Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
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rUNDAM[NTAlS Of INSTRUM[NTATION
AND MORL.
1(2,
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I= STORAGE
L@ TANK
1
1
TANK
PR OC ESS AND 1
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any
form or by any means, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise; without permission in writing from the National Joint
Apprenticeship and Training Committee (NJATC). No patent liability
is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained within
this book. While every precaution has been taken in the preparation
of this book, the NJATC and the author assume no responsibility for
errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed by the NJATC,
the author, or any of the manufacturers of instrumentation devices l
used for explanatory purposes for damages resulting from the use of
the information contained herein. Anyone installing, calibrating or -.,-
repairing instrumentation devices should always refer to the
manufacturer's recommended procedures before installing,
calibrating or starting-up such equipment.
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11
NJATC
Fundamentals of
Instrumentation
.. . and More
TABLE OF CONTENTS
III
NJ ATe Instrumentation Demonstrator ITrainer
<
Front View Left Side View Back View Right Side View
r: NJATC INSTRUMENTATION DEMONSTRATOR/TRAINER
r TECHNICAL OVERVIEW
(NOTE: The NJATC Instrumentation Demonstrator/Trainer is pictured on page iv of this text. The
P & ID Diagram for the Demonstrator/Trainer can be found on page 155 of this text.)
The instrumentation and process control demonstrator allows a detailed study of various
r instrumentation and control methods that can be studied individually or as a system. Various
instruments are used for measurement and while each device is used in a loop configuration the
arrangement allows flexibility for various methods of control. Flow, temperature, level, and
r pressure measurements are available for a detailed study and the demonstrator has ready "space"
for additional instrument mounting and connection to the process loops and monitoring device.
r The fundamentals of instrumentation can be studied with a visual reference to increase the
understanding of how instrumentation and controls perform. The following instruments are
r an integral orifice plate to provide the restriction over which the differential pressure is
measured. This instrument is the most common flow measurement device in industry today
and its arraignment allows for an orifice plate to be inserted into the orifice body,
r measurement tubing arraignments to be routed, calculations for transmitter range, transmitter
mounting, wiring connections and terminations, and calibration. Each job task for the
installation of a differential pressure flow transmitter can be studied with a visual and hands-
r on relation. This instrument is not a smart instrument which can show the necessity of study
for calibration techniques such as "Span and Zero" adjust.
r 2. Flow transmitter F-I002-T is a true mag flow meter in the sense that it uses conductivity to
measure the flow rate of a liquid. This device is probably one of the most common "Mag
r Flow" meters in industry and its related wiring terminations and mounting can be studied in
depth. This is a "smart" instrument that will allow communications' with a communicator or
allow communications by a self contained keypad. Calibration ranges and span can be set and
monitored while the process is active. A visual display is used to provide a check of data
points entered as well as to show process measurements as they are extracted from the process
loop.
3. Level transmitter L-3001-T is a differential pressure transmitter used to record level. This
r arrangement for level detection is one of the most common methods used to extract level. The
principle of a liquids weight can be studied along with its specific gravity. The fundamentals
of pressure measurement can be observed and can be shown how this concept is used to
r extract a precise level. The demonstrator comes in the form of recording the liquids weight
with respect to atmospheric pressure, but it can be easily re-tubed to record an actual
differential pressure that is found in closed systems. All related wiring, mounting, tubing and
device location can be visually demonstrated. This device is a smart instrument which
requires the student to understand the concepts of using a communicator to communicate with
r an instrument.
4. Temperature transmitter T-4001-T is a temperature transmitter that is used to record the
r temperature of a liquid in the storage tanle This device by using a RTD (Resistance
Temperature Detector) extracts a resistance measurement of a RTD inserted into a wen
,r submerged in the liquid. The principles of temperature and its effects on a process can be
studied within a working environment. This device is a smart instrument which requires the
r' v
user to become efficient with the use of a hand held communicator. This communicator
allows for easy re-ranging of the transmitter to increase or decrease the "Gain" as wanted.
The previously listed devices require the knowledge of the fundamentals of flow, level,
temperature and pressure. For each device its related mounting, tubing, wiring, terminations and
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calibration are all present and must be accurately installed to achieve a "working" process. The
demonstrator provides a readily available means to demonstrate each characteristic of the
fundamentals of measurement and control.
1.
To further describe the additional components of the system; a detailed description follows.
Flow control valve F-1001-V is used for flow control that has a set point entered in the
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control program, but uses data sent to the controller by a 4-20mA signal provided by flow i
transmitter F-1001-T. This valve is a "new" valve in the sense it is electrically positioned
(instead of pneumatic) and allows for future feedback for valve positioning as well as j
diagnostic capability for valve performance. This valve allows for study of valve action,
seating, response and control movement. The valve is set to run in "auto" control but can be
easily configured with future additions to the system to allow manual positioning. This j
feature will allow for removal of initiating instruments for maintenance and repair.
2. Level control valve L-3001-V is used for level control and has a set point entered in the
control program, but uses data sent to the controller by a 4-20mA signal provided by level
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transmitter L-3001-T. This valve is the "typical" valve found in indu~try in the sense it is
pneumatically positioned and actuated. Valve seating, action, response and control movement
can also be studied as well as Cv rates which determine valve performance. Integral to the
valve is an liP (electrical to pneumatic transducer) which converts the electrical 4-20mA
signal to a related pneumatic pressure which is used by the valve for positioning.
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Incorporated into the same loop is an auto reset solenoid which interrupts the air supply to
the valve for emergency shutdown conditions. For these operations pneumatic principles must
be understood.
3. Three interposing relays are used to drive the temperature element, auto reset solenoid and
pump start/stop power. This wiring arraignment allows for future demands from the power
supply since only control power is used for these devices with utilization power provided
from an alternate source. Typical wiring diagrams will be used to show arrangement.
4. An adjustable temperature element is available for temperature control although the system
does not employ this means of control. Temperature control can be set up now but it is
suggested that this feature be used when more advanced level of controls are studied since
this method will be dependent upon every device present for precise control. The system
now has an emergency shutdown set point which will halt system operation if the temperature
i
of the liquid reaches a pre-determined temperature (120 deg. F).
5. Interlock Defeats ( Bypasses: HS-1001-S, HS3001-S, HS-4001-S ) are used to "defeat" any
i
signal that is received by the controller which is interpreted to indicate a shutdown condition.
For example; if flow transmitter F-1001-T were removed from the process a "low flow"
signal would be transmitted to the controller which would call for a halt in the process
action. The interlock defeat allows for calibration to be performed on line to simulate a
repair or check of instrument calibration. A "3-valve manifold" or isolation valves are
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needed to isolate the instrument from the process before calibration is performed.
6. A H-O-A select switch is used for pump control. While the selector is in "auto" the pump
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runs until told to stop from a process upset. When in manual the pump will continue to run
vi
even if a process upset occurs and can be stopped by selecting "off" on the selector or
r 7.
performing a Manual Shutdown.
The controller used for the demonstrator is an Allen Bradley 503 with the APS (Advanced
Programming Software) of the SLC500 series. This controller provides all of the
programming and communications abilities for process control and allows for future control
consoles to be interfaced with for further study. Control program configuration(s), ladder
r logic format(s), power supply output power, pIc mounting and terminations are all available
for study depending upon the level of interest. A PC (personal computer) is used as the
interface between the PLC and user although this communication device will only be used
r to "download" the control program for beginning study.
8. Various system status alarms or indicators are present on the front of the panel. These
r features are to allow the user to interpret the appropriate control actions taken or that were
failed to be taken and resulted in a shutdown of the process. All alarms on the panel are "fail-
r safe" which means that they will alarm on loss of power or if an actual process shutdown is
called for. These alarms will still be active even if an interlock defeat is enabled. This feature
will allow monitoring of the system while calibration is performed on an instrument within
r 9.
a working process. This feature will be studied in advanced levels of instruction.
Four LED ( light emitting diodes) displays are located on the front of the panel to visually
r indicate a 4-2OmA signal transmitted to the controller. These devices also must be calibrated
using "zero and span" and further strengthens the understanding of calibration techniques.
The displays can also be used to interpret whether the respective transmitter is recording and
L transmitting data accurately.
10. Three pushbuttons are mounted on the front panel for a manual interface to reset or halt the
r process. The appropriate drawings must be referenced to determine if switch settings are
normally open or normally closed.
L The demonstrator with the previously listed devices is to be used for an introductory level
of study for instrumentation. Various items can be added to the system to widen the study and
r application of instruments such as; a "bubbler" level detector, variable speed drives for the pump,
a displacer level switch, a static "0- ring" pressure switch, and etc. All of these systems could
be added with a minimal amount of time and each of these devices could be incorporated into a
c control loop or added for monitoring purposes only.
An optimal approach for an instructor would be to approach this trainer as if it were an actual
r job he was hired to construct. The demonstrator will have all of the appropriate drawings and
documentation sheets that a worker would likely encounter on a comparable job with
instrumentation involved. All material could be ordered that would be required to "build" this
r trainer and he would show students the proper techniques for proper construction. At this time
it is hoped that additional devices could be added to the trainer as if they were additions or
r
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Preface
The past few years has seen an exponential growth in the field of measurement and control. i
Electronic advances have been the growth inhibitor in the development of instruments while
advances in the application of micro-processors are the driving force behind the progress in j
control systems.
By looking at the history of measurement and control and seeing where the industry is today we
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can see the future. There will be an increasing demand for qualified workers in the measurement
field if for nothing else to ensure that a process is delivering the maximum buck for a competitive
market. Also industry has to satisfy a demanding public which requires safety and environmental
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protections. If this is not enough, the government is requiring continual improvement for safety
of workers, waste product control, pollution control, quality standards, and the list goes on.
The indicators above all point to an increasing workforce thar must be available for the I & C
field. The one common thread of the workforce is it must be composed of qualified workers.
This is the first of many instructional materials for those who wish to become qualified for the
field of measurement and control. We will begin with the fundamentals of instrumentation for it
does not matter on the method of control, type of controller, process, and etc.; for if the field I/O
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is not accurate, precise, repeatable, 'and predictable the controlled process is not efficient nor safe.
The basics of instrumentation will help all workers understand how a process is measured for a
controlled end product.
j
As these lessons on instruments are the first for our industry, a glossary of related terminology
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is available to describe exactly what a term is defined as. Each lesson will ask for new terms or
repeat those terms that are used the most. An attempt was made for this text to provide simple
explanations of rather complex physics so each and everyone will have to spend minimal time
reading to understand the fundamentals of instrumentation.
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Apply yourself honestly and you will finish this text quickly and you will be eagerly awaiting j
courses for advanced levels of control.
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viii ..,
Chapter I - Fundamentals of Control Systems
Control systems today are used to fill and maintain the proper tank level. The
regul ate a process, monitor a process or decisions normally " made " by an automatic
indicate when a process has reached a desired co ntroller regulating a process can be
result (a setpo int) . In times not too distant, if performed by a variety of methods , but the
you wanted to fill a tank to a certa in level you most common method today is to allow control
would watch the ri si ng liquid an d when the to be execu ted by a mi croprocesso r based
desired level was achieved you wou ld contro ller.
manually halt the filling process. The object of Micro rocesso r based control systems
process control is to automaticall y perform the are capable of executing a wide variety of user
filling process without any help from a human efined algorithms (instructions) which in itia te
operator. The control system would consist of and contr~IRrocesse~ . The control system
several " instruments" that wou ld initiate, -gove rned by the microprocessor wi ll be the
record and regulate the filling process and the co llection of the components necessary to
controller would take the place of the human perform the function of maintainin g an
decisions that are usually made to ensure an efficient process. Dependin g upon the system
efficient process. The instruments coul d be in question, the user may define various 110
measuring the " level" of the tank 's liquid, the (Inputs and Outputs) that wi ll be monitored or
"flow" of the liquid into the tank , the co ntrolled by the microprocessor. Once the
"pressure or weight of the liqu id sto red in the I/O is defined and entered by the operator, the
tank , or the tank's liquid "tempe rature". I/O is transferred to the control system and the
Depending upon the control var iables that are appropriate response is taken or observed. The
defined , some or a ll of the process variables transfer of information between the contro ller
may be needed fo r the controll er to make and the "display " can be executed either
decisions that would be required to accurately inte rnally or transmitted via a dedicated
..
Central control room with mUltipl e contro l loops , alarm signals and recorders.
2 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
highway interface . Often conununication lines therefore the responsibility of the field
will be redundant (more than one) to allow for technician. In order for a field technician to
the repair and maintenance of one line and also properly calibrate, troubleshoot and loop check
to provide a path for checking the information various systems it is necessary for the
as it is received by the controller. Depending technician to have a working knowledge of
upon the level of control, software will be used control systems which are used to control
for diagnostic capabilities to ensure the process processes.
is performing as smoothly as the controller is A process is defmed as any function or
directing. Perhaps the most important bit of .9peration utilized in the treatment of a
information gathered by the controller is the materia) . For example, the operation of adding
information received from field instruments heat to water is a process. Processes are taking
that determine the appropriate response for the place wherever you go. Most of us work with
working process. It is important for the field the basics of process and process control
technician to understand the working concepts everyday.
of a system in order to know how his devices
may interface with and change the operating As you drive a car, you are
algorithm of a controlled process . As we have performing process control functions by
read earlier, control systems can contain a controlling the speed of the car as well as
variety of devices and/or controllers that a~e direction through steering. As a further
used to control processes. What ties all example of our interaction with process control
automatically controlled working processes think about the bu ilding you are in.
together is the common thread of initiating and Temperature and ventilation control provides
final control elements of a system. An an adequate environment for our comfort with
operating system depends upon the accurate minimal interaction from us. Process control
sensing, signaling and transmission of data that is the method ly which .JV£ '!gulatf! a
is the responsibility of the field devices and particlliar process. We perform process
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I \
control when we vary the gas flow into our received by the controller is the signal sent by
automobile engine as well as the adjustments the drum or by a measuring/recording device
of a thermostat for enviromnental comfort. We monitoring the drum? Of course, the device
will further develop our understanding of that is used to "count" the number of
process control by first understanding the revolutions of the drum will be the device
components that will enable us to control a sending the signal to the video display . If the
working process. drum was needed to increase its RPM's, do
Video displays are the most common you think a signal would be sent to the drum
and "visible" components in a system. A or to a device that controls the rotation speed?
process may include many variables which Another simple question; the device that
may have the option of being monitored or controls the rotation speed is the "fmal control
used for control. With digital systems the I/O element" . This is a simplified example of field
may be viewed at various locations on displays devices (or instrumentation) that are used to
via communications highways . Often enough control a process. For all processes. the
several locations will have a display for ~ignals used to record, monitor and control
monitoring I/O while only one or two locations are performed by devices that rovide an
may be available for control functions. A inteltace with a controller to a working
display allows easy viewing of processes proce~s . Another reason why the field
through information gathered from field technician must understand how his devices
devices and often enough an entire process reflect a working process.
may be viewed from a single screen. Sometimes out of necessity a controller
The components that are monitored by will be performing the control functions for
a video screen are actually devices that are several processes and this controller is referred
used to measure a particular function, or are to as a shared controller. This controller will
dev ices that respond to a particular control contain a user defined algorithm which is
command given by a controller. If a video changeable to permit flexibility for the user.
display recorded the RPM of a particular drum The controller's algorithm is roughly a listing
in a controlled process do you think the signal of instructions to be executed by the controller
and often contains
diagnostic features to
verify information
gathered by the
system. A process
must be monitored
continuously and the
algorithm determines
the frequency that
various process I/O
are scanned. The
scan of a program
(algorithm) is the
repetitive reading of
field I/O to execute
instructions
contained m the
program. Flow rates,
levels, temperatures,
Field I/O wiring connecting field instruments to a control panel. pressures and more
4 NJATC Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More
are all read by a controller and the total identifiers so he can interpret how his devices
variables for each system may number in the are connected to the system and what data is to
several hundreds. The reading of the process be sent to the controller. When a field
variables, diagnostic variables and system technician understands how a control system
informational statistics may be executed as fast functions , and he understands how a sensing
as a few milli-seconds and then the resulting device gathers information , he may consider
control actions are taken. One "reading" and himself proficient in the fundamentals of how
resulting execution of the instructions is instruments record and transmit process
referred to as a scan. We have read that the variables.
scan time of a program may be very fast and
that control actions are taken from the readings
obtained from the scan. It is easy to see the
importance of having an accurate sensing
device sending information to a controller.
The field technician must realize that he
may be asked to troubleshoot. calibrate.
terminate and peiform any other of a number
of possibilities to field I/O. The one common
denominator to all of the devices in a control
system is that they may be shown on drawings
which can display the location, calibration,
type, and etc. All of the devices that are used
by controllers are portrayed on drawings to
understand how these components interact with
each other. It is important for the technician to
understand instrument and control symbols and
Multiple recorders that monitor and record various field 110 read by the controller.
Chapter 2 - Instrument Symbols and Identifiers 5
* *
11. Pneumatic Binary Signa/.. ................. ..
-~-- ~
12. Electric Binary Signal. ............ .. .. ...... .
OR
6 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
Discrete
Instruments
8 0 §
Shared Display
Shared Control
8 0 B
Computer
Function
e 0 §
Programmable
Logic Contro l
~ ~ ~
Symbol size may vary according to the users demands .
Normall y inaccess ible or behind-the-panel devices or functions are usually shown w ith a
dashed li ne.
Chapter 2 - Instrument Symbols and Identifiers 7
r Instrument Identification
r Each instrument and/or function has an identifier label attached to it when shown on
associated instrument drawings. The identifier is called a Tag and contains an alphanumeric
string and is determined by standards which are used for instrument identification. The loop
L connection number is common to all instruments and connections to the loop. The loop number
will possibly have a prefix and/or suffIX, or both, to complete the task of identifying an associated
L- device. The text below shows a typical tag number and how each letter and numeral has a specific
meaning.
r F
IC
- First Letter
- Succeeding Letters
r: As we have studied before, some controllers may control the process for more than one
unit. The instrument Tag is used as an identifier for the controlled elements and where the
r controller is performing the control functions for more than one area a Tag Number may also be
present in another area. By using the expanded tag number a Tag Number can be present more
than once. An expanded Tag will have a Hyphen used to designate a certain area. The text below
r shows a typical tag number and how each letter and numeral has a specific meaning.
r 3.
means and the wiring path, termination points, and device locations.
Specification Sheet- (Spec Sheet) Record of devices listed by Tag Number showing related
ranges, setpoints, material construction, process exposure, and related
r 5. Wiring Diagram-
environmental variables.
Drawing usually showing related devices between loop sheets.
r
TYPICAL LETTER COMBINATIONS
switches and
00
Controllers readout devices alarm devices transm itters solenoids,
self relays, well viewing
lst measured actuated computing primary test or device, safety final
letter variable recording indicating' blind valves recording indicating high low comb recording indicating blind devices elem ent point probe glass device element
A analysis ARC AIC AC AR AI ASH ASL ASHL ART AIT AT AY AE AP AW AV
burner
B com bustion BRC BIC BC BR BI BSH BSL BSHL BRT BIT BT BY BE BW BO BZ
users
C choice
users
D choice
E voltage ERC EIC EC ER EI ESH ESL ESHL ERT EIT ET EY EE EZ
FCV,
F flow FRC FIC FC FICV FR FI FSH FSL FSHL FRT FIT FT FY FE FP FO FV
users
G choice
H hand HIC HC HS HV
I current IRC IIC IR II ISH ISL ISHL IRT lIT IT IY IE IZ
1 power lRC JIC JR JI ISH JSL JSHL lRT JIT JT lY JE IV
K time KRC KIC KC KCV KR KI KSH KSL KSHL KRT KIT KT KY KE KV
L level LRC LIC LC LCV LR LI LSH LSL LSHL LRT LIT LT LY LE LW LG LV
users
M choice
users
N choice
users
0 choice
PSV,
P pressure PRC PIC PC PCV PR PI PSH PSL PSHL PRT PIT PT PY PE PP PSE PV
pressure
PD differential PDRC PDIC PDC PDCV PDR PDI PDSH PDSL PDRT PDIT PDT PDY PE PP PDV
Q quantity QRC QIC QR QI QSH QSL QSHL QRT QIT QT QY QE QZ
R radiation RRC RIC RC RR RI RSH RSL RSHL RRT RIT RT RY RE RW RZ
speed
S frequency SRC SIC SC SCV SR SI SSH SSL SSHL SRT SIT ST SY SE SV
T temperature TRC TIC TC TCV TR TI TSH TSL TSHL TRT TIT TT TY TE TP TW TSE TV
temperature
TD differential TDRC TDIC TDC TDCV TDR TDI TDSH TDSL TDRT TDIT TDT TDY TE TP TW TDV
multi
U variab Ie UR UI UY UV
vibration
machinery
V analysis VR VI VSH VSL VSHL VRT VIT VT VY VE VZ
W weight WRC WIC WC WCV WR WI WSH WSL WSHL WRT WIT WT WY WE WZ
weight
WD differential WDRC WDIC WDC WDCV WDR WDI WDSH WDSL WDRT WDIT WDT WDY WE WDZ
X unclassified
event state
Y presence VIC YC YR YI YSH YSL YT YY YE YZ_
position
Z dimension ZRC ZIC ZC ZCV ZR ZI ZSH ZSL ZSHL ZRT ZIT ZT ZY ZE ZV
guaging
ZD deviation ZDRC ZDIC ZDC ZDCV ZDR ZDI ZDSH ZDSL ZDRT ZDIT ZDT ZDY ZDE ZDV
r~ Fundamentals of Calibration
li
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r instrumeiit- will measure and determines if
corrective action is needed. There are times
input and output of the transmitter. When an
instrument is properly calibrated its input is a
INPUT OUTPUT
oPSI I'IOL ,A mA
Figure 3-1: Calibration data reflecting an accurately calibrated transmitter where % input
= % output.
10 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
identified . Instrument errors are discovered by instrument error , turning the zero adjustment
comparing the measured output to the expected screw can correct tile problem but, it is
output given a specific input. There are several important that the output be checked again to
types of instrument errors ~ whifh verify that tile output is correct. Sometimes it
calibration can adj ust. Zero Shift, S an Error , is necessary to repeat the steps several time.
on-Linearity" Dead Bal;d and J:!ysteresis ar~ To properly verify an instruments
fhe most common mstrument errors. calibration a Five Point Check is often used-:- A
L Zero Shift is the t~rm for an instrument fivep oint chec IS used to ver ify that tile
w~output is consistentl higher Or lower instrument is properly calibrated over its fljll
than the expected value.. This shift is output signal span. A simulated input is
consistent tilroughout the output signal span applied atO%, 25%, 50%, 75 %, and 100 % of
and to state it correctly would be to say that input range. The output is recorded for each
the deviation is consistent throughout the input and the measured output is compared to
signal span. the expected output. There are other suggested
FIGURE 3-2 shows the expected output values to be used as inputs, but a calibration
of our transmitter from FIGURE 3-1 . check that covers the fu ll span will perhaps
FIGURE 3-3 shows the same transmitter but detect errors that are unable to be detected
with Zero Shift that has elevated the output. otherwise as well as providing a possible
An elevated output simply stated suggests that clearer method for detecting errors.
tbe output signal starts higher than is Calibration sheets are often used to record
expected. Zero Shift could also start out calibration data and these sheets can be helpful
lower than expected and in this case the zero when trying to determine an instruments
shift would be suppressed. For either calibration errors. A grap h such as the one in
% r. H''''' rr r
20 mA 100%
~~~
I.I~
~~
16 mA 75%
~
IDEAL ~~
12 mA 50%
~.
~~
~
8 rnA 25 %
~
~
l.i~
4 rnA 0%
0% 25 % 50 % 75 % 100 %
% INPUT
% >I TT
20 rnA 100%
," " ;.
" ;
"" ;
," " I~;
16 rnA 75%
"; ;
," "
"" ;
," " I~;
12 rnA 50%
" ;~
""
" ~; ;
""
" 1;;
""
8 rnA 25 %
" ,~ .; .'
,~:j~ERO
~, SHIFT
4 rnA 0 %
0% 25 % 50 % 75 % 100 %
% INPUT
Figure 3-3: Transmitter from Figure 3-1 with "zero Shift" errors recorded.
FIGURE 3-2 is often used to plot the measured exist and should be corrected . A single method
output signal values, so they can be compared can be used to identify calibration errors or
to the expected output signal values, and use both methods can be used together. The intent
the visual approach to identify errors . It is of a Five Point Calibration Check is to provide
considered good practice to check output the simplest method to identify instrument
signal readings on an up-scale and down-scale errors. We can now identify zero shift
check.C Checking up-scale is to test a calibration errors and employ ing the same
transmitters output signal starting at 0% and technique we can identify span errors.
increasing to 100 %. To check a transmitter Span errors are errors in an instruments
down-scale is to measure output signals output sig..Qal that does not rej1~ 100 % ol !lJe..
starting at 100 % and decreasing to 0 %. The ou ut si<>nal or does not follow the input san.
values recorded should be identica l for an up- Span errors can be identified by performing
scale check compared to a down-scale check. the five point check and recording the
FIGURE 3-4 shows an instrument measured output signal values. With J pan error
calibration sheet. The values recorded are the the measured 9@Puts w i~y fro m th~
values of the pressure transmitter of FIGURE expected values, but there should not be an
3-1. The actual output signal values recorded equal "shift...Y..i iue2!roql theexpectedOutpul
show a consistent shift " higher" than the FIGURE 3-5 is the graph of an instrument
expected values. The plot of FIGURE 3-3 is with span error. The measured outputs begin
the plot of th.e points recorded in FIGURE 3-4 . at the origin but do not follow the expected
FIGURE 3-3 and FIGURE 3-4 show a outputs.
consistent shift in the expected output signal, Instruments with span error do not
therefore an instrument calibration error would produce outputs consistent with some small
\4 NJATC Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More
20 rnA 100%
oM ()llTPT JT
MEASURED ,,
,,
, ...
; .
~'
/.,,' ; ;
, ,' '
J.
;
16 rnA 75% ,
, ,, ;
, .. " ;
;
.... '
;~~'
SPAN ,,
ERRO~, '
, , ,
12 rnA 50%
"
......
;
,
........
EXPECTED
\
" ~
8 rnA 25 %
~
....
, ; '
~~
4 mA 0%
0% 25 0/0 50 % 75 % 100 %
% INPUT
Figure 3-5 Transmitter with Span Error displayed by plotting the output signal.
Chanter 3 - Fundamentals of Caljbration 15
20 rnA 100%
J6lnA 75%
Zero Shift
&
SPAN
ERROR
12 rnA 50%
81nA 25 %
% INPUT
Figure 3-6: Transmitter with span and zero errors displayed by plotting the output signal.
adjusted, the zero setting needs to be checked Hysteresis is another error that can be
again. The process may need to be repeated found in measuring devices. Hjlsteresis can be
several times in order to calibrate the • identified when an instrument has measured
instrument within specifications. output values that differ up-scale from down-
There are other errors which may exist scale. With a five point check, Hysteresis will
~
and one of the m is non-linearity. As you may produce a deviation from expected values
have noticed , anliiStiUments output will be a when progressing up-scale from 0 to 100%.
linear plot that may be parallel to its expected Checki ng the instrument down-scale from 100
output or not. Non-linearity will produce an
OiiUt so that when it is measured and plotted
it will not have any consistent error shift
etween the upper and lower limits of its
range. It is important to realize that a large
-enough linearity problem will not be
correctable and the instrument must be
Zero
repaired. In some cases non-linearity errors are Screw --~,,~
% nTTTPTTT
2 0 mA 100%
... =;Ii
~.,
......... "
16mA75 %
MEA S UR';D
.~ ,
, ~
~~
,,?
1;" "
NON-
,, " ~" "
12 mA 50%
LINEA RITY
, . ~
\",'" \
,, ",'" EXPECTED
, '"
,..
,
8 mA 25 %
",'"
4 rnA 0 % ':'"
0 % 25 % 50 % 75 % 100 %
% INPU T
Figure 3-7: Transmitter with Non-linearity errors displayed by plotting the output signal.
to 0 % will produce an eq ual deviation resul ts in a more eas ily recorded flu ctuation in
oppos ite from the up-sale check and on ly the the output signal. There-are a great number of
direction that the test point is approached will instru mentation errors that can be identified
cause the error. Recording output through interpretation of input/output data.
measurements throughout the input range wi ll [talibrating an instrument me'!!1s that it must
cause differe nt outputs when moving up or
- --
be tested, recorded and adjusted to perform as
down. Hysteres is is not a co mmon error found neededJ K-oowing how to record "an
in electronic instruments. !:!'ysteresis is an Tilstruments response makes the job of
error that is usuall y found with mechanical calibration easily performed.
measuringdevices. FIGURE 3-8 co ntains data
·fro m a typical instrument with Hysteres is Input Values Output Values
error. Another error which can be identified
-
as an instrument error is Dead Ba d. Dead
band occurs when the in _ut value can J2.e
~
Test
Points
Inputs Expected
Up-
scale
Down-
scale
var ied but no vis ible output change may be 0 % o PSI 4 mA 4.6mA 3.4 mA
_recorded. Dead band can be a very small value
25 % 25 PSI 8 mA 8.6mA 7.4 mA
and within the tolerances specified. When the
dead band error becomes significant enough to 50 % 50 PSI 12mA 12.6mA 11.4 mA
stray beyond the tolerances specified the 75 PSI 16mA 16.6 mA 15.4 mA
75 %
instrument may be in need of repair. Dead
.band is not ge nerally '!..djustabJe but . tIle error 100 % 100 PSI 20mA 20.6 mA 19.4 mA
magnitude may be reduced by increas ing the Figure 3-8: Transmitter With hysteresIs errors
--'- - "'-
displayed by plotting the output signal.
gain of the instrument. Increasing the gain
- -
Chapter 4 - Fundamentals of Flow 17
Fundamentals of Flow
One of the basic control functions velocity of the flow and the diameter of the
required of instrumentation is the measurement process line. Another important fundamental
of flow. The control of flow is vitally that should not be overlooked is that a moving
important si nce many process variables are fluid contains energy . J.:::nergy in a flow
often governed by a regulated flow. In some consists of the sum 01 the pressure energy and
operations, the ability to conduct accurate flow the velocity ener gy. The concept was
measurements is so important that it can make discovered by "Bernou lli " in the 18th century.
the difference between an efficient process and Bernoulli's principle simply explained states
one that is in-efficient. In other cases the that as the velocity in a given line is increased
inability to make accurate flow measurements than the pressure must decrease, and
can result in disastrous results for people or conversely stated, when the velocity in a given
equipment. Understanding the principles of line is decreased then the pressure must
flow is a basic fundamenta l of process 1I1crease. By exami ning what we now
measurement and control. Fluids are defined know , we can make some general observations
~eing liquids , gases, or v~pors. For the about the fundamentals of flow.
Controller
~II=~--=-------I/
Figure 4-1: Principles of fluid motion.
maO orit of process s),stems, ~ rate of flow What happens to a fluid flowing in a
must be controlled, not the total flow over a process line when the diameter decreases and
set time period. The rate of flow is often then increases? Of first importance is to
measured as a given quantity moving past a realize that the flow rate Q will not change at
given point in a specified time period . any point in the process line. When the c ross-
Examples of common flow rates a re GPM
(gallons per minute) and GPH (gallons per
hour).
Rate of flow can also be expressed
mathematically by the equation Q= YA where
Q= rate of flow, V = velocit of flow, and
Q= VxA
A = £!2ss-sectional are of the process lif!e.
From this equation we can correctly calculate
Figure 4-2: Bernou IIi 's equation in
that the rate of flow is directly related to the
simplified form .
18 Nl ATe Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More
-, !
> >
>
:> JZ2
'» ::>
111 fA2 Y3 ::> A3
~1k / ~ ~
~
~
?-
1 .,
Figure 4-3: Bernoulli's principle illustrated.
sectional area of the process line decreases the flow rate is determined by measuring the
velocity must increase, and when the cross- liquids velocity or kinetic energy. Everything
sectional area of the process line increases the discussed so far has been under "ideal"
velocity must decrease. From FIGURE 4-3 we conditions, but there are other conditions
can summarize that: Q =VIAl = V2A2 = which may cause some variance.
V3A3. --- -- Other fa~tors which affectJh~.Jto~J!f
~- The total energy at any point in a a fluid is the fluids VisC.oslly, densi!y..1 and
process line will not change because energy friction of the fluid that is in contact with the
cannot be created or destroyed. The velocity at
V2 is greater than 'VI, since energy remains
Tnner .wall;-~f-th~. pro-pe~.~jhie~- KeepIng th~
"other" conditions in mind we will observe
.,
.,
the same, pressure P2 is less than the pressure that the flow in a pipe is not ideal, but, in
at PI. By the same reasoning, the velocity at comparatively slow rates of flow we will see
V3 is less than V2 and the pressure P3 is how the flow is actually "Laminar". By
greater than the pressure at P2. The result is Laminar we mean that the flow of a liquid is
that the energy is shown to balance at all slower along the process lines inner walls than
points in the line as it must. at the center of the line (FIGURE 4-4).
As stated previously the flow rate Q is The friction that causes laminar flow J
directly related to the velocity V by Q = VA. can be over come by increasing the velocity of
The change in pressure is not directly related, the flow. The amount of the velocity increase J
but is proportional to the square of the velocity depends on the viscosity of the fluid along
change (&V). From this observation we can with the diameter of the pipe. To understand
deduct that the velocity is equal to the square this, picture a small process line (1/2 ") with a
root of the pressure change, most commonly flow; understand that a larger percentage of
called the differential Rressure .H, <1-= sgrt the total flow will be in contact with the inner
(H)A. From the equation Q= sQrLCIi)*A we process line walls than say an 8" line. A
wow understand the principle of how flow
measurement is obtained from differential
Laminar flow is useful in that accurate flow
measurements can be recorded with a wider
-,
pressure. As the differential pressure in a line variety of measuring instruments.
is measured across a known restriction in a
flow line (most commonly an orifice plate) and
A British scientist, Sir Osborne
Reynold, determined a relationship for the
1
knowing the diameter of the line, we can three basic factors which affect flow. 1M
calculate the actual flow rate in the line. With three basic factors which determine flow are:
most liquid flow measurement instruments, the the velocity of the fluid, the viscosity of the
Chapter 4 - Fundamentals of Flow 19
LAMINAR FLOW
fluid, and the diameter of the through the pipe with the same average
reIationship is expressed as an equation known velocity. Fluid ve loci ty is less significant and
as Reynold 's Number. the velocity profile is more uniform (FIGURE
4-5). For our purposes simply to know what
Reynold's number implies to a flow rate is
3160 x Q x G r
Reynolds Number sufficient. Our basic equation for flow (
D x u Q= VA) can now be modified to more
accuratel y reflect real flow rates rather than
where: Q = flow rate in GPM ideal flow rates. Q=KVA can now be used
GT = specific gravity where K is some constant involving Reynold
D = insi de diameter of pipe number. The reason some constant is used is
and u = viscosity of fluid , cp that the velocity is not the same at all points in
a line due to some pressure loss at constricting
By observing the equation for Reynolds points in a line. It is easy for us to realize
Number we can see that the equation is merel y what would happen if two so lid surfaces were
a ratio of the fluids inertial forces (flow rate rubbed vigorously together, heat would be
and specific gravity) to its drag forces (line generated as a reflection of the energy used to
diameter and viscosity). Now for any cause the friction. Now when a fluid comes
particular line the inside diameter and specific into contact with a solid surface the same
gravity remain constant, therefore it is the principle takes effect, energy is dissipated in
fluids flow rate and viscosity that determ ine the form of pressure loss. Bernoulli ' s princip le
the type of flow for a specific pipe. states that the su m of the pressure energy and
A value of Reynolds number is not the velocity energy must equal the total ene rgy
critical once certain requirements are met. A in a line , therefore a loss in pressure energy
Reynold 's number of 3000 or l es ~ genera!!'y means that the velocity energy must make up
indicates a !illninaL flow while a Reynolds the di fference.
number of 5000 or more- indicates a mostl y
turbulent flow. Turbulent flow occurs when a In summary:
mixing of flow breaks up into eddies that flow • The rate of flow is equal to the c ross-
Turbulent Flow
v )
Orifice plate installed in a process line. Notice location of taps for measuring the
differential pressure. This particular line is elevated IS feet from the mounting position of
the transmitter. Is suppression needed? Why or why not?
sectional area of the pipe (A), times the located in the field use differential pressure to
velocity of the fluid (V). derive their flow rate, such is the reason for
• The velocity (V) is equal to the sqrt [of an in-depth study of flow and pressure
differential pressure (H)]. characteristics.
• At relatively low values for Reynolds One of the many methods used for
number the flow is Laminar. measuring the rate of fluid flow is using the
• At relatively high values for Reynolds principle of pressure differential through a
number the flow is Turbulent. restricted openmg. Remember that the
• Reynolds number is related to flow pressure drop across a restnctlOn is
velocity, flow viscosity, and pipe diameter. proportional to the square of the velocity or
• The rate of flow is equal at all parts in a simply figured velocity , V = sqrt (H),
process line. differential pressure. By using Figure I we
• A restriction in a pipe causes a permanent can picture when a fluid moves through an
pressure loss and a change in pressure and orifice plate the fluid forms a concentrated
velocity. flow with the lowest pressure and area smaJler
• Fluid friction is a force which opposes the than the orifice plate diameter (FIGURE 4-6).
flow of fluids ensuing from the presence of in a line, therefore a loss in pressure energy
the fluids viscosity and the turbulence means that the velocity energy must make up
reSUlting. the difference.
Process measurement and control demands appreciated by those who understand the
r accuracy and dependability while interacting
with various process control variables that
requirements of the device. Engineers should
recognize that each application is not the same
r have to be considered in each instance. The
monitoring and control of a flow loop, for
and must be evaluated separately to determine
the importance of accuracy, dependability,
cost, and etc. Once these factors are
r·. example, may be contingent upon the line size
and velocity, but the presence of other
conditions may have a direct influence upon
determined, physical factors come into play
such as:
r. accuracy, repeatability, and dependability.
Conditions such as operating temperature,
1) Line size
2) Range of flow rate (min, max, norm)
ambient pressures, process reactions 3) Fluid characteristics (liquid, slurry,
r. (exothermic or endothermic), line surges, and
many other conditions may all have an effect
operating pressure,
temperature, etc.)
operating
r Pressure
Orifice Plate
r. Differentia ZO~i
pressure
r.
r.
r. Vena C ontracta
r Figure 4-6: Concentrated flow that is called Vena Contracta.
22 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
satisfactorily. Faulty specifications by the interference. Field technicians are the ones
designers account for some of the wrongfully who come into the most frequent contact with
installed devices, but incorrect installation these elements and their properties should be
accounts for an additional amount. The field understood . Problems occur mainly with the
technician who understands that the most secondary elements of devices which must be
important qualification is what the flow protected. Manufacturers recommended
instrument is supposed to do will substantially installation instructions will usually negate
outperform his fellow worker by being ab le to these noise contributing elements.
contribute valuable information that is Space limitations prevent a detailed study
required to be known for a profitable of the various devices, but a summary will be
enterprise. studied so that a technician can research
Although suppliers are always ready to further if he desires. Service conditions have
supply information on the installation of their the most effect upon measurement devices and
FLOW METERS, estimates are that 75 % of numerous types of flow meters are available
installations are performed by the users. Some for service today. In general the meters can be
installation mistakes are made and the most classified as differential pressure, positive
common is not allowing sufficient upstream displacement, velocity and mass meters .The
and downstream piping for an accurate flow following outline shows the possibilities of
measurement. With electrical components , flow meter selection.
intrinsic safety is an important consideration in
hazardous locations. Most suppliers offer J. Displacement Meters
intrinsically safe design literature for A. Positive Displacement Meters
application. Magnetic fields exist in most B. Metering Pumps
locations. Power lines, relays, solenoids, IJ. Differential Pressure Devices (Head
transformers, motors, and others contribute to Meters)
A typical locally mounted flow meter. Notice that the Specific Gravity and Viscosity are
given.
Chapter 4 - Fu ndamental s of Flow 23
f . t.E
Secondary device for the orifice plate shown prev ious ly. Notice isolation manifold and
local display.
1<\ N!J\1'C Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
mary and secondary element. The primary The demand for accurate flow
element is responsible for causing a change in measurements in mass-related processes
the kinetic energy which causes the pressure (chemical, refining, heat transfer, etc.) Has
drop across the element. This unit is precisely resu lted in the design of mass FLOW
sized for correct line size, flow rate, and METERS. Various designs are available , but
liquid properties while allowing an accurate the ones most widely used is the Coriolis
measurement over a reasonable range. The meter. Its design is based upon the natural
secondary element analyzes the primary effect called the Corioli s force.
elements information and provides a signal or Corio lis meters are true mass meters that
readou t that is converted to the actual flow measure mass rate of flow directly as opposed
rate. to volumetric flow. Since the mass of flow
does not change the output is linear to the flow
VELOCITY METERS without having to be adjusted for variations in
These meters operate with linearity with liquid properties, changes in temperature , and
respect to the flow volume. There is no square changes in pressure. Corioli s meters are
root relationship and their rangeability is available with various designs , but the one
greater. Velocity meters have a minimum most used consists of a flow tube in a sensor
sensitivity to viscosity changes when applied to housing, installed directly into the process,
a flow with a Reynolds number calculation connected to an electronics unit which may be
located up to 500 feet away from the sensor.
greater than 10,000. Most velocity meters
come with flanges are suitable piping
arrangements to allow installation directly into OPEN CHANNEL METERS
pipelines. The term "open channel" refers to any
fluid routing that allows the fluid to flow with
MASS FLOW METERS a free surface. Tunnels, non-pressured sewers,
Foxboro flowmeter with the secondary and primary element constructed and installed
as a single unit.
Chapter 4 - Fundamentals of Flow 25
Micro Motion mass fl ow meter. Notice direction of flow . Why is it from bottom to
top?
Flow measurement using the Venturi princip le. Notice how the line decreases in size
and then increases . This is a form of flow measurement using Bernou lli ' s principle
applied as we have seen earlier in Figure 4-3.
26 NJATC Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More
-
Chapter 5 - Fundamentals of Pressure 27
Fundamentals of Pressure
Pressure is the result of a force acting some pressure upon some measuring point
over a given area. Pressure can resuTtfrom with units in PSIG.
,me object set upon another, pressure can
result from - elevatingliquios somedistance To understand "head" Observe a column of
a bove another, Such as a Watertower, or from water 30 feet tall sitting upon a pressure sensor
the expansion of a gas, or from the force of a (Figure 5-1) . The weight of the column can be
fluid flow. derived by first finding the volume of the
Pressure is a universal processing column. This the area of the base times the
condition since all forms of life depend upon height of the liquid or 1 ft2 X 30 ft = 30 fe of
pressure for survival. The atmospheric water. The approximate weight of water is
pressure enables all of us to have oxygen to 62.43 lbs/if. Therefore the total weight of the
breath, control of movements, and etc. Water column will equal 30 ft x 62.43 lbs/if= 1870.2
is supplied to us by pressure for our use. In the Ibs/ft2 Pressure is normally recorded in
typical process plant pressure is responsible "inches" rather than feet so; there are 144
for the process reactions that cause the proper in2/ft2 and if we divide 1870.2 Ibslft2 by 144
boiling points, condensation points, costs, and in21ft2 we get 12.9875 Ibs/in2 or roughly 13
more. The measure of pressure, or in some PSIG.
cases the lack of pressure (vacuum) is a critical
function. Instruments can be installed to cover PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
a wide range of pressure measurements and
how these measurements are used will be There is a distinct relationship between
discussed now. pressure and temperature in the since that as
Again, pressure is the result of force fluids, both liquids and gases, increase in
acting over a given area, and is often defined pressure they also increase in temperature.
in terms of "head". "Head" is stated as a This concept is often used to measure the
column of water of certain height exerting temperature of fluids as well as pressure.
o ft.
13 PSIG
Sealed enclosures of fluids sense the change in 62.43 pounds. Suppose that same cubic foot
temperature and transmi t that change to (volume) contained mercury instead. Since
pressure recorders that can be calibrated 111 mercury has a specific gravity that is 13.6
degrees of temperature or pressure . times heav ier than water the resulting weight
of the mercury will be approximately 850 Ibs.
PRESSURE AND FLOW To fully understand this is to realize that all
fluids have different weight due to their
A fluid fl owing in a line or pipe densities. To keep a uniform sense of all
encounters restrictions in the form of pressure measurements their, densities are
couplings, fittings, flanges and etc . Special referenced to water to derive a ratio value
restrictions are also used to record these known as Specific Gravity.
pressure changes with the resulting flow
measurements . This concept is studied in more SPECIFIC GRAVITY
detail under the flow heading.
FIGURE 5-2 shows two manometers,
PRESSURE AND LEVEL one filled with water the other with mercury ,
both have an applied pressure of 1 PSI. The
Fluid levels can also be calculated water manometer is indicating a pressure
using the pressure sensor since all fluid s create difference of 27 .7", while the mercury
pressure in a direct relation ship with their manometer indicates a difference of 2.04".
density and depth. As the depth of a pressure With mercury being 13.6 times heav ier than
increases then the pressure of the fluid also water than it follows that an identical pressure
increases . As already studied the head of a will move the mercury less . Using mercury,
fluid can be used to calculate the resulting the range of pressure measurements can be
pressure. expanded up to 13 .6 times of an equivalent
To measure pressure and its related measurement using water.
value we must first understand what we are While the measurement of pressure
relating our pressure to in order to understand with a manometer is a useful tool, a
its true indication. As we studied previously manometer can practically measure up to 100"
we know that a cubic foot of water weighs of water column, which is the equivalent
7 •Q4, ''':-:'
• • • • , , , ,
1o--oH.E .7 " -
r ALCOHOL
r
r
r LIQUID HEIGHT = 10FT.
c
r
r
r FIGURE 5-3: A liquid's "Head" by a gage indicating pressure.
30 NlATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation. . . and More
A Rosemount pressure transmitter record ing level. The measured pressure is recorded
as a gauge pressure (from Zero Atmospheric) since the low pressure side is vented to
atmosphere.
14 .7
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
atmospheric pressure starts at total vacu um , gages are less common due to the fac t that a
a PSIA gage lying on a work table at sea vacuum chamber must be present and this
level would indicate 14.7 PSIA while a PSIG makes the gauge more expensIve to
gage would indicate O. Absolute pressure ma nufacture and use.
32 NJ ATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation. . and More
Transmitter
Meter : Circuitry
HOUSing ~ This Side
%-18 NPT on
Flanges for Pressure - -...........[~
Connection without
Flange Adapters
Blank Flange
Used on
Yz-14 NPT on AP and GP
Flange Transmitters
Adapters
o 14.7
Gauge Pressure
I
--~ Almo sphe ric Press ur e
o<1(- V acuum Press ure 14 .7
~ 29 .4
II-+-----+------II-A<- ----+------II-- A bsolute Pressure
·1 4.7 o + 14.7
Differential Pre ss ure
o 1
-,
Figure 6-2: Archimedes Law of Buoyancy. .,
Chapter 6 - Fundamentals of Liquid Level 35
actually simplifies the process by figuring the The basic float switch is a simple float tbat
calibration range and pressure at tbe same changes level witb tbe level of tbe fluid. A
time . recording and/or measuring device simply
The above example uses a DP sensor to measures the change in level of tbe float to a
sense level changes and the approach is fairly reference point and transmits tbe output.
straight forward. Sometimes otber Buoyant force is always directed in a way to -
considerations must be taken into consideration force an object out of tbe liquid it is
which will involve the installation and submerged in. This common sense principle is
maintenance of differential pressure level a form of Archimedes Law on Buoyant Force.
sensors . The mounting location of DP sensors Archimedes Law states tbat when an
can actually play a part in tbe calibrated object is placed into a fluid tbe object will be
measurement of tbe level. If tbe DP sensor is subject to a buoyant force equal to tbe weight
located below the tank bottom extra pressure of the fluid displaced by tbe object. For
will be on tbe DP cell simply from tbe example, lets study tbe displacement and
pressure/weight of tbe liquid in tbe related buoyant force of a fluid on an object as shown
tank/tubing to the DP sensor. This is called an in FIGURE 6-2.
elevation problem which means tbat the
pressure of tbe liquid elevates tbe output. Also Object, weight = 150 lbs.
sealing liquids and otber conditions may place Alcohol filled tank (specific gravity = 0.79)
unwanted pressure on tbe low pressure side of
the sensor and suppress tbe output. The DP Use weight of an equivalent amount of water
sensor must take tbis into consideration and to find tbe buoyant force:
must be suppressed to measure a true level.
62.43 lbs/ftl x 0.79 = 49.32 lbs/ftl
SUPPRESSION- Lowering tbe output
caused by additional or unwanted pressure on Applying Archimedes Law we can find an
tbe high side of a D P cell. The term is
normally used for a condition
tbat has tbe 4mA output high
when their is 0 % level. 4.5 (114) Permanent
Max. Tag (Optional)
ELEVATION-
Additional or unwanted
pressure on tbe low side of a
DP sensor. The term
Wired-on
Tag \
(Standard) \
9.0 (229) Max.
i
normally applies to a
Nameplate
condition tbat causes tbe
4mA output of a DP cell to
be low when tbeir is 0 % ' %-18 NPTfor
Side Ora/nNent
DrainNent
Valve
level so tbe output is adjusted (Optional Top
or Bottom)
to zero. 3.69
(94)
Several metbods are
available to measure level
and tbe most common ones
3.375 Ranges Can
were discussed previously, Flange (86) Be Rotated
but anotber common metbod Adapter
r NOTE
The Factory Mutual (FM) approval requires inserting the conduit plugs
r in all unused openings with a minimum of 40 ft-Ib of torque. This will
maintain five full threads of engagement.
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
38 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
~
J
,.,
-NOTES -
,.,
j
.,
~
~.j
,.,
,.,
~
,.,
..
J
,.,
,
,.,
,
,.,
J
"1
,.,
~
Chapter 7 - Fundamentals of Temperature 39
FUNDAMENTALS OF TEMPERATURE
Industry's today are requiring their Temperature will cause a ll solids, liquids , or
energy management systems to perform as the gasses to expand or contract with temperature
most efficient systems available. In industry , change. What is helpful about this principle is
when the temperature of processes are that all expand at a uniform rate that can be
controlled efficiently, the resulting finished measured and converted into a temperature
products are produced at a reduced expense. scale wanted.
With the demand for natural resources As we have studied in pressure
becoming greater , industries today are placing measurement, there are also different scales to
a greater emphasis on energy management measure temperature. Fahrenheit is probably
systems which will result in an increased the most common in tbe U.S. with Celsius
demand for control systems technicians. One probably the next most important temperature
of the most important methods to save energy scale. Their are other temperature scales tbat
is to monitor and control all heat related are perhaps more usefu l since these scales
processes. Since beat is energy, the quantity of record temperature in absolute scales and it is
energy saved has a direct result on profits. As sometimes helpfu I to think of the absolute
industries place a greater emphasis on the temperature scales in the same concept as the
importance of temperature measurement it absolute pressure scale. Regardless of the
follows that the installation and understanding technique or scale used the important thing to
of the fundamentals of temperature remember is that temperature is the
measurement will grow in importance for measurement of the presence of heat or energy
those people who work directly with and there can be as many as four scales used
temperature sensors. that we need to become familiar with:
The four most popular types of
temperature sensors ~ will study are~
thermocouples , RTDs , integrated circuit
--
Fahrenhyit, Celsiu§, Kelvin , and Rankine.
Galileo is credited with inventing the
thermometer around the year 1592. Galileo
-
sensors and thermistors. It is important t~
u nderstand the basics of temperature
measurement for regardJess of the device used
observed a container filled with alcohol and in
which a long narrow glass tube with a
reservoir at the upper end was placed. As
the response of temperature elements will temperature was increased the air trapped in
remain the same. The only difference will be the reservoir was also heated and the air was
the temperature scales that the data can re forced out of the tube it was trapped in . As the
recorded or measured in. temperature was decreased the remaining
The first and most important fact to trapped air would contract and allow some of
remember is that you cannot measure the alcohol to begiJl advancin g up the hollow
temperature directly . The implications of this glass tube. This "upside down " form of a
statement has greater significance than perhaps thermometer was the first thermometer which
is realized by many. We can only measure could be produced in mass in which every
temperature by observing changes in other thermometer would record the same results
objects or materials. Tbe typicaJ thermometer when subjected to the same temperature
is calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit and we change. Over the years many different form s
observe temperature change by observing the of temperature measurement scales were used
effect temperature has upon mercury . As the and it was not until Gabriel Fahrenbeit
temperature II1creases or decreases the established a scale with 0 degrees being the
mercury changes with respect to the lowest temperature he could record with his
temperature cbange. We observe the change in mixture of ice water and salt (ammonium
mercury , not the change of temperature. chloride). He chose the temperature point of
40 NJ ATe Fundam entals of Instrumentation . .. and More
the human body for the upper point. Why 96 freez ing and boiling points.
and not 100 degrees? It is theorized that The Rankine scale is merely another
Fahrenheit chose the multiple of twelve that form of measuring absolu te temperatu re using
earlier measurement scales had been using . the Fahrenheit scale.
Fahrenheit's temperature scale grew in FIGURE 7-1 shows the relationship
popularity due to the ease of production of the between the four temperature scales.
scales that he could make. Around Farenheits
time the practice of science increased Below are some conversion equations for the
dramaticall y and the resulting increase of fo ur scales .
scientifi c data recordings increased also.
Scienti sts would come to recognize the need C = 519 ( F - 32 )
for temperature scales with alternate units of F = 915 C + 32
measurement were needed. K=C+273.15
Approximately half a century later R = F + 459.67
Anders Celsius proposed a temperatu re scale
which contained one hundred degrees between As stated before, the four most
water's freezi ng and boiling points. This was common types of temperatu re transducers are:
the beginning of the Celsius scale. thermocouples, RTDs, integrated circuit
Around 1800 Lord Kelvin proposed a senso rs and thermistors. We cannot build a
universal thermodynamic scale based upon the temperature divider or add temperature as we
coefficient expansion of an ideal gas. Thi s can with resistive elements so we must use
scientific jargon simply exp lai ns that Kelvin temperatu re responses that have been
had created a model whi ch could theoreticall y established by physical properties. The
establish a point of absolu te zero, or the International Practical Temperatu re Scale
absence of heat. He used the Celsi us (lPTS) is a reference scale based upon these
temperatu re scale to record the changes that properties and establi shes a reference point.
his working model could produce and the Instruments we use today use these points as a
resulting Kelvin temperature scale uses the reference to extract temperature readin gs
concept of 100 degrees between water's between these points. Some of these
Fahre nheit ·:
: Rankine
•
..
•
..• Celsiu s
.• Kelvin
..•
---21"2-- - ---1----· f- -6-n -----. --i -00-·I----- ---- 1-373-------- B-oiliiig-po.iiToTwnle' -----------
:•
:
:
:•
:
:
:
:
I
..
----n- ~ --- : -- -- ... ~ -49r ----- . --- -{)-- ·I- ---- . ----< 1-273-------
:
:
:
:
rrcczmg-pOTnlotw8ter----------
:
:
:
:
... •
-- - 0-- - ~ --- !•----- ""460-------.------·
:
• 1'- ----------- -----------------------------
I'- ----i---·
:
:
:
•
:
--4{;Q -- f----1----·1--0--------.
:•
: •
. • :
--"'2-1-3- ~ ---- :•--- .
:•
I
r: THE THERMOCOUPLE
the ice bath to read "zero" we cancel out the
voltage that is present below zero.
In industry the thermocouple is used to
r When two dissimilar metals are joined
at both ends and one end is heated there is a
accurately measure temperatures
indication, alarm or control. A thermocouple
for
Motal B >
·r FIGURE 7-2: Example of thermocouple metals and polarity.
42 Nl ATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
comparatively small (#14 through #20) but directly into the rocess. They are placed into
mostly the size is dependent upon the strength a protective covering called a thermGWerI
required to pull the conductors in a conduit. which is placed into the p rocess. This
The resistance of lead wires can also playa simplifies a lot since now the thermocouple is
part upon the calibration of a thermocouple protected and it can be removed without
since the resistance will change as lead wiring stopping the process. Thermowells are
is added. A thermocouple that has a known available in sizes from '/z " to 2" and are
reading for a 0 degree C temperature can be screwed into the vessel or line. Thermowells
forced at the control room to read 0 degrees are often made of 316 or 304 stainless steel,
Celsius also. One last fact that has to be but other alloys are available. Thermo weiis
known and is very important to the installation can slow the response time down of the
of thermocouples and thermocouple wiring is thermocouple since the thermowell acts as an
that care has to be taken where the insulator ( although poor) which can isolate
thermocouple is mounted and where any the thermocouple from process. Bare thin
resultant wiring is run. Because of the low strips of like thermocouple metal can be
levels of thermocouple wiring voltages, stray inserted into the thermocouple to reduce the
currents or voltages (noise) can greatly effect air gap isolating the thermocouple and speed
the final reading. Thermocouple lead wiring the process with the transfer of heat through
should always be placed away from high the metal parts. Bare or thin sheathed couples
voltage or high current conductors. Separate can also be furnished which greatly reduce
conduit or raceways are always recommended. response times, but the price of these increase
Shielded twisted pair wiring is another usefu l greatly.
precaution since the shield protects from noise Thermocouple and thermocouple
and the twisting of the pair negates additional wiring failure, or poor responses, can
induced emfs. generally be traced to one of seven
Thermocouples are rarely installed possibilities:
r
r ISOTHERMAL BLOCK
r VOLTMETER
CU FE
r
r eu e
r L __ ~
Tref
r
r
r FIGURE 7-3: Calibrating a thermocouple by using an ice bath.
r thermocouple appears to be
working normally. Decalibration is
the result of altering the
r thermocouple wiring so that it no
longer performs at its rated
Rosemount 3044CA Temperature Transmitter Assembly
r with General Purpose Sensor.
specifications. Decalibration can be
44 NJATC F undamentals of Instrumentation . .. and More
II 11111
0.25
(6)
® -----.~~~----- ~ ----~~
Sensor Hex
Sensor Adaptor
Thermowell
Hex
Sensitive Portion
of Sensor Transmitter
Thermowell
r·
r
likely to have the "Time Lag" effects placed
upon it than a larger thermocouple. Also,
sometimes to minimize these effects extension
cali brating the wire at a known temperature.
Thermocouple wire will often resemble
thermocouple specifications but its output
r wiring can be used. Extension wiring is
intended to cover long distances between the
voltage may differ slightly and must be
'zeroed in". If a wire is calibrated to meet
r
r
r
r
r
r
r Incorrect conduit installation with Rosemount 3044C.
46 NJ ATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More
LEAD S OHMS
100 OHM
RTD
LEAD SOHMS
)
specifications than all the other possible types readings of the circuit. The bridge is a
of thermocouple error must be considered in practical way to eliminate resistive values
order to avoid decalibration. since the voltage read is taken directly across j
With the large number of data points the RTD. The bridge will require four
being monitored today it is possible that a connecting wires three temperature
faulty reading on a thermocouple may not be independent resistors and a power source. To
faulty at all. The data points should always avoid subjecting the three other resistors to
listed in an associated specification sheet and unwanted temperatures the RTD is connected j
care should always be taken to ensure that this to the bridge using connecting wires.
.,
data is recorded accurately. The three wire RTD can alleviate most
problems with resistance but unless you can J
THERTD accurately measure the load resistance or
c
r +
r-
r-
FIGURE 7-5: Four Wire RTD wiring method.
r
conversion equation is used. The Digital precautions that must be taken when installing
r voltmeter measures only the voltage across the
RTD and is insensitive to the lead length. In
RTDs and could be a possible target for
trouble shooting RTD loops.
r voltmeter.
The same practical precautions that
apply to thermocouples must be observed for
current must be impressed through the RTD
which will in itself cause some additional
heating. To reduce self-heating effects use the
r RIDs. Use shields where possible, l:l~e twisted
pair wiring, avoid stressing the conductors,
smallest size measuring current that will
produce the voltage output wanted. Also use
r
r
r:
r
r Process Container
Wall or Pipe Wall
or RTDs. The disadvantage is that Thermistors temperature measurement is the use of the
do not maintain a direct proportional integrated circuit transducer. a voltage and
resistance change with temperature. The current output version can be applied
thermistor "works" the same as a RTD but the depending upon the circuit design and voltage j
non-linearity of the response provides the limitations. Both of these models produce an
difference in measuring techniques. a lot of output that is directly proportional to any j
research has focused on the development of a temperature change. a unique advantage to this
linear Thermistor but todays microprocessor circuit is that an analog value for temperature
based controllers provide an easy computing changes can be transmitted to remote locations
point to calculate temperature/resistance for monitoring, control, or indication. The
readings. As a rule of thumb, a Thermistor same problems will apply to this type of
will be connected to a microprocessor based temperature measurement as all the others and
controller or voltmeter to establish a baseline will have set parameters that they may be used
of temperature readings for either control or under. Proper documentation is again i
+
-,
-,
10K OHMS TO DVM j
CURRENT SENSOR
VOLTAGE SENSOR
-,
FIGURE 7-6: Current driven thermistor. FIGURE 7-7: Voltage set thermistor.
r Chapter 7 - Fundamentals of Temperature 49
::) :~
1 1 1
r. )' :~
4
0
0
3
r" 2
1
2
1
2
1 +
2
:~ :> J 1~
r 4
0
4
o~ 40 -
0 0
3 0 -
3 3
r ~T
2
RTD or OHMS
S1-S2:::;~T
2
TIC
(2-WIRE)
2 -
mV
2
~TmV
+
r
r
r
r
r
r
r SENSOR
TERMINALS
r
r
r
r
r
SO NJATC Fundamentals of In strumentation .. . and More
THERMOCOUPLE CHARACTERISTICS
Type E- Ideall y suited fo r low temperature measurements. Useful for detecting small
temperature changes.
Type J- Uses Iron for the positive element in a thermocouple. Should neve r be used above
760 degrees Celsiu s.
Do not fo ll ow performance specs espec ia ll y well due to impurities in the iron .
Popular because it is relative ly inexpensive.
Type T- Has on ly one copper lead. Advantage is that the copper material is the same as a
di gital moni to ring device which makes lead compensation unnecessary.
T ype K- To be used at hi gher temperatures typically 450 degrees Celsiu s and above All oy
content prevents di stortions due to oxidation at hi gh temperatures.
Type G,C,D- Normally used in high temperatu re areas but not in hi gh oxidation areas. Made of
Tungsten-rhenium they become very brittle when above 1200 degrees Celsiu s.
Rhenium a lloys are used in both therm ocoup le legs in order to make the w·,res
easier to handle .
Type N- Nickel based thermocoup le system in which very hi gh temperature measu rements
can be taken . T his thermocouple shows great stabili ty at working extremes.
Suitable for high temperature measurement only.
METALS COLOR
Control valves are used in industry to constant, but the flow rate downstream of the
regulate a process by controlling the rate of valve varies with the rate set by tbe control
flow or supply . By adjusting the opening in valve. The result is a pressure drop across the
the valve assembly through which the val ve that is dependent upon the valve
controlled process flows the valve regulates opening . The closer the flows rate is
the volume or rate of flow. The operation of downstream of a valve to the rate available
final control elements (control valves as well up stream the lower tbe pressure drop across
as other devices) include the steps needed to the valve. Also, the lower the pressure drop is
convert the control signal from a controller across the valve the closer tbe flow rate is too
into an appropriate response. maximum.
A control valve is often referred to as The capacity of a control valve must be
a variable orifice in the line and the equation sized so that it controls a process witbout
studied before called "Bernoulli's Theorem " varying the controlled flow ineffectively. A
can be used to calculate the differential flow valves characteristics can be calculated by
pressure and resulting flow that passes through using an equation which solves for the Cv
a valve. In short the flow throu gh a valve is which is the unit of the flow capability defined
proportional to the square root of tbe as the number of U.S. gallons of water per
differential pressure across the valve times the minute at ambient temperature that will flow
area of the valve opening. through a full y open valve with a 1 psi
The difference with control valves is pressure drop across it. It is important tbat a
that the control valve variables, flow rate and control valve is properly sized for economic
area of valve opening, are not constant. With reasons and controllability.
an upstream process supplied by other means If a valve is oversized, or larger than is
the flow rate available at a control valve is needed, the valve wi ll not have enough
"resistance" to properly control the flow Where: Q or W = flow rate (liquid gpm,
except when the valve is almost closed. It is gases scfh, vapors Ib per hour)
apparent that this valve will allow the required SG = Specific Gravity
flow to pass through, but it is larger than is Tf = flowing temperature in degrees
needed and will cost more. If the valve is Rankine (deg F + 460)
undersized, or smaller than is needed , the dp = pressure drop in psi (PI-P2)
required flow will not be able to pass through PI = upstream pressure at the valve
the valve and the valve must be replaced with inlet in psia
the proper valve which includes a material cost P2 = downstream pressure at the valve
as well as a labor cost. v = downstream specific volume in
As an undersized control valve will cubic feet per pound
never pass the required flow capacity it is easy
to see that the control range of the valve is The equations above are used by
reduced significantly. With most undersized engineering to determine the actual response of
control valves the useable range of the valve a control valve to its process environment, but
does not exist and the valve will function as a the field technician who understands the
"block" valve. This means that the valve will concepts of Cv can intuitively decide if a
open fully when "signaled" to control the flow control valve is or is not functioning properly
and close fully when "signaled" to close. The merely by interpreting the results from the Cv
result is a valve that has no controllable action. equation.
When a valve is oversized it will When a control valve is installed it
attempt to regulate the flow by throttling the displays two attributes which we can
flow rate . This simply means that the valve recognize. A control valve will operate under
will operate at a nearly closed position and the a linear relationship which implies that for
full range of the valve is not used. Also when 25 % of stem travel 25 % of flow rate will
a valve operates at a nearly closed position change, or a valve will be non-linear which
high flow rates will be present which can implies that for 25 % of stem travel the flow
erode the valve seat. The Cv rate is the rate may vary more or less than 25 %. Proper
accepted way that industry selects control documentation should be available and should
valves for use, but the equation can be used to also be checked before any valve is taken "off-
determine if the flow rate can cause damage line" so its proper response can be checked
from excessive pressure drop or high rates of against its recorded response. Often enough
flow. The equation for flow rates varies with the conditions of the valves operating
the type of fluid controlled. environment can dictate whether a valve will
require additional maintenance other than
~
UQUIDS • Q -
G maintenance required for flow characteristics .
dp A control valve is designed to operate
without friction . If friction is detected it will
most likely be found where the valve stem
enters the valve packing. The valve stem often
STEAM VAPORS CY - -- , becomes corroded at the valve packing due to
63 .)
leaks in the packing itself and these leaks
should be stopped. Friction can also be caused
by excessive tightening of the valve packing.
In this case the valve packing is to tight against
GASES -Q- , TJ&SG
the valve stem and it hinders the proper
1360 f/p-rP2
movement of the valve stem.
The air supply to a control valve should
Chapter 8 - Fundamentals of Control Valves 53
be checked for leaks since a leak will cause the stroke properly check to see if the valve
valve to stroke improperly when signaled. The actuator spring has lost its tension to control
valve actuator will often leak where the the valve. Also the diaphragm can be
diaphragm is squeezed between the two stretched, from excessive air pressure, to the
halves of the diaphragm case. In some valves point where it can no longer properly control
a o-ring is found where the valve stem leaves the valve . If a diaphragm is worn out the valve
the diaphragm case and this o-ring can also may attempt to function correctly at a certain
leak. If the vent on a valve is plugged when it pressure . but not at any other pressure
is needed to vent improper operation may regardless of the tension of the spring
occur since added back pressure may hinder adjustment.
the valve. A less common valve leak , and For valves which require air to open
harder to locate, is a valve with a hole in the and are vented inside the diaphragm casing
diaphragm. All valve leaks should be repaired with a vent located at the top of the diaphragm
when it is determined feasible to do so. moisture may build up in the casing and begin
Inner valve wear can be
found on all control valves that
have been in operation. Corrosion,
cavitation, erosion, pressure, and
foreign material trapped in a valve
are all causes of valve wear. These
conditions will degrade the
operation of a valve sometimes to
the point where they can not be
tolerated and they must be
corrected. The only way to
properly check and repair a valve
is to remove it from service and
disassemble it.
If a control valve suddenly
\
quits responding to an operators
signals the chances are it has lost
the stem plug which will allow the
valve to be forced to its correct
position. The valve stem remember
is the part of the actuator which
will control the movement of the
valve. In this case the valve will
often swing to a position that is
determined by the process.
If a valve does not stroke
properly you will want to check for
the cases listed previously. Ensure
there are no air leaks ; there are
know obstructions in the valve
body, the stem is controlling the .it. _ _
valve hody, and there is not an A Control Valve that has been neglected and shows signs
excess of friction on the valve of faulty packin g. Notice the white build-up around the
stem. If the valve still does not valve stem.
.,
54 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
.,
to erode the diaphragm, stem, casing and etc.
in this case remove the valve and turn it upside
down. Supply air to the normal inlet to force
the water out of the casing. In some cases it
may be necessary to disassemble the valve to
For proper care and maintenance it is
important to follow the manufactures
guidelines for the correct procedures. As a
rule of thumb plug valves are the only ones
that may require internal lubrication. Most
.,
dry the moisture points inside. valves require lubrication in the bushings i
All valves should be equipped with located at the top of the yoke and on the stem
bug screens to prevent pluggage and foreign threads where exposed. If a valve is in a dusty j
material from entering the valve. If the valve or operates in a high temperature area it may
strokes slowly but reaches its full range be necessary to use a dry lubricant such as
chances are the vent is plugged. graphite to ensure proper lubrication. Some J
It is important to remember that when valves in a process line may be used seldom or
disassembling any valve it is to be done by a even never used. These types of valves are j
procedure established by the area you are usually shutoff valves used only during
working in. Control valves in process lines shutdown or emergency procedures. Shutoff
often contain hazardous materials and should valves require maintenance to ensure that the J
valve will function when required.
.,
be decontaminated. Any of the valve actuators
with tension springs should have the tension Maintenance of shutoff valves is usually j
springs removed first before disassembly limited to downtime and the maintenance is
begins. Once a valve is disassembled erosion usually more thorough and determined by the
may have caused internal parts to be worn to specific site procedures for emergency
the point that they have developed sharp shutdown 110.
edges. j
j
.,
.,
j
.,
i
Chapter 9 - Fundamentals of Pneumatics 55
Fundamentals of Pneumatics
1,-
In a pneumatic system "data" is carried
by the pressure of a gas in a pipe. If a length
of pipe is used fo r a pressure signal,
increasing the pressure at one end will cause
the pressure to be propagated down the length
IJ.Al
to the other end rai sing the pressure also. Th is
method of conveying in fo rmation is much
slower than the method of electronic control.
rv J\..r
The change of pressure wi ll trave l down the I
length of the pipe at approximately the speed /jf-S IGNALPiESSUi.E
of sou nd (1082 ft/sec) . For many process PNEUIIA l~ AIIPUllH
applications th e time delay does not effect the FIGURE 9-1: 20 view of a pneumatic
end product. A pneumatic type of signal was amp li fier
used for many years before the use of
electronic devices began to emerge. Pneumatic electrical signal does not warrant their change.
systems were considered then , and now for Fo r most app lications the gas used is " dry
some app lications, to be the safest way to instrument air" and the signal information has
control a process. Pneumatics are sti ll used been adjusted to a range of 3-15 psi. There are
today in some appl ication s: as a carryove r basicall y three different forms of pneumatic
from before, it has not been cost effective to signal converSIOns: amp lificat ion,
remove them, or the threat of sparks fro m an nozzle/flappe r, and current-to-pressu re.
PIVOT 0
FLAPPER
GAP
,/7( '\ 1 FLAPPER
MOTION
NOZZLE
L-..J
SUPPLY PRESSURE ~ r--1
RESTRICTION
) SIGNA L PRESSURE
FLAPPERINOZZLE SYSTEM
i
NOZZLE
i
SUPPLY PRESSURE 20 P·..Q.SIL..-_...:!:.=--_ _ _--,
i
~
PRESSURE
SIGNAL
j
3-1S PSI
i
FUNDAMENTALS OF A CURRENT TO PRESSURE CONVERTER
i
FIGURE 9-3: Working schematic of a liP transducer
Chapter 9 - Fundamentals of Pneumatics 57
with a linear way to position a valve. For a diaphragm. Often the diaphragm casing is
direct acting valve a 4mA signal would result vented on one side so the differential pressure
in a valve that is 0% open, a 12mA signal across a diaphragm is a gage pressure applied
would translate into a valve position of 50 % to the inlet pressure port. The equation for the
and a signal of 20mA would result in a valve relationship is given as:
position of 100 % open. A reverse acting valve
contains the same relationship but with the F = (p I -p2)A whe re
clo sed position at 20mA not 4mA . With the F = force in (Newtons)
liP the flapper is adjusted by the use of a coi l p l-p2=pressure difference
to attract the flapper towards the nozzle A=diaphragm area
reducing signal pressure. The use of springs
and flapper adjustment allows the converter to From the previous equation it is easy to
be adjusted easi ly. For example, a direct see that to double the force while applying the
acting converter woul d have the adjustment so same working pressure we merely need to
that 4 rnA would equal 3 psi and 20mA would double the surface area of the diaphragm. This
correspond to 15 psi. is often more easi ly done rather than changing
Another pneumatic principle we must the working pressure of the actuator since the
become familiar with is the pneumatic actuator and associated linkages a re often
actuator. The actuator will receive a control calibrated at a 3-15 psi working range . The
signal and translate the signal into a force or working action of an actuator is a simp le
torque action as it is required to position a conversion of pressure to force. As pressure is
final control element. The concept of the applied to one side of the diaphragm the
actuator is based upon the principle of diaphragm is distorted away from the pressure
pressure as a force per unit area. A diaphragm and moves an attached actuator arm which is
of a known surface area can have a force connected to a valve or other appendage .
applied to it by differential pressure across the Springs are used to set a resistance torque and
,.-
are linearly related to the applied force. In Hysteresis will be a consideration when
other words, the compression of the spring is calibrating an instrument. The mounting
set to restrict the amount of diaphragm locations of pneumatic devices will have to be
movement for a specific input pressure. The considered also. A pneumatic device needs to
springs therefore are extremely sensitive and be placed away from areas with large
could be the cause of a faulty valve position. temperature swings if possible. A hazardous
Likewise the springs could be the adjustable location may not be as great a concern as with
component to correctly calibrate a valve an electronic instrument, but a "dirty"
positioner. The end result of the actuator is to environment will playa larger role in creating
move a shaft which is attached to a final control errors whether it is a calibration
control element (control valve) so that a 50 % problem or fouling of a moving linkage. When
input signal results in a actuator position of calibrating a pneumatic instrument care must
50% of travel and the final control element be taken to calibrate the device in the same
travels 50% also. The spring has another location as it will be mounted. The mechanical
important function and that is to return the parts in the device are subject to gravitational
valve to a set position on a loss on signal forces and a device that is installed differently
pressure. This is known as the fail safe valve than calibrated will have a tendency to drift
position. With all the devices and control towards the high or low range limits.
concepts discussed before there are a few Pneumatic instrumentation IS a proven
common traits that need to be discussed. monitoring and controlling means that has
Pneumatic instruments, devices and been in use much longer than electronics. The
transducers all contain mechanical linkages same zero shift and non-linearity errors will
and appendages. With mechanical parts still be present and are calibrated and adjusted
ambient conditions will playa greater role in by tile same methods as an electronic
determining if a device is or will function instrument. If for no other reason the
correctly when installed. Ambient fundamentals of pneumatics must be
compensation may be needed to adjust a understood to calibrate final control elements.
transducer that is calibrated in a controlled Air actuated control valves are and will
environment but is installed in a working probably maintain to be tile only elements with
environment. The dead band of pneumatic a "force" strong enough to position.
instruments will probably be more noticeable.
VENT
IV ---r--SPRrNG
DIRECT ACTUATOR LOW PRESSURE STATE DIRECT ACTUATOR HIGH PRESSURE STATE
Solenoids mounted inside a protective enclosu re. Solenoids operate by interrupti ng the
normal instrument air supply and allowing a final control element (valve) to go to its
fail position.
1
Loading Pressue Connection
J
-,
Diaphragm Case
Actuator spring
Actuator Stem
Spring Seat
Spring Adjustor
Stem Connector
Yoke
Travel Indicator
r Fundamentals of Controllers
r
r
r.
r
r,
FlOUD 1
as a 4-20 mA current or it can be read as a 1-5 The memory of a com puter sto res
v DC voltage (these are the most common, but in formation until it is needed. The memory
there are some other less common ana log input functions only in the sense that it receives
ranges). Before an analog signal can be used , information, stores it and gives it up on
it is converted by the controller to a digital demand . The memory performs no
format. calculations , control functions or logic
Inputs mu st be connected to the fu nctions and it is stored in one or several
controller by field wiring . The fie ld wiring types of storage elements called drums, disks,
will provide the path for the signal to the co re, tape, or reg isters . The registe r is the
controller, but th e termination point on the only temporary form of a working memory in
controller for each input must be located . As that it only function s when power is supplied.
a ll PLC's (Programmable Logic Controllers) Working memory or RAM (Random Access
have a Chassis, Slot, and Point assignment to Memory) is the fastest way memory can be
configure I/O, the term ination point must be temporari ly stored and retrieved. ROM (Read
correctly assigned and terminated to ensu re o nl y Memory) is what its nam e implies; it is
the proper inpu t can be read when it is needed. memory that can only be read an d not written
Figure 1 shows a single chassis, three slot to nor changed . RAM is of memory register
PLC controller . Each slot is configured to type which implies that memory will be lost
perform a different function: Digital Input, when power is removed while the other
Analog Input , and Digital Output. The proper memory components wi ll maintain their
interpretation of documentation wi ll ensu re memory as long as they a re not subj ected to
that the co rrect " type" of input is terminated alter ing conditi ons.
in its co rrect location. A field loop sheet can We have covered how the controller
be one source to provide the inform ation will receive its inputs and how they must be
needed in order to terminate I/O to a terminated to specific locations or "poi nt
controller. ass ignm ents". We have read that the inputs,
Now that the inpu t is received by the once gathered by an input card for the
controller, the inputs are converted to a usable controller, are convened to a usable format.
form which is merely the letter of the alphabet We have discussed how once inpu ts are
converted into a series of digi tal commands. received by a controlle r, the controller can
These digital commands called Bits are provide the solution , or Outputs, that are
grouped as Bytes ( 8 bits)and finally into needed to accompli sh its control function. The
words (2 Bytes). When the computer wants order of control actions now depends upon the
information it can read, it is in the form of software that is " running" in the controlle r.
words. Still a basic order of events needs to The control program is often a user
establish before work can be performed and specified software program upon which, in a
this task is accomplished internall y by the language the particular controller unde rstands,
CPU. the " logic" of the program is written. Control
The CPU ( Central Processing Unit) languages can vary from the assembJy
controls all workin g memory, program language the computer can directly read or to
control, and arithmetic functions. It has a a hi gh level language (Pascal, C, C+, etc.)
"bus" on which it can send and receive signals that is more user friendly. A compiler is
and determine the order information is sometimes used to translate a high level
exchanged. The CPU receives inputs , language into machine lan guage. Perhaps tile
performs any calculation s needed and stores most favo ri te language is the ladder logic
the result in memory . The control uni t in a format which reminds us of the drawings we
computer controls the entire operation of have used for years w ith relay logic. The
memory allocation and logic functions. common thread to all languages is that they
Chapter 10 - Fu ndamentals of Controllers 63
must all be read sequentially in order to be correctly. The same reasoning can be used for
properly interpreted. Sequential operation an analog output signal. The controller does
(sequential Logic) forces a controller to not know how the field device is responding ,
perform the control program, in order, from but the field technician does. Therefore a
top to bottom within the specified time period. technician must be able to read I/O
One sequential reading of the program is termination points to provide solutions to
called a scan and the time the program is read wiring problems, and for an advanced field
in is called the scan time. technician he must be able to interpret the
Remember, a controller cannot provide ladder language most PLC controllers will
an output without established inputs and a use.
control program. Once the inputs are read , the There are several manufactures of
program determines the correct response and PLC's but they all function the same.
the outputs are signaled to perform a control Regardless of tile type used tile field technician
action. Outputs can be digital or analog , as will be able to interface with it and understand
inputs are, and the same point assignment how it works with hi s field I/O. A controller
procedure and documentation for each sti ll can also be a computer that has a visual
applies. The biggest difference is perhaps that interface or simply a single loop controller
the controller often does not know the which acts as a controller for a set num ber of
response of the field instrument it is inputs and outputs. A single loop controller
"driving." When a controller turn s "on" a often has its program stored into permanent
di gital output signal the solenoid , switch, memory and it cannot be changed or adapted
annunciator, etc. mayor may not respond as to fit any working process other than it was
it is supposed to. If the field technician knows designed for. Although, the single loop
when the field instruments should respond he controller does often have user selected
will know if the instrument is performing configurations which can perform a selected
..
.' _
• ..... - WO .... _ ,".
_~r~~~~ ~~~~~~
Typical Single Loop Controllers mounted in a central control room. Multiple
recorders , controllers and indicators for a process unit.
64 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
routine, the sin gle loop controller still will termination point may often be in a " local
have termination points to be connected, sti ll satellite" bui ldi ng. By using the local
will be configured, and still does not know the termination point much wirin g can be saved
response of its outputs. PID (Proportional , since the field wiring will not have to be run
[ntegral , Derivative) control actions are often back to the control room. These " remote
done on a single loop basis and the single loop termination points communicate with the DCS
controller does what its name implies: it system located in the control room by the use
provides control of the process on a loop by of one or more means. Fiber optics, coaxial
loop basis. A single loop controller may not be cable, and others, are a on ly a few ways
as versatile as a software configured system it communication is achieved. The remote
still can control the process for a process loop locations still have assignments for analog and
with a limited number of lIO . digital , inputs and outputs. When DCS
PLC's and Computer terminals are systems are present, they wi ll be the primary
only two of many forms of contro ll ers used controllers for the process's at the respective
today. For larger industrial sites a distributed industrial site. Often there are other
control system (DCS) will be the primary controllers which wi ll monitor the DCS
controller used. Honeywell, Bailey, and operation.
Foxboro are a few of the more common DCS [n areas which have hazardous
systems we may come into contact with . For substances or a danger to people from
ou r purposes here the termination of fie ld mechanical operation, you may find a PLC
instruments will be our only interface with acting as a guard over the process. These
these systems, but if a field technician wishes PLC's are a part of the " Critical Control
to remain working with instrumentation he Systems" often referred to as the Emergency
wi 11 have to come to know the working parts Shutdown System. The DCS will not have
of a DCS. A DCS loop contains the same "extra" shutdown actions w ritten into the
assignments as the loop for a PLC, but the control program for the set points used for
controlling are accessible to the operators who will be detected before its failure can cause a
can change them . A ESD (emergency hazardous result. Dedicated procedures for
shutdown) system is a stand-alone controller testing ESD I/O should be avai lable from the
that receives inputs from field instruments, site you are work in g in and Maintenance of
DCS control actions, valve positions, and critical 110 should be limited to the standard
more, but does not have process va riables that established for a particular device . with the
can be changed by human interaction. An ESD developm ent of increasin gly " smart" 110 the
system monitors the process to observe that a procedures wi ll surely cover a broader use of
dangerous condition is not ex istin g. If a communication techn iques for monitoring the
hazardous situation does arise the ESD system process but for monitoring the accuracy,
assumes control of the process and executes an repeatability, and all other functions of
orderly shutdown. Sometimes the field 110 instrumentation.
used for the DCS system is the same as for the The field of control systems is growing
ESD system and sometimes the ESD I/O are at a pace that wi ll ensure that there will be a
separate. In extremely critical areas a field demand for the in strument and control
technician wil l often find multiple sensors technician who can understand and evaluate a ll
recording the same process variable and all are components of a system. There are "new"
part of the ESD system. These sensors are devices coming into the market which will
evaluated through the use of software to verify expand upon existing know ledge. New I/O
accuracy, deviation, and comparisons of like will demand that a fie ld technician is fully
recordings . If a deviation IS present, aware of the fundamentals of instrumentation ,
procedures shou ld be available for correction. knows how a control scheme functions , and is
OSHA is now mandating that critica l capable to use micro-processor based
control 110 shall be tested at intervals that wi ll commun icators to ca librate . A field technician
ensure that a failed component of the system that knows the fundamentals has the greatest
An Emergency Shutdown System valve. Emergency shutdown devices are often painted
red in order to distillguish them from process only 1/0.
66 NlATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
Typical "smart" device , a Rosemount Analyzer. Such devices ensure that the function
of installing, calibrating and troubleshooting microprocessor devices must be studied.
Power
Supply
of performing any or all of the measuring the control system with each device being
fu ndamentals that we have covered. Smart capab le (smart) of initiating comm unication,
instruments should become a welcome sight to decisions , response , a nd etc. such a system
the field technician who understands micro- when configured will have no central
processor controlled devices and/or systems. controller which governs the process , but will
The future of controllers for the have each device governing its on assignment.
process environment will also conti nue to Such systems wi ll demand accuracy so they
advance along the micro-processor lines, but may function properly. Such systems will also
even now new devices are beginning to be demand that the field technicians are equally
used for controllers. There are controllers that accurate and precise. The order of accuracy
are now no longer centralized, but rather each that microprocessors demand ensure that with
device is smart and can initiate the proper knowledge any problem is solvable.
communications with other devices. This is the Our job is to ensure that the demands of the
true concept of distributed control and will be micro-processor control led systems are met.
the trend of future control systems. Imagine
68 N] ATe Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More
,'.,,
-NOTES -
.,
j
~
,.,
j
,.,
,.,
,.,
,
.,
~
",.,
~
,.,
,~J
Chapter 11 - Fundamentals of Control 69
r Fundamentals of Control
1 OUTPUT
r same.
A control loop is usually an instrument or
a group of instruments which are designed, PROCESS
r· installed, and calibrated to control a process at a
desired setpoint. This control loop usually
MA TERIALS TO
DERIVE PROCESS
WANTED
r contains a sensor which senses the process
variable, a process that will be controlled, a
Block Diagram that is showing a form of open loop control.
The process is measured and a variable is applied to the
process but the effects of the added variable are not
r sampled.
70 NJATC Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More
level when the display indicates a level that is to systems has covered how to set and control the
high. The open loop control part is the sensor that process, i.e. what should the setpoint be set at to
is displaying a level. The open loop portion control the process. It is more important today to
indicates and/or records what is happening with cover the response of a system to a load change
the process , but it causes no corrective action to and how to correctly anticipate how a control loop
be taken to regulate the process. will measure and respond to a process change
The closed loop control system provides a and/or a control command. Process loading is the
form of "feedback" to the process under control. physical change in the process which requires
A process would be measured, compared to a adjustments to be made to control the change in
setpoint and a final control element is adjusted
accordingly. We now recognize this method of
LOAD OR
SETPOINT CHANGE
INPUT OUTPUT
-t>,<l-~"----1 PROCES S "---/1
-"<
MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT
REGULATOR SENSOR
(TRANSMITTER) PROCESS VARIABLE
(
TIME
REFERENCE
CONTROLLER POINT
(SETPOINT)
A low resistance response curve
the process .
Resistance is the response characteristic of
the system which delays a change in the process
Closed Loop Control. The process variable is measured and
compared to a setpoim and error corrections are adjusted variable when a load change is sensed. Any
out. physical material that reduces the rate of energy
transfer to a process can be referred to as
control as the predominant method used today ,
especially when process control is considered.
There are many , many types of control LOAD OR
technologies and control methods that can be used SETPOINT CHANGE
in closed loop control which provide feedback and
adjustment to a'process .
r SETPP/NT CHANGE
This impetus of flow rate is the
capacity of the process variable.
r This variable will also cause the
delay in the change of the process
r o 2 3 4 5
be confused with transfer-lag. If in
a complicated industrial process a
TIME change is initiated into the system
r Transfer Lag is also dependent upon resistance/capacitance. Notice as
resistance and capacitance increases the transfer lag increases.
and the process variable remains
steady, then there is dead-time in
r'
suddenly was indicating a greater flow than change, the characteristics are the same. The time
i wanted, the control response would be to reduce it takes for a process variable to arrive at the
the flow rate. The flow liquid will have a certain setpoint is called the transfer lag.
r Process In ut
r . . . ~.
Process Output
r
r Time
r Transfer Lag
:::::::::::::::-
__-_-
OUlFLOW
__"'I'I.V,.-- - .
80
...Z 70
186.4"
I
I
processor variety. This form of
controller can accept an analog range as
an input which enables the controller to
view the process over a span of
designed values, or a discrete input
.,
I
I.IJ
U 60
I
I which we know allows the controller to
~ I
I.&J
a. 50
I
I
see the process at only one point
I
..: 40 I
I
(setpoint). The micro-processor
::J I
J: 30 I
I
controller uses what is called digital
::J
0 20 I
I control for all of its internal workings
I
10 I
I which is a form of converting analog
I
0
To
TIME
T1
..
I
T2 T3
signals to a series of zero's and one's
(AID converters) which represent the
same analog value received from the
-,
transmitter. This is digital logic and the
controllers of tomorrow will use only j
Regulation of a process is determined by five time constant intervals digital control logic and digital
which are calculated by the resistance and capacitance of the process.
communication methods. The sensing
elements will still see the process over a i
that is continuously fed by a water source and you
want to maintain a particular level in the tank. The 1
tank has a line flowing from it that cannot be
controlled, therefore the flow out is continuously
open. As the tanks level begins to rise the
,.,
hydrostatic head pressure increases at the bottom
of the tank until the pressure is great enough to OPEN i
force the exit of water such that it equals the PROCESS
VARIABLE ~ ----t.:-----J'---~~ SET
input. The resistance of the line size restricting
outflow was overcome by the capacity of the
I
- POINT i
FINAL ~
system. When the two are equaled, self-regulation CONTROL CLOSE
is possible. The time-lag is not present since there ELEMENT i
is no discernable difference between process load TIME -+
change and process level and there is zero j
transfer-lag since the process is remaining at the
desired level. Suppose there is no direct
interaction between the input and output of process i
variables as the above example portrays. Then the On-Off Control. As the process reaches setpoint the final
method of process control and its several methods control element reverses the process.
i
Chapter 11 - Fundamentals of Control 73
r signals. Digital control is not to be confused with In time-cycle control a time cycle is
discrete control which can be referred to as on/off established, often by trial and error, which is used
control which is a form of two position control. to regulate the process variable. An example
c Two position control is the form of control
where the final control element is in one of two
would be when the temperature setpoint is reached
the fmal control element is adjusted to its oppos ite
r variable (room temperature) than would on/off Proportional control response with resulting offset shown.
74 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
-,
ones that demand a greater accuracy such as is
used in industrial control, some method of final
control element is needed and the throttling of
fmal control elements is the answer. This is often
How much is the valve closed? Even more critical
when is the valve signaled to swing fully closed,
and likewise fully open? If the proportional band
is set at 20 % then the valve would swing fully
..,
referred to as proportional or throttling control. closed when the setpoint indicated 40% and wou1d
=
Throttling control is where the fmal control be open fully at 60 %. This 20 % range of control
action is referred to as the proportional band. At
a range greater than 40 % and less than 60 % the
valve is at some point between the two fully open
.,
J
-,
~ 1.0
......
0;:)
=r&.
... Z
~-
u
0 U and fully closed positions .
When the proportional control method is
.,
of deviation from the setpoint. Likewise there is
no movement in the fmal control element unless a Gain = Controller Output (valve change)
change in the process variable is measured. It is
1
easy to follow this form of control, but there is Controller Input (process variable)
another variable that must be considered.
At what point does the final control Once the controller is installed the Gain is
element reach its fully open or fully closed set and cannot be changed unless the proportional
position? We now know that proportional control' band is changed. Another way to picture Gain is
applied to a tank level would act like the following to realize that if a Gain equal to 1 is used as the
with a setpoint for control set at 50% of span process variable changes its input measurement
measured by the level transmitter. If the tank level value by one unit then the output fmal control i
drops below 50 % the final control element is element is changed by one unit. If the Gain
closed some amount to raise the level in the tank.
r Chapter 11 - Fundamentals of Control 75
r-
one unit would cause a final control element
, /' response of two units and etc.
A proportional controller may also have a
CONTROlL£R INPUT
r
r 24 V de
Power
Supply
r
r bDrn~
r
Current
BB8
DDD
Meter
r DDD
DDD
DOD
DOD
r
k:i!iWW4 Typical Bench Calibration Hook-up.
78 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More .J
Fail Safe Mode Switch
transmitter "over range" error. This ,i
would imply that a high or low setting
.,
Transmitter Security Switch would be detectable as a "Bad Point"
error, but care should be taken to verify
the switches are still placed in the proper
.,
position.
The security switch is another
setting that may be used. The security
switch setting requires
that it is in the off position in order to
change or enter configuration data. To
enable the transmission of configuration
data the switch must be in the off position.
Once the configuration switches are in
their proper position, transmitter
Typical configuration switches shown in default positions. configuration/testing can proceed.
When the transmitter is connected
arrive with the switches in their default position as a bench calibration or as a Field connection a
and the installer should verify that the fail position Communicator can be connected. With a j
will not drive the output signal to a level that is Rosemount device a HART-based communicator
not detectable by monitoring equipment. An
example would be if a transmitter that is
would be turned on by pressing the ON/OFF key.
The communicator will search for a device and
i
measuring level was set to fail low and the alarm show that it is connected to a smart device. If it
points for the level monitored were for high levels does not, troubleshoot the loop to see where loss i
only, it is easy to see that a transmitter failure of communication is occurring. When connected
would not alarm for a high level condition. Most there are several test functions that may be
DCS (Distributed Control Systems) monitors performed and it is usually recommended that they
and! or controllers are capable of detecting a be done. Testing is often done when poor loop
j
Optional j
L1J
Chart
Model 1151 Smart Recorder
Pressure Transmitter
RL~250n i
......--~ --......
1-----.
+
+
i
i
BB8
DOD
BBa
000
ODD
Optional
Indicator .,
i
Typical Field Wiring Diagram. A Hart interface may be connected at any point in the loop.
Chapter 12 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibration 79
r Standard
Calibration
Tasks
1. Set output configuration parameters:
a) Set the transmitter range points.
b) Set the Output Units.
c) Set the Output Type (Linear or SqRt).
1) Reconfigure parameters if necessary
2) Zero Trim the transmitter to compensate
for mounting position effects or static
1151DP
r 1151GP
1151HP
1151LT
d) Set the Damping Value.
r
r
r
r
r
r HART-based
Communicator
r
r
Digital Trim connections for a 4-20 rnA Transmitter. Remember, a calibrated instrument is only as accurate as the calibration
r equipment.
82 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More
the digital trim allows the user to make corrections correspond to the working zero wanted.
to the factory stored "curve " that is maintained in
the EEPROM. Digital trim is a two step process Output Calibration
consisting of sensor trim and adjusting the output
electronics. The function of digital trim should not Output calibration is another from of the
be confused as reranging since reranging does not trim procedure. Adjusting the output electronics is
effect the way a transmitter "sees and interprets" sometimes required when a transmitter has been
a process input. installed and in use for a period of time. To
Sensor trim exacts the digital process determine if output correction is needed connect a
variable to a precision pressure input. Sensor trim mill i-amp meter of known sufficient accuracy and
allows the user to change the way the transmitter the hart communicator. Perform a loop test
interprets the input variable. To understand what (remember to put loop in manual) and set the
digital trim is picture a transmitter with 50 psi output to 4 mAo The transmitter output should be
input applied (compared to a known gage within plus or minus 3 microamps.
pressure), but the transmitter sees a sl ight Next set the output to 20 mA o The value
difference in the input variable. The reason is the should also be within plus or minus 3 microamps .
factory stored "curve" was not set correctly so If the tolerances are to great, trimming the output
that the referenced input variable would indicate is required. Use a current meter to read the output
the correct value. Digital trim corrects that
difference by one of two methods, full and
zero trim.
A full trim is a two point
.-
- . §12 --[MDo~dIe~ 1 ~1115D1~~p~r~e~s~su~r~e~T~r~a~nfrstm~ic::tt=e.
11121313111 Sensor Zero Trim
r:. __
calibration procedure in which the lower ' -0 . 1)
" .
reference value is applied first . The lower Trimming the sensor zero is a one-point sensor calibration performed by
range limit input variable is applied and applying zero pressure to the transmitter.
allowed to stabilize. The upper range limit
~~~t ~~ ~CIIIlI4I4I<II f4I From the Online Menu, select Device
is appl ied and the signal is linearized
between them . Remember, a calibration
'!'I!f"+
31=10
5~.111:1
~& lnH2U
12 . e13e MR
setup.
4 LRU 9 . 9030 inH20
procure is only as accurate as the 5 URV 1813 . 1313130 inH20
Power
Supply
Typical multi-drop network. Multiple transmitters connected on a single communications media communicating digitally.
units in milliamps and adjust the output to meet Rosemount set to 4 rnA). There are limits to the
the standard for the site you are working in. number of devices that are installed on a single
Trimming the analog output sets the output signal communications media and the manufactures
to equal what the reference measuring equipment specifications should be referenced.
indicates the transmitter should indicate . When mUltidropping transmitters each
Sometimes transmitters are connected to device connected to the communications media
transmit an output signal in the digital form rather must have an address. It is essential that a user
than the analog form we are used to. This does not verify which functions are deactivated (alarming,
mean that a transmitter connected to transmit 4-20 rnA, etc .) when re-addressing a transmitter.
digitally can not represent an analog range . A To set a multidropped transmitter the input
transmitter that communicates digitally is able reference variable must be kTIown . The output is
through a series of discrete bits to translate and set digitally to represent the known variable and
i n t e r p r et
information.
M u I t i Loop Connection Ports
dropping
transmitters refers
to the connection of
several transmitters
to a single Optional NICad
Recharger Jack
communications
Serial Port
transmission line.
Communication
between the host
and the transmitter
will occur digitally
and the output is Rosemount smart cal ibralOf rear connection panel. The HART Communicator needs a minimum
de-activated (with of 250 ohms resislance in the loop to function properly.
84 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More i
the host excepts the digital form as the reference data when it is required to give a transmitter j
variable. working parameters if working off-line.if working
Remember to "download" configuration on-line the transmitter will be needed to be
j
j
i
i
j
Online Menu
1 PolIAddress
2 Number of Request Preambles
3 BurstMode
4 Burst Option
i
Meas. Type
j
Isolator Mtrl
FdlType
Flange Type
Flange Mat
();'~MaL
j
OVMaL
'ofRmt
RSType
RSMat
RSFnt i
HART Communicator menu Tree for the 1151.
r Chapter 12 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibration 85
r-'
t updated.
r
r
r Function
Analog Output
Model 268 Fast Key Sequences
F3,F2
r Characterize
Damping
F4,F4,F2
F3,F2,F2
F3, F3, (F1 x 3)
r
Date
Descriptor F3,F3,F1
Digital To Analog Trim (4-20 mA Output) F4,F4,F3
Disable Local SpanlZero Adjustment F4,F4,F1
r Loop Test
Lower Range Value
Lower Sensor Trim
F2.F3
Process Variable Key. F2
F4.F4.F3.F2.F1.F2
r Message
Meter Type
Number Of Requested Preambles
F3,F3.F1.F1
F3, F3. (F1 x 4)
Not Applicable
r Percent Range
Poll Address
Pressure
Not Applicable
F1.F4.F4.F2.F3
Process Variable Key
r Range Values
Rerange
Scaled D/A Trim (4-20 mA Output)
F3.F2.F1
F4.F4.F3.F1.F1
F4.F4.F3.F1.F2
r
Self Test (Transmitter) F2.F2
Sensor Info F3.F3
Sensor Temperature Process Variable Key, F3
r
Transfer Function (Setting Output Type) F3.F2.F1.F1
Transmitter Security (Write Protect) Not Applicable
Trim Analog Output F4.F4.F3.F1
Units (Process Variable) F3.F2
r
Zero Trim F4.F4.F3.F2.F2
r
r
r
86 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
r
r CONFIGURATION DATA SHEET
r Customer _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Model No. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
~ONo. __________________________
4mA= _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
r
KEY
romA= _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ * Default Values
Upper Range Limit*
r Output=
I Dampingl=
OmmHg
0 Linear*
_ _ _ __
o kglcm 2
o Square Root
seconds (Damping is electronically adjustable in 0.1 seconds in increments from 0.0 to 16.0 seconds.)
I Descriptor:
r
1_1_1_1_1_1_1_1_1_1_1_'_1_1_1_1_1 (16 characters maximum)
r Date: o
(numeric)
00
Day
(alphabetic)
000
Month
(numeric)
00
Year
o Installed o None
r Integral Meter:
Flange Material:
O-ring Material:
0316 SST
o Viton
o HastelloyC
o Buna-N
o Monel o Carbon Steel
o Ethylene-Propylene
o Special
r Isolator Material:
o Teflon
0316SST
o Tantalum
o Special
o HastelloyC
o Go,d/Monel
o Monel
o Special
r Sensor Fluid:
DrainNent Valves:
Remote Seal Type:
o Silicone
0316 SST
o No Seal
o Inert
o HastelloyC
OCTW
o Monel
OEFW
o Carbon Steel o Special
r Typical Smart Configuration Data Sheet. Example shown is for Rosemount Model 1151 Smart Pressure Transmitter.
88 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
i
HARDWARE SELECTABLE INFORMATION:
SIGNAL SELECTION:
.,
Rosemount 1151 Smart Configuration Sheet Continued
j
Chapter 13 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibrators 89
are wanted to be displayed. The bottom of the communicator was turned on, and another if a
display is reserved for the software function keys device is not found. If no device is found the
(FI-F4) which allow a user to flow through the communicator should say so and have available the
functions of communicating to a smart device. menu for offline configuration displayed.
"HELP" functions are available for certain If a device is connected the menu for online
routines and Help is displayed on the "F" keys should be displayed along with the relative device
when available. Function keys change as the user information. If a device is not found when
goes through the different menus that are connected to a device, troubleshoot the
displayed. Depending upon the menu displayed the connections and/or wiring until the problem is
function keys will display a set of instructions to located. It is not too soon to verify that you are
execute a commend, exit the menu, go to home trying to communicate to a "smart" device and not
menu, and etc. Function keys are not the only way its dumb "brother".
Sometimes a specific HART
device is not found when connected and the
ON/OFF
wiring and/or connections are proved to be
OK
HELP
Access online
Activates or
deactivates
ABORT
Terminate current
Acknowledge satisfactory. In these cases the user is
Information on
help a blt-enumerated
binary variable
task
screen limited to perform data exchange to the
RETRY
DEL
ESC ENTER
device because the device is not stored in
Delete current
Try to re-establish Leave a value Accept user-
communication
character or Hot
unchanged entered data the memory module of the calibrator.
Key Menu Item
QUIT Generic descriptions will have to be used.
EXIT SEND Terminate 888slon - EXIT
Leave the current Send configuration becausoofa Leave the current An example of this would be if you
menu data to device communication menu
error had an older communicator and a newer
YES
Answer to yea/no
PGUP
Move up one help
PGDN
Move down one
NO
Answer to yea/no
device, the communicator will not likely
question screen help screen question
know that such a device exists and will not
ALL NEXT ONE
PREV
Include current
Go to previous Go to next Include Hot Key be able to recognize it. The closest model to
Hot Key Item on message In a list of message In a list of Item for ene device
~ Hot Key Menu for
messages messages the device will have to be chosen for data
all devices
NEXT SAVE HOME exchange and the device will accept the
Go to the next Saves Information Go to the top menu
variable In offline to Memory Module In the device information since it should be downwardly
edit or Oats Pack description
MARK
compatible, but it may not have the same
FILTR
Opens
Toggles marked BACK parameters as the older model (URL, LRL,
customlzatlon
menu to sort
configurations
configuration
variables for
sending to a field
Go back to the
menu from which
HOME was praued
Sensor type, etc.). .1
device
To calibrate a newer device than the
XPAND
Opens detailed EDIT calibrator recognizes should never be
configuration Edit a variable value
Information attempted until proper authorization and
CMPRS
Closes detailed
ADD
Add current Item to
acknowledgment is received from whoever
conflguratlen
Information
Het Key Menu is directing the calibration procedures.
A handy feature of the HART
Rosemount Function key labels for its HART Communicator. Communicator is to allow the storage of
multiple devices that are configured offline
information and/or commands are selected. and "downloaded later". To configure devices for
Alphanumeric and shift keys are available downloading later the devices must be configured
to perform a fast selection of menu items and or offline and stored in the communicator for later
data entry. To enter data the shift keys are used in use. The manufacturers devices are listed and
conjunction to select the letter wanted and the when selected the model numbers appear and when
strings of letters are entered separately. selected the field device revision menu appears,
The HART Communicator when turned on and the menus continue onward until complete and
will generally display one of two menus. One a new device is selected.
menu if a device was found when the Regardless of whether a device is
Chapter 13 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibrators 91
~
( " indicates connected
device is configurod in data saved in the memory module and data packs
the burst mode)
/
Efj:fi<!Cc~~rc.itc~~ll -- L" w Banery if it is needed later for saved memory to be
Access recalled.
PreviOl.ls
Menu The communicator provided by Rosemount
is typical of most communicators since it will
accept the alkaline or nicad rechargeable modules
as its power supply . There is a low battery icon
that will appear when approximately one hour of
usage in whichever type is used and the
Menu icons and associated key functions.
communicator should be serviced when this icon
appears. Continuing data entry and/or storage
configured online or offline the device parameters under the low power conditions may result in a
have to be correctly entered. The process range loss or corruption of data.
limits, analog output ranges, damping selection (if There are several common tasks and
any) must all be entered as specified . The actions functions that are done with the Rosemount
of entering data is menu driven and follows a communicator and the following trees and menu
predefined sequence of steps. Menu trees are selections are descriptions of the most common
available which a user can view to "see ahead" devices and procedures performed. The
what his selection will do before it is selected. If assumption will be made now that assumes we are
the menu trees are followed the user will have few able to tell if a device is online or offline and we
problems with a device being in-correctly are familiar with the technical terms such as range,
configured.
There are several menus that are
available for advanced diagnostics and
troubleshooting techniques and these
menus should not be activated unless the
consequences of selecting a configured
device for diagnostics are clearly
understood.
With other calibration equipment
Software-Defined Keys
(Green)
=
800di
---
~
a.
- -
Analog Output Alarm 1,4,3,3 ~ ~
1 PROCESS ~ 21 PressulO Burst Mode Control 1,4,3,4,3
::s
~ en
VARIABLES Percent Range
3 Analog Output Burst Operation 1,4,3,4,4 0 0
(JQ I-+)
1 T£ST DEVICE HI I Calibration 1,2,3 ~
-2
Selttest
2 Status
Characterize 1, 4, 1, 1, 2, 2 ~ ~
~.
_._.
Damping 1,3,6
2 DIAGNOSTICS ,... 2 LoopT8S1 1 RERANGE
H~~=I
~
AND SERVIce Date 1,3,4,1 p.
U 1 Dlgllal-to-Analog Trim 1 Descriptor 1,3,4,2 (JQ
a.
-s --.
2 TRIM ANALOG 2 Scalod DlA Trirri
3 CAUBRAll0Nf-- OUTPUT
D/A Trim (4-20 mA Output) 1,2,3,2,1
~
Field Device Info 1,4,4,1
~12 ZeroTrim
Lower Sensor Trim 0
Full Trim 1,2,3,3 ~
1 Tag 3 SENSOR TRIM 3 Upper Sensor Trim
4 Sensor Trim PoInts
1,2,3,1,1
?
2 Unit
Keypad Input e3"
1,2,2 ~
f-~=~= a a
Loop Test ~
3 BASIC SETUP I-
3 RANGE
VALUES
• DEVICE INFO
5 Trcwfor Func1ion
f-Date
1
2 OoseripIor
~ ~:a~oct
5 MotorTypo
Lower Range Value
Lower Sensor Trim
Message
4,1
1,2,3,3,2
1,3,4,3
(1)
f) ~
0
~
6 Damp
1 PROCESS
. VARIABLES
J~ ~rc I Meter Type
Number Of Requested Preambles
1,3,4,5
1,4,3,4,2
(1)
SENSOR TRlun
M21 Characterize
2 SENSOR Percent Range 1,1,2
SERVICE
1 SENSORS H,=eL Poll Address 1,4,3,4,1
1:'-- ~
3 Unit
2 Lwr Snar Trim Pressure 2
Online Menu 3 Upr Snar Trim
.. Silsr Trim Pts. Range Values 1,3.3
1 DEVICE
SETUP I-
2PV
3 AO
1 PROCESS
VARIABLES
K 1 Pressure
2 Pen:ont Range
,I Rerange
Scaled D/A Trim (4-20 mA Output)
1,2,3,1
1,2,3,2,2
• LRV 2 SlOMAL
CONDmON I- 2 RANGE
5URV Self Test (Transmitter) 1,2, 1, 1
H~~~I
VAWES
3 Unit 1,4,4,2
4 Trana1er Function Sensor Info
.. DETAILED ,...
5~
1 PROCESS
VARIABLES
H 1
2 PresaulO
Pen:ont~
3 Analog 0u1p(d
I Sensor Trim Points
Status
1,2,3,3,4
1,2,1,2
I 1,3,1
SETUP Tag
3 OUTPUT r-
2 ANALOG
OUTPUT
I- 21 =rut to-Analog Trim
3 Sc:alod CiA TrIm
Transfer Function (Setting Output Type)
Transmitter Security (Write Protect)
1,3,5
1,3,4,4
CONDfT1OH
3 Analog Output ~~RoqUOll Trim Analog Output 1,2,3,2
AWm PreambIoa
I~~~ Units (Process Variable) 1,3,2
• HART OUTPUT
Upper Range Value 5,2
~~
H'RBDDeVEE
INFO ~:or,=. Upper Sensor Trim 1,2,3,3,3
• DEVICE 2 SENSOR INFO ~=::
INFORMA11ON 3 Moler Typo
.. Self Teat !~~ ~~ProIId Zero Trim 1,2,3,3,1
5 RI!YIEW
OS=Ma1
7 DVMa1.
7 LocaIKoya
8 RevIsIonIla
:~~Soab
Rosemount Model 1151 Pressure Transmitter. Menu Tree. Rosemount Model 1151 Fast Key Sequence.
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j ~ j ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j j
,,, , ,,, ,,,,,,,,
~
. Model 3144/3244MV Smart Temperature FunctionlVariable Fast-Key Sequence
_ I V Transmitter
:""- Menu Tree Process Temperature 1, 1
Process Variables 1, 1
PV Unit 1,3,2
Range Values 1,3,3
Review 1,5
RTD Current 1,2,3,7
Scaled D/A Trim 1,4,3,1,5
Secondary Variable 1,1,4
Sensor 1 Configuration 1,4,1,1,3,1
Sensor 2 Configuration (3244MV) 1,4,1,1,3,2
Sensor 1 Connection 1,3,4
Sensor 2 Connection (3244MV) 1,3,5
Sensor Information
Sensor Serial Number (3144)
Sensor 1 Serial Number (3244MV)
1,4,1,1,4
1,3,6
1,3,7
-
w
Rosemount Model 3144/3244MV Smart Temperature Transmitter Rosemount Model 3144/3244MV Fast Key Sequence.
Menu Tree.
FunctionlVariable Fast-Key Sequence
Model 8712C/u Mag Flow Transmitter
Menu Tree Message 1,4,5,3
Meter Type 1,4,4,1
Number Requested Preams 1,4,4,3,2
Poll Address 1,4,4,3,1
Process Variables-PV 1, 1, 1
Pulse Output 1,1,2
Pulse Output Loop Test 1,4,3,3,3
• OUTPUT
Pulse Scaling 1,4,3,3,1
4 4 1'IIm
Pulse Width 1,4,3,3,2
PVDamping 1,4,2,4
PV Percent Range 1,4,2,1
PVUnit 1,3,1
Review 1,5
Revision Number 1,4,5,9
Scaled D/A Trim 1,4,4,2,5
Self Test 1,2,1,1,2
Sensor-PV 1,4,1,1
Sensor Configuration 1,4,1,4
Sensor Information 1,4,1,3
2 IJGIU1' Signal Processing 1,4,2,5
OnlinoMonu
1 D&VICE Signal Processing Control 1,4,2,5,1
IIl1'UP
2PV Signal Processing-Percent Rate 1,4,2,5,3
SAO
4 LAY Signal Processing-Samples 1,4,2,5,2
Signal Processing-Status 1,4,2,5,1
Signal Processing-llme Limit 1,4,2,5,4
Special Units 1,4,1,2,2
Tag 1,4,5,1
Totalizer Control 1,4,3,4
Totalizer Display 1,4,3,2
Totalizer Value 1,4,3,1
Transmitter Gain 1,3,8
Universal Auto Trim 1,3,6
IIDIMCElHfO
Volume Unit 1, 4, 1, 2, 2, 1
Write Protect 1,4,5,6
Zero Trim 1, 4, 1, 2, 2, 1
Rosemount Mode18712C/U Mag Flow Transmitter Menu Tree. Rosemount Mode18712C/U Fast Key Sequence.
J J
,, , , I,' ,
-~
FunctionlVariable Fast-Key Sequence
Model3051C Pressure Transmitter
Analog Output 3
Menu Tree
Analog Output Alarm 1.4.3.3
Burst Mode Control 1.4.3.4.3
H1~
1 PROCESS
VARtAB1.2S 2 Porc:enI RIngo Burst Operation 1.4.3.4.4
~=~I Calibration 1.2.3
Clone Data Left Arrow. 3
1 TEST DEVICE
H~ =:uateat I Damping 1.3.6
Date
ML~va':l
1 RERANQE 1.3.4.1
2 DlAGNOSncs I- 2 Loop Tost
AND SERVICE DeSCriptor 1.3.4,2
~=lI
6~
1 PROCESS Meter Type 1,3.4,5
VAR1ABLES
Number Of Requested Preambles 1.4,3,4,2
2 8acsoR 1 SENSOR
SSMCI! TRIll ~ Percent Range 1,1.2
1 SENSORS
'~ 1..... ' ....
T. .Trim
2 Lwr Snsr ~ Poll Address Left Arrow,S, 1
2,...,.,. I' ~.!emp 3 ~SnsrTrim
Online Menu 2 Snsr Temp 4 Trim PoInta Pressure 2
1 DEVICE
1 PROCESS iJnds' Range Values 1.3,3
~ VARIABLES
SETUP 1 Proaaure
Rerange 1.2.3,1
~~~~~
2PV
3 AO 2 RANGE VALUES
4 LAY
5 URV
2 SIGNAL
CONDITION
3 Unit
.. TranslerFundIon
5 Dmnp
1
2
=elnpul
YaIues
Scaled D/A Trim (4-20 rnA Output)
Self Test (Transmitter)
1,2,3,2,2
1,2, 1, 1
1 PROCESS 1 Pressure Sensor Info 1,4,4,2
4 DETAILED
SETUP ~
VARIABLES
2 ANALOG
~ 2 Pen:ent Range
~~~
1 LoopT"t
I Sensor Temperature
Sensor Temperature Units
1, 1, 4
1.4,1,2,2
OUTPUT ~2~~TrIm Sensor Trim Points 1.2.3,3,4 :
u' . . -.
3 Sc810d DlA Trim
3 OUTPUT Status 1.2,1.2
CONDmOH 3 Analog Output 2 Numbor 01 Requoa1
Alarm Preambles Tag 1,3,1
3 BuI'ltModo
.. BuI'lltOption Transfer Function (Setting Output Type) 1,3,5
4 HART OUTPUT
11 Tag Transmitter Security (Write Protect) 1.3,4,4
1 AELD DEVICE 2 Dale
4 DEVICE
INFO
2 SENSOR INFO ~:::~. 3 Descriptor
.. Message
Trim Analog Output 1.2,3,2
3 FilITypo
INFORMATION 311ETERlYPE Units (Process Variable) 1,3,2
h 5 Model
:=~
4 SeIlTeat 6 WIlle PrcCec:t
6 O-Ring Mal. 7 Local Keys Upper Range Value 5, 2
l~li~P 7 DVMat. 8 RevlaionS'a
Upper Sensor Trim 1,2,3,3,3
5 REVIEW : ~t:,SeaIs Zero Trim 1,2,3,3,1
Rosemount Model 3051 C Pressure Transmitter Menu Tree. Rosemount Model 3051 C Fast Key Sequence.
FunctionlVariable Fast· Key Sequence
Model 8800 Vortex Flowmeter
Menu Tree Num req preams 1, 4, 3, 6,2
Pipe inside diameter 1,4, 1.3,4
Poll Address 1, 4,3,6 , 1
Process Density" 1, 4,1 , 2 , 3
Process Temperature 1,4,1.4, 1, 1
Process Variables 1, 1
Pulse Output 1, 1, 5
Pulse Output Mode 1, 4,3, 4, 2
Pulse Output Test 1, 2, 2. 2
PV Percent Range 1, 1, 2
PV sensor serial number 1, 4 , 1,3, 5
Range Values 1, 3, 3
fl.OW ..... Review 1,5
Revision Numbers 1,3,4,9
Scaled D/A Trim 1, 2, 3,2
Self Test 1,2, 1, 1
Service Type 1, 4 , 1,3, 3
Special Units 1,4, 1,2, 2
Online Spool Body Type 1.3,4,8,3
Me"U
Status 1,2,1,2
Tag 1. 3,2
Total 1. 1, 6
Totalizer Control 1.4,3.5,3
Transmitter Test 1, 2, 1, 1
Trigger Level 1. 4, 2, 5, 4
URV 1,3, 3, 1
USL 1,4, 1, 4,3
Vol Unit 1, 4, 1, 2, 2, 1
Vortex Frequency 1, 1. 4
Welled Materials 1,3, 4,8,2
Write Protect 1,3,4,7
Rosemount Model 8800 VOI1ex Flowmeter Menu Tree. Rosemount Model 8800 Fast Key Sequence.
-tEl Model 3680 Density Transmitter
Menu Tree
FunctionNariable
Poll Address
Fast·Key Sequence
1,4,3,4,3
, ...
.....".,.
21 Tesl El
DevIce
1 REFERENCe
2 ~tlon Corv.
l 3f~t.
RlferltlOe MII.flal l
" New Rei.,.n<:.
Process Vari able 2
AHD iHAVlCE LoopT",
1 C.l.UBRATE
........
3 PAOCE88
H~ ==~~ I
Process Variable % of Range
Process Variable Damping
1,1 ,2
1,3,4, 1
" o.n..;ty 0ItuI Process Variable Output 3
Process Variable Units 1, 1,4
>Tog
'''''''"''
2 Upper Rarvt va.
Reference (Start New) 1, 2, 3, 1,4
......,..,...
3~~vu..
.. Upper s.nior U'nI:
2 RANGE .. UNITS 5 ~s.r.ort..mlt Reference Material 1, 2, 3, 1, 4
e o.r.ty cI c.m.r
7 Denelya! ....... Reference Temperature 1,4, 1,3, 1
1, 4, 1, 3,3
S DATE61WE
H''''
2 TlrN-1'bn
3n-..-~
Rho 1
w
,........
Rho 2 t , 4, t , 3, 5
,,~~:'~~==-
-"""'~
,_ .
Scaled D/A Trim (4-20 mA Output) 1,4, 2, 2
2
Source Type 1, 4, 3, 1
Sensor Serial Numbe r 1, 4, 3,3
.....
Online Menu
, ....,.,. COIO'ENOATIOH
.... ,'
"T~1
Temp 1 1,4,1,3,4
.....
. . . .AUD 2 OUJPUT_ H~ =~~TllmI
Temperature Input Type· RTD
Temperature Input Type (4-20 mA
1,4,1 ,4, 1
1,4, 1,4,2
,-
Output
....... .,..,.,.
_TIOH ._-
.--
:~s.r
'-
,--
:~-
. . .
.....- 1',-
YANA8la
. --
.... ,
Temperature Units
Time-Hours
Time-Minutes
Upper Range Value
Upper Sensor Limit
1, 4, 1, 2
1,3, 3,2
1,3,3, 3
4
1, 3, 2, 4
'"'"
::;'
c
3
(1)
'"
~
......
Rosemount Model 3680 DensIty Transrmller Menu Tree. RosemoulI! Model 3680 Fast Key Sequence.
~
98 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More J
i
Message Description
CAUTION- OFLN Memory is cleared for new information.
Progressing will clear
OflnMem
Data saved in OFLN Off-line configuration data are saved in the Off-line Memory and can
Mem for downloading be downloaded or sent to the flowmeter at an appropriate time.
Different XMTR type Flowmeter did not accept data sent because the data is meant for a
connected-XMTR different type of transmitter.
Mem not changed
End of List
ERR-Filter Auto Ad) The low pass filter auto-adjust sequence error occurs under the
following conditions:
• no flow in pipe
• erratic flowrate
j
• filter tracking disabled
Remedy conditions and repeat function.
ERR-Hard/software is
not compatible
i
ERR-Not in output
mode
ERR-Not xmtr Flowmeter does not understand the command sent by the Model
.,
command 268. Press F4, RESTART to restart the flowmeter, or press F3 to
suppress the error message ad REVIEW the software revision level.
You may need to contact the Rosemount Service Center.
ERR-out of range
ERR-PV out of limits
ERR-Update failure
ERR-Value was too hi
ERR-Value was too 10
ERR-Xmtr fault
..,
ERR-Xmtr will not The flowmeter does not understand the Model 268 command. Press
support command F4, RESTART or press F3, REVIEW to review the software revision
level of the flowmeter. Check compatibility.
ERR-268 Data err
Errors Detected-XMTR Flowmeter did not accept data because it contained nonpermissible
Mem not changed values. Data errors must be corrected and the data sent again.
.,
FAILURE-Electronics
Gen failure-No. 1 i
Making changes Data is being sent to flowmeter and flowmeter is accepting the data.
permanent-PLEASE
WAIT
No data modified to Data with no changes is being sent. Press F4 to continue.
send
No data saved In OFLN
Mem
There are no data in the Off-line Memory to review. i
Rosemount Model 268 Communicator Diagnostic Messages.
i
r Chapter 13 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibrators 99
r
r
r Message
r Mem
Ofln Mem not
compatJblewith WORK
The data stored in Off-line Memory and WOrking Register are from
different kinds of transmitters, or the Off-line Memory is empty. Press
r REGS-Data not
transferred
SAFE Mem from dlff
F4, REVIEW, F2 to see the data in Off-line Memory and connect the
Model 268 to similar transmitter.
Data in the Safe Memory and Working Register are from different
Xmtr than WORK transmitters. Press F4, REVIEW, F1 and find the flowmeter serial
r REGS-Data not
transferred
SAFE Mem not
number. Connect the Model 268 to the flowmeter with thflt serial
number and press RESTART.
The unique identifier in the Safe Memory and the transmitter are
r compatJblewith WORK
REGS-Data not
transferred
different. Press F4, REVIEW, F1 to see the data in the Safe Memory.
Connect the Model 268 to the matching transmitter and press
RESTART.
r WARN-Value at limit
reverse direction
The entered value is beyond the upper or lower limit. Adjust to a
value within the limits.
WARN-Value entered The Model 268 will not accept the entered value. Enter an acceptable
r is Illegal, nMtnter
WARN-Value out of
limits, altered by 268,
value (see relevant section in manual).
The Model 268 could not store the entered value so it changed to the
maximum allowable value. Check the new value.
r re-check data
WARNING-Analog
output outside range
r points
WARNING-Control
loop should be in
Before sending the data that could affect the 4-20 mA output signal,
set the loop to manual control. After it is set, press F4.
manual
r WARNING-Data
transmission error
Previous communication between Model 268 and the flowmeter was
not successful. If this message appears repeatedly, check the loop
for a source of noise that could corrupt the signal.
r WARNING-Loop may
be returned to auto
After completing a communication that required the loop to be set in
manual, you may return the loop to automatic control.
WARNING-Match xmtr Check to be sure that the entered flowmeter serial number is the
r WARNING-Process
has been aborted
WARNING-PV out of
Indicates that the self-test has been aborted by pressing any key.
r range
WARNING-Some of
the changes were not
Flowmeter did not receive all configuration changes. Note
differences in configuration data and reconfigure the flowmeter
saved In the xmtr mem accordingly.
r WARNING-This
address already being
Another transmitter is already using the entered multi-drop address.
Enter a new address.
used
r
100 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
r differential
transmitter
pressure
performs by
(2 Places)
,
Transmitter
r
Adapters (See Table) Transmitters
Instrument installation
consists of three separate Typical dimensional drawing for Model 1151 transmitter. Side view.
maintaining an efficient,
r Typical dimensional drawin~ for Model 1151 transmitter. Front view.
102 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
accurate, and automatic process can not be dependent upon the location the instrument is to be -,
achieved. Likewise if the wiring is run as such to installed in. Specific requirements for instrument
introduce stray signals the end result is the same
Once the proper position for mounting with
installations should be available from the site you
are working in. But there are general requirements
i
respect to the impulse tubing is chosen, the for all instrument installations.
installer will also need to check other
considerations. Accessability, safety for field In general transmitters should be installed
-,
.,
, . 6 5 r S 7 (98)
i
.,
Transmitter mounted on an instrument (pipe) stand.
~_-+-2.625
(67)
.,
personnel, ease of field calibration, and a practical to minimize vibration, shock, and temperature
working environment are other considerations a fluctuations. Most transmitters may be mounted in
field installer should consider. one of three ways: wall-mounted, panel-mounted,
Installations in certain process or attached to an instrument (pipe) stand.
environments may cause the need for special seals Regardless of the mounting method, when
and other installation requirements to satisfy mounting a transmitter you must take into account j
regulations for such as the food, beverage and the ease of getting to the transmitters electronics
i
1.65(42~
/' 3:87(98)
Mounting Holes
0.375 Diameter
(10)
-,
0
0
0
I
2.81 Typ.
(71) .,
1
1.40 2.625
(36) (67)
j
Transmitter panel mounted.
j
pharmaceutical industries. In short, the as well as its field wiring terminations and do not
requirements for specific site installations will be forget the zero and span adjustments. You want to
r Chapter 14 - Fundamentals of Instrument Installation 103
·r
r Zero
Screw Optional
Side-mounted
r DralnNent Valve
r Span
Screw Flow
r
r Rosemount conventional analog zero and span adjustment
screws.
r
H
consider the process connections and the
drain/vent valves on the transmitter so that when DralnNent
Bloc king
used to deal ing with must be considered.
Valves Mounting details should provide all necessary
Plugged Tee requirements for mounting height with respect to
for Steam Service
for Sea ling Flu id tap positions .
It is possible that gas measuring devices
could be mounted to show an excess or lack of
process due to relationship of the process to
mounting position. Mounting details should be
Sufficient
Length for provided for special service devices to ensure that
Cooling
they are not located improperly.
The piping (tubing) between the process
and the transmitter should remain at the shortest
H
length possible . Using a minimum of impulse
piping insures that the accuracy of the device is
not decreased. When installing a device the
3-valve
Manifold installer must consider the field impulse tubing
route as well as the electrical signal wiring route .
Tap, tubing and mounting position for steam service.
Impulse tubing caries the signal from the
process to the transmitter. The tubing must be of
top or the side of the line to ensure that liquid will the shortest length possible. The installer must
drain into the process line. For steam also consider the elevation changes between the
measurement the process taps should be located in process and the transmitter. If the tubing elevation
the side of the line and the transmitter should be changes the process pressure sensed by the
mounted below the taps to ensure the process transmitter can be of a different value than the
tubing remains fi lled with condensate . actual process that is wanted to be measured.
As most transmitters are equipped with Also, if the tubing is routed as such as to allow
drains and/or vent valves, the process measured moisture to accumulate in the tubing the process
determines how these valves are arranged. If pressure can be changed. There are the
measuring liquid the va lves should be mounted following rules that when followed should
upward of the line to allow gases to vent. If alleviate most problems associated with the
measuring gases the valves should be mounted to
allow any liquids that has collected in the process
tubing to drain . Also if measuring steam the
valves should be mounted the same as with liquid
measurement since we know now that the lines
should be filled with water. Filling the steam
service lines with water is required to prevent
steam from coming into contact with the
transmitter sensor.
Remember the relationships studied earlier
that should remind us of the potential zero shift
due to excessive pressure being provided to the
sensor of the transmitter. Elevation and/or
suppression are two conditions that a installer
must consider when measuring liquids. For
special cases of gas measurement elevation and
suppress ion maybe a consideration but now a
process that is lighter than the relationship we are Process line cross-section indicating tap positions.
Chapter 14 - Fundamentals of Instrument Installation 105
test terminals. Connecting a voltage to the test twisted together to cancel .any magnetic field
terminals may burn out a biasing diode which will effects. The shield is also there to cancel any
not allow any local indication of the current in the capacitive effects that may also be present.
loop. The shield of the signal wiring can be left
Signal wiring as we know carries the 4-20 un-grounded, but some applications may call for
rnA loop current that is used by a device or a grounded shield. The shield should be grounded
controller that will indicate the process measured. at the source end which means whatever is
Care must be taken when routing signal wiring supplying power for the transmitter and resulting
that it does not "pick up" stray voltages or noise. signal current is the source end. The negative
terminal of the source end is a
good point for grounding. Wiring
diagrams should show in detail
where the shields should be
grounded.
In addition the transmitter
+ case must be grounded. It is most
likely that however the transmitter
+~
o
1-----1.--,
'
was mounted that sufficient
grounding was provided, but if
needed a direct connection from
-'---
the case to a grounding electrode
can be made. It is important to
note that the loop wiring sheets
Typical loop wiring and terminal connections. should also indicate where a loop
is to be grounded if at all.
If signal wiring is routed in conduit or open trays Consider the conduit run (if conduit is
near heavy power loads or high voltages it is easy used) for the signal wiring. Conduit should be run
to see that a difference in the signal strength can to allow for maximum clearances around potential
be added to the current loop. noise sources. Do not parallel high current/voltage
lines if possible. Do not terminate the conduit so
Most wiring methods for signal wmng as to provide a channel for moisture into an
incorporates the use of a "twisted pair with electronics enclosure.
shield". This implies that the signal conductors are Conduit seals are recommended when
Conduit _ _ -l71
lines
Soallng
Compound
,.,.
j
,
1
,
~
-,.
j
~
~
,
j
'-1
1
J.
,.,
}
Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance 109
Optional
Chart
Recorder
+
Power
~
Supply
+ 1------'--- ,
833 o I
----'--
I
Optional
Indicator
process fluids from the sensor until needed . problems can be eliminated by connecting directly
at the transmitter and then at a remote location and
SMART DEVICE TROUBLESHOOTING comparing the response of the communicator to
the two locations.
a) Fauity Communications Another related troubleshooting point for
loop wiring is at any intrinsically safe wiring
To perform diagnostic procedures to a barriers that are in the loop wiring. Barrier trouble
smart device a communicator must be connected to shooting documentation is the only way to
the loop wiring. Sometimes the communicator can determine if a barrier is performing correctly and
not "see" the device and troubleshooting steps the procedure(s) must be followed correctly to
must be taken to establish communications. determine if any error measurements are in the
Potential causes of a communications failure barrier.
generally exist with the loop wiring. In the loop
wiring there are several possible explanations why b) Consistent High Output
a device is not communicating . There may not be
the 250 ohms minimal loop resistance present. Once communications are established the
There must be a minimum of 17 volts present for
the communicator to operate . Measure the loop
trouble spots may be isolated and diagnosed.
Suppose the signal of a device is consistently
-
voltage to see if possible shorts and/or open
circuits are preventing a continuous operating
voltage. Multiple ground points could be inducing
loop currents that effect the signal between the
communicator and the smart device. Also verify
higher than it is supposed to be. Of course the
calibration should be verified first and if errors
still exist proceed to the following. Check for
restrictions at the primary element such as
-
that the device you are trying to communicate with
is a smart device. You will not be the first
&WARNING
....
troubleshooter who has written a device inspection Explosions can result In death or serious Injury. Do not
make connections to the serial port or NICad recharger jack
procedure calling for a smart device maintenance in an explosive atmosphere.
on a dumb device. A lot of related field wiring
Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance III
• Expected Signal
Actual Signal
Offset
Offset
-""
b"X"p~cted Signal
. /
Actual Signal
TIME
TIME
-..
ex ected response
Transmitter With chart~d res~nse ~~~i:enl unt\e'r-osi'bn.al .
~~~\~Ille~~onse VS. e'kllected tes\l~nse at a Itansmitter under IDSl'eCtlOn.
~~ t ,\l.\S ect'\0n. COn'>\,\et\\ \)"N~eH_~~'&~.a\•...._ - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
_
112 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More
The loop wiring should be verified as is not always the case . A power supply will
being correct by checking the following. The normally be current-limited which means that the
working voltage range should be checked. power supply will not be able to output enough
Multiple ground points should be eliminated. current to satisfy the requirements of all of the
Check the loop impedance to see if the loop supplied devices. By recalling Ohm's law and
impedance is too high and limits output signal. related Kirchoffs laws we know that only the loop
An often overlooked troubles pot is power source with the most resistance will be affected first and
overloauing. An overloaded power source can not then others will follow as the load is increased.
supply adequate current to all of the devices This not always the case but it is good to
connected to it. A power supply's total mill i-amp remember as a possibility.
output should be compared to the total of all In addition a device that is outputting a low
devices connected to the source. A common signal (or no signal) should be checked for the
mistake is to assume that if a power supply is polarity at all termination points . An insulation
overloaded that all devices will be affected. This test of the signal conductors should be performed
-
Rosem ount M ocJeJ U 5 ) S
marc Tran .
smllCer exploded .
VIew.
r Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance 113
r &WARNING
d) Other Error Modes
etc. check the process tubing for leaks, blockages. power supply(s) have been measured and the
Verify that all blocking/isolating valves are fully transmitter electronics has been checked
open. Bleed all of the process tubing (if allowed) (connected), the problem may exist within the
to ensure that gases are not present in the tubing. sensing element of the device. Sometimes a visible
Ensure that the density/specific gravity of the fluid leak in a sensor is detectable and sometimes it is
has not changed. Clean out any sediment that may not. Regardless the sensor is not repairable while
have accumulated in the process flanges/taps. it is in service and the device must be removed to
The power supply output should be disassemble and repair if possible (to be covered
checked to verify the voltage at the device is in the later).
operating range. The internal electronics of the
transmitter depends upon an established range for b) Consistent Low Output
a working voltage. Any voltage outside that range
and the transmitter may continue to operate but The same points of interest for a high
with faulty readings and/or signals. output should be inspected for a low output.
The transmitter electronics can also be a Calibration should be verified first and then
source of errors even if the working voltage is troubleshooting should begin. The primary
within the working range. Clean the electronic element should be checked for restrictions.
post connectors to ensure a constant path is Verify all process tubing is in good
available and verify the transmitter response working order. Check the process's specific
agam. gravity to ensure proper calibration ranges.
Once the process tubing is checked and the Sediment and/or gases trapped in the lines could
alter signal
Electronics proportions.
Cover Blocking val ves
could prohibit the
Electronics
process from being
Housing accurately measured
if one is partially
Electronics
closed.
The loop
wiring should be
verified as being
correct by checking
the following. The
working voltage
range should be
checked. Multiple
ground points
should be
eliminated. Check
the loop impedance
to see if the loop
impedance is too
high and limits
output signal. An
often overlooked
Blank Flange
for AP and GP troublespot IS
Rosemount Conventional Model 1151 exploded view. power source
r Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance 115
r remember as a possibility .
In addition a device that is outputting a low
an intermittent error that is observed for which
there is no quickly discernable answer. Often
signal (or no signal) should be checked for the enough a field hand will refer to such an error as
r polarity at all termination points. An insulation
test of the signal conductors should be performed
a unidentifiable one. That may be the case for the
frrst time. If you are present when such an error is
r &WARNING
explosions can result In death or serious Injury. Before
to be prepared now. More data should be present
for the conventional device than the smart one.
connecting the HART Communicator In an explosive Care should be taken not to overlook perhaps the
r atmosphere. make sure the Instruments In the loop are
Installed In accordance with Intrinsically safe or
nonlncendlve field wiring practices.
greatest database for instrument errors.
Most process environments have a device
r'
later). present and any significant data that reflects
(
troubleshooting, replacement of parts, repair of
parts, and etc. should be located there. There are
r d) Other Error Modes very few errors that are actually recorded for the
\.1
116 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More
j
-,
j
i
i
j
LINEAR OUTPUT
13 Two-board Amplifier/Squaring
i
Assembly (Square Root)
14 Calibration Board (Square j
Root)
Removing the amplifier board and square root asse mbly. For
transmitters with a linear output there would only be one board the
amplifier assembly.
120 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
Aligning the zero and span screws 50 (hey are perpendicular to the board
assembl y.
J
122 Fundamentals of Instrumentation . .. and More
WJ
H ' , ,, ,,
'
oo 'PW"YiiZ"
~.:
.:.:.
_J]j __.....1[1 0
0
o 0
~ 0
Spacer Assembly
We know from our previous studies that pressure is used as the method of actuating a
the objective of the control valve is to provide a valve.
method of controlling a process in a closed loop We have studied how the valve diaphragm
design. A control valve is positioned so that a is opposed by a spring or co il of set tension, By
process flow is regulated to achieve a desired app lying a set pressure on one side of the
result. A control valve is not a device that can diaphragm the force becomes stronger than the
typically operate under its own guidance. An opposing spring and valve stem movement occurs.
actuator is used to provide the necessary force to By knowing the force opposing the diaphragm and
actuate the control valve. The actuator converts knowing the supply pressure of the diaphragm we
the signal that is received from the controller to a can calculate a valve position,
form that can be used to actuate the control valve. Sometimes it becomes necessary to verify
A control valve may not have an actuator and/or to require that a valve has reached a known
connected, A valve may be manually positioned position. This is were the use of a valve positioner
and therefore requires no automatic positioner. A comes into play,
valve may simply be an open/closed valve with no A valve positioner is used for overcoming
control position used other than fully open or fu lly the forces that oppose valve movement. It is easy
closed , Such a valve still requires an actuator to to picture a new valve that is installed into a
provide the force and signal conversion to actuate process line and how eas ily that valve is actuated
the valve, and positioned without any oppos ing forces other
A proven performer in the "type" of an than the valve is designed for. Add the factors of
actuator is the pneumatic actuator. This method of time , process erosion, corrosion of moving
conversion of signal to force has been used for components, repetitive actions, and it becomes
many years and is a proven method of actuation. easy to see that original supplied pressure will not
We have studied previously how to calculqte the move the valve the same amount as originally
working force of a pneumatic diaphragm. We installed .
know that the working force of supplied pneumatic A valve positioner is a repeat of the
flappe r/nozz le
applications we
studied earlier
but with a twist.
~ ,
~ . . •. Recall that the
lG ~ flapper nozzle
--
maintenance procedures on regulators consists of
adjusting the working pressure by turning an
adjustment screw on the regulator to the
prescribed pressure indicated by this gage . The
adjustment screw of a regulator adjusts the tension
- ... --
of the flapper of the flapper/nozzle arrangement. .......
Adjusting pressures of a regulator requires
that the pneumatic gas used should be able to vent
properly. The vent port of a regulator needs to
.... -
remain open at all times. The spring case vent
hole should also remain open.
--
Yo.
vertical or horizontal position but always check to its original posItIon. For either case the
the manufacturers specifications to eliminate a components of the actuator will not vary but rather
possible trouble spot. their mounting/connecting positions will.
Actuators do have calibrated, or have A piston type actuator is another type of
adjusted components, that have to be checked on valve actuator. A piston actuator will normally be
a regular basis: the spring adjustment, travel used where the requirements of a diaphragm
adjustment and adjustable travel/stop. actuator did not have to be or could not be met.
The spring adjustment is an adjustable The piston actuator does not have the same force
locknut (usually) that allows the actuator tension as the diaphragm but it is more compact. The
to be adjusted. This action can also affect its travel piston actuator uses levers and angles of lever
parameters . The adjustable/travel stop is related to movement to transfer and increase its operating
the travel and spring adjustments and care should force. The combined use of a lever and operating
be taken when adjusting one of the parameters that angles allows a piston type actuator to "build up"
the others are checked al so . an adequate amount of operating force.
Before any work begins on the valve Due to its construction a piston type
actuator be sure that all sources of pneumatic actuator can deliver force or torque action beyond
and/or electric power sources are removed. Be what is available with a diaphragm type actuator
sure that the actuator can not suddenly open or through its use of levers . A piston type actuator is
close. Only by blocking the process, supply usually used under high operating pressure
power, pneumatic pressure and following an conditions and extra care must be taken to ensure
established procedure can you ensure a safe work that the actuator is "locked out" before any work
area and procedure. is to be performed . A piston type actuator is a
Reducing the spring adjustment reduces the good actuator for a quarter-turn valve, that is a
0
tension or seating force of a valve . If the va lve is valve that can open/close in 90 of travel (to be
direct acting the spring tension varies the seating discussed later).
of the valve and oppositely if the valve is reverse Regardless of the actuator type used the
acting . If the spring tension is reduced on a direct adjustment parameters for springes) , tensions and
acting valve that is fail closed the valve seating stops; all are adjustments that time and usage will
when closed may not be enough to prevent change. True maintenance procedures should
leakage . If a valve is fail open the spring reference through experience which settings
adjustment may prohibit the valve from reaching shou ld be subject to the most deviation. The
a fully open state if incorrectly
adjusted .
Pneumatic va lve actuators are Piston Spring
generally either the diaphragm or the
piston type. The diaphragm actuator is
of one of two types, direct acting
(push)or reverse acting (pull).
/ Shaft
Depending upon the process operating
parameters the control valve will need
to close or open and the direct or
reverse acting actuators can provide
the means for the movement.
The direct acting actuator has
its spring tension set to oppose the
input pressure that positions the valve.
The reverse acting actuator has its Housing
spring tension set to pull a valve back Piston Type Pneumatic Actuator.
r·· Chapter 16 - Fundamentals of Valve Maintenance 129
(4) Positioners
.,
separate from the pressure that is used to force position. The positioner is adjusted such that at the
diaphragm movement. The different pressure zero signal the positioner is calling for a zero
sources allows for a positioner that is using the position. As the signal is increased the positioner
conventional pneumatic range of 3-15psi to control should be adjusted (if needed) to call for an
an alternate pressure such as a 6-3Opsi range. increase in the actuator working pressure.
To calibrate a positioner we must recall the Therefore the two variables that need to be
concepts of zero and span. A positioner is monitored are the controller's signal and the valve
calibrated by the same method as we have studied stem position.
-,
earlier, but before calibration starts all of the
relevant information has to be gathered. Signal
pressure, full or split range, supply pressure,
actuator working pressure range, valve travel and
Adjust the zero setting to allow the stem
position to remain at zero and accordingly
throughout the valve stem range. If the valve has
a linear response the valve stem position should be
., J
.,
positioner has to assume that the actuator is stem should indicate full travel when 100 % of j
adjusted as it should be within its proper working controller signal is received.
range. It is important that when setting the span
The objective with positioner calibration is for valve positions that the span adjust is not made
to establish an accurate starting point referred to to where it takes an exaggerated signal to move
as zero. The controller is manipulated to send an the valve from its furthermost point of travel.
S 0 m e
90 manufacturers
..,
80 suggest that the
70 valve travel for
ffi 80
(,)
100% should be
a:
ILl
Do 50 set at a value
J
slightly less than
i ILl
~
40
30 full range. i
~ 20 Likewise the
valve should be
o . adjusted fully
DIRECT 0 10' 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1
REVERSE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 closed when a
PERCENT OF RATED INPUT SPAN
signal slightly
greater than zero
position is
received.
There are
reverse acting
Stem position feedback linkages often includ~ a c~m, as sho~n in t~e figure at the I~ft. The positioners, and
contours of the cam can be designed to prOVide different relationships between the Input actuators
signal and valve travel. This ultimately results in a well defined relationship between the Input therefore it is
signal and control valve Cv (flOW). By selecting different cams, the system ca.n be necessary to
characterized according to special needs. For example, there may be a requirement to
increase or decrease valve response at low lifts.
obtain the proper
"specs" for each \
Positioner Characterization.
Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls assembly before ~--.
Chapter 16 - Fundamentals of Valve Maintenance 133
1m
ENOUGH TO ALLOW THE
VALVE AND GASKETS TO
the tendency of SLIP EASILY INTO PLACE
butterfly valves
to slam shut or
open these valves
remain some of GASKETS
• No process pressure
• Pipe flanges opened wide enough to allow installation of both valve and gaskets.
• Check alignment.
Installation Checklist.
Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls
138 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
Single port valves have evolved as a modern standard for controlling a broad range of fluids
under widely varying service conditions. Compared to double port designs. they are more
efficient. less costly. and easier to maintain .
Single Port Sliding Stem Control Valve.
Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls
Double port globe valves similar to this early pressure balanced design remain in use today.
Although the tortuous flow path may limit effective valve capacity. this configuration allows
the passage of solids suspended in the flow stream.
PISTON RING
SPIRAL WOUN" G',SK''' - -., CAGE
.,"" '-.
Quick opening cages provide Linear cages provide an Equal percentage cages
an inherent flow inherent characteristic which provide an inherent flow
characteristic in which there can be represented ideally characteristic in which a
is maximum flow coefficient by a straight line plot of flow given percentage change of
with minimum travel. coefficient versus percent of valve travel will produce an
rated travel. (Equal equal percentage change in
increments of travel produce the existing flow coefficient.
equal increments of change
in flow at a constant
pressure drop.)
Three Cage designs available for charac(eri zing fl ow.
Graphic courtesy of Fi sher Controls
140 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
......,
iii ==
iii
CONVENTIONAL SLANT BODY ANGlE
GLOBE BODY BODY
Globe valves present a tortuous flow path w hen compared to slant or angle designs. A
general rule for predicting relative valve capacity is that fewer turns in the flow path allow
higher capacity for a given va lve size. For example, while a common single port globe valve
(having 4 flow turns) supplies 16.5 C, per square inch of port area, an angle body (with only 1
flow turn) may have nearly twice the capacity per square inch of port area. Slant va lve design
capacity falls between the two.
Instrument tubing is the tubing that carries Improperly run impulse tubing may be a
a process variable pressure to the sensor. more significant error than a miscalibrated
Instrument tubing is sometimes called process transmitter may be. Suppose tubing was run for a
tubing, impulse tubing, and etc. The proper name differential pressure transmitter that allowed air to
is probably closer to impulse tubing than any accumulate in the tubing at the transmitter. The
other. A process change is reflected through the tubing did not have a method for gaseous detection
tubing to a sensor which measures these such as a "drain" nor was it run such as to allow
"impulses" as a process variable. draining at the transmitter. The partial change
By now you have probably figured out that equal to the amount of "Head" sensed by the high
practically all instrumentation that performs one of or low side of the differential pressure transmitter
the three major process variables (pressure, level , will be reflected by the transmitters signal.
and flow) does so through the measurement of There are times a transmitter shows a
pressure; more importantly through the pressure sudden change in a process variable and such
differential. The fourth variable, temperature, can changes are easily detectable . Tap pluggage, a
also be measured from a pressure sensor. crimped impulse tubing that becomes plugged, etc.
A change that is presented to the control system
that is fast will almost always be noticed by the
FLOW. controlling equipment, an operator, or the worker
responsible for the instrumentation.
An impulse tubing line that allows moisture
to build-up slowly will present to the system an
error that is slow to increase and therefore slow to
detect. A change in the signal of a process
variable that is slow perhaps will not be noticed
until the boundaries for a safe operating process
are approached. The change is simply not
noticeable when a person may be watching several
hundred 110 that are active and changing with the
process.
H L Often a moisture build-up in impulse
tubing does not add nor change a process variable
Typical tubing inslallalion with the use of isolalion or block but rather makes the measurement of the process
valves localed at the laps. A manifold for transformer variable sluggish. The moisture in the tubing acts
isolation is sometimes used.
as a weight that must be moved to allow the
impulse to travel the length of the tubing. This
Impulse tubing is the tubing run which creates a transmitter signal that varies as a
connects the transmitter sensor to the point of pendulum does; initial movement then there are
process measurement. Process tubing therefore following measurements that appear to swing back
provides the path for the process variable to reach and forth around the actual process variable .
the measurements sensor. An incorrect path, Some impulse tubing is designed for fill
mounting, or support for impulse tubing can fluids to be present in the "legs" of the impulse
generate an error in the measurement of the tubing. This impulse tubing is sometimes referred
process variable just as surely as a faulty or to as wet leg tubing,or filled leg tubing. Filled leg
miscalibrated transmitter can . or wet leg tubing contains fluids in the process
142 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More
signal. I
Some processes call for special tubing. I I mAde
Corrosive chemical reactions may necessitate the I I
installation of certain alloy tubing for certain I I
processes . The specifications for the device I I
~~---------~--1-4
I
installed (called a spec sheet) should reflect the ·610 -110 o
installation of special alloys if called for.
These are some of the errors that
instrument tubing can introduce. We will discuss An example problem calcul anng the range of the level
now the general guidelines that are for running transmitter (LT) while allowing for mounting location
(suppresion) and the use of a wet leg (Z) of a different
impulse tubing.
specific gravi ty than the process variable.
A tubing installation that is installed
accurately will have accurate bends resulting from
accurate measurements . All tubing installations are tubing. Tubing benders have a mark, which
to be done in a neat and workmanlike manner. signifies the edge of radius, at the centerline of the
Tubing is run exactly into fittings and the entry to tubing.
tubing terminations must be straight. The installer When your measurement is taken , use a
should be aware that he is responsible for the sharp pencil to indicate the measurement point. It
tubing run he is to install. is sometimes necessary to use a ferrule to mark
When measuring for a tubing bend it is around the tubing in a precise plane. Never use a
helpful to measure along the centerline of the sharp penetrating object to mark on tubing. The
Chapter 17 - Fundamentals of Instrument Tubing 143
r
Documentation
r The documentation used by a field will insure the proper installation of the device.
about the device the spec sheet is written for. Spec identifying method for records, accountants,
sheets are generally sorted by Tag Numbers and material handlers and for the field technician. By
are usually located in a pennanent records library. having items with the same Tag Number shown on
Spec sheets serve as a pennanent record of the same Loop Sheet, a simple method of data
devices that are in use or have been in use. The keeping is available to all involved.
process conditions, calibration ranges, Tag For the field worker the Loop Sheet shows
number(s), transmitter type, control functions and what devices are likely to be affected, where the
others are included on the spec sheet. Engineering device is located, the power requirements of that
considers spec sheets to be the primary source of device, the controlling method for that device, the
instrument information when ordering, designing, intermediate wiring, junction boxes, terminal
controlling, etc., a process. strips, and the list goes on.
Purchasing departments often refer to the For jobs that have pneumatic
spec sheets to determine the number of devices on instrumentation involved their is a loop sheet also.
hand compared to the average failure rate to get a Instruments with Tag numbers are shown along
rough idea on the estimated repair costs. Spec with their hook-up details.
sheets provide the easy path for interaction
between the engineering and front office
personnel.
Loop Sheets are printed in a variety of
sizes, but the majority is on 11 x 17 (B) size
drawing paper. The information that is to be .,
j
.,
Loop Sheets fill in the gaps where associated drawings should
indicate new work or changes in old work.
Loop sheets are arguably the document that The Loop Sheet is also used during start-up
will receive the most use by installers,
troubleshooters and maintenance personnel of
instrumentation. An instrument Loop Sheet is as
and loop checking procedures. Loop checking
procedures follow the path of wiring that is
indicated by a loop sheet until all possible error .,
the name would imply; a loop sheet that depicts
the actual schematic wiring diagram of the field
wiring.
The current path on a loop sheet can be
points are confmned as being error free.
The simple example of a Loop Sheet with
a transmitter and a controller can be checked by
forcing a signal on the pair of wires that are
.,
traced from beginning to end until it traverses a
complete loop. Each device that will function
within that wiring loop will be depicted. The
connected to a transmitter and then monitoring the
respons~ of the controller to verify that the
associated wiring is correctly installed along with
-r
simplest loop sheet will be one that has a the controllers configuration limits. ~
transmitter and controller on it and nothing else. In other words, a 4-20mA signal is applied
More complicated loop sheets will have to the pair of wires to the controller and then the
recorders, alarms, pilot lights, gages, control signal strength is adjusted. The signal will be read
valves, and etc. The common point to a single in by the controller and it should be compared to
loop sheet is that the devices on each sheet are the sending signal strength to verify proper
generally categorized by instrument Tag Number. working order.
Recall that the Tag Number is used as an A Loop Sheet often has calibration data on
i
Chapter 18 - Documentation 147
it such as calibration range and any associated are mounted on the panel is often shown on a
setpoints . It is critical that on such drawings that sequence of drawings that· are called panel
a field worker be aware of the hierarchy of the drawings. Like other drawings a hierarchy must
drawing system at the site helshe is working in. be established in the area you are working. There
For most locations a specification sheet will have will be conflicts between panel drawings and Loop
what is considered superior data on it. Therefore Sheets, wiring diagrams, plot plans, and even
if a Loop Sheet specifies a calibration range and P&ID's . The important thing is to realize that the
the Spec Sheet does not agree, the Spec Sheet will a panel drawing contains only information that is
be taken as being correct. If a conflict exists pertaining to that panel and nothing else. Conflicts
between two forms of documentation the worker within that panel are to be documented only on
is to call attention to it before any work is done . that drawing, but conflicts with other drawings
A Loop Sheet may have incorrect data on shall be established by the site you are working in.
it pertaining to calibration ranges, setpoints, etc. Panel drawings show where devices are
and the filed worker must be aware of possible mounted and the associated wiring for that panel
conflicts before helshe starts. There have been only. Often panels are manufactured as separate
numerous accounts of industrial shutdowns due to pieces of equipment that are brought to the job-site
incorrect data on Loop Sheets that was taken for when completely finished. The drawing package
granted to be correct when the hierarchy of the that accompanies such a panel must contain within
documentation system stated that the specification itself all necessary information for understanding
sheets had precedence over Loop Sheets. what is the function of every device on the panel.
Therefore it is easy to see that if the only
drawings that are used for as-builts are the Loop Plot Plans
Sheets then extra care must be taken to ensure that
the proper updates of documentation is carried out We are used to plot plans in the electrical
as far as necessary to insure that all documentation industry showing us where pieces of equipment
is updated accordingly. are located and their relationship to others.
An instrument plot plan is no different.
Panel Drawings Plot Plans show associated instruments that are to
be categorized by Tag Number. Tag Numbers will
Panel drawings are generally a simpler be shown on drawings that will reflect instruments
approach to layouts of monitoring, recording, and in reference to where they will be located .
transmitting equipment. Panels are mounting A Plot Plan is a handy tool for figuring out
points of availability for devices to be mounted so where a device is to be installed by area only.
that the devices are accessible and observable to Elevation details, Installation details, Loop Wiring
operators andlor instrument workers. An methods, and etc. are not shown on Plot Plans.
instrument panel can have a variety of forms and Once the area of a device is known you must refer
concepts but the panel drawings generally are the to other documentation to receive more details.
same. There is one other consideration that must
Panel drawings show first of all where be remembered when using Plot Plans. Some
devices are located that are mounted on the panel. engineering companies only show on plot plans
The devices are given locations along lines to those devices that have both piping and electrical
allow for the ease of installations and for connections . Devices such as a roto-meter, which
maintenance procedures that will come later. is a type of flow meter that is locally monitored ,
An "Elevation" view is one form of will only show up on installation details and
information that is contained on a panel drawing. process diagrams, but not Plot Plans.
Another form is to show what is behind the panel. In todays environment there is often two
The interior wiring of all the devices that sets of plot plans. One showing all devices with
148 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and More ... .j
el~ctriCa1 connections and one showing devices .j
"~ook" how it is in the field. It is relatively easy to
WIth associated piping or pneumatic connections. pIck out a pump or a burner from the P&ID but
Care must be taken not to create any conflicts on the instrumentation may present a slightly diff;rent
usi~g such drawings for often, as we now know,
deVIces have both electrical and pneumatic
connections and will be shown on two drawings.
If a conflict with the two arises then the site you
problem.
With instrumentation the symbology
becomes much more critical. Instrument devices
are shown by their appropriate symbol and must
.,
are working in must establish hierarchy since there be recognized by the installer for interpretation.
is no standard for Plot Plans. Again devices are categorized by their respective
'j
Tag Numbers.
P&ID's
documentation of control systems. to the process. If a process does not respond how
P&ID's contain information about the it should than the P&ID can often provide a hint to
the underlying problem.
process, piping, relevant pieces of equipment,
.1
control and monitoring instrumentation, process
reactions, temperatures, and about any thing else
For todays control systems the controller
that is shown on the P&ID will be shown as a
"black box". The reason for this is that electronic
.,
,.,
that could be considered relevant to the process
and/or control of the process. control methods and/or logic is not to be shown on
Such an excessive amount of information the drawing to eliminate control confusion.
that is packed into such a relatively small drawing Electronic and therefore microprocessor
must employ the use of symbols to maintain order control methods are a separate controlling method
among such limited space. that is not to be confused with the process. Often J
P&ID's ofte~ are split into two separate enough several control schemes may be run with
drawings. One which shows the mechahlcal
relationships to the process and another which
each using the same instrumentation located on the
same pieces of equipment to make different
i
shows the electrical relationship. When two products by only changing the "logic" of the
drawings are used it is urged for the drawings to process.
be combined into one drawing, where it is Some P&ID's depict setpoints and
.,
possible, to save future conflicts. transmitter ranges, but these are the exception
P&ID's try to expose a pictorial rather than the norm. When a conflict does occur
representation of the process that is being between the P&ID and any other source of
represented. Often several P&ID's are needed to documentation the P&ID usually has authority, but
fully picture an entire process. It is easy to picture care should always be taken to follow the proper
the number ofP&ID's that are needed to depict an
entire industrial plant will number in the
documentation hierarchy for the location you are
working in.
i
hundreds. The volume of P&ID's that must be
kept up to date and reviewed requires a consistent
approach to representation.
Elevations with respect to different pieces
of equipment are attempted to be related. The
.,
i
-,
.,
process line sizes are attempted to represent
magnitude of flow. In general the physical
machinery, vessels, piping, etc. used is made to
Chapter 18 - Documentation 149
An example of a differential pressure transmitter's specification sheet that is used for records.
".
INSTRUMENT SPECIFICATIONS
DIFF-PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS
RECORDER INDICATOR
c2// d6
8 NO. PTS. RECORD ING,";/,f'- INDICATING ACCESSORI ES
9 CHART TYPE, .#'#-12"
CIRCULAR OTHER 31 FILTER & REGULATOR:
10 CHART RANGE, ,-<//1- NUMBER 32 AIR SUPPLY GUAGliS, / '
I I CHART SPEED, /Y"/I- DRIVE 33 LOCAL INDICATOR: V /h 61'f1l
12 IN DI CATOR SIZE AND TYPE, ~ 34 CHARTS & INKSET:
13 IN DICATOR RANGE/O ""'NUMBER 35 INTEGRATOR:
CONTROLLER 36 ELECTRICAL SWITCH:
14 TYPE, PNEUMATIC ELECTRIC 37 OTHER:
15 CONTROL MODES , PROP. %, RATE NOTES,
AUTO RESET
OTHER
M SET
:Z:;;;M!k" ~)c,-.1 J ?J7C'",gII'(!..
16
17
OUTPUT, 3- 15 PSI - rnA OTI
ON MEASUREMENT INCR .. ~:~,t/;;rt',J~/I~lfd/e.. 6c/c?5
18
OUTPUT INCRE
AUTO-MAN S
DE
H, AUTO TRACK IN
ES
N. BAL. (y/~t~ t If"It1/.. iJ
(;
19 SET POI
UAL,
DJUSTMENT,
LOCAL REMOTE
AUTO SET 3- 15PSI 4-20rnA OTHER
V(;r?t!- 6) - /.J 7. 7 1
%0
TRANSM ITTER
20 TYPE, PNEUMATIC LECT RIC::>
21 OUTPUT, 3-15PS I Q,20rnA )OTHER
STATIC PRESSURE OR RECEIVER ELEMENT
22 TYPE, MATERIAL, I
23 RANGE, /"j"
/eo
if/I J5
FOR OUTLINE DIMENSIONS SEE, CATALOG CERTIFIED PRINT MFR. MOD . NO.
150 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and More ...
J
REV QUANTITY TAG. NO. DIFFRANGE NRM,L MAXSTATI MEAS. INC. OIP SERVICE NOTES j
---- --
T"\
.,
.,
.,
.,
i_'
.,
i
.,
-r Chapter 18 - The Future of Instrumentation and Controls 151
The future of instrumentation only has one installed and connected along these same
r' .
these devices are installed, calibrated, hooked-up, commercial building first. Imagine a building in
I
I
and tested. which every device that is in it is a smart device.
It is virtually guaranteed that the These smart devices are in effect computers
r
I
i
procedures, record keeping and the list goes on.
To fully picture the magnitude of what is
reach her office. The HVAC system goes into an
occupied mode only for the area she is in. The
.,
j
what such systems are capable of for Jane alone. gathered for our workforce and contractors. For a
Now apply the same building with hundreds or committed contractor and for a skilled workforce
even thousands of employees and look at the LON systems are not a problem. Yes there will be
events that are possible. some errors in the beginning. Yes there will be
Such systems are coming in the future, but incorrect configurations of the networks and yes
they are available today. Local Operating there will not be a comfortable feeling for LON j
Networks (LON) are networks that are created to systems until several have been completed; which
satisfy the criteria of networking devices together. brings us to another point.
Some manufacturers, such as Echelon, have Suppose that a multi-floored commercial i
embraced this concept of installing systems. LON office building is installed using LON technology.
systems have been installed in various buildings Who do you think will receive the maintenance on j
and arraignments and the success rate has far such a building? Probably the contractor who
outweighed the failure rate of these networked installed it for two reasons. The contractor knows
systems. the network and he has the workforce to maintain
How does Local Operating Networks affect it since it was installed by his company.
the electrician? LON systems will replace a This requires an effort on the part of both
substantial amount of working control systems as groups. The commitment by contractors to go
we know them today. Yes, the existing type of after the work and the workforce being committed
control systems will remain for awhile but their to learning the configuration of and how to install i
existence will reduce over the years. A worker the systems.
that limits his/her areas of work to control systems
other than LON systems will find a reduced
demand for his/her skills.
Commercial applications of LON systems
is only the beginning. After the commercial
industry has shown the validity of such systems .,
~1
,
r",'
' possibilities we have discussed here.
Also, the cheaper cost of future additions
installer must become familiar with the concepts
of digital networking. Local Area Networks
(LANs) are being installed today to enable
r and!orchanges to the existing network need to be
considered. Suppose you had a conventional wired computer systems to utilize information that is
stored on the "network". Control systems of the
office building and the tenants of one floor moved
rL
out and another took their place. We are familiar future will utilize the same concept. Tele-
communication wiring methods will be the method
with the work involved to change just the lighting
r'
f
arraignments plus HV AC, security, and etc. Now
with the same building installed with LO N
of choice and necessity to integrate smart control
systems.
Also in industrial applications there is a
systems what would the expense be with the same
r conditions?
LON systems allow for the ease of
method that is used to network devices and it is
called "Fieldbus" . Fieldbus is a wIfing
r',':i
configuration for additions and! or changes to the
network. It is conceivable for the work that could
arrangement not unlike Rosemount's mutidropped
system. Like Rosemount's Hart Protocol, Fieldbus
number in the several tens of thousands of dollars also uses a digital communication language. The
r to replaced by a software program which can
make the same changes in about a day.
standard for Fieldbus is still in debate for the
protocol to be used. But, let it be understood that
r',
an ever increasing pace.
For today we can be content with our
"
:
wiring methods and probably we will not see a
great impact for a few years. For those whom
venture into LON systems early the rewards will
be large, but to succeed skill will have to be
r gained.
Companies that exalt LON systems such as
Echelon may change names, may be purchased by
r rivals, may take a direction that the market will
not accept. The point is that the technology is here
r to stay. How it is used may change. It also brings
us to another interesting parallel.
The fundamentals of Local Operating
Networks will have to be understood before the
installation begins.
-,
NOTES
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GLOSSARY i
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE-
Gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
AMBIENT CONDITIONS-
Conditions around the device examined
i
~- -- .. -- .--'
ACCEssmLE- AMPERE- ~.
A term to a device or function 'that can be A unit used to defme the rate of current flow
used or be seen by an operator for the (I amp=1 coulomb per second). j
purpose of performing contro(actions. -
AMPLIFICATION-
ACCURACY-
Conformity to an indicated, standard, or true
value, usually expressed as a percentage (of
span, reading, or upper range value)
The dimension less ratio of output/input in a
device intended by design to have this ratio
greater than unity.
.,
j
r ANALOG SIMULATOR-
An electronic, pneumatic or mechanical
deviation of this measured value from a
selected reference.
r device that solves problems by simulation of
the physical system under study using AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM-
r ANALOG-TO
(AlD)-
DIGITAL CONVERTER
associated equipment connected in closed
loops with one or more processes.
ANEMOMETER-
which adjusts the proportional bandwidth
with respect to the set point to compensate
r An instrument for measuring
indicating the velocity of air flow.
and/or for droop in the circuit, i.e., adjusts a
controlled process to a set point after the
system stabilizes.
L ANSI-
American National Standards Institute.
r- ASCll-
AUTOMATION-
The act or method of making a processing or
manufacturing system without the necessary
American Standard Code for Information
L Interchange. A seven or eight bit code used
operator intervention.
to represent alphanumeric characters.
r ASSIGNABLE- ::
BACK GROUND NOISE-
The total noise floor from all sources of
interference in a measurement system,
L A term applied to a feature permitting the
channeling (or directing) of a signal from one independent of the presence of a data signal.
device to another without the need for
L switching, patching, or wiring changes. BACKUP-
A system, device, file or facility that can be
r ATTENUATION-
A decrease in signal magnitude-- The
used as an alternative in case of loss of data.
~C --
reciprocal of GAIN.
AUTO-MANUAL STATION-
BALLOON-
Synonym for bubble.
U/ I f
"""
\
BEHIND THE PANEL-
A term applied to a location that is within an
area that contains (1) The Instrument Panel,
(2) its associated rack-mounted hardware, or
straight line segments of a plotted curve.
BTU-
British Thermal Unit. The quantity of
thermal energy required to raise one pound
.,
(3) is enclosed within the panel. of water one degree F, at its maximum
density (lBTU = 0.293 watt-hours = 252
j
BETA RATIO-
The ratio of the diameter of a pipeline
calories).
-,
constriction to the unconstricted pipe BUBBLE-
diameter. The circular symbol used to denote and i
identify the purpose of an instrument or
BINARY-
A term applied to a signal or device that has
function. It may contain a tag number.
i
only two discrete positions or states (onloff). BUFFER- ~1
CONDUCTANCE-
The measure of the ability of a solution to
CONTROL SYSTEM-
A system in which deliberate guidance or
manipulation is used to achieve a prescribed
value of variable.
.,
j
-,
CONTROL ACCURACY-
The degree of correspondence between the
controlled variable and the desired value after
stability has been achieved.
CONTROLLING MEANS-
The elements in a control system that
contribute to the required corrective action .
CONVERTER-
.,
CONTROL LOOP- A device that receives information in one
Starts at the process in the form of a form of an instrument signal and transmits an
measurement or variable, is monitored, and output signal in another form.
returns to the process in the form of a
manipulated variable or "valve position" CORIOLIS FORCE- j
being controlled by some means. A result of centripetal force on a mass
-,
.,
moving with a velocity radially outward in a
CONTROL MODE- rotating plane.
The output form or type of control action
used by a controller to perform control CPS-
functions, i.e., on/off, time proportioning,
PID.
CONTROL POINT-
Cycles per second; the rate or the number of
periodic events in one second.
CPU-
",
i
The value at which the controlled system or Central Processing Unit. The portion of a
process settles out or stabilizes. It mayor computer that decodes the instructions,
may not agree with the set point applied to performs the actual computations, and keeps
the controller. order in the execution of programs.
~ J
r Glossary 165
·r CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA-
With reference to circular pipe used for flow
DERIVATIVE ACTION-
Control action in which the rate of change of
r routing, the cross-sectional area is found by
the equation:
the error signal determines the amplItude of
the corrective action applied. It is calibrated
r A=1txr2
where 1t = 3.14 and r= inside diameter/2.
in time units. When subjected to a ramp
change, the derivative output precedes the
r CYCLING-
straight proportional action by this time.
L DATA BASE-
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE-
The difference in static pressure between two
r A large amount of data stored in a well
organized manner.
identical pressure taps at the same elevation
located in two different locations in a
primary device.
L DEAD BAND-
The change through which the input to an DIGITAL-
r instrument can be varied without initiating
instrument response.
A term applied to a signal or device that uses
binary digits to represent continuous values
.r DEBUG-
To find and correct mistakes in a program.
DIGITAL OUTPUT-
An output signal which represents the size of
an input in the form of a series of discrete
r DENSITY-
quantities.
Glossary 167
r FLOW·
dissipation, when fluid is moving through a
pipe. Friction results when a moving fluid
Travel of liquids or gases in response to a comes into contact with the pipe walls. The
r force (gravity or pressure). viscosity and the fluid motion result in heat
energy which must take away the total
r FLOW METER-
A device used for measuring the flow or
energy of the moving fluid.
r FLOW RATE-
The actual speed or velocity of fluid
device.
r:- FREQUENCY-
and input must be expressed in the same
units, making gain a pure (dimension less)
Occurrence of a periodic function ( with time number.
r as the independent variable), generally
specified as a certain number of cycles per GAIN, LOOP-
r unit time. The combined output/input magnitude ratios
of all the individual loop components
r FREQUENCY CORNER-
That frequency in the Bode diagram indicated
multiplied to obtain the overall gain.
HEAT TRANSFER-
The process of thermal energy flowing from
a body of high energy to a body of low
.,
The output/input amplitude ratio of a energy. i
component or system as frequency
approaches zero. Used to denote the amount HOST- i
of "Gain" in milliamps per input change. The primary or controlling computer in a
multiple part system. i\
GPH-
Volumetric flow rate in gallons per hour. HUNTING-
Oscillation or cycling that may be of
appreciable amplitude caused by the system's .,
.,
GPM-
Volumetric flow rate in gallons per minute. persistent effort to achieve a prescribed level
of control.
HANDLER-
A small program that handles data flow to HYSTE~SIS-
and from specific pieces of hardware for use
by the other software.
Difference between upscale and downscale
results in instrument response when subjected
i
to the same input approached from opposite
directions.
j
HARDCOPY-
Output in a· permanent form (usually a
printout) rather than in temporary form, as ICON- i
A graphical functional symbol of display. A
on disk or display terminal.
graphic representation of a function or -,. j "
HEAD PRESSURE-
The total opposition to current flow (resistive
plus reactive).
INPUT-
.,
Expression of pressure in terms of the height Incoming signal to measuring instrument,
of fluid. control units, or system.
...., 1
Glossary 169
r MEAN-
temperature and severe duty applications.
r MEASUREMENT-
NEMA-4-
A standard from the National Electrical
NEMA -12-
A standard from the National Electrical OPERATING SYSTEM-
Manufacturers Association, which defmes A collection of programs that controls the
enclosures with protection against dirt, overall operation of the computer and
splashes with non-corrosive liquids, and salt performs such tasks as assigning places in
spray. memory to programs and data, processing J
interrupts, scheduling jobs and controlling
NICHOLS DIAGRAM (NICHOLS CHART)- the overall input/output of the system. j
A plot of magnitude and phase contours of
OPTIMUM-
return-transfer function referred to ordinates
of logarithmic loop gain and abscissae of
The highest obtainable proficiency of control; .1
for example, supply equals demand, and
loop phase angel. offset has been reduced to a minimum j
(hopefully zero).
NOISE-
Unwanted signal components that obscure the ORIFICE FLANGE- j
genuine signal information that is being
sought (electrical interference ).
A circular bolted pipe flange designed to
accept an orifice plate for flow measurement.
Orifice flanges are usually thicker than
..,
.
O.D.-
Outside Diameter.
differential pressure measurements).
ORIFICE PLATE-
A circular plate with an outSide diameter
.,
j
.,
slightly smaller than the associated orifice
OFF-LINE- flange to allow clearance for flange bolts. i
(1) Pertaining to equipment or programs not The plate has a hole in the middle of set
under control of the computer. (2) Pertaining
to a computer that is not actively monitoring
or controlling a process.
diameter so that when a fluid moves through
it a differential pressure results that can be
measured. Orifice plates are also equipped
with a TAG as well as stamped to show the
direction of fluid flow.
.,
OFFSET-
The difference between what we get and
what we want--the difference between the OSCILLOGRAPH RECORDER-
pont at which the process stabilizes and the A device that makes a high-speed record or
instruction introduced into the controller by electrical variations with respect to time; for
the set point. example, an ordinary recorder might have a
chart speed of 3/4 inch per hour while an .J
ON-LINE- oscillograph could have a chart speed of 3/4
(1) Pertaining to equipment or programs
under control of the computer. (2) Pertaining
inch per second or faster. i
to a computer that is actively monitoring or
OUTPUT-
controlling a process or operation.
The signal provided by an instrument; for
OPEN LOOP- example, the signal that the controller
Control without feedback; for example, an delivers to the valve operator is the controller
automatic washer. output.
r Glossary 173
r OVERDAMPED-
Damped so that overshoot cannot occur.
PID-
Proportional, Integral, Derivative. A three
r OVERSHOOT-
mode control action where the controller has
time proportioning, integral (auto reset), and
derivative rate action.
The persistent effort of the control system to
L reach the desired level, which frequently
PILOT LIGHT-
r results in going beyond (overshooting) the
mark.
A light that indicates which of a number of
normal conditions of a system or device
r PANEL-
A structure that has a group of instruments
exists.
PIXEL-
r mounted on it, houses an operator-process
interface, and is chosen to have an unique
Picture element. Definable locations on a
display screen that are used to form images
r PANEL-MOUNTED-
A term applied to an instrument that is PORT-
A signal input ( access ) or output point on a
mounted on a panel or console and is
r accessible for an operators normal use. computer.
r PARALLAX-
An optical illusion which occurs in analog
POTENTIOMETER-
1. A variable resistor often used to control a
circuit. 2. A balancing bridge used to
r meters and causes reading errors. It occurs
when the viewing eye is not in the same
measure voltage.
r PERIPHERAL-
A device that is external to the CPU and
supplies power to the rest of the circuit or
system.
r PHASE-
temperature coefficients.
-r
174 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More i
PRO CESS-
The variable for which supply and demand
Control action in which there is a fixed gain
or attenuation between output and input.
.-,
must be balanced-the system under control,
excluding the equipment that does the PROTECTION HEAD- j
controlling. An enclosure usually made out of metal at
PROCESS METER-
the end of a heater or probe where "1
connections are made.
A panel meter with sizable zero and span
adjustment capabilities which can be scaled PROTECTION TUBE- i
for readout in engineering units for signals A metal or ceramic tube, closed at one end
such as 4-20mA, 10-50mA, 1-5vDC. into which a temperature sensor is inserted. i
The tube protects the sensor from the
PROCESS V ARIABLE-
.,
i
medium into which it is inserted.
Any variable property of a process. The part
of the process that changes and therefore PROTOCOL-
needs to be controlled. A formal definition that describes how data is
to be exchanged.
PRO GRAM- j
A series of instructions that logically solve PSIA-
given problems and manipulate data. Pounds Per Square Inch Absolute. Pressure
referenced to a vacuum.
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONT-
ROLLER-
A controller, usually with multiple inputs and
outputs, that contains an alterable program.
PSID-
Pounds Per Square Inch Differential.
Pressure difference between two points. .,
i
PROM- PSIG-
Programmable Read-Only Memory. A Pounds Per Square Inch Gage. Pressure i
semiconductor whose contents cannot be referenced to ambient air pressure.
changed by the computer after it has been i
programmed. PSIS·
PROOF PRESSURE-
The specified pressure which may be applied
Pounds Per Square Inch Standard. Pressure
referenced to a standard atmosphere.
.,
to the sensing element of a transducer
without causing a permanent change in the
RAMP-
An increase or decrease of the variable at a .,
output characteristics.
PROPORTIONAL BAND-
the reciprocal of gain expressed as a
constant rate of change.
RANGE- RELAY-
Those values over which a transmitter IS A device whose function is to pass on
intended to measure. information in an unchanged form or in some
modified form.
RANKINE (DEG. R)-
An absolute temperature scale based upon the REPEAT ABILITY-
Farenheight scale with 180 degrees between The ability of a transmitter to reproduce
the ice point and boiling point of water. output readings when the same measured
(459.67° R = 0 ° F) value is applied to it consecutively, under the
same conditions, and in the same direction.
RATE ACTION- Repeatability is expressed as the maximum
That portion of controller output that is difference between two readings .
proportional to the rate of change of input.
See Derivative action. REPRODUCIBILITY-
The exactness with which a measurement or
REACTION CURVE- other condition can be duplicated over time.
In process control, a reaction curve is
obtained by applying a step change (either in RESET ACTION-
load or set point) and plotting the response of See INTEGRAL CONTROL ACTION
the controlled variable with respect to time .
RESET TIME-
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)- See INTEGRAL TIME.
Memory that contains fixed data. The
computer can read the data but cannot change RESET WINDUP-
the data in any way. See INTEGRAL WINDUP
RESPONSE-
transmits the signal.
-,
Reaction to a forcing function applied to the SELF HEATING-
input. The variation in measured variables
Internal heating of a transducer as a result of
power dissipation.
i
that occurs as the result of step sinusoidal,
ram, or other kind of input.
SELF-REGULATION-
j
RESPONSE TIME (TIME CONSTANT)- The ability of an open-loop process or other
The time required by a sensor to reach
63.2 % of a step change under a specified set
device to settle out (stabilize) at some new i
operating plant after a load change has taken
.,
of conditions. Five time constants are place. j
required for the sensor to stabilize at 100 %
of the step change value. SENSING ELEMENT-
REYNOLDS NUMBER-
The part of a transducer which reacts directly
in response to the input.
,
The ratio of inertial and viscous forces in a
fluid defined by the formula:
VD
SENSITIVITY-
The minimum change in an input signal to
which an instrument can respond.
.,
Re =px
SENSOR-
That part of a loop or instrument which first
-,
senses the value of a process variable. The
where p = Density of fluid, p, (mu)
=Viscosity in centipoise (CP), V = Velocity, sensor is also known as a detector or primary 1
and D = Inside diameter of pipe. element.
I
(NOTE: This is the basic Reynolds Number SERVO TECHNIQUES-
equation. This equation will yield the same
results as the equation presented in Chapter
4 of the text.)
The mathematical and graphical methods
devised to analyze and optimize the behavior
of control systems. .,
1
ROUTINE-
A small program used by many other
SET POINT-
the desired value where the process should be
maintained.
..,
programs to perform a specific task.
~-
SHARED CONTROLLER- c
RTD-
Resistance Temperature Detector. A controller containing preprogrammed
algorithms that are usually accessible, j
SCAN- configurable, and assignable. Permits a
To sample, in a predetermined manner, each
of a number of variables intermittently.
number of process variables to be controlled
by a single device.
-r
----
r Glossary 177
·r SHARED DISPLAY-
The operator interface device (usually a
mass of water 1 deg.
STABILITY-
r video screen) used to display process control
information from a number of sources at the
That desirable condition in which input and
output are in balance and will remain so
r- command of the operator. unless subjected to an external stimulus.
r SIGNAL-
Information in the form of a pneumatic
STATIC BEHAVIOR-
Behavior which is either not a function of
pressure, and electric current or mechanical time or which takes place over a sufficient
r position that carries information from one length of time that dynamic changes become
control loop component to another. of minor importance.
~.
SOFTWARE- STATIC PRESSURE-
r The collection of programs and routines
associated with a computer.
Pressure of a fluid whether in motion or at
rest. It can be sensed in a small hole drilled
~
perpendicular to and flush with the flow
SPAN- boundaries so as not to disturb the flow
r SPECIFIC GRAVITY-
STRAIN GAGE-
A measuring element for converting force,
r The ratio of mass of any material to the mass
of the same volume of water at 4 0 c.
pressure, tension, etc., into an electrical
signal.
-. r
~,
178 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More j
SUPPRESSION- example, CRT's, typewriters teletypes with j
lowering the output caused by an additional keyboard input, or telephone modems.
or unwanted pressure on the high side of a
DP cell. The term is normally used for a TEST POINT- i
condition that has the 4mA output high when A process connection in which no instrument
there is 0 % level. is permanently connected, but which is i
intended for the temporary or intermittent
connection of an instrument.
SURGE CURRENT- i
A current of a short duration that occurs THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY-
when capacitive power is first applied to The property of a material to conduct heat in j
capacitive loads or temperature dependent the form of thermal energy.
resistive loads. Usually not lasting more than
several cycles. THERMAL EXPANSION-
i
An increase in size due to an increase in
SWITCH- temperature expressed in units of an increase i
A device that connects, disconnects, selects, in length or increase in size per degree.
or transfers one or more circuits and is not j
designated as a controller, a relay, or control THERMOCOUPLE-
.,
A device constructed of two dissimilar metals
valve.
that generates a small voltage as a function of
temperature difference between a measuring
SYNTAX- and reference junction. The voltage can be
The rules governing the structure of a measured and its magnitude used as' a
language. measure of the temperature in question.
i
SYSTEM- THERMOWELL-
Generally refers to all control components, A closed end tube designed to protect
including process, measurements, controller, temperature sensors (thermocouples) from
operator, and valves, along with any other harsh environments.
additional equipment that may contribute to
its operation. TIME CONSTANT-
The product of resistance x capacitance (t =
RC), which becomes the time required for of
TAG NUMBER- a first-order system to reach 63.2 percent of
alpha-numeric sequence which identifies a a total change when forced by a step. In so-
device by assigning a unique identifier. called high-order systems there is a time
constant for each of the first order
TEMPERATURE RANGE, OPERABLE- components.
The range of ambient temperature, given by
their extremes, within which a transducer TRANSDUCER-
may be operated. Exceeding compensated A device which converts information of one
range may require recalibration. physical form to another physical type in its
output (e.g, a thermocouple converts
TERMINAL- temperature into milli-voltage).
A device for operator-machine interface; for
r Glossary 179
c TRANSMITTER-
VARlABLE-
a level, quantity, or other condition that is
r A device that senses a process variable
through the medium of a sensor and has an
subject to change. This may be regulated
(the controlled variable) or simply measured
output whose steady-state value varies only
r as a predetermined function of the process
(a barometer measuring atmospheric
pressure).
variable. The sensor mayor may not be
r integral with the transmitter.
VELOCITY-
TRANSMITTER (2-WIRE)- The time rate of change of displacement;
A device which is used to transmit (Ilx/Ilt).
temperature data from either a thermocouple
or RTD via a two-wire current loop. The VENA CONTRACTA-
loop has an external power supply and the A term used to describe the point
r transmitter acts as a variable resister with downstream of an orifice plate where the
fluid velocity is greatest and pressure is
respect to its input signal.
r TRANSPORTATION LAG-
lowest due to the inertia of the moving fluid.
travel 100 feet, and if this 100 feet exists VOLUME FLOW RATE-
r between manipulation and measurement, it Calculated using the area of the full closed
would constitute at 10-second lag. conduit and the average fluid velocity in the
r' TURBULENT FLOW-
form, Q= VA, to arrive at the total volume
quantity of flow. Q = volumetric flow rate,
r· When forces due to inertia are more
significant than forces due to viscosity. This
V = average fluid velocity, and A = cross
sectional area of the pipe.
typically occurs with a Reynolds number in
~r~ excess of 4000. WORD-
r ULTIMATE PERIOD-
The time period of one cycle at the natural
Number of bits treated as a single unit by the
CPU. In an 8-bit machine, the word length is
8-bits; in a 16-bit machine, the word length
r~ frequency of the system where it is allowed is 16-bits.
to oscillate without damping.
'.r--
180 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More ~
ZERO ADJUSTMENT- -,
The ability to adjust the display of a process
or meter so that a zero on the display
corresponds to a non-zero signal, such as 4
mAo The adjustment is normally expressed in
counts.
.,
oj
ZERO OFFSET-
The difference expressed in degrees between
i
true zero and an indication given by a
measuring instrument. i
ZERO SHIFT- i
Change resulting from an error that is the
same throughout the scale.
ZERO SUPPRESSION-
The span of an indicator or chart recorder
may be offset from zero (zero suppressed)
such that neither limit of the span ·will be
zero.
i
i
r Glossary 181
r'
r Look for the future NJATC courses:
L
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·r-
, .
r
r_-
r~
r
r
l'-
r
-~
-3
-,
,
.,-
~.
~ 1
~,
~
J,
..
-~.!
1-
-; '-'
--,
-,
, ~
-,
r '0..,;:
i
.\:' " ' '
. _, __ .'.
.--
Glossary 183
r--
----
. - Notes
r~
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r
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184 NIATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation. . . and More
Notes
,
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-,
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