via groundwater depth (preference for requirements
and sorption of density (see 7.3.1); influ- lower TDS and (upconing of saline
radionuclides in bentonite; ences matrix diffusion via thereby a shallower water)
very high TDS impairs the groundwater flow velocity depth)
swelling capacity and
increases the hydraulic Influences the retardation Influences the location
conductivity of bentonite properties (solubility, of the repository and
buffer and sorption, diffusivity) of the location of the
bentonite/crushed rock many radionuclides; the ramp and the shafts
backfill most significant effect is with respect to the
the reduced sorption of repository (upconing
Influences groundwater cations (e.g. Sr, es, Ra) in of saline water)
flow via ground water saline water
.......
density (see 7.3.1) 0\
\0
8.1.2 Eh Influences the corrosion of Influences retardation of No influence on No influence Oxidising conditions No influence
copper (oxygen can cause redox-sensitive repository depth in influence the corrosion
pitting) radionuclides in the practice rate of steel in support
geosphere (~. De in the materials
Influences retardation and rock); e.g. the solubility
transport (~. DJ in of Tc, U and Np is
bentonite (e.g. diffusion and significantly lower and
sorption ofTc, U, Np) their sorption in the rock
is higher in reducing
Influences dissolution of the conditions
fuel (oxidation of uo2
matrix causes radionuclide
release)
8.1.3 pH Influences the corrosion of Influences the solubility No influence on No influence lnfl uences the Influences the
copper (low pH in of many radionuclides repository depth in corrosion of concrete corrosion of cement
combination with a high er (e.g. hydrolysis ofPu and practice and steel in support grouts
concentration may cause Am) materials (e.g.
general corrosion of copper) shotcrete and bolts)
Influences the stability of

bentonite (e.g. high pH
causes dissolution of
montmorillonite and
accessory rrilnerals); some
influence on the sorption
capacity of bentonite
Influences the dissolution of

the fuel .........
8.1.4 er May influence localised Influences retardation in Influences repository Increases the corrosion Increases the corrosion Influences the sealing -...,J
0
corrosion of copper (pitting, rock depth (preference for of excavation of steel and thereby requirements
stress corrosion cracking); lower er equipment affects the choice of (upconing of saline
high er concentrations may concentrations and support materials and water)
contribute to general corro- thereby a shallower methods
sion of copper (at high depth)
temperature, low pH and May hinder the
presence of H+) damaging effect of
sulphate (see 8.1.5) on
Influences retardation in concrete in support
bentonite (e.g. diffusion of materials
radionuclides)
8.1.5 so/- May be reduced to sulphide Some influence on No influence No influence Sulphates weaken Influences the choice
(8.1.15) by bacteria (8.1 .32) radionuclide transport concrete in support of suitable grouting
and thereby influences the (potential for forrrilng materials agents
corrosion of copper (the complexes)
quantity of so4 2-is probably Sulphates may cause
not decisive, however) corrosion of steel in
support materials
(associated with a
temperature rise)
8.1.6 HC03- High carbonate contents Influences the solubility No influence No influence HC03 - influences the Carbonates may cause
/C032- may cause pitting in copper of many radionuclides corrosion of steel in corrosion of cement
(carbonate forms support materials grouts
HC0 3- has some influence complexes with most
on the dissolution of the actinides, e.g. Am) Carbonates influence
fuel the durability of con-
crete in e.g. shotcrete
8.1.7 Na+ Influences the stability of Influences retardation in No influence No influence No influence No influence
bentonite rock (e.g. sorption ofCs+
and Sr2 + on the rock's
minerals)
8.1 .8 K + Influences the swelling No influence No influence No influence No influence No influence
capacity of bentonite via
illitisation (affected by
temperature, see 5.2.2)
8.1.9 Ca2+ Influences the stability of Influences retardation in No influence No influence Increase in Ca2 + No influence
bentonite (Ca2 + destabilises rock (e.g. sorption ofCs+ concentration (in the
colloidal particles) and Sr2 + on the rock' s presence of HC03-)
minerals) reduces the corrosion
Ion exchange (Ca2+/Na+) rate of steel in support ~
may reduce the swelling materials -.......]

~
pressure and increase the

permeability ofbentonite
8.1.10 Mg 2+ Influences the stability of Influences retardation in No influence No influence Magnesium salts cause May influence the
bentonite (in the absence of rock corrosion of concrete corrosion of cement
Mg 2+ the clay gel is not in support materials grouts
stable and may be dispersed
to a colloidal suspension)
8.1.11 No3- May cause stress corrosion As nutrient, stimulates No influence No influence No influence No influence
cracking in copper bacterial growth (see
8.1.32) and thereby may
As nutrient, stimulates influence the transport of
bacterial growth (see radionuclides
influence the isolating
capacity of canister
8.1.12 N02- May cause stress corrosion No influence No influence No influence No influence No influence
cracking in copper
Near-field Far-field Blasting)
Location Support Grouting
8.1.13 NH/ May cause stress corrosion As nutrient, stimulates No influence No influence Most ammonium salts May influence the
cracking in copper bacterial growth (see cause corrosion of corrosion of cement
8.1.32) and thereby may concrete in support grouts
As nutrient, stimulates influence the transport of materials
bacterial growth (see radionuclides
influence the isolating
8.1.14 HPO/- As nutrient, stimulates Some influence on No influence No influence No influence No influence
bacterial growth (see radionuclide transport
8.1.32) and thereby may (potential for formjng
influence the isolating strong complexes)
As nutrient, stimulates
bacterial growth (see
influence the transport of
~
radionuclides ......:)
2 N
8.1.15 Hs-;s - HS- may cause corrosion of HS- influences retardation No influence No influence May cause corrosion May cause corrosion
copper ofradionuclides by of concrete and of cement grouts
controlling redox increase the localised
conditions (see 8.1.2) corrosion of steel in
HS- influences dissolution
support materials
of the fuel by controlling
redox conditions (see 8.1.2)
8.1.16 Fe (Fe 2+, Fe 2+ influences the isolating Precipitation of No influence No influence No influence No influence
Fe 3+) capacity of canister by oxides/hydroxides ofFe
providing protection against can bind radionuclides by
oxygen (see 8.1.2) eo-precipitation
Fe 2 + influences dissolution Fe 2+ influences retarda-

of the fuel by controlling tion of radionuclides by
redox conditions (see 8.1.2) controlling redox
conditions (see 8.1.2)
8.1.17Mn2+ Can provide protection Precipitation of No influence No influence No influence No influence
against oxygen (see 8.1.2) oxides/hydroxides ofMn
can bind radionuclides by
eo-precipitation
8.1.18 u No influence No influence No influence No influence No influence The amount ofU in
the groundwater in-
gress influences the
requirement for venti-
lation and drainage
8.1.19 Si Some influence on the iso- No influence No influence No influence No influence No influence
lating capacity of bentonite
8.1.20 Al Some influence on the iso- No influence No influence No influence No influence No influence
lating capacity of bentonite
8.1.21 F Some influence on radionu- Some influence on No influence No influence No influence No influence
elide diffusion in bentonite radionucl ide transport
(potential for forming (potential for forming
complexes, e.g. with U) complexes)
8.1.22 Rn No influence No influence No influence No influence No influence The amount ofRn in
the groundwater in-
gress influences the
requirement for venti-
lation and drainage
8.1.23 N2 No influence N 2 bubbles can take up No influence No influence No influence No influence
radionuclides and act as
carriers .........
......:)
8.1.24 H 2 May influence the corrosion H 2 bubbles can take up No influence No influence No influence H 2 in the groundwater w
of copper by contributing to radionuclides and act as may influence
bacterial production of carriers operational safety
sulphide (see 8.1.32, 8.1.15)
8.1.25 CH4 May influence the corrosion CH4 bubbles can take up No influence No influence No influence CH4 in the ground-
of copper by contributing to radionuclides and act as water may influence
bacterial production of carriers operational safety
sulphide (see 8.1.32, 8.1.15)
8.1.26 C0 2 High C0 2 may have impact C0 2 bubbles can take up No influence No influence Aggressive C0 2 No influence
on the pH, via impacts on radionuclides and act as corrodes concrete in
the calcite carriers support materials
8.1.27 Ar No influence Gas bubbles can take up No influence No influence No influence No influence
carriers
8.1.28 He No influence Gas bubbles can take up No influence No influence No influence No influence
carriers ------- ------
Property/ Long-term safety Repository Excavation Mechanical Ground water
Near-field Far-field Blasting)
Location Support Grouting
8.1.29 DOC May influence the corrosion Decomposition of organic No influence No influence No influence No influence
of copper by contributing to matter by microbes
bacterial production of consumes oxygen from
sulphide (see 8.1.32, 8.1.15) groundwater and
contributes to reducing
Decomposition of organic conditions (see 8.1.2)
matter by microbes
consumes oxygen from
groundwater and
contributes to reducing
conditions (see 8.1.2)
8 .1.30 Acetates May cause stress corrosion No influence No influence No influence No influence No influence
cracking in copper
8.1.31 Humic No influence Influence radionuclide No influence No influence Influence the May influence the
and fulvic acids solubility and sorption corrosion of concrete corrosion of cement
(humic substances can in support materials grouts
form complexes with
~
some radionuclides and -.l
thereby reduce the ..J::..
sorption of these nuclides)
8.1.32 Microbes Sulphate-reducing bacteria Biofilms on fracture No influence No influence May reduce sulphate May reduce sulphate
produce sulphide and surfaces may hinder the to sulphide, which can to sulphide, which can
thereby contribute to the diffusion of radionuclides cause corrosion of cause corrosion of
corrosion of copper (see into the rock matrix concrete in support cement grouts
8.1.15) materials
Bacteria contribute to
Oxygen-consuming sorption and precipitation
microbes contribute to of strontium
reducing conditions (see
8.1.2) Bacteria can take up
carriers; they may also
cause generation of col-
loids (e.g. iron hydroxide
particles) (see 8.1.33) ~ ~ . --- - - - - -· - - - - - - - - - -
8.1.33 Colloids Potential colloid formation Colloidal particles can No influence No influence No influence No influence
risks at the bentonite-rock take up radionuclides and
interface; colloid formation act as carriers
risks during the glacial
scenario Colloids can also retard
radionuclide transport
'
8.2 Chemical
properties of
fracture
minerals
8.2.1 Calcite Dissolution-precipitation Dissolution-precipitation No influence No influence No influence No influence
behaviour of fracture calcite behaviour of fracture
influences the carbonate calcite influences the
chemistry (see 8.1 .6), Ca2+ carbonate chemistry (see
content (see 8.1.9) and pH 8.1.6), Ca2+ content (see
(see 8.1.3) of groundwater 8.1.9) and pH (see 8.1.3)
of groundwater
Influences directly the

retardation (sorption, eo-
precipitation) of nuclides, .......
-.)
e.g. sorption of Sr, Th, Ba U\
and Ra on calcite
8.2.2 Clay Ion exchange reactions Ion exchange reactions No influence No influence No influence No influence
minerals taking place in clay taking place in clay min-
minerals influence the Na erals influence the Na and
and Ca content of Ca content of ground-
groundwater (see 8.1.7 and water (see 8.1.7 and 8.1.9)
8.1.9)
Uptake of Mg in smectite
Uptake of K and Mg in clays and precipitation
smectite clays and reactions influence the
precipitation reactions Mg content of
influence the K and Mg groundwater (see 8.1.10)
content of groundwater (see
8.1.8 and 8.1.1 0) Influences directly the
retardation (sorption) of
nuclides, e.g. sorption of
Cs, Rb, Sr and Th on clay
minerals
8.2.3 Iron May influence redox condi- May influence redox No influence No influence No influence No influence
sulphides tions (see 8.1.2) (comprise a conditions (see 8.1.2)
potential sink for oxygen) (comprise a potential sink
for oxygen)
May influence the sulphide
content of ground water (see
8.1.15) and thereby the
corrosion of copper
8.2.4 Iron Ferric oxyhydroxides may Influences directly the No influence No influence No influence No influence
hydroxides hinder copper corrosion by retardation (sorption) of
oxidising dissolved sulphide nuclides, e.g. sorption of
Th, Ba and Ra on iron
hydroxides
8.2 .5 Other Fe2+ bearing minerals Fe2+ bearing minerals No influence No influence No influence No influence :
minerals (biotite, chlorite) influence (biotite, chlorite)

redox conditions (see 8.1.2) influence redox
by reacting with oxygen conditions (see 8.1.2) by
.........
reacting with oxygen -.)
0\
Biotite influences the

retardation of nuclides
due to its high sorption
capacity
8.3 Chemical -
properties of
rock minerals
8 .3.1 Quartz Aluminosilicate (mainly Pure oxides (e.g. quartz) No influence No influence No influence No influence
and feldspars plagioclase) hydrolysis have a low sorption
buffers pH conditions (see capacity
8.1.3)
Aluminosilicate (mainly
Content of K-bearing plagioclase) hydrolysis
minerals (e.g. K-feldspar) buffers pH conditions (see
influences K+ content in 8.1.3)
groundwater and thereby
the illitisation of bentonite
-
(see 8.1.8)
8 .3.2 Micas Oxidation of ferrous Oxidation of ferrous No influence No influence No influence No influence
silicates (e.g. biotite) silicates (e.g. biotite)
consumes oxygen from consumes oxygen from
groundwater and groundwater and
contributes to reducing contributes to reducing
conditions (see 8.1.2) conditions (see 8.1.2)
Content ofK-bearing Influence retardation

minerals (e.g. biotite, properties of rock, e.g.
muscovite) influences K+ sorption capacity (biotite
content in groundwater and has the best sorption
thereby the illitisation of capacity of the rock-
bentonite (see 8.1.8) forming minerals of
Olkiluoto)
8.3.3 Sulphur- Oxidation of ferrous Oxidation of ferrous sui- No influence No influence No influence No influence
rich minerals sulphides consumes oxygen phides consumes oxygen
from groundwater and from groundwater and
contributes to reducing contributes to reducing
conditions (see 8.1.2) conditions (see 8. 1.2) 1--'
-....)
-....)
Amount of pyrite and Amount of pyrite and pyr-
pyrrhotite and their grain rhotite and their grain size
size influence the sulphide influence the sulphide
content of groundwater (see content of groundwater
8.1.15) and thereby the (see 8.1.15) and thereby
corrosion of copper redox conditions (8 .1.2),
(influence also bentonite which have influence on
and fuel via redox transport and retardation
conditions, see 8.1.2) of radionuclides
8.3.4 Iron Ferric minerals (mainly Content of iron oxides No influence No influence No influence No influence
oxides ferric oxyhydroxides) may influences sorption
hinder copper corrosion by properties
oxidising dissolved sulphide
8.3.5 Other No influence Iron-bearing minerals No influence No influence No influence No influence
minerals (e.g. hornblende) have a
high sorption capacity
Pure carbonates (e.g.

calcite) have normally a
low so_!E_tion cagacity
9
TRANSPORT
PROPERTIES
9.1 Influences the magnitude of Influences radionuclide Is likely to influence See Hydraulic See Hydraulic See Hydraulic
Ground water the release of nuclides in transport and retardation the location of the properties of fractured properties of fractured properties of fractured
flow the event of canister failure; (see Hydraulic properties repository (avoidance rock mass (7 .1) rock mass (7 .1) rock mass (7 .1)
influences the stability of of fractured rock mass, of transmissive
the canister (influx of 7.1) fracture zones) and the
corrodants) location of deposition
holes (preference for
flow rate in region of
hole to lie below some
specified level)
9.2 Fracture Aperture of fractures in the Aperture influences the Aperture may See Aperture (4.3.5.7), See Aperture (4.3.5.7), See Aperture (4.3.5.7),
aperture and rock around deposition transport properties of influence the location Number of fracture Number of fracture Number of fracture
geometry holes will influence the re- migration paths (e.g. of canister holes (large sets (4.3.5.1), Fracture sets (4.3.5.1), Fracture sets (4.3.5.1 ), Fracture
lease rates of radionuclides transport resistance apertures will be frequency (4.3.5.2), frequency (4.3.5.2), frequency (4.3.5.2), ........
from the bentonite into the WUQ, flow, velocity, avoided); geometry Fracture trace length Fracture trace length Fracture trace length -....J
00
geosphere; has influence on conductivity, filtration, may influence the (4.3.5.3) and Fracture (4.3.5.3) and Fracture (4.3.5.3) and Fracture
transport resistance (WUQ) ion exclusion) location and orientation (4.3.5.8) orientation (4.3.5.8) orientation (4.3.5.8)
of migration paths orientation of the
The distribution and tunnels
Fracture aperture and magnitude of apertures
geometry influence the and the fracture geometry
connectivity of fracture influence the connectivity
network and, therefore, the of fracture networks and,
hydraulic connectivity of thereby, affects flow rates
near-field rock and transport times
9.3 Properties Microstructure of the rock Influences the sorption May possibly No direct influence, No direct influence, No direct influence,
of the rock mass adjacent to fractures and transport of influence the location but may need to be but may need to be but may need to be
mass along the influences matrix diffusion radionuclides in far-field of canister holes considered when considered when considered when
rock; influences the ~ planning the planning the support planning the sealing
flow paths
Influences the transport of values of radionuclides May influence the excavation measures measures (particularly
radionuclides in near-field definition of respect the amount of cement
rock Microstructure of the rock distances to fracture used in grouting)
mass adjacent to fractures zones
influences matrix
diffusion
9.4 Influences groundwater Influences groundwater See Groundwater See Groundwater See Groundwater See Groundwater
Ground water flow in the near-field via flow in the far-field via chemistry (8 .1) chemistry (8.1) chemistry (8.1) chemistry (8.1)
chemistry density of groundwater (see density of groundwater
7.3.1) (see 7.3.1)
Influences the stability of Influences the transport

canister and bentonite and and retardation of
the dissolution of fuel and radionuclides (see 8.1 );
solubility of radionuclides influences the Kd values
(see 8.1) of radionuclides
1--'
-..)
\0

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Working Report 2003-04

Host rock classification

Host rock classification

Host rock classification

Annika Hagros, Kari Aikas

Saanio & Riekkola Consulting Engineers

Fortum Engineering Ltd

Base maps: ©National Land Survey, permiss i on 41 /MYY/03

Working Reports contain information on work in progress

The conclusions and v iewpoints presented in the report

SAANIO & RIEKKOLA OY SAATE 29.11.2002

SAATE TYORAPORTIN TARKASTAMISESTA JA HYVAKSYMISESTA

TILAUS 9577/02/AJH, 9649/02/AJH, 9734/02/A~ j

TYORAPORTTI HOST ROCK CLASSIFICATION. PHASE 2: INFLUENCE

Working report 2002-:XX

LAATIJAT Annika Hagros Saanio & Riekkola Consulting Engineers

Keywords: nuclear waste, disposal, Olkiluoto, rock mass, classification, repository,

SIJOITUSKALLION LUOKITTELU. VAIHE 2: SIJOITUSKALLION OMINAI-

Sijoituskallion luokittelu -projektin tarkoituksena on kehittaa luokitusjarjestelma, jonka

Loppusijoitustilojen pitkaaikaisturvallisuuden kannalta sijoituskallion ominaisuuksien

Loppusijoitustilojen layout ja sijainti maaraytyy useissa eri mittakaavoissa vaikuttavien

Loppusijoitustilojen mittakaavassa kaikkein tarkeimpia kallion ominaisuuksia ovat

Avainsanat: ydinjate, loppusijoitus, Olkiluoto, kallio, luokitus, loppusijoitustilat, pitka-

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... 1

2 SCOPE OF WORK ..................................................................................... 7

3 REQUIREMENTS OF THE HOST ROCK ................................................ 11

5 THERMAL PROPERTIES ........................................................................ 43

6 ROCK MECHANICS ................................................................................. 51

9 TRANSPORT PROPERTIES ................................................................. 101

10 FACTORS INFLUENCING ROCK PROPERTIES .................................. 117

11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................................... 131

REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 141

APPENDIX 1: The influence of host rock properties on long-term safety,

In order to develop a classification system that can be used to identify potentially

Table 1-1. The main goals of the report.

Phase 2 of the Host Rock Classification project - Main goals

It is intended that the work should be applicable to

• a repository constructed according to the KBS-3V concept, although the KBS-3H

2.2 Disposal concept

2.3 Olkiluoto site

Figure 2-2. The location of Olkiluoto in Finland.

Location of the boreholes

A detailed account of the site-specific characteristics of Olkiluoto is presented by Antti-

3 REQUIREMENTS OF THE HOST ROCK

3.1 Regulations from the Finnish authorities

Factors indicating the unsuitability of a disposal site may include

• the proximity of exploitable natural resources

3.2 International recommendations and national guidelines

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has published recommendations on

• The geological setting of a repository should be amenable to overall characterisation

• The physicochemical and geochemical characteristics of the geological and

• The underground characteristics of the site should permit application of an optimised

b) have geochemical characteristics that contribute to a low corrosion rate of the

c) be located in a region of low tectonic and seismic activity

4.1 Topography and soil

Influence on long-term safety

Figure 4-1. Topographical map of Olkiluoto.

OLKILUOTO Finnish coordinate system,

Influence on repository layout and location

Strike and dip direction

Influence on long-term safety

Influence on repository layout and location

In unweathered rocks, the mineralogical composition is usually the most important