2019-2020

PHYSICS
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

TOPIC-FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

WITH FILTER CIRCUIT.

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

mr.HAMENDRA ROMIL TALAICH
Shukla (hod) XII SCIENCE
 Certificate
Name: Romil Talaich Class: XII Sc.
Roll No.

Institution - Hind Zinc School

This is certified to be the bonafide work of the student in the

laboratory during the academic year 2019/2020.
…………….
Teacher In-charge

……………….. ……………….
Examiner’s Signature Principal

Date:………..
Institution Rubber Stamp
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my foremost duty to express my deep regards and

gratitude to my Physics teacher Mr. Hamendra Shukla under
whose guidance and supervision I am able to undertake this
project. It is her who has been my primary source of
inspiration and who motivated, guided and encouraged me at
different stages of this project.
I am also thankful for the help rendered by the lab assistant
Mr.Bharat Rao who made available the various lab apparatus
and chemicals needed for the experiment, else it would have
been difficult to perform this project successfully.

I sincerely express my gratitude to our principal Dr. Bindu

Nair who pushed us forward to make this project a grand
success.
INDEX
 INTRODUCTION
SYNOPSIS
A.C. converter is a device, which is used to convert an A.C. supply
into D.C. supply through semi conductor diode. It finds its application
in many fields of electricity. It is used in batteries eliminators,
televisions, radios electroplating etc. I have studied about it and have
recorded observations in this Project Report.

CONVERTER
It converts an A.C. supply into D.C. or D.C. into A.C. But in this
project it converts A.C. into D.C. The converter which converts A.C.
into D.C. is known as Rectifier and this process of converting into
D.C. is known as RECTIFICATION. It mainly consist of four parts:
1. Step Down Transformer
2. Rectifier
3. Filter Element
4. Output
TRANSFORMER
A transformer is device used for changing the form of electrical
energy i.e. for converting a low voltage alternating current into high
voltage alternating current or vice versa. When the low voltage A.C is
converted into high voltage A.C. the transformer is called Step Up
Transformer. When the high voltage A.C. current is converted into
low voltage A.C. then the transformer is called Step Down
Transformer.A transformer is a passive electrical device that
transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits. A varying
current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic
flux, which, in turn, induces a varying electromotive force across a
second coil wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be
transferred between the two coils, without a metallic connection
between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in
1831 described the induced voltage effect in any coil due to changing
magnetic flux encircled by the coil.

Transformers are used for increasing or decreasing the alternating

voltages in electric power applications, and for coupling the stages of
signal processing circuits.
Principal Of Transformer:
Construction:
Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a
laminated steel core. The coils are insulated from each other as well
as from the steel core. A transformer may also consist of a container
for winding and core assembly (called as tank), suitable bushings to
take our the terminals, oil conservator to provide oil in the
transformer tank for cooling purposes etc. The figure at left illustrates
the basic construction of a transformer.

In all types of transformers, core is constructed

by assembling (stacking) laminated sheets of steel, with minimum air-
gap between them (to achieve continuous magnetic path). The steel
used is having high silicon content and sometimes heat treated, to
provide high permeability and low hysteresis loss. Laminated sheets
of steel are used to reduce eddy current loss. The sheets are cut in the
shape as E,I and L. To avoid high reluctance at joints, laminations are
stacked by alternating the sides of joint. That is, if joints of first sheet
assembly are at front face, the joints of following assemble are kept at
back face.
The efficiency of a simple transformer construction can be improved
by bringing the two windings within close contact with each other
thereby improving the magnetic coupling. Increasing and
concentrating the magnetic circuit around the coils may improve the
magnetic coupling between the two
windings, but it also has the effect of increasing the magnetic losses
of the transformer core.
As well as providing a low reluctance path for the magnetic field, the
core is designed to prevent circulating electric currents within the iron
core itself. Circulating currents, called “eddy currents”, cause heating
and energy losses within the core decreasing the transformers
efficiency.
These losses are due mainly to voltages induced in the iron circuit,
which is constantly being subjected to the alternating magnetic fields
setup by the external sinusoidal supply voltage. One way to reduce
these unwanted power losses is to construct the transformer core from
thin steel laminations.
In all types of transformer construction, the central iron core is
constructed from of a highly permeable material made from thin
silicon steel laminations. These thin laminations are assembled
together to provide the required magnetic path with the minimum of
magnetic losses. The resistivity of the steel sheet itself is high, thus
reducing any eddy current loss by making the laminations very thin.
These steel transformer laminations vary in thickness’s from between
0.25mm to 0.5mm and as steel is a conductor, the laminations and any
fixing studs, rivets or bolts are electrically insulated from each other
by a very thin coating of insulating varnish or by the use of an oxide
layer on the surface.

Transformer Construction of the Core

Generally, the name associated with the construction of a transformer
is dependant upon how the primary and secondary windings are
wound around the central laminated steel core. The two most common
and basic designs of transformer construction are the Closed-core
Transformer and the Shell-core Transformer.
In the “closed-core” type (core form) transformer, the primary and
secondary windings are wound outside and surround the core ring. In
the “shell type” (shell form) transformer, the primary and secondary
windings pass inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which forms a
shell around the windings as shown below.In both types of
transformer core design, the magnetic flux linking the primary and
secondary windings travels entirely within the core with no loss of
magnetic flux through air. In the core type transformer construction,
one half of each winding is wrapped around each leg (or limb) of the
transformers magnetic circuit as shown above.
The coils are not arranged with the primary winding on one leg and
the secondary on the other but instead half of the primary winding and
half of the secondary winding are placed one over the other
concentrically on each leg in order to increase magnetic coupling
allowing practically all of the magnetic lines of force go through both
the primary and secondary windings at the same time. However, with
this type of transformer construction, a small percentage of the
magnetic lines of force flow outside of the core, and this is called
“leakage flux”.
Shell type transformer cores overcome this leakage flux as both the
primary and secondary windings are wound on the same centre leg or
limb which has twice the cross-sectional area of the two outer limbs.
The advantage here is that the magnetic flux has two closed magnetic
paths to flow around external to the coils on both left and right hand
sides before returning back to the central coils.
This means that the magnetic flux circulating around the outer limbs
of this type of transformer construction is equal to Φ/2. As the
magnetic flux has a closed path around the coils, this has the
advantage of decreasing core losses and increasing overall efficiency.

Transformer Laminations
But you may be wondering as to how the primary and secondary
windings are wound around these laminated iron or steel cores for this
types of transformer constructions. The coils are firstly wound on a
former which has a cylindrical, rectangular or oval type cross section
to suit the construction of the laminated core. In both the shell and
core type transformer constructions, in order to mount the coil
windings, the individual laminations are stamped or punched out from
larger steel sheets and formed into strips of thin steel resembling the
letters “E”s, “L”s, “U”s and “I”s as shown below.

These lamination stampings when connected together form the

required core shape. For example, two “E” stampings plus two end
closing “I” stampings to give an E-I core forming one element of a
standard shell-type transformer core. These individual laminations are
tightly butted together during the transformers construction to reduce
the reluctance of the air gap at the joints producing a highly saturated
magnetic flux density.
Transformer core laminations are usually stacked alternately to each
other to produce an overlapping joint with more lamination pairs
being added to make up the correct core thickness. This alternate
stacking of the laminations also gives the transformer the advantage
of reduced flux leakage and iron losses. E-I core laminated
transformer construction is mostly used in isolation transformers,
step-up and step-down transformers as well as auto transformers.
STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
A Step Down Transformer is a device which converts high primary
voltage to a low secondary voltage. In a Step Down Transformer, the
primary winding of a coil has more turns than the secondary winding.

Transformer work on the principle of “Faraday’s law of

electromagnetic induction”. Mutual induction between the windings is
responsible for transmission action in a transformer.

Faraday’s law states that “when the magnetic flux linking a circuit
changes, an electromotive force is induced in the circuit proportional
to the rate of change of the flux linkage”.

The emf (Electro Motive Force) induced between the two windings is
determined by the number of turns in primary and secondary winding
respectively. This ratio is called as Turns Ratio.

The voltage reduction capability of step down transformers depends

on the turn ratio of the primary and secondary coil. As the number of
windings in secondary coil is less as compared to the number of
windings in primary coil, so the amount of flux linkage to the
secondary coil of the transformer will also be less compared to the
primary coil.Accordingly, the emf induced will be less in the
secondary coil. Due to this, the voltage reduces at the secondary
winding compared to primary winding.

The formula used to design a Step Down Transformer is:

Where,
Ns = Number of turns in secondary.
Vs = Voltage in secondary.
Vp = Voltage in primary.
Np = Number of turns in primary.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
Step Down Transformers can be classified into three categories based
on tappings in secondary coil. They are:
1. Single phase step down transformer:
Used to step down the current ratings and input voltage and
gives low voltage and current in output.

2. Center tapped step down transformer:

This type of transformer has one primary winding and a center
split in the secondary winding, by which it gives the output
voltage with the center pint.
3. Multi tapped step down transformer:
This type of transformer has multiple tapping in the secondary
coil.Multiple tapping are used to get desired varied output with
the secondary coil.
FULL wave rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating
current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct
current (DC), which flows in only one direction.

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one

of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output.
Mathematically, this corresponds to the absolute value function. Full-
wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to
pulsating DC (direct current), and yields a higher average output
voltage.
For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two
diodes back-to-back (i.e. anode-to-anode or cathode-to-cathode) can
form a full-wave rectifier.

AIM- To construct a Full Wave Rectifier With Filter

Circuit.
Components:

 Resistance: 1.5k ohm and 150k ohm.

 Diode: 1N 4007 (2pic):

 Transformer - 220V to 9-0-9V A.C :

 LED :

 Neon Bulb :

 Capacitor - 100 μF/16V :

 A.C Lead :
Circuit Daigram:

Connections are done as in the circuit. The A.C. supply is given to

both the input wires of the transformer and the two ends of the
secondary coil is given to the P side of the two diodes and the N side
of the diodes are twined and then connected to one end of the
capacitor and the other end to the center tap lead and to the resistor.
Further, the other end of capacitor with the diode connection is
connected to the other end of the resistor . Connect 2 leads on both the
ends of the resistor to measure the output and this is connected tothe
+ve & -ve terminals of the bulb.
Working:
A full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts both half
cycles of the AC signal into pulsating DC signal.

As shown in the above figure, the full wave rectifier converts both
positive and negative half cycles of the input AC signal into output
pulsating DC signal.

When an additional wire is connected across the exact middle of the

secondary winding of a transformer, it is known as a center tapped
transformer.
The wire is adjusted in such a way that it falls in the exact middle
point of the secondary winding. So the wire is exactly at zero volts of
the AC signal. This wire is known as the center tap.

The center tapped transformer works almost similar to a normal

transformer. Like a normal transformer, the center tapped transformer
also increases or reduces the AC voltage. However, a center tapped
transformer has another important feature. That is the secondary
winding of the center tapped transformer divides the input AC current
or AC signal (VP) into two parts.

The upper part of the secondary winding produces a positive voltage

V1 and the lower part of the secondary winding produces a negative
voltage V2. When we combine these two voltages at output load, we
get a complete AC signal.

I.e. VTotal = V1 + V2

The voltages V1 and V2 are equal in magnitude but opposite in

direction. That is the voltages (V1 and V2 ) produced by the upper part
and lower part of the secondary winding are 180 degrees out of phase
with each other. However, by using a full wave rectifier with center
tapped transformer, we can produce the voltages that are in phase
with each other. In simple words, by using a full wave rectifier with
center tapped transformer, we can produce a current that flows only in
single direction.

The center tapped full wave rectifier uses a center tapped transformer
to convert the input AC voltage into output DC voltage.

When input AC voltage is applied, the secondary winding of the

center tapped transformer divides this input AC voltage into two parts:
positive and negative.During the positive half cycle of the input AC
signal, terminal A become positive, terminal B become negative and
center tap is grounded (zero volts). The positive terminal A is
connected to the p-side of the diode D1 and the negative terminal B is
connected to the n-side of the diode D1. So the diode D1 is forward
biased during the positive half cycle and allows electric current
through it.

On the other hand, the negative terminal B is connected to the p-side

of the diode D2 and the positive terminal A is connected to the n-side
of the diode D2. So the diode D2 is reverse biased during the positive
half cycle and does not allow electric current through it.The diode
D1 supplies DC current to the load RL. The DC current produced at
the load RL will return to the secondary winding through a center tap.
During the positive half cycle, current flows only in the upper part of
the circuit while the lower part of the circuit carry no current to the
load because the diode D2 is reverse biased. Thus, during the positive
half cycle of the input AC signal, only diode D1 allows electric
current while diode D2 does not allow electric current.

During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, terminal A

become negative, terminal B become positive and center tap is
grounded (zero volts). The negative terminal A is connected to the p-
side of the diode D1 and the positive terminal B is connected to the n-
side of the diode D1. So the diode D1 is reverse biased during the
negative half cycle and does not allow electric current through it.

On the other hand, the positive terminal B is connected to the p-side

of the diode D2 and the negative terminal A is connected to the n-side
of the diode D2. So the diode D2 is forward biased during the negative
half cycle and allows electric current through it.

The diode D2 supplies DC current to the load RL. The DC current

produced at the load RL will return to the secondary winding through a
center tap.
During the negative half cycle, current flows only in the lower part of
the circuit while the upper part of the circuit carry no current to the
load because the diode D1 is reverse biased. Thus, during the negative
half cycle of the input AC signal, only diode D2 allows electric
current while diode D1 does not allow electric current.

Thus, the diode D1 allows electric current during the positive half
cycle and diode D2 allows electric current during the negative half
cycle of the input AC signal. As a result, both half cycles (positive
and negative) of the input AC signal are allowed. So the output DC
voltage is almost equal to the input AC voltage.

Output waveforms of full wave rectifier

The output waveforms of the full wave rectifier is shown in the below
figure.

The first waveform represents an input AC signal. The second

waveform and third waveform represents the DC signals or DC
current produced by diode D1 and diode D2. The last waveform
represents the total output DC current produced by diodes D1and D2.
From the above waveforms, we can conclude that the output current
produced at the load resistor is not a pure DC but a pulsating DC.

Rectifier efficiency
Rectifier efficiency indicates how efficiently the rectifier converts AC
into DC. A high percentage of rectifier efficiency indicates a good
rectifier while a low percentage of rectifier efficiency indicates an
inefficient rectifier.

Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC output power to the

AC input power.

It can be mathematically written as

η = output PDC / input PAC

The rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is 81.2%.The rectifier

efficiency of a full wave rectifier is twice that of the half wave
rectifier. So the full wave rectifier is more efficient than a half wave
rectifier.
Filter Circuit
The pulsating Direct Current (DC) produced by the full wave rectifier
contains both AC and DC components.So in order to overcome this
problem we use filter circuit. This is done by connecting a capacitor
in parallel with the load resistance.

We know that the capacitor allows the AC components and blocks the
DC components of the current. When the DC current that contains
both DC components and AC components reaches the filter, the DC
components experience a high resistance from the capacitor whereas
the AC components experience a low resistance from the capacitor.
Electric current always prefers to flow through a low resistance path.
So the AC components will flow through the capacitor whereas the
DC components are blocked by the capacitor. Therefore, they find an
alternate path and reach the output load resistor RL. The flow of AC
components through the capacitor is nothing but the charging of a
capacitor.

Thus, the filter converts the pulsating DC into pure DC.

Applications of DC
This form of power is most commonly produced by sources such as
solar cells, batteries, and thermocouples.

DC power is widely used in low voltage applications such as charging

batteries, automotive applications, aircraft applications and other low
voltage, low current applications. All solar panels nowadays produce
DC power.

Common applications with DC power in the PV industry are portable

solar systems and other off-grid appliances. Not using a solar
inverter to convert DC to AC will keep the costs down for such
systems.

Advantages and Disadvantages DC current

Nowadays for electric power distribution alternating current is mostly
used, as it has significant advantages over direct current in
transmission and transforming.

One of the biggest advantages of DC power is its ability to be used

in special applications.

Whenever AC power transmission is not practically feasible or

possible over long distances, DC power is used. One such application
are sub-sea high voltage DC transmission lines.
Here, the electricity is produced in AC form, converted to DC at a
switching/ terminal station, transmitted by a subsea network of cables,
re-converted to AC by another terminal station and finally delivered
to customers.
BIBILOGRAPHY
 https://www.google.co.in/
 https://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com/electronic-devices-
and-circuits/rectifier/fullwaverectifierwithfilter.html
 Comprehensive Practical Physics Class XII