IU CalculusI Chap2 PDF

Chapter 2: DIFFERENTIATION
GU
-V
Duong T. PHAM
AM
PH
CALCULUS I
T.
Summer 2018
D.
Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 1 / 76

Outline
1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems. Rates of Change
GU
2 The Derivative. Higher-Order Derivatives
-V
3 Rules of Differentiation
AM
4 Rates of change in the Natural and Social Sciences
5 Implicit differentiation PH
T.
6 Differentiation of inverse functions
D.
7 Linear approximation
8 Related Rates

Tangent line
f (xQ ) − f (a)
y = lim (x − a) + f (a)
xQ →a xQ − a
y
GU
t f (xQ ) − f (a)
-V
y = (x − a) + f (a)
xQ − a
AM
Q
f (xQ )
P Q
f (a)
PH y = f (x)
T.
D.
a xQ x

Tangent line
Def: The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P(a, f (a)) is
the line through P with slope
GU
f (x) − f (a)
m = lim
x→a x −a
-V
provided this limit exists.
AM
Ex: Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x 2 at the
point P(1, 1).
PH
Ans: The slope of the tangent line at the point P(1, 1) is
T.
f (x) − f (1) x2 − 1
m = lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 2
x −1 x→1 x − 1
D.
x→1 x→1
The tangent line is
y − 1 = 2(x − 1) (y = 2x − 1)

Tangent line
4 y = 2x − 1
GU
-V
AM
1
PH
T.
x
−2 −1 1 2
D.
Graph of function f (x) = x 2

The Velocity Problem
Example. Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper

observation deck of the CN Tower in Toronto, 450 m
GU
above the ground. Find the velocity of the ball after 5
seconds.
-V
Ans. Denote by s(t) : the distance fallen after t sec-
onds. Galileos law gives
AM
s(t) = 4.9t 2 .
Figure: The CN Tower in Toronto
PH
We can approximate the desired quantity by computing the average velocity over
T.
the brief time interval of a tenth of a second from t = 5 to t = 5.1
change in position s(5.1) − s(5)
D.
average velocity = =
time elapsed 0.1
2 2
4.9(5.1) − 4.9(5)
= = 49.49m/s.
0.1

The Velocity Problem
Time interval Average velocity (m/s)
GU
5≤t≤6 53.9
5 ≤ t ≤ 5.1 49.49
-V
5 ≤ t ≤ 5.05 49.245
5 ≤ t ≤ 5.01 49.049
AM
5 ≤ t ≤ 5.001 49.0049
PH
It appears that as we shorten the time period, the average velocity is becoming
closer to 49 m/s. The instantaneous velocity when t = 5 is defined to be the
limiting value of these average velocities over shorter and shorter time periods
T.
that start at t = 5. Thus the (instantaneous) velocity after 5 s is

D.
v (5) = 49 m/s.

Derivative
Def: The derivative of a function f at a number x = a, denoted by f 0 (a),
GU
is
f (x) − f (a)
-V
f 0 (a) = lim
x→a x −a
AM
if this limit exists
PH
Remark: The limit in the above definition can be replaced by
T.
f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
D.

Derivative
Ex: Find the derivative of f (x) = x 2 + 2x + 3 at the number x = a
GU
-V
f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
AM
(a + h)2 + 2(a + h) + 3 − (a2 + 2a + 3)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim
h→0
PH
(a + h)2 − a2 + 2h
h
= lim
h→0
(2a + h)h + 2h
h
T.
= lim (2a + h + 2)
h→0
D.
= 2a + 2

Derivative
Corollary: The tangent line to to the curve y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a))
is given by
GU
y − f (a) = f 0 (a)(x − a)
-V
Ex: Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x 2 + 2x + 3
at the point (0, 3)
AM
Ans: In the previous example, we have found that
PH
f 0 (a) = 2a + 2.
T.
Thus, f 0 (0) = 2. Applying the above corollary, the desired tangent line is
D.
y − 3 = 2(x − 0) or y = 2x + 3

Rate of change
Given a function y = f (x), if the variable x change from x1 to x2 ,

then the change in x is
GU
∆x = x2 − x1
-V
and the correponding change in y is
AM
∆y = f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
The difference quotient PH

∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
T.
=
∆x x2 − x1
D.
is called the average rate of change of y with respect to x over

the interval [x1 , x2 ]

Rate of change
GU
The instantaneous rate of change of y w.r.t. x at x = x1 is
-V
instantaneous rate ∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
= lim = lim
of change ∆x→0 ∆x x2 →x1 x2 − x1
AM
Note here that PH
∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
f 0 (x1 ) = lim
T.
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x x2 →x1 x2 − x1
D.

Exercises
GU
-V
2.7:
AM
1, 3–8, 11, 13, 18, 21, 25–30, 31–38, 51–52
PH
T.
D.

Derivative
Def: Given f : D → R, denote D ∗ := {x ∈ D such that f 0 (x) exists}.
The mapping
f 0 : D∗ → R
GU
x 7→ f 0 (x)
-V
is a function of x and called the derivative of f
Ex: Given f (x) = x 3 − x. Find f 0 (x).
AM
Ans: We have
PH
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim = lim
(x + h)3 − (x + h) − (x 3 − x)
h→0 h h→0 h
T.
h[(x + h)2 + (x + h)x + x 2 ] − h
= lim
h→0 h
D.

= lim (x + h) + (x + h)x + x 2 − 1
2
h→0
2
= 3x − 1

Derivative
y y
GU
y = x3 − x y = 3x 2 − 1
-V
AM
√1
3
−1
x −1 1
x
√
3
PH √
3
√
3
T.
D.

Differentiable functions
GU
Def: A function f is differentiable at x = a if f 0 (a) exists.
It is differentiable on an interval (a, b) or (−∞, a) or (a, ∞) or
-V

(−∞, ∞) if it is differentiable at every point in the interval
AM
Remark: The following notations can be used to indicate the the
PH
derivative of a function y = f (x) at the number x:
dy df d
f 0 (x) = y 0 =
T.
= = f (x) = Df (x) = Dx f (x)
dx dx dx
D.

Ex: Determine when f (x) = |x| is differentiable?
GU
x > 0: then f (x) = |x| = x and for sufficiently small |h|, we have x + h > 0.
Thus
-V
f (x + h)−f (x) |x + h| − |x| x + h−x
f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim = lim 1= 1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0
AM
=⇒ f is differentiable on (0, ∞)
PH
x < 0: then f (x) = |x| = −x and for sufficiently small |h|, we have
T.
x + h < 0. Thus
|x + h| − |x| −(x + h)−(−x)
f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim (−1)= −1
D.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
=⇒ f is differentiable on (−∞, 0)

Ex: Determine when f (x) = |x| is differentiable?
GU
x = 0: then
f (0 + h)−f (0) |0 + h| − |0| h
lim = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1= 1
-V
h→0+ h h→0 h h→0 h h→0
and
AM
f (0 + h)−f (0) |0 + h| − |0| −h
lim− = lim− = lim− = lim− −1= −1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0
We note here that PH

f (0 + h)−f (0) f (0 + h)−f (0)
lim 6= lim−
T.
h→0+ h h→0 h
D.
f (0+h)−f (0)
=⇒ limh→0 h does not exist f is NOT differentiable at x = 0
Conclusion: f is differentiable in (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

Differentiability =⇒ continuity?
Theorem: If f is differentiable at a then f is continuous at a
Proof:
f (x) − f (a)
GU
f is differentiable at a =⇒ lim exists ( = L )
x→a x −a
-V
Then f (x) − f (a)
lim [f (x) − f (a)] = lim · (x − a)
x→a x→a x −a
AM
f (x) − f (a)
= lim · lim (x − a)
x→a x −a x→a
PH = L · 0 = 0.
T.
Thus, lim f (x) = lim [f (x) − f (a) + f (a)]

x→a x→a
D.
= lim [f (x) − f (a)] + lim f (a)

x→a x→a
= 0 + f (a) = f (a).
=⇒ f is continuous at a.
Higher derivatives
If f is a differentiable function, then f 0 is also function. If f 0 also has a derivative,
we then denote f 00 = (f 0 )0 , and f 00 is called the second derivative of f . We can
d 2f

write d df
f 00 =
GU
= 2
dx dx dx
-V
Ex: Given f (x) = x 3 − x. Find f 00 (x).
AM
Ans: On slide 52, we have found that f 0 (x) = 3x 2 − 1. Thus
f 0 (x + h) − f 0 (x) 3(x + h)2 − 1 − (3x 2 − 1)

f 00 (x) = lim
h→0 h
PH = lim
h→0 h
3h(2x + h)
T.
= lim = lim [3(2x)]
h→0 h h→0
D.
= 6x
Def: The third derivative f 000 is defined to be the derivative of f 00 , i.e., f 000 = (f 00 )0
and so on ...

Exercises
GU
-V
2.8:
AM
1, 13, 17, 18, 19–24, 31, 45–46, 54
PH
T.
D.

Derivative of a constant function
Let c be a constant. Then
GU
d
(c) = 0
dx
-V
AM
Proof: We have f (x) = c. Then
d f (x + h) − f (x) c −c
dx
(c) = lim
h→0
PH h
= lim
h→0 h
0
T.
= lim = lim 0
h→0 h h→0
D.
= 0.

Derivatives of power functions
The power rule: If n is a positive integer, then

d n
GU
(x ) = nx n−1
dx
-V
Proof: If f (x) = x n , then
AM
d n f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)n − x n
(x ) = lim = lim
dx h→0 h
h (x + h) n−1
PH h→0 h
+ (x + h) x + . . . + (x + h)x n−2 + x n−1
n−2

= lim
T.
h→0 h
= lim (x + h)n−1 + (x + h)n−2 x + . . . + (x + h)x n−2 + x n−1

D.
h→0
n−1
= nx

The power rule
The power rule (General version): If α is any real number , then
GU
d α
(x ) = αx α−1
dx
-V
d √

AM
d 1
Ex: Find and x
dx x2 dx
Ans:
d

1

d
PH −2
x −2 = (−2)x −2−1 = −2x −3 = 3

=
T.
dx x2 dx x
D.
d √ d 1/2 1 1 1 1 1
x = x = x 2 −1 = x − 2 = √
dx dx 2 2 2 x

The constant multiple rule
The constant multiple rule: If c is a constant and f is a differentiable

function, then
GU
d d
[cf (x)] = c f (x)
dx dx
-V
Proof: Let g (x) = cf (x), then
AM
d g (x + h) − g (x) cf (x + h) − cf (x)
g (x) = lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
= lim c

PH
f (x + h) − f (x)

= c lim
f (x + h) − f (x)
h→0 h h→0 h
T.
d
= c f (x)
dx
D.
d d
Ex: (3x 4 ) = 3 (x 4 ) = 3 · 4x 3 = 12x 3
dx dx

The sum rule
The sum rule: If f are g are both differentiable functions, then
d d d
[f (x) + g (x)] = f (x) + g (x)
dx dx dx
GU
Proof: Let k(x) = f (x) + g (x), then
-V
d k(x + h) − k(x) f (x + h) + g (x + h) − [f (x) + g (x)]
k(x) = lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
AM

f (x + h) − f (x) g (x + h) − g (x)
= lim +
h→0 h h
= lim
PH
f (x + h) − f (x)
+ lim
g (x + h) − g (x)
h→0 h h→0 h
T.
d d
= f (x) + g (x)
dx dx
D.
Remark: The sum rule can be extended to sums of any number of functions. For
example,
(f + g + k)0 = f 0 + g 0 + k 0

Derivative of exponential functions
(e x )0 = e x
GU
(ax )0 = ax ln a
-V
1
(ln x)0 =
x
AM
0 1
(loga x) =
x ln a
Exercises 3.1:
PH
T.
3–32, 45–46
D.
53, 57, 67–70, 75

The product rule
The product rule: If f and g are differentiable function, then

d d d
[f (x)g (x)] = g (x) f (x) + f (x) g (x)
GU
dx dx dx
-V
Proof: Let k(x) = f (x)g (x), then
AM
d k(x + h) − k(x) f (x + h)g (x + h) − f (x)g (x)
k(x) = lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
PH

[f (x + h) − f (x)]g (x + h) f (x)[g (x + h) − g (x)]
= lim +
h→0 h h
f (x + h) − f (x) g (x + h) − g (x)
T.
= lim · lim g (x + h) + f (x) · lim
h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
D.
d d
= g (x) f (x) + f (x) g (x)
dx dx

The quotient rule
The quotient rule: If uand v are differentiable function, then

d u(x) u 0 (x)v (x) − u(x)v 0 (x)
=
dx v (x) v (x)2
GU
-V
Proof: Exercise
x2 − x + 3
Ex: Let y = . Find y 0 .
AM
x +2
Ans:
y0 =
PH
(x 2 − x + 3)0 (x + 2) − (x 2 − x + 3)(x + 2)0
(x + 2)2
T.
(2x − 1)(x + 2) − (x 2 − x + 3)
=
(x + 2)2
D.
2
x + 5x − 5
=
(x + 2)2

Differentiation formulae
GU
d d α
dx (c) =0 dx (x ) = αx α−1
-V
d x d
dx (e ) = ex x
dx (a ) = ax ln a
AM
(cf )0 = cf 0 (f ± g )0 = f 0 ± g 0
PH 0
f 0 g −fg 0
(fg )0 = f 0 g + fg 0 f
=
T.
g g2
D.

Exercises
GU
-V
3.2:
AM
1–26, 27–30, 31–32, 39, 42, 43, 46, 50,
PH
T.
D.

Derivatives of trigonometric functions
1 1
GU
Recall that sec x = and csc x = . The following identities are
cos x sin x
true:
-V
(sin x)0 = cos x (cos x)0 = − sin x
AM
(tan x)0 = 1
cos2 x
(cot x)0 = − sin12 x
(csc x)0 = − csc x cot x

PH (sec x)0 = sec x tan x
T.
D.
Exercises: 3.3: 1–16

The chain rule
The chain rule: Let f be differentiable at a and let g be differentiable at f (a)

=⇒ the composition g ◦ f is differentiable at a and
GU
(g ◦ f )0 (a) = g 0 (f (a)) · f 0 (a)
-V
Proof: We have
(g ◦ f )(a + h) − (g ◦ f )(a) g (f (a + h)) − g (f (a))
(g ◦ f )0 (a) = lim = lim
AM
h→0 h h→0 h

g (f (a + h)) − g (f (a)) f (a + h) − f (a)
= lim ·
h→0
PH
f (a + h) − f (a)
g (f (a + h)) − g (f (a))
h
f (a + h) − f (a)
= lim · lim
T.
h→0 f (a + h) − f (a) h→0 h
= g 0 (f (a)) · f 0 (a)
D.
Note that in the last argument we use the fact that f is continuous at a because
it is differentiable at a, and thus f (a + h) → f (a) as h goes to 0.

The chain rule
√
Ex: Let k(x) = x 2 + 1. Find f 0 (x)
GU
Ans:
√
Denote f (x) = x 2 + 1 and g (x) = x. Then
-V
k(x) = g (f (x)) = (g ◦ f )(x).
AM
Applying the Chain Rule,
PH
k 0 (x) = g 0 (f (x)) · f 0 (x).
T.
√
g (x) = x =⇒ g 0 (x) = 1
√
2 x
=⇒ g 0 (f (x)) = √1 = 1
2(x 2 +1)
2 f (x)
D.
f (x) = x 2 + 1 =⇒ f 0 (x) = 2x
2x x
=⇒ k 0 (x) = = 2
2(x 2 + 1) x +1

The power rule combined with the chain rule
For any α ∈ R, we have
GU
d α du
u = αu α−1
-V
dx dx
Ex: Differentiate y = (x 3 − 1)100 .
AM
Ans: We have
dy
=
d PH
[(x 3 − 1)100 ] = 100(x 3 − 1)100−1 (x 3 − 1)0
dx dx
T.
= 100(x 3 − 1)99 (3x 2 )

D.
= 300(x 3 − 1)99 x 2

Exercises
GU
-V
3.4:
AM
1–12, 47–50, 68, 75
PH
T.
D.

Physics
Example. The position of a particle is given by the equation
s = f (t) = t 3 − 6t 2 + 9t
GU
where t is measured in seconds and s in meters.
-V
(i) Find the velocity at time t.
(ii) What is the velocity after 2 s? After 4 s?
AM
(iii) When is the particle at rest?
(iv) When is the particle moving forward (that is, in the positive direction)?
PH
(v) Draw a diagram to represent the motion of the particle.
T.
(vi) Find the total distance traveled by the particle during the first five seconds.
t.
D.
(vii) Find the acceleration at time and after 4s.

(viii) Graph the position, velocity, and acceleration functions for 0 ≤ t ≤ 5.
(ix) When is the particle speeding up? When is it slowing down?
Physics
Ans.
(i) The position function: s = f (t) = t 3 − 6t 2 + 9t. The velocity is the
derivative of the position function:
GU
ds
v (t) = = 3t 2 − 12t + 9.
-V
dt
(ii) The velocity after 2s means the instantaneous velocity when t = 2, that is,
AM
ds
v (2) = = 3 × 22 − 12 × 2 + 9 = −3m/s.
dt t=2
The velocity after 4 s is
PH
T.
v (4) = 3 × 42 − 12 × 4 + 9 = 9m/s.
D.
(iii) When is the particle at rest? The particle is at rest when v (t) = 0 , that is
3t 2 − 12t + 9 = 0 ⇐⇒ 3(t − 1)(t − 3) = 0 ⇐⇒ t = 1 or t = 3.
Thus the particle is at rest after 1 s and after 3 s.

Physics
(iv) When is the particle moving forward? The particle moves in the positive
direction when v (t) > 0, that is,
GU
v (t) > 0 ⇐⇒ 3(t − 1)(t − 3) > 0 ⇐⇒ t < 1 or t > 3.
The particle is moving backward when 1 ≤ t ≤ 3 .
-V
(v) Draw a diagram to represent the motion of the particle.
AM
PH
T.
D.

Physics
(vi) Total distance traveled after 5s? We need to calculate the distances traveled
GU
during the time intervals [0, 1], [1, 3], and [3, 5] separately.
The distance traveled in the first second is
-V
|f (1) − f (0)| = |4 − 0| = 4.
AM
From t = 1 to t = 3 the distance traveled is
PH
|f (3) − f (1)| = |0 − 4| = 4.
T.
From t = 3 to t = 5 the distance traveled is
D.
|f (5) − f (3)| = |20 − 0| = 20.
The total distance is 4 + 4 + 20 = 28m.

Physics
(vii) The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity function:
d 2s dv
a(t) = = = (3t 2 − 12t + 9)0t = 6t − 12
GU
dt 2 dt
a(4) = 6 × 4 − 12 = 12m/s 2
-V
(viii) the graphs of s, v and a:
AM
PH
T.
D.

Physics
(ix) When is the particle speeding up? When is it slowing down?
GU
-V
AM
PH
T.
D.

Physics
Example. If a rod or piece of wire is homogeneous, then its linear density is
uniform and is defined as the mass per unit length (ρ = m/`) and measured in
kilograms per meter. Suppose, however, that the rod is not homogeneous but
GU
that its mass measured from its left end to a point is m = f (x)
-V
AM
The mass of the part of the rod that lies between x = x1 and x = x2 is given by
PH
∆m = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ), so the average density of that part of the rod is
∆m f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
T.
average density = =
∆x x2 − x1
D.
The linear density ρ at x1 is the limit of these average densities as ∆x → 0 , that

is, the linear density is
∆m dm
ρ = lim = .
∆x→0 ∆x dx
Thus the linear density of the rod is the derivative of mass w.r.t. length.
Physics
Example. A current exists whenever electric charges move. The figure shows
part of a wire and electrons moving through a shaded plane surface.
GU
-V
AM
If ∆Q is the net charge that passes through this surface during a time period ∆t,
then the average current during this time interval is defined as
PH
average current =
∆Q
∆t
=
Q2 − Q1
t2 − t1
T.
If we take the limit of this average current over smaller and smaller time intervals,
we get what is called the current I at a given time t1 :
D.
∆Q dQ
I = lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Thus the current is the rate at which charge flows through a surface. It is
measured in units of charge per unit time (often coulombs per second, called
amperes).
Physics
GU
-V
Remark. Velocity, density, and current are not the only rates of change that are
important in physics. Others include power (the rate at which work is done), the
AM
rate of heat flow, temperature gradient (the rate of change of temperature with
respect to position), and the rate of decay of a radioactive substance in nuclear
physics.
PH
T.
D.

Chemistry
Example. 2H2 + O2 −→ 2H2 O: two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of
oxygen form two molecules of water.
Consider the reaction: A + B −→ C, where A, B: reactants and C: product.
GU
The concentration of a reactant A is the number of moles (1 mole
= 6.022 × 1023 molecules) per liter and is denoted by [A].
-V
The concentration varies during a reaction, so [A], [B], and [C] are all
functions of t.
AM
The average rate of reaction of the product C over a time interval
t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 is PH
∆[C] [C](t2 ) − [C](t1 )
T.
=
∆t t2 − t1
D.
Instantaneous rate of reaction is

∆[C] d[C]
rate of reaction = lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt

Chemistry
Consider the reaction: A + B −→ C.

Since the concentration of the product increases as the reaction proceeds,
GU
the derivative d[C]/dt will be positive, and so the rate of reaction of C is
positive.
-V
The concentrations of the reactants, however, decrease during the reaction.
Thus, d[A]/dt and d[B]/dt are negative.
AM
Since A and B each decrease at the same rate that C increases, we have
PH
rate of reaction=
d[C]
dt
=−
d[A]
dt
=−
d[B]
dt
.
T.
D.
Consider the reaction: aA + bB −→ cC + dD. There holds

1 d[A] 1 d[B] 1 d[C] 1 d[D]
− =− = =
a dt b dt c dt d dt

Biology
Example. Let n = f (t) be the number of individuals in an animal or plant

population at time t. The change in the population size between the times t = t1
and t = t2 is ∆n = f (t2 ) − f (t1 ), and so the average rate of growth during the
GU
time period is
-V
∆n f (t2 ) − f (t1 )
average rate of growth = =
∆t t2 − t1
AM
The instantaneous rate of growth is
PH
growth rate = lim
∆n
=
dn
.
∆t→0 ∆t dt
T.
Strictly speaking, this is not quite accurate because the actual graph of a
D.
population function n = f (t) would be a step function that is discontinuous

whenever a birth or death occurs and therefore not differentiable. However, for a
large animal or plant population, we can replace the graph by a smooth
approximating curve as in the figure.

Biology
GU
-V
AM
PH
T.
D.

Biology
Example. Consider a population of bacteria in a homogeneous nutrient medium.
Suppose that by sampling the population at certain intervals it is determined that
the population doubles every hour. If the initial population is n0 and the time t
GU
is measured in hours, then
-V
f (1) = 2f (0) = 2n0 , f (2) = 2f (1) = 22 n0 , . . . , f (t) = 2t n0
The population function is n = 2t n0 . So the rate of growth of the bacteria
AM
population at time t is
dn
dt
PH
d
= (2t n0 )= n0 2t ln 2.
dt
T.
For example, if n0 = 100 bacteria. The rate of growth after 4 hours is
D.
dn
= 100 × 24 ln 2 ≈ 1109.
dt t=4

This means that, after 4 hours, the bacteria population is growing at a rate of
about 1109 bacteria per hour.
Biology
Example. When we consider the flow of blood through a blood vessel, such as a
vein or artery, we can model the shape of the blood vessel by a cylindrical tube
with radius R and length l as illustrated in the figure
GU
-V
AM
Because of friction at the walls of the tube, the velocity v of the blood is
greatest along the central axis of the tube and decreases as the distance r
PH
from the axis increases until v becomes 0 at the wall.
The relationship between v and r is given by the law of laminar flow
T.
discovered by the French physician Jean-Louis-Marie Poiseuille in 1840.
D.
This law states that

P
v= (R 2 − r 2 )
4ηl
where η is the viscosity of the blood and P is the pressure difference
between the ends of the tube
Biology
P
v= (R 2 − r 2 ).
4ηl
GU
If P and l are constant, then v is a function of r with domain [0, R].
The average rate of change of the velocity as we move from r = r1 outward
-V
to r = r2 is given by ∆v v (r2 ) − v (r1 )
=
∆r r2 − r1
AM
Velocity gradient, i.e. the instantaneous rate of change of velocity v w.r.t. r
is: PH
velocity gradient = lim
∆v
∆r →0 ∆r
=
dv
dr
=−
Pr
2ηl
T.
For one of the smaller human arteries we can take η = 0.027, R = 0.008cm,
D.
l = 2cm, P = 4000 dynes/m2 .

4000
v= (0.0082 − r 2 )
4 × 0.027 × 2

Biology
At r = 0.002cm, the blood is flowing at a speed of
GU
4000
v (0.002) = (0.0082 − 0.0022 ) ≈ 1.11cm/s.
4 × 0.027 × 2
-V
The velocity gradient at that point is
AM
dv 4000 × 0.002
=− ≈ −74(cm/s)/cm.
dt t=0.002 2 × 0.027 × 2

PH
(1cm = 10, 000µm). Then the radius of the artery is 80µm. The velocity at
the central axis is 11, 850µm/s, which decreases to 11, 110µm/s at a
T.
distance of r = 20µm.
D.
The fact that dv /dr = −74(cm/s)/cm means that, when r = 20µm, the
velocity is decreasing at a rate of about 74(cm/s) for each micrometer that
we proceed away from the center.

Biology
Example. Suppose that C (x) is the total cost that a company incurs in producing
x units of a certain commodity. The function C is called a cost function.
If the number of items produced is increased from x1 to x2 , then the
GU
additional cost is ∆C = C (x2 ) − C (x1 ).
-V
The average rate of change of the cost is
∆C C (x2 ) − C (x1 ) C (x1 + ∆x) − C (x1 )
AM
= = .
∆x x2 − x1 ∆x
PH
The instantaneous rate of change of cost w.r.t. the number of items
produced, is called the marginal cost by economists:
T.
∆C dC
marginal cost = lim = .
D.
∆x→0 ∆x dt
Remark. Since x often takes on only integer values, it may not make literal sense
to let ∆x approach 0, but we can always replace C (x) by a smooth approximating
function as in the previous example.
Economics
Taking ∆x = 1 and n large (so that ∆x is small compared to n), we have
GU
C 0 (n) ≈ C (n + 1) − C (n)
-V
Thus the marginal cost of producing units is approximately equal to the cost
of producing one more unit [the n + 1st unit]
AM
It is often appropriate to represent a total cost function by a polynomial
PH
C (x) = a + bx + cx 2 + dx 3
where a represents the overhead cost (rent, heat, maintenance) and the
T.
other terms represent the cost of raw materials, labor, and so on. (The cost
D.
of raw materials may be proportional to x, but labor costs might depend

partly on higher powers of x because of overtime costs and inefficiencies
involved in large-scale operations.)

Economics
Example. For instance, suppose a company has estimated that the cost (in
dollars) of producing x items is
C (x) = 10, 000 + 5x + 0.01x 2 .
GU
Then the marginal cost function is
-V
C 0 (x) = 5 + 0.02x.
AM
The marginal cost at the production level of 500 items is
C 0 (500) = 5 + 0.02 × 500 = $15/item.
PH
This gives the rate at which costs are increasing with respect to the
production level when x = 500 and predicts the cost of the 501st item.
T.
The actual cost of producing the 501st item is

D.
C (501) − C (500) = [104 + 5·501 + 0.01·5012 ] − [104 + 5·500 + 0.01·5002 ]

= $15.01.
Notice that C 0 (500) ≈ C (501) − C (500).

Implicit differentiation
If a function is given as an expression of the variable y = f (x), then

we can use definition and differentiation rules to compute y 0 .
GU
√
E.g., given y = x + 1. Then y 0 = 2√1x+1
-V
However, if the function y is given implicitly as a relation between x
and y , then we need to use the method of implicit differentiation
AM
E.g., given x 3 + y 3 = 6xy . We need to find y 0 ?
PH
E.g., Differentiating both sides, noting that y is a function of x,
(x 3 + y 3 )0x = (6xy )0x ⇐⇒ 3x 2 + 3y 2 y 0 = 6y + 6xy 0

T.
⇐⇒ (y 2 − 2x)y 0 = 2y − x 2
D.
2y − x 2
⇐⇒ y 0 =
y 2 − 2x

Implicit differentiation
Ex: Find y 00 if x 4 + y 4 = 16
Ans: Differentiating both sides to obtain
GU
x3
(x 4 + y 4 )0x = (16)0x ⇐⇒ 4x 3 + 4y 3 y 0 = 0 =⇒ y 0 = −
-V
y3
Differentiating both sides of the blue equation
AM
0
x3 (x 3 )0x y 3 − x 3 (y 3 )0x 3x 2 y 3 − 3x 3 y 2 y 0

00
y =−
y3x
=−PH y6
= −
y6
3
T.
3x 2 y 3 − 3x 3 y 2 − yx 3 4 4
2x + y
=− = −3x
y6 y7
D.
48x 2
=− 7
y

Derivative of inverse trigonometric functions
GU
-V
(sin−1 x)0 = √ 1
1−x 2
(cos−1 x)0 = − √1−x
1
2
AM
(tan−1 x)0 = 1
1+x 2
(cot−1 x)0 = − 1+x
1
2
(sec−1 x)0 = √1
x x 2 −1
PH (csc−1 x)0 = − x √x12 −1
T.
D.

Exercises
GU
-V
3.5
AM
1–4, 21–22, 33–36, 40
PH
T.
D.

Differentiation of inverse functions
The inverse of f is denoted f −1 . Their two derivatives, assuming they exist,

are reciprocal, as the Leibniz notation suggests; that is:
GU
dx dy
· = 1.
dy dx
-V
Hence,
AM
−1 0 1
f (a) = .
f 0 (f −1 (a))
PH
Example. y = x 2 (for positive x) has inverse x =
√
y . We have
T.
dy dx 1 1
= 2x, = √ =
dx dy 2 y 2x
D.
Here, there holds

dy dx 1
· = 2x · = 1.
dx dy 2x

Linear approximation
0
y = f (a)(x − a) + f (a)
y
GU
t
-V
f 0 (a)(x ∗ − a) + f (a))
f (x ∗ )
P Q
f (a)
AM
y = f (x)
PH
x
T.
a x∗
D.
The approximation f (x ∗ ) ≈ f 0 (a)(x ∗ − a) + f (a) is called the linear

approximation of f at a∗ .
The function L(x) = f 0 (a)(x − a) + f (a) is the linearization of f

Linear approximation
√
Ex: Write the linearization
√ of f (x) √
= x + 3 at x = 1, then use it to
approximate the values 3.95 and 4.05
GU
Ans:
-V
The linearization at x = 1 is
1 √ x 7
L(x) = f 0 (1)(x − 1) + f (1) = √ (x − 1) + 1 + 3 = +
AM
2 1+3 4 4
PH
The corresponding linear approximation is
√ x 7
T.
x +3≈ + (when x is near 1)
4 4
D.
√ √ 0.95 7
In particular, 3.95 = 0.95 + 3 ≈ 4 + 4 = 1.9875
√ √ 1.05 7
and 4.05 = 1.05 + 3 ≈ 4 + 4 = 2.0125

Exercises
GU
-V
3.10:
AM
1–10
PH
T.
D.

Related Rates
GU
If we are pumping air into a balloon, both the volume and the radius
of the balloon are increasing and their rates of increase are related to
-V
each other. But it is much easier to measure directly the rate of
increase of the volume than the rate of increase of the radius.
AM
In a related rates problem the idea is to compute the rate of change
of one quantity in terms of the rate of change of another quantity
PH
(which may be more easily measured).
The procedure is to find an equation that relates the two quantities
T.
and then use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides with respect
D.
to time.

Related Rates
Ex. Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon so that its volume increases at
a rate of 100 cm3 /s. How fast is the radius of the balloon increasing when the
GU
diameter is 50 cm?
-V
Given information: the rate of increase of the volume of air is 100 cm3 /s
Unknown: the rate of increase of the radius when the diameter is 50 cm?
AM
Denote V (t) : volume of the balloon at time t
PH
r (t) : radius of the balloon at time t.
The rate of increase of the volume V (t) w.r.t. time is dV /dt
T.
The rate of increase of the radius r (t) w.r.t. time is dr /dt
dV dr
D.
Hence, = 100cm3 /s. Question: =? when r = 25cm.

dt dt

Related rates
4
We have V = πr 3 . Differentiate with respect to t
GU
3
-V
dV dV dr dr dr 1 dV
= = 4πr 2 =⇒ = .
dt dr dt dt dt 4πr 2 dt
AM
dV
When r = 25 and = 100, we have
dt
PH
dr 1 1
= 100 =
T.
dt 4π252 25π
The radius of the balloon is increasing at the rate of
D.
1/(25π) ≈ 0.0127 cm/s

Related Rates
Ex. A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder
slides away from the wall at a rate of 1 ft/s, how fast is the top of the ladder
sliding down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6 ft from the wall?
GU
-V
x(t), y (t)
AM
dx
When = 1 ft/s,
dt
dy
PH x = 6 ft ,
dt
=?
T.
Pythagorean Theorem: x 2 + y 2 = 102 . Differentiate both sides w.r.t. t,

D.
dx dy dy x dx p
2x + 2y = 0 =⇒ =− when x = 6, y = 102 − 62 = 8,
dt dt dt y dt
dy 6 3
thus =− ·1 =− ft/s
dt 8 4
Related Rates
Ex. A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius 2
m and height 4 m. If water is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 2 m/min,
find the rate at which the water level is rising when the water is 3 m deep.
GU
Denote V (t) : volume of water at time t
-V
r (t) : radius of the surface at time t
h(t) : height of water at time t
AM
dV dh
Given dt = 2m3 /min. Q: dt when h = 3m?
PH 1
We have V = πr 2 h
3
r 2 h
2 π 3
= =⇒ r = =⇒ V = 13 π h2 h = h . Differentiate both sides w.r.t. t,
T.
h 4 2 12
D.
dV π dh dh 4 dV dV
= h2 =⇒ = . Substitute h = 3m, = 2m3 /min
dt 4 dt dt πh2 dt dt
dh 4 8
= ·2 = . The water level is rising at a rate of 8/(9π) ≈ 0.28m/min
dt π32 9π
Related Rates
Strategy:
Read the problem carefully.
GU
Draw a diagram if possible.
-V
Introduce notation. Assign symbols to all quantities that are
functions of time.
AM
Express the given information and the required rate in terms of
derivatives.
PH
Write an equation that relates the various quantities of the problem.
If necessary, use the geometry of the situation to eliminate one of the
T.
variables by substitution
Use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides of the equation with
D.
respect to t.
Substitute the given information into the resulting equation and solve
for the unknown rate.

Related Rates
GU
If we are pumping air into a balloon, both the volume and the radius
of the balloon are increasing and their rates of increase are related to
-V
each other. But it is much easier to measure directly the rate of
increase of the volume than the rate of increase of the radius.
AM
In a related rates problem the idea is to compute the rate of change
of one quantity in terms of the rate of change of another quantity
PH
(which may be more easily measured).
The procedure is to find an equation that relates the two quantities
T.
and then use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides with respect
D.
to time.

Related Rates
Ex. Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon so that its volume increases at
a rate of 100 cm3 /s. How fast is the radius of the balloon increasing when the
GU
diameter is 50 cm?
-V
Given information: the rate of increase of the volume of air is 100 cm3 /s
Unknown: the rate of increase of the radius when the diameter is 50 cm?
AM
Denote V (t) : volume of the balloon at time t
PH
r (t) : radius of the balloon at time t.
The rate of increase of the volume V (t) w.r.t. time is dV /dt
T.
The rate of increase of the radius r (t) w.r.t. time is dr /dt
dV dr
D.
Hence, = 100cm3 /s. Question: =? when r = 25cm.

dt dt

Related rates
4
We have V = πr 3 . Differentiate with respect to t
GU
3
-V
dV dV dr dr dr 1 dV
= = 4πr 2 =⇒ = .
dt dr dt dt dt 4πr 2 dt
AM
dV
When r = 25 and = 100, we have
dt
PH
dr 1 1
= 100 =
T.
dt 4π252 25π
The radius of the balloon is increasing at the rate of
D.
1/(25π) ≈ 0.0127 cm/s

Related Rates
Ex. A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder
slides away from the wall at a rate of 1 ft/s, how fast is the top of the ladder
sliding down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6 ft from the wall?
GU
-V
x(t), y (t)
AM
dx
When = 1 ft/s,
dt
dy
PH x = 6 ft ,
dt
=?
T.
Pythagorean Theorem: x 2 + y 2 = 102 . Differentiate both sides w.r.t. t,

D.
dx dy dy x dx p
2x + 2y = 0 =⇒ =− when x = 6, y = 102 − 62 = 8,
dt dt dt y dt
dy 6 3
thus =− ·1 =− ft/s
dt 8 4
Related Rates
Ex. A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius 2
m and height 4 m. If water is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 2 m/min,
find the rate at which the water level is rising when the water is 3 m deep.
GU
Denote V (t) : volume of water at time t
-V
r (t) : radius of the surface at time t
h(t) : height of water at time t
AM
dV dh
Given dt = 2m3 /min. Q: dt when h = 3m?
PH 1
We have V = πr 2 h
3
r 2 h
2 π 3
= =⇒ r = =⇒ V = 13 π h2 h = h . Differentiate both sides w.r.t. t,
T.
h 4 2 12
D.
dV π dh dh 4 dV dV
= h2 =⇒ = . Substitute h = 3m, = 2m3 /min
dt 4 dt dt πh2 dt dt
dh 4 8
= ·2 = . The water level is rising at a rate of 8/(9π) ≈ 0.28m/min
dt π32 9π
Related Rates
Strategy:
Read the problem carefully.
GU
Draw a diagram if possible.
-V
Introduce notation. Assign symbols to all quantities that are
functions of time.
AM
Express the given information and the required rate in terms of
derivatives.
PH
Write an equation that relates the various quantities of the problem.
If necessary, use the geometry of the situation to eliminate one of the
T.
variables by substitution
Use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides of the equation with
D.
respect to t.
Substitute the given information into the resulting equation and solve
for the unknown rate.

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Chapter 2: DIFFERENTIATION

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 1 / 76

1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems. Rates of Change

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 2 / 76

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 3 / 76

The tangent line is

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 4 / 76

Graph of function f (x) = x 2

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 5 / 76

Example. Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 6 / 76

Time interval Average velocity (m/s)

that start at t = 5. Thus the (instantaneous) velocity after 5 s is

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 7 / 76

Def: The derivative of a function f at a number x = a, denoted by f 0 (a),

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 8 / 76

Ex: Find the derivative of f (x) = x 2 + 2x + 3 at the number x = a

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 9 / 76

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 10 / 76

Given a function y = f (x), if the variable x change from x1 to x2 ,

The difference quotient PH

is called the average rate of change of y with respect to x over

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 11 / 76

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 12 / 76

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 13 / 76

Ex: Given f (x) = x 3 − x. Find f 0 (x).

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 14 / 76

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 15 / 76

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 16 / 76

Ex: Determine when f (x) = |x| is differentiable?

h→0 h h→0 h h→0

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 17 / 76

Ex: Determine when f (x) = |x| is differentiable?

We note here that PH

Conclusion: f is differentiable in (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 18 / 76

Thus, lim f (x) = lim [f (x) − f (a) + f (a)]

= lim [f (x) − f (a)] + lim f (a)

f 0 (x + h) − f 0 (x) 3(x + h)2 − 1 − (3x 2 − 1)

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 20 / 76

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 21 / 76

Let c be a constant. Then

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 22 / 76

The power rule: If n is a positive integer, then

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 23 / 76

The power rule (General version): If α is any real number , then

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 24 / 76

The constant multiple rule: If c is a constant and f is a differentiable

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 25 / 76

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 26 / 76

53, 57, 67–70, 75

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 27 / 76

The product rule: If f and g are differentiable function, then

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 28 / 76

The quotient rule: If uand v are differentiable function, then

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 29 / 76

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 30 / 76

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 31 / 76

(csc x)0 = − csc x cot x

Exercises: 3.3: 1–16

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 32 / 76

The chain rule: Let f be differentiable at a and let g be differentiable at f (a)

Duong T. PHAM September 22, 2018 33 / 76

The quotient rule: If uand v are differentiable function, then