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. National Joint Apprenticeship & Training Committee

rUNDAM[NTAlS Of INSTRUM[NTATION
AND MORL.

copyright © by the National Joint Apprer.tlceshlp


. & Training Committee for the Electrical Industry
5114·02
-- . ~ ~
National Joint ~pprenticeship fr Training [omm'11~~
fundamentals of Instrumentation
.. . and More
- 0--
PLC

1(2,

I= STORAGE
L@ TANK

1
1

TANK

PR OC ESS AND 1

HJHTC Hate rials to be used only by IBHU-HfCH Programs without written


permission. Ho Reproduction of this material is permissible.

_. CG~~riqht© by the Hational Joint Rpprenticeship


_ and Traininq Committee for the Hectricallndustry
S114
,
i
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Copyright© by the National Joint Apprenticeship and Training
.,
Committee for the Electrical Industry

.,
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any
form or by any means, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise; without permission in writing from the National Joint
Apprenticeship and Training Committee (NJATC). No patent liability
is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained within
this book. While every precaution has been taken in the preparation
of this book, the NJATC and the author assume no responsibility for
errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed by the NJATC,
the author, or any of the manufacturers of instrumentation devices l
used for explanatory purposes for damages resulting from the use of
the information contained herein. Anyone installing, calibrating or -.,-
repairing instrumentation devices should always refer to the
manufacturer's recommended procedures before installing,
calibrating or starting-up such equipment.

Copyrights, Trademarks, and Registered Marks

The NJATC has received permission in writing from the owners of


all copyrights, trademarks and register marks to use their materials in
preparation and publishing this book.

-,-
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.t~L.

11
NJATC
Fundamentals of
Instrumentation
.. . and More
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 . Fundamental of Control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1


Chapter 2 . Instrument Symbols and Identifiers ........... 5
Chapter 3 . Fundamentals of Calibration ................ . 9
Chapter 4 . Fundamentals of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Chapter 5 . Fundamentals of Pressure ........... .... .... 27
Chapter 6 . Fundamentals of Liquid Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
Chapter 7 . Fundamentals of Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Chapter 8 . Fundamental of Control Valves .......... .. ... 51
Chapter 9 . Fundamentals of Pneumatics ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55
Chapter 10 . Fundamentals of Controllers .. .............. 61
Chapter 11 . Fundamentals of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69
Chapter 12 . Fundamentals of Smart Instruments . . . . . . . . .. 77
Chapter 13 . Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibrators . 89
Chapter 14 . Fundamentals of Instrument Installation .. .. . 101
Chapter 15 . Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance . .... 109
Chapter 16 . Fundamentals of Valve Maintenance . ......... 125
Chapter 17 . Fundamentals of Instrument Tubing .......... 141
Chapter 18 . Documentation .......................... 145
Chapter 19 . The Future of Instrumentation and Controls ... 151
Appendix A . Drawings .......... . .......... . .. . . 155
• NJATC Trainer P & ID Diagram (9602·PID01·A) .... ...... 155
• NJATC Trainer Loop Drawing (9602-FIC1001-A) . . . .. . . .. 156
• NJATC Trainer Loop Drawing (9602-FT1002-A) . . ... . ... 157
• NJATC Trainer Loop Drawing (9602-LlC1003-A) ........ . 158
• NJATC Trainer LOOP Drawing (9602-TI1004-A) . ......... 159
Clossary ................ . ......................... 160

III
NJ ATe Instrumentation Demonstrator ITrainer

<

Front View Left Side View Back View Right Side View
r: NJATC INSTRUMENTATION DEMONSTRATOR/TRAINER

r TECHNICAL OVERVIEW
(NOTE: The NJATC Instrumentation Demonstrator/Trainer is pictured on page iv of this text. The
P & ID Diagram for the Demonstrator/Trainer can be found on page 155 of this text.)

The instrumentation and process control demonstrator allows a detailed study of various
r instrumentation and control methods that can be studied individually or as a system. Various
instruments are used for measurement and while each device is used in a loop configuration the
arrangement allows flexibility for various methods of control. Flow, temperature, level, and
r pressure measurements are available for a detailed study and the demonstrator has ready "space"
for additional instrument mounting and connection to the process loops and monitoring device.
r The fundamentals of instrumentation can be studied with a visual reference to increase the
understanding of how instrumentation and controls perform. The following instruments are

r provided on the demonStrator:


1. Flow transmitter F-loo 1-T uses the differential pressure method to extract a flow rate using

r an integral orifice plate to provide the restriction over which the differential pressure is
measured. This instrument is the most common flow measurement device in industry today
and its arraignment allows for an orifice plate to be inserted into the orifice body,
r measurement tubing arraignments to be routed, calculations for transmitter range, transmitter
mounting, wiring connections and terminations, and calibration. Each job task for the
installation of a differential pressure flow transmitter can be studied with a visual and hands-
r on relation. This instrument is not a smart instrument which can show the necessity of study
for calibration techniques such as "Span and Zero" adjust.
r 2. Flow transmitter F-I002-T is a true mag flow meter in the sense that it uses conductivity to
measure the flow rate of a liquid. This device is probably one of the most common "Mag
r Flow" meters in industry and its related wiring terminations and mounting can be studied in
depth. This is a "smart" instrument that will allow communications' with a communicator or
allow communications by a self contained keypad. Calibration ranges and span can be set and
monitored while the process is active. A visual display is used to provide a check of data
points entered as well as to show process measurements as they are extracted from the process
loop.
3. Level transmitter L-3001-T is a differential pressure transmitter used to record level. This

r arrangement for level detection is one of the most common methods used to extract level. The
principle of a liquids weight can be studied along with its specific gravity. The fundamentals
of pressure measurement can be observed and can be shown how this concept is used to
r extract a precise level. The demonstrator comes in the form of recording the liquids weight
with respect to atmospheric pressure, but it can be easily re-tubed to record an actual
differential pressure that is found in closed systems. All related wiring, mounting, tubing and
device location can be visually demonstrated. This device is a smart instrument which
requires the student to understand the concepts of using a communicator to communicate with
r an instrument.
4. Temperature transmitter T-4001-T is a temperature transmitter that is used to record the
r temperature of a liquid in the storage tanle This device by using a RTD (Resistance
Temperature Detector) extracts a resistance measurement of a RTD inserted into a wen
,r submerged in the liquid. The principles of temperature and its effects on a process can be
studied within a working environment. This device is a smart instrument which requires the

r' v
user to become efficient with the use of a hand held communicator. This communicator
allows for easy re-ranging of the transmitter to increase or decrease the "Gain" as wanted.

The previously listed devices require the knowledge of the fundamentals of flow, level,
temperature and pressure. For each device its related mounting, tubing, wiring, terminations and
-,
calibration are all present and must be accurately installed to achieve a "working" process. The
demonstrator provides a readily available means to demonstrate each characteristic of the
fundamentals of measurement and control.

1.
To further describe the additional components of the system; a detailed description follows.
Flow control valve F-1001-V is used for flow control that has a set point entered in the
.,
control program, but uses data sent to the controller by a 4-20mA signal provided by flow i
transmitter F-1001-T. This valve is a "new" valve in the sense it is electrically positioned
(instead of pneumatic) and allows for future feedback for valve positioning as well as j
diagnostic capability for valve performance. This valve allows for study of valve action,
seating, response and control movement. The valve is set to run in "auto" control but can be
easily configured with future additions to the system to allow manual positioning. This j
feature will allow for removal of initiating instruments for maintenance and repair.
2. Level control valve L-3001-V is used for level control and has a set point entered in the
control program, but uses data sent to the controller by a 4-20mA signal provided by level
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transmitter L-3001-T. This valve is the "typical" valve found in indu~try in the sense it is
pneumatically positioned and actuated. Valve seating, action, response and control movement
can also be studied as well as Cv rates which determine valve performance. Integral to the
valve is an liP (electrical to pneumatic transducer) which converts the electrical 4-20mA
signal to a related pneumatic pressure which is used by the valve for positioning.
.,
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Incorporated into the same loop is an auto reset solenoid which interrupts the air supply to
the valve for emergency shutdown conditions. For these operations pneumatic principles must
be understood.
3. Three interposing relays are used to drive the temperature element, auto reset solenoid and
pump start/stop power. This wiring arraignment allows for future demands from the power
supply since only control power is used for these devices with utilization power provided
from an alternate source. Typical wiring diagrams will be used to show arrangement.
4. An adjustable temperature element is available for temperature control although the system
does not employ this means of control. Temperature control can be set up now but it is
suggested that this feature be used when more advanced level of controls are studied since
this method will be dependent upon every device present for precise control. The system
now has an emergency shutdown set point which will halt system operation if the temperature
i
of the liquid reaches a pre-determined temperature (120 deg. F).
5. Interlock Defeats ( Bypasses: HS-1001-S, HS3001-S, HS-4001-S ) are used to "defeat" any
i
signal that is received by the controller which is interpreted to indicate a shutdown condition.
For example; if flow transmitter F-1001-T were removed from the process a "low flow"
signal would be transmitted to the controller which would call for a halt in the process
action. The interlock defeat allows for calibration to be performed on line to simulate a
repair or check of instrument calibration. A "3-valve manifold" or isolation valves are
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needed to isolate the instrument from the process before calibration is performed.
6. A H-O-A select switch is used for pump control. While the selector is in "auto" the pump
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runs until told to stop from a process upset. When in manual the pump will continue to run

vi
even if a process upset occurs and can be stopped by selecting "off" on the selector or

r 7.
performing a Manual Shutdown.
The controller used for the demonstrator is an Allen Bradley 503 with the APS (Advanced
Programming Software) of the SLC500 series. This controller provides all of the
programming and communications abilities for process control and allows for future control
consoles to be interfaced with for further study. Control program configuration(s), ladder

r logic format(s), power supply output power, pIc mounting and terminations are all available
for study depending upon the level of interest. A PC (personal computer) is used as the
interface between the PLC and user although this communication device will only be used
r to "download" the control program for beginning study.
8. Various system status alarms or indicators are present on the front of the panel. These
r features are to allow the user to interpret the appropriate control actions taken or that were
failed to be taken and resulted in a shutdown of the process. All alarms on the panel are "fail-

r safe" which means that they will alarm on loss of power or if an actual process shutdown is
called for. These alarms will still be active even if an interlock defeat is enabled. This feature
will allow monitoring of the system while calibration is performed on an instrument within
r 9.
a working process. This feature will be studied in advanced levels of instruction.
Four LED ( light emitting diodes) displays are located on the front of the panel to visually
r indicate a 4-2OmA signal transmitted to the controller. These devices also must be calibrated
using "zero and span" and further strengthens the understanding of calibration techniques.
The displays can also be used to interpret whether the respective transmitter is recording and
L transmitting data accurately.
10. Three pushbuttons are mounted on the front panel for a manual interface to reset or halt the
r process. The appropriate drawings must be referenced to determine if switch settings are
normally open or normally closed.

L The demonstrator with the previously listed devices is to be used for an introductory level
of study for instrumentation. Various items can be added to the system to widen the study and

r application of instruments such as; a "bubbler" level detector, variable speed drives for the pump,
a displacer level switch, a static "0- ring" pressure switch, and etc. All of these systems could
be added with a minimal amount of time and each of these devices could be incorporated into a
c control loop or added for monitoring purposes only.
An optimal approach for an instructor would be to approach this trainer as if it were an actual

r job he was hired to construct. The demonstrator will have all of the appropriate drawings and
documentation sheets that a worker would likely encounter on a comparable job with
instrumentation involved. All material could be ordered that would be required to "build" this
r trainer and he would show students the proper techniques for proper construction. At this time
it is hoped that additional devices could be added to the trainer as if they were additions or

r changes to a field related application involving instrumentation. A drawing package could be


forwarded with the respective device showing proper mounting, termination points, wiring
methods and etc. and the instructor could approach these additions as if they were an actual job
assignment. This approach could justifiably be argued as the closet training method to the job
assignments we could receive as a worker in the area of measurement and control.

r
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Preface

The past few years has seen an exponential growth in the field of measurement and control. i
Electronic advances have been the growth inhibitor in the development of instruments while
advances in the application of micro-processors are the driving force behind the progress in j
control systems.

By looking at the history of measurement and control and seeing where the industry is today we
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can see the future. There will be an increasing demand for qualified workers in the measurement
field if for nothing else to ensure that a process is delivering the maximum buck for a competitive
market. Also industry has to satisfy a demanding public which requires safety and environmental
i
protections. If this is not enough, the government is requiring continual improvement for safety
of workers, waste product control, pollution control, quality standards, and the list goes on.

The indicators above all point to an increasing workforce thar must be available for the I & C
field. The one common thread of the workforce is it must be composed of qualified workers.
This is the first of many instructional materials for those who wish to become qualified for the
field of measurement and control. We will begin with the fundamentals of instrumentation for it
does not matter on the method of control, type of controller, process, and etc.; for if the field I/O
.,
is not accurate, precise, repeatable, 'and predictable the controlled process is not efficient nor safe.
The basics of instrumentation will help all workers understand how a process is measured for a
controlled end product.
j
As these lessons on instruments are the first for our industry, a glossary of related terminology
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is available to describe exactly what a term is defined as. Each lesson will ask for new terms or
repeat those terms that are used the most. An attempt was made for this text to provide simple
explanations of rather complex physics so each and everyone will have to spend minimal time
reading to understand the fundamentals of instrumentation.
.,
Apply yourself honestly and you will finish this text quickly and you will be eagerly awaiting j
courses for advanced levels of control.

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viii ..,
Chapter I - Fundamentals of Control Systems

Fundamentals of Control Systems

Control systems today are used to fill and maintain the proper tank level. The
regul ate a process, monitor a process or decisions normally " made " by an automatic
indicate when a process has reached a desired co ntroller regulating a process can be
result (a setpo int) . In times not too distant, if performed by a variety of methods , but the
you wanted to fill a tank to a certa in level you most common method today is to allow control
would watch the ri si ng liquid an d when the to be execu ted by a mi croprocesso r based
desired level was achieved you wou ld contro ller.
manually halt the filling process. The object of Micro rocesso r based control systems
process control is to automaticall y perform the are capable of executing a wide variety of user
filling process without any help from a human efined algorithms (instructions) which in itia te
operator. The control system would consist of and contr~IRrocesse~ . The control system
several " instruments" that wou ld initiate, -gove rned by the microprocessor wi ll be the
record and regulate the filling process and the co llection of the components necessary to
controller would take the place of the human perform the function of maintainin g an
decisions that are usually made to ensure an efficient process. Dependin g upon the system
efficient process. The instruments coul d be in question, the user may define various 110
measuring the " level" of the tank 's liquid, the (Inputs and Outputs) that wi ll be monitored or
"flow" of the liquid into the tank , the co ntrolled by the microprocessor. Once the
"pressure or weight of the liqu id sto red in the I/O is defined and entered by the operator, the
tank , or the tank's liquid "tempe rature". I/O is transferred to the control system and the
Depending upon the control var iables that are appropriate response is taken or observed. The
defined , some or a ll of the process variables transfer of information between the contro ller
may be needed fo r the controll er to make and the "display " can be executed either
decisions that would be required to accurately inte rnally or transmitted via a dedicated

..
Central control room with mUltipl e contro l loops , alarm signals and recorders.
2 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

highway interface . Often conununication lines therefore the responsibility of the field
will be redundant (more than one) to allow for technician. In order for a field technician to
the repair and maintenance of one line and also properly calibrate, troubleshoot and loop check
to provide a path for checking the information various systems it is necessary for the
as it is received by the controller. Depending technician to have a working knowledge of
upon the level of control, software will be used control systems which are used to control
for diagnostic capabilities to ensure the process processes.
is performing as smoothly as the controller is A process is defmed as any function or
directing. Perhaps the most important bit of .9peration utilized in the treatment of a
information gathered by the controller is the materia) . For example, the operation of adding
information received from field instruments heat to water is a process. Processes are taking
that determine the appropriate response for the place wherever you go. Most of us work with
working process. It is important for the field the basics of process and process control
technician to understand the working concepts everyday.
of a system in order to know how his devices
may interface with and change the operating As you drive a car, you are
algorithm of a controlled process . As we have performing process control functions by
read earlier, control systems can contain a controlling the speed of the car as well as
variety of devices and/or controllers that a~e direction through steering. As a further
used to control processes. What ties all example of our interaction with process control
automatically controlled working processes think about the bu ilding you are in.
together is the common thread of initiating and Temperature and ventilation control provides
final control elements of a system. An an adequate environment for our comfort with
operating system depends upon the accurate minimal interaction from us. Process control
sensing, signaling and transmission of data that is the method ly which .JV£ '!gulatf! a
is the responsibility of the field devices and particlliar process. We perform process

I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I \

Video screen with process variables displayed for operators viewing .


Chapter 1 - Fundamentals of Control Systems 3

control when we vary the gas flow into our received by the controller is the signal sent by
automobile engine as well as the adjustments the drum or by a measuring/recording device
of a thermostat for enviromnental comfort. We monitoring the drum? Of course, the device
will further develop our understanding of that is used to "count" the number of
process control by first understanding the revolutions of the drum will be the device
components that will enable us to control a sending the signal to the video display . If the
working process. drum was needed to increase its RPM's, do
Video displays are the most common you think a signal would be sent to the drum
and "visible" components in a system. A or to a device that controls the rotation speed?
process may include many variables which Another simple question; the device that
may have the option of being monitored or controls the rotation speed is the "fmal control
used for control. With digital systems the I/O element" . This is a simplified example of field
may be viewed at various locations on displays devices (or instrumentation) that are used to
via communications highways . Often enough control a process. For all processes. the
several locations will have a display for ~ignals used to record, monitor and control
monitoring I/O while only one or two locations are performed by devices that rovide an
may be available for control functions. A inteltace with a controller to a working
display allows easy viewing of processes proce~s . Another reason why the field
through information gathered from field technician must understand how his devices
devices and often enough an entire process reflect a working process.
may be viewed from a single screen. Sometimes out of necessity a controller
The components that are monitored by will be performing the control functions for
a video screen are actually devices that are several processes and this controller is referred
used to measure a particular function, or are to as a shared controller. This controller will
dev ices that respond to a particular control contain a user defined algorithm which is
command given by a controller. If a video changeable to permit flexibility for the user.
display recorded the RPM of a particular drum The controller's algorithm is roughly a listing
in a controlled process do you think the signal of instructions to be executed by the controller
and often contains
diagnostic features to
verify information
gathered by the
system. A process
must be monitored
continuously and the
algorithm determines
the frequency that
various process I/O
are scanned. The
scan of a program
(algorithm) is the
repetitive reading of
field I/O to execute
instructions
contained m the
program. Flow rates,
levels, temperatures,
Field I/O wiring connecting field instruments to a control panel. pressures and more
4 NJATC Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

are all read by a controller and the total identifiers so he can interpret how his devices
variables for each system may number in the are connected to the system and what data is to
several hundreds. The reading of the process be sent to the controller. When a field
variables, diagnostic variables and system technician understands how a control system
informational statistics may be executed as fast functions , and he understands how a sensing
as a few milli-seconds and then the resulting device gathers information , he may consider
control actions are taken. One "reading" and himself proficient in the fundamentals of how
resulting execution of the instructions is instruments record and transmit process
referred to as a scan. We have read that the variables.
scan time of a program may be very fast and
that control actions are taken from the readings
obtained from the scan. It is easy to see the
importance of having an accurate sensing
device sending information to a controller.
The field technician must realize that he
may be asked to troubleshoot. calibrate.
terminate and peiform any other of a number
of possibilities to field I/O. The one common
denominator to all of the devices in a control
system is that they may be shown on drawings
which can display the location, calibration,
type, and etc. All of the devices that are used
by controllers are portrayed on drawings to
understand how these components interact with
each other. It is important for the technician to
understand instrument and control symbols and

Multiple recorders that monitor and record various field 110 read by the controller.
Chapter 2 - Instrument Symbols and Identifiers 5

Instrument Symbols and Identifiers

Instrument Line Symbols

l.Instrument Supply or Connection


to Process . .. ....... . . ........ . ...... .. ..... . ·

2. Undefined Signal...... .... .............. ...... ..


7 /
3. Pneumatic S ignal.. .. .... .. .. .......... ... .. ... ..
11 Ii
4. Electric Signal ...... ......... ..... ...... .... . .. .. ----- OR

5. Hydraulic Signal ...... .. ... .... . .. . .... .. ..... ..


L L
6. Capillary Tube .... .. .. ... ...................... ..
x
7. Electromagnetic or Sonic Sig nal (gu ided) ... o
o oo
8. Electromagnetic or sonic signal ............ ..
f (not gu ided)

9. Internal System Link (software) ....... .. .. .. .


0--0-0-0-
10. Mechanical Link ............................. ..
6) C+> 8-

* *
11. Pneumatic Binary Signa/.. ................. ..

-~-- ~
12. Electric Binary Signal. ............ .. .. ...... .
OR
6 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

Instrument and Function Symbols

Primary Location Auxiliary Locaeion


Normally Accessible Field Mounted Normally Accessible
To Operator To Operator

Discrete
Instruments
8 0 §
Shared Display
Shared Control
8 0 B
Computer
Function
e 0 §
Programmable
Logic Contro l
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Symbol size may vary according to the users demands .

Normall y inaccess ible or behind-the-panel devices or functions are usually shown w ith a
dashed li ne.
Chapter 2 - Instrument Symbols and Identifiers 7

r Instrument Identification

r Each instrument and/or function has an identifier label attached to it when shown on
associated instrument drawings. The identifier is called a Tag and contains an alphanumeric
string and is determined by standards which are used for instrument identification. The loop
L connection number is common to all instruments and connections to the loop. The loop number
will possibly have a prefix and/or suffIX, or both, to complete the task of identifying an associated

L- device. The text below shows a typical tag number and how each letter and numeral has a specific
meaning.

r FIC 013- Instrument identification or Tag Number


F 013- Loop identification
r FIC
013- Loop number
- Functional Identification

r F
IC
- First Letter
- Succeeding Letters

r: As we have studied before, some controllers may control the process for more than one
unit. The instrument Tag is used as an identifier for the controlled elements and where the

r controller is performing the control functions for more than one area a Tag Number may also be
present in another area. By using the expanded tag number a Tag Number can be present more
than once. An expanded Tag will have a Hyphen used to designate a certain area. The text below
r shows a typical tag number and how each letter and numeral has a specific meaning.

r 11-FAH -0 13X- Expanded Tag Number


11 - Optional Prefix (used to designate area or unit)
X- Optional Suffix (to further identify a device)
r Hyphens used in the expanded Tag Number are optional.

Instrumentation Documents (Documentation)

r Proper interpretation of documentation is as critical as the actual installation of devices. The


following is a description of possible documentation you may come into contact with:

r 1. P&ID- Process and Instrumentation Diagram; Sometimes called Piping and


Instrumentation Diagram. Shows process related piping and the
r: 2. Loop Sheet-
instrumentation. Superseeds all other documentation.
Drawing which shows all related (loop number) devices for controlling

r 3.
means and the wiring path, termination points, and device locations.
Specification Sheet- (Spec Sheet) Record of devices listed by Tag Number showing related
ranges, setpoints, material construction, process exposure, and related
r 5. Wiring Diagram-
environmental variables.
Drawing usually showing related devices between loop sheets.

r: 6. Elementary Drawing- Drawing usually indicating termination points of controlling means.

r
TYPICAL LETTER COMBINATIONS

switches and
00
Controllers readout devices alarm devices transm itters solenoids,
self relays, well viewing
lst measured actuated computing primary test or device, safety final
letter variable recording indicating' blind valves recording indicating high low comb recording indicating blind devices elem ent point probe glass device element
A analysis ARC AIC AC AR AI ASH ASL ASHL ART AIT AT AY AE AP AW AV
burner
B com bustion BRC BIC BC BR BI BSH BSL BSHL BRT BIT BT BY BE BW BO BZ
users
C choice
users
D choice
E voltage ERC EIC EC ER EI ESH ESL ESHL ERT EIT ET EY EE EZ
FCV,
F flow FRC FIC FC FICV FR FI FSH FSL FSHL FRT FIT FT FY FE FP FO FV
users
G choice
H hand HIC HC HS HV
I current IRC IIC IR II ISH ISL ISHL IRT lIT IT IY IE IZ
1 power lRC JIC JR JI ISH JSL JSHL lRT JIT JT lY JE IV
K time KRC KIC KC KCV KR KI KSH KSL KSHL KRT KIT KT KY KE KV
L level LRC LIC LC LCV LR LI LSH LSL LSHL LRT LIT LT LY LE LW LG LV
users
M choice
users
N choice
users
0 choice
PSV,
P pressure PRC PIC PC PCV PR PI PSH PSL PSHL PRT PIT PT PY PE PP PSE PV
pressure
PD differential PDRC PDIC PDC PDCV PDR PDI PDSH PDSL PDRT PDIT PDT PDY PE PP PDV
Q quantity QRC QIC QR QI QSH QSL QSHL QRT QIT QT QY QE QZ
R radiation RRC RIC RC RR RI RSH RSL RSHL RRT RIT RT RY RE RW RZ
speed
S frequency SRC SIC SC SCV SR SI SSH SSL SSHL SRT SIT ST SY SE SV
T temperature TRC TIC TC TCV TR TI TSH TSL TSHL TRT TIT TT TY TE TP TW TSE TV
temperature
TD differential TDRC TDIC TDC TDCV TDR TDI TDSH TDSL TDRT TDIT TDT TDY TE TP TW TDV
multi
U variab Ie UR UI UY UV
vibration
machinery
V analysis VR VI VSH VSL VSHL VRT VIT VT VY VE VZ
W weight WRC WIC WC WCV WR WI WSH WSL WSHL WRT WIT WT WY WE WZ
weight
WD differential WDRC WDIC WDC WDCV WDR WDI WDSH WDSL WDRT WDIT WDT WDY WE WDZ
X unclassified
event state
Y presence VIC YC YR YI YSH YSL YT YY YE YZ_
position
Z dimension ZRC ZIC ZC ZCV ZR ZI ZSH ZSL ZSHL ZRT ZIT ZT ZY ZE ZV
guaging
ZD deviation ZDRC ZDIC ZDC ZDCV ZDR ZDI ZDSH ZDSL ZDRT ZDIT ZDT ZDY ZDE ZDV

,.-' ,~ j ~J j j J ,J .J -1 J J I~J .,J ~J J IJ ,j J .J .


",'
~-
;-
Chapter 3 - Fundamentals of Calibration 9

r~ Fundamentals of Calibration

r As we have studied previously, we


know that the operation of an automatic
deviations may be some of the reasons. In
these cases care must be taken to follow
control process is dependent upon the accuracy established standards for the calibration of an
r:. of each instrument in the loop. A correctly
calibrated instrument ensures the safety and
instrument with respect to site procedures for
decontamination, calibration, and etc.

r proper operation of the controlled process. By


definition, calibration is the process of
To properly perform an instrument
calibration it is necessary to understand the
~djusting an instrument or compiling a concepts of range and span of its inRut!!!d
r deviation chart so that its reading can be
correlated to the actual value being measured.
output signal. We will use a typical pressure
transmitter to show our range and span. A
r For our purposes, it is essential to
understand how to calibrate an instrument by
pressure transmitter can be calibrated in
pounds per square inch (PSI) and adjusted to
lit using the appropriate input and output
standards rather than observing the
output a corresponding signal of 4-20 mAo
From FIGURE 3-1 we see that our
instruments output with respect to an actual span for the transmitter is 100 PSI. The range
r, process input. By correctly analyzing the input
values and output values of a transmitter we
for the same transmitter is 0 to 100 PSI. The
output of the transmitter is called a signal and
can determine if necessary steps to adjust the has a span of 16 mAo This is a common output
fi,r transmitterare n~~g~d~is process, knOwnas for most transmitter signals. FIGURE 3-1 also
"bench ciIibration", siIiiiIlaiestlle·process-the shows us the correct relationship between the
III

li
!,:
r instrumeiit- will measure and determines if
corrective action is needed. There are times
input and output of the transmitter. When an
instrument is properly calibrated its input is a

r when an instrument will be calibrated after it


has been measuring a process. Normal
maintenance and repair, regularly scheduled
direct representation of its output so that the %
input is equal to its % output. At 100 PSI
(100 %) input we see an output of 20 mA
r calibrations, and adjustments due to process (100%), at 50 PSI (50%) input we see an

-r 100'PSI ' flfl OL lOmA


..
r
r
(fl OL 12 mA
50 PSI

INPUT OUTPUT

oPSI I'IOL ,A mA

Figure 3-1: Calibration data reflecting an accurately calibrated transmitter where % input
= % output.
10 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

output of 12mA (50%) and at 0 PSI (0%) calculate accuracy.


input we see an output of 4 rnA (0 %). To
properly realize the function of the correctly
calibrated pressure transmitter we need to
understand that an equivalent output signal Accuracy _ 0.16 rnA x 100% = 1%
correctly represents the input signal. Every
16 rnA
J
transmitter has guidelines that the device must
meet to perform within the manufactures
specifications, and every calibration performed
The accuracy of a transmitter can now
be calculated using the formula:
J
must meet specifications for accuracy in order
to be considered calibrated. Deviation
In instrumentation, calibration must be Accuracy =- --- x 100%
~ Span
accurate and accuracy is a direct method of
determining if an instrument must be
1
calibrated. This form of circular reasoning is
intended to show the importance of an
Accuracy can now be used to determine
if an instrument must be re-calibrated to meet
-,
instruments calibration expressed in accuracy. specifications.
Accuracy is usually expressed as a % of the
transmitter span. To put it simply, accuracy
We now know how to calculate the
accuracy of a transmitter but, the level of
J
equals the difference between true and accuracy is depen~~E-!_upon Gain. Gai!! is th.e
-,
measured values, divided by the instru~·
spanand multi~liedl;YTOO.
-~ ~- -Lets· use the pressure transmitter from
FIGURE 3-1 as an example. The span of the
1eriilfor how' for how much an outp_ut shQm9
chan-ge giv~n. the same. input change. Gain is
most'
tlie-~ important factor used to determine
the level of accuracy. Gain equals the output
signal divided by the inputsp(l~. _.. . -_.....
.,
transmitter is 100 PSI and if an input value
of 50 PSI (50%) was applied and the
instrument indicates 51 PSI (51 %) input and = output signal
an output of 12.16 rnA (51 %) was recorded, Gain j
input span
we could state that the transmitter is accurate
within 1 PSI. This is one way of stating
accuracy but accuracy should always be The transmitter in FIGURE 3-1 has an
expressed as a percent of span. output signal of 16 rnA and an input span of
100 PSI.

Accuracy - 1 PSI x 100% _ 1 %


100 PSI Gain - 16 rnA = 0.16 rnA/PSI
100 PSI
-,
To properly understand the calculations
of accuracy, Deviation must be understood. In
fact, we have already calculated an instruments
~viation by comparing the difference of an
instruments input signal to Its output signal. In
Gain represents the.-l1lagnitude of signal
change for each PSI of input. In this example,
the transmitter signal will increase or decrease
to a respective input change of 1 PSI by 0.16
.,
the-above example we saw how an applied rnA. Gain directly affects calibration. A
pressure of 50 PSI (50 %) was transmitted as transmitter with a low ratio of input to output
an output signal of 12.16 rnA. An input of 50 has a high Gain and can reflect a more
% should have provided an output of 50 % (12 noticeable change in output signal from a
rnA). The difference, 0.16 rnA, is the change in input pressure. This results in an
deviation. From here on use deviation to instrument that can be more accurately
Chapter 3 - Fundamentals of Calibration II

calibrated. be used to calibrate. Certified equipment is the


With so much emphasis given on only assurance that a desired output is truly
accuracy of a transmitter , it is easy to recording what it should be rather than some
understand that the precision of an instrument incorrect value due to a faulty test equipment
is important also. A precise instrument will reading. Certi fied test equipment can be
record an identical output signal each time an obtained from having the test equipment
identical input is applied. To put it simply, compared and ca librated to a certi fied test
[ precision is the repeatability of an instrument instrument that meets known standards . The
to record the s~ _output 3 nal ~ ~ National Bureau of Standards can also certify
corres onding in ut.J / test equipment for accuracy. Some
To clarify, accuracy is how closely an organizations that promote safety and quality
instrument reflects its input while repeatability for instrumentation and control systems
is a term given to an instrument that reflects provide methods , that if followed, ensure the
the same accurate output signal from a accuracy and performance of control systems.
constant input signal. Such equipment is usually dedicated equipment
How do you know when an instrument for standardizing or veryifing the accuracy of
is correctly calibrated to a certain accuracy and other cal ibration equipment and/or
precision? Standards are used which establish instruments .
guidelines for acceptable instrument Calibration is tile process of adjusting ,
calibration. For each calibration performed or compi ling a deviation chart so its reading
these standards are needed to establish when C:1n be correfated to the- actual value being
an instrument is calibrated. Manufacturers measured. -We know that an instrument can be
provide some standards. Most often the calibrated to within certain specifications of
customer will provide or inform you which accuracy and must have sufficient repeatability
standards are to be used. to maintain accuracy . To cal ibrate any
Certified test equipment shou ld always instrument the errors in tI1e instrument must be

ISO 9000 Certified Test Equipment.


12 NJATC Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

identified . Instrument errors are discovered by instrument error , turning the zero adjustment
comparing the measured output to the expected screw can correct tile problem but, it is
output given a specific input. There are several important that the output be checked again to
types of instrument errors ~ whifh verify that tile output is correct. Sometimes it
calibration can adj ust. Zero Shift, S an Error , is necessary to repeat the steps several time.
on-Linearity" Dead Bal;d and J:!ysteresis ar~ To properly verify an instruments
fhe most common mstrument errors. calibration a Five Point Check is often used-:- A
L Zero Shift is the t~rm for an instrument fivep oint chec IS used to ver ify that tile
w~output is consistentl higher Or lower instrument is properly calibrated over its fljll
than the expected value.. This shift is output signal span. A simulated input is
consistent tilroughout the output signal span applied atO%, 25%, 50%, 75 %, and 100 % of
and to state it correctly would be to say that input range. The output is recorded for each
the deviation is consistent throughout the input and the measured output is compared to
signal span. the expected output. There are other suggested
FIGURE 3-2 shows the expected output values to be used as inputs, but a calibration
of our transmitter from FIGURE 3-1 . check that covers the fu ll span will perhaps
FIGURE 3-3 shows the same transmitter but detect errors that are unable to be detected
with Zero Shift that has elevated the output. otherwise as well as providing a possible
An elevated output simply stated suggests that clearer method for detecting errors.
tbe output signal starts higher than is Calibration sheets are often used to record
expected. Zero Shift could also start out calibration data and these sheets can be helpful
lower than expected and in this case the zero when trying to determine an instruments
shift would be suppressed. For either calibration errors. A grap h such as the one in

% r. H''''' rr r
20 mA 100%

~~~
I.I~
~~
16 mA 75%

~
IDEAL ~~
12 mA 50%
~.

~~
~
8 rnA 25 %

~
~
l.i~
4 rnA 0%
0% 25 % 50 % 75 % 100 %

% INPUT

Figure 3-2: Recorded output signal of transmitter in Figure 3-1.


Chapter 3 - Fundamentals of Calibration 13

% >I TT
20 rnA 100%
," " ;.
" ;
"" ;
," " I~;
16 rnA 75%
"; ;
," "
"" ;
," " I~;
12 rnA 50%
" ;~
""
" ~; ;
""
" 1;;
""
8 rnA 25 %
" ,~ .; .'
,~:j~ERO
~, SHIFT
4 rnA 0 %
0% 25 % 50 % 75 % 100 %

% INPUT

Figure 3-3: Transmitter from Figure 3-1 with "zero Shift" errors recorded.

FIGURE 3-2 is often used to plot the measured exist and should be corrected . A single method
output signal values, so they can be compared can be used to identify calibration errors or
to the expected output signal values, and use both methods can be used together. The intent
the visual approach to identify errors . It is of a Five Point Calibration Check is to provide
considered good practice to check output the simplest method to identify instrument
signal readings on an up-scale and down-scale errors. We can now identify zero shift
check.C Checking up-scale is to test a calibration errors and employ ing the same
transmitters output signal starting at 0% and technique we can identify span errors.
increasing to 100 %. To check a transmitter Span errors are errors in an instruments
down-scale is to measure output signals output sig..Qal that does not rej1~ 100 % ol !lJe..
starting at 100 % and decreasing to 0 %. The ou ut si<>nal or does not follow the input san.
values recorded should be identica l for an up- Span errors can be identified by performing
scale check compared to a down-scale check. the five point check and recording the
FIGURE 3-4 shows an instrument measured output signal values. With J pan error
calibration sheet. The values recorded are the the measured 9@Puts w i~y fro m th~
values of the pressure transmitter of FIGURE expected values, but there should not be an
3-1. The actual output signal values recorded equal "shift...Y..i iue2!roql theexpectedOutpul
show a consistent shift " higher" than the FIGURE 3-5 is the graph of an instrument
expected values. The plot of FIGURE 3-3 is with span error. The measured outputs begin
the plot of th.e points recorded in FIGURE 3-4 . at the origin but do not follow the expected
FIGURE 3-3 and FIGURE 3-4 show a outputs.
consistent shift in the expected output signal, Instruments with span error do not
therefore an instrument calibration error would produce outputs consistent with some small
\4 NJATC Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

shift from expected outputs. If the concept of To properly calibrate an instrument


deviation is understood completely, we can with span errors requires a five point check to
define span error as deviations in an ensure that the values of the output are
instruments measured output that are not accurate over the working range of the
consistent with a "zero shift" . To correct a transmitter. It is important to begin calibration
span error in.......2n instrument the span of a transmitter by eliminating zero shift
adjustment can be tuned to eliminate span values first and then adjusting the span
errors. adjustment to eliminate span errors. When
span errors are eliminated it is inlportant to
Input Values Output Values check for zero shift errors again for the zero
setting may have shifted (due to the
Test construction of the transmitter) when span
Points Inputs Expected Actual errors were adjusted. It will be necessary to
0% o PSI 4mA 4 .6 mA repeat the steps multiple times to achieve
accurate results.
25 % 25 PSI 8mA 8.6 mA
Zero and span errors are the most
50 % 50 PSI 12 mA 12.6 mA common errors found in an instruments
calibration. Often enough both zero shift and
75 % 75 PSI 16 mA 16.6 mA
span errors exist simultaneously. FIGURE 3-6
100 % 100 PSI 20 mA 20.6 mA shows an instrument that has zero shift and
Figure 3-4: CalIbration sheet of the transmItter span errors present. To qmect these proble!lls
in Figure 3- 1. the instrument must first be "zeroed" ansi then
span should be adjusted. When span is

20 rnA 100%
oM ()llTPT JT

MEASURED ,,
,,
, ...
; .
~'
/.,,' ; ;
, ,' '
J.
;
16 rnA 75% ,
, ,, ;
, .. " ;
;
.... '
;~~'
SPAN ,,
ERRO~, '
, , ,
12 rnA 50%

, ," .... ".. '

"
......
;
,
........
EXPECTED
\

" ~
8 rnA 25 %

~
....
, ; '
~~
4 mA 0%
0% 25 0/0 50 % 75 % 100 %

% INPUT

Figure 3-5 Transmitter with Span Error displayed by plotting the output signal.
Chanter 3 - Fundamentals of Caljbration 15

20 rnA 100%

J6lnA 75%
Zero Shift
&
SPAN
ERROR
12 rnA 50%

81nA 25 %

" rnA O r..


0% 25 % 50 % 75 % 100 %

% INPUT

Figure 3-6: Transmitter with span and zero errors displayed by plotting the output signal.

adjusted, the zero setting needs to be checked Hysteresis is another error that can be
again. The process may need to be repeated found in measuring devices. Hjlsteresis can be
several times in order to calibrate the • identified when an instrument has measured
instrument within specifications. output values that differ up-scale from down-
There are other errors which may exist scale. With a five point check, Hysteresis will
~

and one of the m is non-linearity. As you may produce a deviation from expected values
have noticed , anliiStiUments output will be a when progressing up-scale from 0 to 100%.
linear plot that may be parallel to its expected Checki ng the instrument down-scale from 100
output or not. Non-linearity will produce an
OiiUt so that when it is measured and plotted
it will not have any consistent error shift
etween the upper and lower limits of its
range. It is important to realize that a large
-enough linearity problem will not be
correctable and the instrument must be
Zero
repaired. In some cases non-linearity errors are Screw --~,,~

small enough so that its effect is scarcely


noticeable, but these instruments will often
increase in nonlinearity errors with time. On
an instrument calibration sheet non-linearity Span
Screw
may be identified by the lower range value
matching the expected value and the upper
range value match ing the expected value but,
tbe measured val ues between a and 100 % do
not match the expected values. FIGURE 3-7 is Rosemount 1151 Alphaline Pressure
the plot of a transmitter with non-linearity Transmitter Zero & Span adjustment
errors. screws.
16 NJATC Fundamentals oflnstrumentati on ... and More

% nTTTPTTT
2 0 mA 100%
... =;Ii
~.,
......... "
16mA75 %
MEA S UR';D

.~ ,
, ~
~~

,,?
1;" "
NON-
,, " ~" "
12 mA 50%
LINEA RITY

, . ~
\",'" \
,, ",'" EXPECTED

, '"
,..
,
8 mA 25 %

",'"

4 rnA 0 % ':'"
0 % 25 % 50 % 75 % 100 %

% INPU T

Figure 3-7: Transmitter with Non-linearity errors displayed by plotting the output signal.

to 0 % will produce an eq ual deviation resul ts in a more eas ily recorded flu ctuation in
oppos ite from the up-sale check and on ly the the output signal. There-are a great number of
direction that the test point is approached will instru mentation errors that can be identified
cause the error. Recording output through interpretation of input/output data.
measurements throughout the input range wi ll [talibrating an instrument me'!!1s that it must
cause differe nt outputs when moving up or
- --
be tested, recorded and adjusted to perform as
down. Hysteres is is not a co mmon error found neededJ K-oowing how to record "an
in electronic instruments. !:!'ysteresis is an Tilstruments response makes the job of
error that is usuall y found with mechanical calibration easily performed.
measuringdevices. FIGURE 3-8 co ntains data
·fro m a typical instrument with Hysteres is Input Values Output Values
error. Another error which can be identified
-
as an instrument error is Dead Ba d. Dead
band occurs when the in _ut value can J2.e
~
Test
Points
Inputs Expected
Up-
scale
Down-
scale

var ied but no vis ible output change may be 0 % o PSI 4 mA 4.6mA 3.4 mA
_recorded. Dead band can be a very small value
25 % 25 PSI 8 mA 8.6mA 7.4 mA
and within the tolerances specified. When the
dead band error becomes significant enough to 50 % 50 PSI 12mA 12.6mA 11.4 mA
stray beyond the tolerances specified the 75 PSI 16mA 16.6 mA 15.4 mA
75 %
instrument may be in need of repair. Dead
.band is not ge nerally '!..djustabJe but . tIle error 100 % 100 PSI 20mA 20.6 mA 19.4 mA
magnitude may be reduced by increas ing the Figure 3-8: Transmitter With hysteresIs errors
--'- - "'-
displayed by plotting the output signal.
gain of the instrument. Increasing the gain
- -
Chapter 4 - Fundamentals of Flow 17

Fundamentals of Flow

One of the basic control functions velocity of the flow and the diameter of the
required of instrumentation is the measurement process line. Another important fundamental
of flow. The control of flow is vitally that should not be overlooked is that a moving
important si nce many process variables are fluid contains energy . J.:::nergy in a flow
often governed by a regulated flow. In some consists of the sum 01 the pressure energy and
operations, the ability to conduct accurate flow the velocity ener gy. The concept was
measurements is so important that it can make discovered by "Bernou lli " in the 18th century.
the difference between an efficient process and Bernoulli's principle simply explained states
one that is in-efficient. In other cases the that as the velocity in a given line is increased
inability to make accurate flow measurements than the pressure must decrease, and
can result in disastrous results for people or conversely stated, when the velocity in a given
equipment. Understanding the principles of line is decreased then the pressure must
flow is a basic fundamenta l of process 1I1crease. By exami ning what we now
measurement and control. Fluids are defined know , we can make some general observations
~eing liquids , gases, or v~pors. For the about the fundamentals of flow.

Controller

~II=~--=-------I/
Figure 4-1: Principles of fluid motion.

maO orit of process s),stems, ~ rate of flow What happens to a fluid flowing in a
must be controlled, not the total flow over a process line when the diameter decreases and
set time period. The rate of flow is often then increases? Of first importance is to
measured as a given quantity moving past a realize that the flow rate Q will not change at
given point in a specified time period . any point in the process line. When the c ross-
Examples of common flow rates a re GPM
(gallons per minute) and GPH (gallons per
hour).
Rate of flow can also be expressed
mathematically by the equation Q= YA where
Q= rate of flow, V = velocit of flow, and
Q= VxA
A = £!2ss-sectional are of the process lif!e.
From this equation we can correctly calculate
Figure 4-2: Bernou IIi 's equation in
that the rate of flow is directly related to the
simplified form .
18 Nl ATe Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More
-, !

> >
>
:> JZ2
'» ::>
111 fA2 Y3 ::> A3
~1k / ~ ~
~
~
?-
1 .,
Figure 4-3: Bernoulli's principle illustrated.

sectional area of the process line decreases the flow rate is determined by measuring the
velocity must increase, and when the cross- liquids velocity or kinetic energy. Everything
sectional area of the process line increases the discussed so far has been under "ideal"
velocity must decrease. From FIGURE 4-3 we conditions, but there are other conditions
can summarize that: Q =VIAl = V2A2 = which may cause some variance.
V3A3. --- -- Other fa~tors which affectJh~.Jto~J!f
~- The total energy at any point in a a fluid is the fluids VisC.oslly, densi!y..1 and
process line will not change because energy friction of the fluid that is in contact with the
cannot be created or destroyed. The velocity at
V2 is greater than 'VI, since energy remains
Tnner .wall;-~f-th~. pro-pe~.~jhie~- KeepIng th~
"other" conditions in mind we will observe
.,
.,
the same, pressure P2 is less than the pressure that the flow in a pipe is not ideal, but, in
at PI. By the same reasoning, the velocity at comparatively slow rates of flow we will see
V3 is less than V2 and the pressure P3 is how the flow is actually "Laminar". By
greater than the pressure at P2. The result is Laminar we mean that the flow of a liquid is
that the energy is shown to balance at all slower along the process lines inner walls than
points in the line as it must. at the center of the line (FIGURE 4-4).
As stated previously the flow rate Q is The friction that causes laminar flow J
directly related to the velocity V by Q = VA. can be over come by increasing the velocity of
The change in pressure is not directly related, the flow. The amount of the velocity increase J
but is proportional to the square of the velocity depends on the viscosity of the fluid along
change (&V). From this observation we can with the diameter of the pipe. To understand
deduct that the velocity is equal to the square this, picture a small process line (1/2 ") with a
root of the pressure change, most commonly flow; understand that a larger percentage of
called the differential Rressure .H, <1-= sgrt the total flow will be in contact with the inner
(H)A. From the equation Q= sQrLCIi)*A we process line walls than say an 8" line. A
wow understand the principle of how flow
measurement is obtained from differential
Laminar flow is useful in that accurate flow
measurements can be recorded with a wider
-,
pressure. As the differential pressure in a line variety of measuring instruments.
is measured across a known restriction in a
flow line (most commonly an orifice plate) and
A British scientist, Sir Osborne
Reynold, determined a relationship for the
1
knowing the diameter of the line, we can three basic factors which affect flow. 1M
calculate the actual flow rate in the line. With three basic factors which determine flow are:
most liquid flow measurement instruments, the the velocity of the fluid, the viscosity of the
Chapter 4 - Fundamentals of Flow 19

LAMINAR FLOW

Figure 4-4: Laminar flow characteristics.

fluid, and the diameter of the through the pipe with the same average
reIationship is expressed as an equation known velocity. Fluid ve loci ty is less significant and
as Reynold 's Number. the velocity profile is more uniform (FIGURE
4-5). For our purposes simply to know what
Reynold's number implies to a flow rate is
3160 x Q x G r
Reynolds Number sufficient. Our basic equation for flow (
D x u Q= VA) can now be modified to more
accuratel y reflect real flow rates rather than
where: Q = flow rate in GPM ideal flow rates. Q=KVA can now be used
GT = specific gravity where K is some constant involving Reynold
D = insi de diameter of pipe number. The reason some constant is used is
and u = viscosity of fluid , cp that the velocity is not the same at all points in
a line due to some pressure loss at constricting
By observing the equation for Reynolds points in a line. It is easy for us to realize
Number we can see that the equation is merel y what would happen if two so lid surfaces were
a ratio of the fluids inertial forces (flow rate rubbed vigorously together, heat would be
and specific gravity) to its drag forces (line generated as a reflection of the energy used to
diameter and viscosity). Now for any cause the friction. Now when a fluid comes
particular line the inside diameter and specific into contact with a solid surface the same
gravity remain constant, therefore it is the principle takes effect, energy is dissipated in
fluids flow rate and viscosity that determ ine the form of pressure loss. Bernoulli ' s princip le
the type of flow for a specific pipe. states that the su m of the pressure energy and
A value of Reynolds number is not the velocity energy must equal the total ene rgy
critical once certain requirements are met. A in a line , therefore a loss in pressure energy
Reynold 's number of 3000 or l es ~ genera!!'y means that the velocity energy must make up
indicates a !illninaL flow while a Reynolds the di fference.
number of 5000 or more- indicates a mostl y
turbulent flow. Turbulent flow occurs when a In summary:
mixing of flow breaks up into eddies that flow • The rate of flow is equal to the c ross-

Turbulent Flow

v )

Figure 4-5: Turbulent flow characteristics.


20 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation . .. and More

Orifice plate installed in a process line. Notice location of taps for measuring the
differential pressure. This particular line is elevated IS feet from the mounting position of
the transmitter. Is suppression needed? Why or why not?

sectional area of the pipe (A), times the located in the field use differential pressure to
velocity of the fluid (V). derive their flow rate, such is the reason for
• The velocity (V) is equal to the sqrt [of an in-depth study of flow and pressure
differential pressure (H)]. characteristics.
• At relatively low values for Reynolds One of the many methods used for
number the flow is Laminar. measuring the rate of fluid flow is using the
• At relatively high values for Reynolds principle of pressure differential through a
number the flow is Turbulent. restricted openmg. Remember that the
• Reynolds number is related to flow pressure drop across a restnctlOn is
velocity, flow viscosity, and pipe diameter. proportional to the square of the velocity or
• The rate of flow is equal at all parts in a simply figured velocity , V = sqrt (H),
process line. differential pressure. By using Figure I we
• A restriction in a pipe causes a permanent can picture when a fluid moves through an
pressure loss and a change in pressure and orifice plate the fluid forms a concentrated
velocity. flow with the lowest pressure and area smaJler
• Fluid friction is a force which opposes the than the orifice plate diameter (FIGURE 4-6).
flow of fluids ensuing from the presence of in a line, therefore a loss in pressure energy
the fluids viscosity and the turbulence means that the velocity energy must make up
reSUlting. the difference.

We have discussed so far how differential In summary:


pressure may exist in a process line. It is • The rate of flow IS equal to the cross-
estimated that 90-95 % of all flow devices sectional Notice the pressure eventually
r. Chapter 4 - Fundamentals of Flow 21

r recovers downstream of the orifice plate


but does not reach the value previously
Many process problems are directly related to
the measuring equipment selected, installed, or
implemented in a control loop. Certainly a
r attained due to energy loss.

ELEMENTS OF FLOW METERS AND


basic understanding of a device's advantage,
or disadvantage, will be helpful in diagnosing
r RELEVANT PROCESS VARIABLES and implementing the problem.
importance of flow meter selection is
The

Process measurement and control demands appreciated by those who understand the
r accuracy and dependability while interacting
with various process control variables that
requirements of the device. Engineers should
recognize that each application is not the same
r have to be considered in each instance. The
monitoring and control of a flow loop, for
and must be evaluated separately to determine
the importance of accuracy, dependability,
cost, and etc. Once these factors are
r·. example, may be contingent upon the line size
and velocity, but the presence of other
conditions may have a direct influence upon
determined, physical factors come into play
such as:
r. accuracy, repeatability, and dependability.
Conditions such as operating temperature,
1) Line size
2) Range of flow rate (min, max, norm)
ambient pressures, process reactions 3) Fluid characteristics (liquid, slurry,
r. (exothermic or endothermic), line surges, and
many other conditions may all have an effect
operating pressure,
temperature, etc.)
operating

r such that the measuring device no longer


performs as designed.
4) Corrosive effects, steady or surging
flow, other conditions.
Even though the above problems are design
r considerations for engineering responsibility,
the field technician is confronted daily with the
The process industry by its very nature
deals with the rate of flow constantly for
r above conditions, plus many more, that will
affect the functioning of his equipment. Since
process reactions, storage, and profit. It is
estimated that the flow measurement is the
adverse conditions will always affect the most common measurement found in the
r technicians equipment, it seems relevant that
the technician should be fundamentally aware
process plants today, yet some experts claim
that over 75% of the flow measuring devices
r' .
I
of instrument selection as well as installation. installed today are not performing

r Pressure
Orifice Plate
r. Differentia ZO~i
pressure

r.
r.
r. Vena C ontracta
r Figure 4-6: Concentrated flow that is called Vena Contracta.
22 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

satisfactorily. Faulty specifications by the interference. Field technicians are the ones
designers account for some of the wrongfully who come into the most frequent contact with
installed devices, but incorrect installation these elements and their properties should be
accounts for an additional amount. The field understood . Problems occur mainly with the
technician who understands that the most secondary elements of devices which must be
important qualification is what the flow protected. Manufacturers recommended
instrument is supposed to do will substantially installation instructions will usually negate
outperform his fellow worker by being ab le to these noise contributing elements.
contribute valuable information that is Space limitations prevent a detailed study
required to be known for a profitable of the various devices, but a summary will be
enterprise. studied so that a technician can research
Although suppliers are always ready to further if he desires. Service conditions have
supply information on the installation of their the most effect upon measurement devices and
FLOW METERS, estimates are that 75 % of numerous types of flow meters are available
installations are performed by the users. Some for service today. In general the meters can be
installation mistakes are made and the most classified as differential pressure, positive
common is not allowing sufficient upstream displacement, velocity and mass meters .The
and downstream piping for an accurate flow following outline shows the possibilities of
measurement. With electrical components , flow meter selection.
intrinsic safety is an important consideration in
hazardous locations. Most suppliers offer J. Displacement Meters
intrinsically safe design literature for A. Positive Displacement Meters
application. Magnetic fields exist in most B. Metering Pumps
locations. Power lines, relays, solenoids, IJ. Differential Pressure Devices (Head
transformers, motors, and others contribute to Meters)

A typical locally mounted flow meter. Notice that the Specific Gravity and Viscosity are
given.
Chapter 4 - Fu ndamental s of Flow 23

A. Closed Measurement ( Line, Vessel) DISPLACEMENT METERS


1. Orifice Operation of displacement meters consists
2. Venturi Tubes of separating liquids into accurate measured
3. Flow Tubes increments and then moving them along. Each
4. Flow Nozzles segment is connected to a register which
5. Pitot Tubes counts each segment as a volume amount.
6. Elbow-Tap Meters These units are popular with automatic batch
7. Target Meters processes and accounting' app li cations. The
8. Variable Area Meters meters are particul arly good for applications
III. Velocity FLOW METERS where the measurement of vicious li quids
A. Magnetic using a simple mechanical meter system is
B. Vortex Shedding needed.
C. Electromagnetic and Thermal
D. Sonic DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS
E. Turbine
IV. Mass FLOW METERS We have studied the use of differential
A. Weight Types pressure flow meters previously and we know
B. Head and Magnetic Compensated that we can determine a liquid's rate of flow.
(Temperature, Pressure, Density) The basic principle to understand is that the
C. Precision (Gyro-scope) pressure drop across the meter is proportional
D. Centrifical (torque) to the square of the flow rate. The differential
V. Open Measurement ( Open Tanks , pressure is measured and the square root is
Reservoi rs ) extracted.
A . Weirs Differential pressure FLOW METERS,
B. Flumes li ke most other FLOW METERS have a pri-

f . t.E

Secondary device for the orifice plate shown prev ious ly. Notice isolation manifold and
local display.
1<\ N!J\1'C Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

mary and secondary element. The primary The demand for accurate flow
element is responsible for causing a change in measurements in mass-related processes
the kinetic energy which causes the pressure (chemical, refining, heat transfer, etc.) Has
drop across the element. This unit is precisely resu lted in the design of mass FLOW
sized for correct line size, flow rate, and METERS. Various designs are available , but
liquid properties while allowing an accurate the ones most widely used is the Coriolis
measurement over a reasonable range. The meter. Its design is based upon the natural
secondary element analyzes the primary effect called the Corioli s force.
elements information and provides a signal or Corio lis meters are true mass meters that
readou t that is converted to the actual flow measure mass rate of flow directly as opposed
rate. to volumetric flow. Since the mass of flow
does not change the output is linear to the flow
VELOCITY METERS without having to be adjusted for variations in
These meters operate with linearity with liquid properties, changes in temperature , and
respect to the flow volume. There is no square changes in pressure. Corioli s meters are
root relationship and their rangeability is available with various designs , but the one
greater. Velocity meters have a minimum most used consists of a flow tube in a sensor
sensitivity to viscosity changes when applied to housing, installed directly into the process,
a flow with a Reynolds number calculation connected to an electronics unit which may be
located up to 500 feet away from the sensor.
greater than 10,000. Most velocity meters
come with flanges are suitable piping
arrangements to allow installation directly into OPEN CHANNEL METERS
pipelines. The term "open channel" refers to any
fluid routing that allows the fluid to flow with
MASS FLOW METERS a free surface. Tunnels, non-pressured sewers,

Foxboro flowmeter with the secondary and primary element constructed and installed
as a single unit.
Chapter 4 - Fundamentals of Flow 25

Micro Motion mass fl ow meter. Notice direction of flow . Why is it from bottom to
top?

Flow measurement using the Venturi princip le. Notice how the line decreases in size
and then increases . This is a form of flow measurement using Bernou lli ' s principle
applied as we have seen earlier in Figure 4-3.
26 NJATC Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

flvers and others . Depth related MAINTENANCE


measurements are the most common type
A number of factors can influence the
measurements taken. This technique assumes
need for maintenance of various devices. As
that the instantaneous flow rate can be
stressed before, matching the right flowmeter
obtained by measuring the depth 0 f the
with its correct application can reduce the
channel. Weirs and flumes are two of the
need for maintenance. FLOW METERS with
oldest and most common of open channel
no moving parts will require less attention
measurement.
than those with moving parts, but all FLOW
METERS will eventually require some sort
CALIBRA TION
of maintenance.
All FLOW METERS require an initial Primary elements in differential FLOW
calibration, but most of the time the METERS may become plugged due to
instrument is calibrated by the manufacturer process content and may have to be cleaned
using the design specs provided. The field or changed. FLOW METERS with moving
technician must be able to perform his own parts require periodic inspection especially if
calibrations to ensure that accuracy will not the content being measured is dirty or
be missed. The need for continued calibration viscous . Applications where coatings may
is well determined by how well the meter fits occur also are a potential problem for
its designed criteria. Some liquids tend to be motionless instruments such as the magnetic
abrasive , corrosive, or erosive . Over a and ultrasonic meters. The electrodes of
period of time some parts of the sensing these meters may become insulated from the
device may erode thereby changing the process and erroneous measurements may
original settings. Some FLOW METERS occur. The probes should be cleaned and
require special equipment for calibrating, but inspected periodically to insure their proper
most suppliers will provide such equipment operation .
if directed.

-
Chapter 5 - Fundamentals of Pressure 27

Fundamentals of Pressure

Pressure is the result of a force acting some pressure upon some measuring point
over a given area. Pressure can resuTtfrom with units in PSIG.
,me object set upon another, pressure can
result from - elevatingliquios somedistance To understand "head" Observe a column of
a bove another, Such as a Watertower, or from water 30 feet tall sitting upon a pressure sensor
the expansion of a gas, or from the force of a (Figure 5-1) . The weight of the column can be
fluid flow. derived by first finding the volume of the
Pressure is a universal processing column. This the area of the base times the
condition since all forms of life depend upon height of the liquid or 1 ft2 X 30 ft = 30 fe of
pressure for survival. The atmospheric water. The approximate weight of water is
pressure enables all of us to have oxygen to 62.43 lbs/if. Therefore the total weight of the
breath, control of movements, and etc. Water column will equal 30 ft x 62.43 lbs/if= 1870.2
is supplied to us by pressure for our use. In the Ibs/ft2 Pressure is normally recorded in
typical process plant pressure is responsible "inches" rather than feet so; there are 144
for the process reactions that cause the proper in2/ft2 and if we divide 1870.2 Ibslft2 by 144
boiling points, condensation points, costs, and in21ft2 we get 12.9875 Ibs/in2 or roughly 13
more. The measure of pressure, or in some PSIG.
cases the lack of pressure (vacuum) is a critical
function. Instruments can be installed to cover PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
a wide range of pressure measurements and
how these measurements are used will be There is a distinct relationship between
discussed now. pressure and temperature in the since that as
Again, pressure is the result of force fluids, both liquids and gases, increase in
acting over a given area, and is often defined pressure they also increase in temperature.
in terms of "head". "Head" is stated as a This concept is often used to measure the
column of water of certain height exerting temperature of fluids as well as pressure.

o ft.
13 PSIG

Figure 5-1: " Head" (pressure) as a result of a liquids mass .


28 N1ATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation . .. and More

Sealed enclosures of fluids sense the change in 62.43 pounds. Suppose that same cubic foot
temperature and transmi t that change to (volume) contained mercury instead. Since
pressure recorders that can be calibrated 111 mercury has a specific gravity that is 13.6
degrees of temperature or pressure . times heav ier than water the resulting weight
of the mercury will be approximately 850 Ibs.
PRESSURE AND FLOW To fully understand this is to realize that all
fluids have different weight due to their
A fluid fl owing in a line or pipe densities. To keep a uniform sense of all
encounters restrictions in the form of pressure measurements their, densities are
couplings, fittings, flanges and etc . Special referenced to water to derive a ratio value
restrictions are also used to record these known as Specific Gravity.
pressure changes with the resulting flow
measurements . This concept is studied in more SPECIFIC GRAVITY
detail under the flow heading.
FIGURE 5-2 shows two manometers,
PRESSURE AND LEVEL one filled with water the other with mercury ,
both have an applied pressure of 1 PSI. The
Fluid levels can also be calculated water manometer is indicating a pressure
using the pressure sensor since all fluid s create difference of 27 .7", while the mercury
pressure in a direct relation ship with their manometer indicates a difference of 2.04".
density and depth. As the depth of a pressure With mercury being 13.6 times heav ier than
increases then the pressure of the fluid also water than it follows that an identical pressure
increases . As already studied the head of a will move the mercury less . Using mercury,
fluid can be used to calculate the resulting the range of pressure measurements can be
pressure. expanded up to 13 .6 times of an equivalent
To measure pressure and its related measurement using water.
value we must first understand what we are While the measurement of pressure
relating our pressure to in order to understand with a manometer is a useful tool, a
its true indication. As we studied previously manometer can practically measure up to 100"
we know that a cubic foot of water weighs of water column, which is the equivalent

WATER FL~~~ED MERCURY FILLED


G 1 PSI
1 PSI

7 •Q4, ''':-:'
• • • • , , , ,

1o--oH.E .7 " -

Figure 5-2: Specific gravity relationship between water and mercury.


Chapter 5 - Fundamentals of Pressure 29

measurement of 3.6 PSI. While this range is GASES


useful, it is apparent that pressure
measurements greater than 3.6 PSI will be Air 1.00
needed. By using liquids that have a specific Hydrogen 0.06
gravity greater than water, we can extend the Nitrogen 0.96
Ir:, range of the mano-meter. In the above example
using mercury we can extend our range of
Oxygen 1.10

r measurement up to 13.6 times what we could


measure with water. Now our maximum
In FIGURE 5-3 we see a tank filled to
a level of 10 feet with alcohol and has a
pressure measurement will be 13.6 times 3.6
Ir Psi for a result of approximately 49 PSI,
clearly a more usable range. Almost all
pressure gage to read the pressure of the
liquid. The specific gravity of alcohol is 0.79,
so if we find an equivalent water filled tank we
'~r_ substances have been assigned specific gravity
numbers, but each substance is referenced to a
can use the specific gravity value to find the
specific gravity of the alcohol. Water has a
substance in its own group such as a gas to a
r air, or a liquid to water. The following table
lists the specific gravity numbers for the most
weight of 62.43 lbs/fr, so if we multiply 62.43
lbs/fr times the 10ft of liquid height we get a
result of 624.3 lbslff. Now recall that the
r used substances.

Some common Specific Gravity constants:


most common measurement for pressure is in
inches, so divide 624.31bslff by 144 in2/ff we
get the result of 4.34 Ibs/in2 (PSI). Now
r LIQUIDS
mUltiply the specific gravity of alcohol times
Water 1.00 the pressure of water and the reading for the
Mercury (Hg) 13.6 equivalent amount of alcohol is 3.4 Ibs/in2
Alcohol 0.79 (PSI). The following shows the mathematical
r Gasoline 0.67 approach:

r ALCOHOL

r SPECIFIC GRAVITY = 0.79

r
r
r LIQUID HEIGHT = 10FT.

c
r
r
r FIGURE 5-3: A liquid's "Head" by a gage indicating pressure.
30 NlATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation. . . and More

62.43 (lbs/ff) x 10 ft. = 624.3 (lbs/ff)


-
624.3 (lbs/ff)
= 4.34 (lbs/in2)
144 (in2Iff)
4.34 (lbs/in2) x 0.79 = 3.43 (lbs/in2)
The method worked out above can be
used on any liquid as long as the specific
gravity of the liquid is known. It is important
to understand that the relationship of specific
gravity allows us to be able to measure the
pressure of any substance with a common
calibration tool. Our pressure unit of PSIG
measurement has been in the form of Pounds
per Square inch, but we need to learn there are
different forms of pressure measurements also. FIGURE 5-5: Atmospheric and Gage
Pressure is measured in one of three Pressure.
different scales, but we will see that all three
of these scales are related to each other and familiar with atmospheric pressure, but maybe
knowing one, we know the other two. without its fullest meaning. From our earlier
readings we know that oxygen is heavier
GAGE PRESSURE (specific gravity = 1.10) than air (specific
The use of gage pressure is extremely gravity = 1.00), therefore the closer to sea
useful in industry since this reading can show level the higher the atmospheric pressure is.
the actual force being applied to some object As humans we do not feel the result of
such as a vessel or line. Gage pressure is atmospheric pressure because the pressure
really a special form of differential pressure in inside of us equals the outside pressure
such that the gage pressure readings are applied, for gages that record gage pressure
pressure readings without the normal this is also true. Gage pressure starts at
atmospheric pressure included. We are all atmospheric pressure and measures increasing
amounts of applied pressure. A reading of 10
PSIG records a reading in excess of
atmospheric pressure. A reading of less than
atmospheric pressure records a reading in
Vacuum, or less than atmospheric pressure. It
is common practice to give Gage Pressure
readings (PSIG) without specifying absolute or
differential or just in the form (pSI), but if any
cause for confusion should arise, specifying
the pressure as gage pressure should eliminate
them.

PSIG ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

Absolute pressure is measured from the


point of zero atmospheric pressure -"
(approximately -14.7 PSIG). Since
FIGURE 5-4: Gage Pressure -,
Chapter 5 - Fundamentals of Pressure 31

A Rosemount pressure transmitter record ing level. The measured pressure is recorded
as a gauge pressure (from Zero Atmospheric) since the low pressure side is vented to
atmosphere.

14 .7

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

Figure 5-6: Vacuum Pressure

atmospheric pressure starts at total vacu um , gages are less common due to the fac t that a
a PSIA gage lying on a work table at sea vacuum chamber must be present and this
level would indicate 14.7 PSIA while a PSIG makes the gauge more expensIve to
gage would indicate O. Absolute pressure ma nufacture and use.
32 NJ ATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation. . and More

V ACUUM PRESSURE in full . Although, it is becoming common


practice to specify gage pressure without
Vacuum pressure IS any pressure specifying G and to say absolute or
below . atmospherIc pressure, and as di fferential only when they apply.
reference ,g agepressure is any point above Di fferential press ure can be used to specify
atmospheric pressure:- When there is any vacuum or gage by indicating whether a
-doubt whether a pressure is gage, absolute or reading is positi ve or negative.
differential, the pressure should be indicated

7.5 (191) Max. 0.75 (19)


10--14 NPT
with Optional Meter ~-t---~'t-- Clearance for
Conduit
Connection Cover Removal
(2 Places) (Typical)

Transmitter
Meter : Circuitry
HOUSing ~ This Side

Terminal Connections 1.625


This Side (41)

%-18 NPT on
Flanges for Pressure - -...........[~
Connection without
Flange Adapters
Blank Flange
Used on
Yz-14 NPT on AP and GP
Flange Transmitters
Adapters

Rosemount 1151 pressure transmitter dimensional layout. Notice the


fl ange tap descriptor for connecting to measure differential, gage or
atmospheric.

Pressure Unit Relations in PSI

o 14.7
Gauge Pressure
I
--~ Almo sphe ric Press ur e
o<1(- V acuum Press ure 14 .7
~ 29 .4
II-+-----+------II-A<- ----+------II-- A bsolute Pressure
·1 4.7 o + 14.7
Differential Pre ss ure

Figure 5-7: Pressure unit relationships .


Chapter 6 - Fundamentals of Liquid Level 33

r Fundamentals of Liquid Level

r The typical process plant today


contains various tanks, vessels and reservoirs,
into two categories, point level measurement
and continuous level measurement. Point level

r: all of which will store at some time various


stages of the process. It is essential to record
accurate measurements of the vessels in order
(level switch) measurement monitors a specific
level height and sends a discrete signal when
this point is reached. Discrete signals today
r to maintain a automatic working process. The
majority of the tanks will contain a liquid of
are used for alarm conditions, motor
starting/stopping, shutdown signals, and

r some form, but some may be used to contain


solids. Level measurement is an integral part
of process control and may be used in a wide
several more, but the trend is for continuous
level monitors to have control over all process
systems. A continuous level sensor monitors
r variety of applications.
One of the most common ways to
the level height of a liquid over a wide range
rather than at a single point as discrete point
measure a liquid level is to use a pressure gage control. The continuous level monitor
r to measure the pressure of a liquid, and (transmitter & sensor) provide a working
range which controllers can "see"; with
knowing the specific gravity of that liquid, to
r obtain the proper level. Another even older
and more simple approach is to use a sight
discrete point (level switch) control,
controllers are working in the blind until the
glass to visually verify levels. Even the dip- discrete point is obtained. Circumstances for
r stick is still in use, such as to check the oil
level of your car. Using a sight glass and dip-
each control loop will determine the type of
control loop that is required, but field
r stick work fine in some cases, but what if
automatic control is used to control the
technicians must be the interface between
controllers and control loops.
process? The trend today is for self-sufficient For our ease of study, three different
r level sensors to record and transmit level
measurements to a central controller. The field
groups of level control can be can be applied
to all level sensors; Head Pressure, Buoyancy,
r technician will be the most important link to
ensure the proper installation of level devices.
and all others such as load cells, capacitance
probes, sonic devices, and nuclear devices.
Level sensing devices can be grouped Head pressure uses the pressure of a
r
r
r.
r
r HP
Gasoline 15'
r
r
r FIGURE 6-1: Differential Pressure used to record level.
34 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

liquid, developed by the liquids density and


height above the measuring point, to determine
a pressure value equivalent to inches of water
(head pressure). Since all liquids can be
calculated to express their weight in depth
P = 627.42 ibslff I 144 in2/ft2
P = 4.36 Ibs/in2 (PSI)

Most level instruments are calibrated in


inches of water ("H20) so lets now calculate
.,
1

(height) and density, we can use the


mathematical relationship P = SxH to express
the calibrated pressure in inches of H20 using
the equation P = SHe Remember the specific
J
level where P is the pressure of a liquid, S is gravity is needed now also.
the specific gravity of the liquid, and H is the i
height of the liquid. The pleasant result is that P = SxH
P can be expressed in inches of water column
("H20) or in PSI as needed.
P = 0.67 (specific gravity) x 15 ft x 12 in! ft J
P = 120.6 inches of H2U. -
As an example use FIGURE 6-1 to
calculate the equivalent pressure in PSI and
j
Now a way to check your calculations
"H20. The tank is filled with Gasoline which is to convert directly from PSI to "H20. Recall
has a specific gravity of 0.67.To obtain the that one pound per square inch of atmospheric j
pressure of a liquid use the equation of P = pressure is equal to 27.7 inches of water.
WD (P=pressure (PSI), W=weight density, j
D = depth). To calculate the weight density, P = 4.36 PSI x 27.7 "H 201 PSI
recall that the density of water =62.43Ibs.lff.

P=62.43 lbslff x 0.67 (specific gravity)x15 ft


P= 120.8 "H20
(The difference is due to round off error) -,
.,
P = 627.42 (lbslff.) Most level instrument equipment will j
be calibrated in "H20, therefore a more useful
Since ibslff pounds per square foot is way to calculate the pressure of a liquid is to
to large for most pressure instruments, we use the Head Pressure method ( P = S x H ).
must convert to Ibs/in2 (PSI). This way of calibrating the pressure of a liquid
-,
Bouyant force of fluid= 49.32
-----------
-,
Object weight = 150 Ibs. I
Apparent weight = 100.68 Ibs. I 'j
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
.,.,
J

o 1
-,
Figure 6-2: Archimedes Law of Buoyancy. .,
Chapter 6 - Fundamentals of Liquid Level 35

actually simplifies the process by figuring the The basic float switch is a simple float tbat
calibration range and pressure at tbe same changes level witb tbe level of tbe fluid. A
time . recording and/or measuring device simply
The above example uses a DP sensor to measures the change in level of tbe float to a
sense level changes and the approach is fairly reference point and transmits tbe output.
straight forward. Sometimes otber Buoyant force is always directed in a way to -
considerations must be taken into consideration force an object out of tbe liquid it is
which will involve the installation and submerged in. This common sense principle is
maintenance of differential pressure level a form of Archimedes Law on Buoyant Force.
sensors . The mounting location of DP sensors Archimedes Law states tbat when an
can actually play a part in tbe calibrated object is placed into a fluid tbe object will be
measurement of tbe level. If tbe DP sensor is subject to a buoyant force equal to tbe weight
located below the tank bottom extra pressure of the fluid displaced by tbe object. For
will be on tbe DP cell simply from tbe example, lets study tbe displacement and
pressure/weight of tbe liquid in tbe related buoyant force of a fluid on an object as shown
tank/tubing to the DP sensor. This is called an in FIGURE 6-2.
elevation problem which means tbat the
pressure of tbe liquid elevates tbe output. Also Object, weight = 150 lbs.
sealing liquids and otber conditions may place Alcohol filled tank (specific gravity = 0.79)
unwanted pressure on tbe low pressure side of
the sensor and suppress tbe output. The DP Use weight of an equivalent amount of water
sensor must take tbis into consideration and to find tbe buoyant force:
must be suppressed to measure a true level.
62.43 lbs/ftl x 0.79 = 49.32 lbs/ftl
SUPPRESSION- Lowering tbe output
caused by additional or unwanted pressure on Applying Archimedes Law we can find an
tbe high side of a D P cell. The term is
normally used for a condition
tbat has tbe 4mA output high
when their is 0 % level. 4.5 (114) Permanent
Max. Tag (Optional)

ELEVATION-
Additional or unwanted
pressure on tbe low side of a
DP sensor. The term
Wired-on
Tag \
(Standard) \
9.0 (229) Max.
i
normally applies to a
Nameplate
condition tbat causes tbe
4mA output of a DP cell to
be low when tbeir is 0 % ' %-18 NPTfor
Side Ora/nNent
DrainNent
Valve
level so tbe output is adjusted (Optional Top
or Bottom)
to zero. 3.69
(94)
Several metbods are
available to measure level
and tbe most common ones
3.375 Ranges Can
were discussed previously, Flange (86) Be Rotated
but anotber common metbod Adapter

of level metbod uses


buoyancy ( float switch ). Rosemount 1151 pressure transmitter dimensional layout.
36 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation. . . and More
.,
apparent weight of the object by subtracting
the buoyant force from the real weight.

150.00 - 49.32 = 100.68 lbs.


called a float. A float "displacer" never
floats.)
A relatively new method for measuring
level is to use a capacitance level sensor. A
.,
This apparent weight is only apparent
capacitance sensor probe is inserted into the
-,
,.,
tank and senses level change by related
weight, the object still weighs 1501bs. Usmg capacitive and resistive values of the liquid,
the buoyant force principle, we can measure a the result is an accurate level measurement.
fluids level. If the fluid level is below or at the Electrical capacitance is a fundamental known
bottom of the displacer tube, the displacer will among electricians and will help to understand
register its full weight on the sensor. As the the level measuring form of capacitance.
fluid level rises the displacer weight will Capacitance is the storing of an electrical
decrease in exact proportions. As the level charge by two metal plates separated by a j
reaches 50 % of the displacer length the dielectric. A metal rod (plate) is inserted into
displacer will have an apparent weight of a tank and serves as one of the capacitance
24.66 lbs, which is exactly half of the real plates and the tank wall serves as another. j
weight. Likewise as the level increases, the When the tank is empty, the dielectric is air.
apparent weight will rise also. When the tank is filled to some level the j
It is important to realize that the level dielectric changes due to the fluid becoming
can only be detected along the length of the
displacer. When the level is below or above
the dielectric and changing the original value.
It is important to understand that the fluid can
-,
the displacer the output of the transmitter will have a better or worse dielectric rating, the
be maximum or minimum depending upon change is the function calculated by the ~ensor. j
calibration. For those fluids that have a dielectric
As you may have guessed a displacer rating that is poor, we can use these fluids to
can also detect the density of a liquid. Liquids act as a conductor to detect level. As the fluid
j
with greater weight densities will cause more of a tank rises, it will reach the probes set in
of an apparent weight change. If the above the tank and allow a sensor to record when the
tank were filled with water the buoyant force fluid level has reached the level of the probes.
will equal 62.43 lbs and the apparent weight of This method is good for monitoring the point
the displacer would be 150 - 62.43 = 87.57 at which the probes are located since the
lbs. (One related note; a displacer is often amount of liquid above or below the probe can
j
.,
-~ I
l"\ I measurement
Capacitance I
Resistance
.,
I measurement
i

FIGURE 6-3: Capacitance measurement FIGURE 6-4: Resistance measurement


r Chapter 6 - Fundamentals of Liquid Level 37

r not be determined. There are other methods


that use force, conductance, and various other
easy understanding of these methods and any
challenges that arise while using these
r variables to measure level. The understanding
of the basic fundamentals of level
methods.

measurement will allow


r
r
r
r
r CORRECT CORRECT INCORRECT

r NOTE
The Factory Mutual (FM) approval requires inserting the conduit plugs
r in all unused openings with a minimum of 40 ft-Ib of torque. This will
maintain five full threads of engagement.

r Rosemount conduit installation diagrams.

r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
38 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
~

J
,.,
-NOTES -

,.,
j

.,
~

~.j

,.,
,.,
~

,.,
..
J

,.,
,
,.,
,
,.,
J
"1
,.,
~
Chapter 7 - Fundamentals of Temperature 39

FUNDAMENTALS OF TEMPERATURE
Industry's today are requiring their Temperature will cause a ll solids, liquids , or
energy management systems to perform as the gasses to expand or contract with temperature
most efficient systems available. In industry , change. What is helpful about this principle is
when the temperature of processes are that all expand at a uniform rate that can be
controlled efficiently, the resulting finished measured and converted into a temperature
products are produced at a reduced expense. scale wanted.
With the demand for natural resources As we have studied in pressure
becoming greater , industries today are placing measurement, there are also different scales to
a greater emphasis on energy management measure temperature. Fahrenheit is probably
systems which will result in an increased the most common in tbe U.S. with Celsius
demand for control systems technicians. One probably the next most important temperature
of the most important methods to save energy scale. Their are other temperature scales tbat
is to monitor and control all heat related are perhaps more usefu l since these scales
processes. Since beat is energy, the quantity of record temperature in absolute scales and it is
energy saved has a direct result on profits. As sometimes helpfu I to think of the absolute
industries place a greater emphasis on the temperature scales in the same concept as the
importance of temperature measurement it absolute pressure scale. Regardless of the
follows that the installation and understanding technique or scale used the important thing to
of the fundamentals of temperature remember is that temperature is the
measurement will grow in importance for measurement of the presence of heat or energy
those people who work directly with and there can be as many as four scales used
temperature sensors. that we need to become familiar with:
The four most popular types of
temperature sensors ~ will study are~
thermocouples , RTDs , integrated circuit
--
Fahrenhyit, Celsiu§, Kelvin , and Rankine.
Galileo is credited with inventing the
thermometer around the year 1592. Galileo

-
sensors and thermistors. It is important t~
u nderstand the basics of temperature
measurement for regardJess of the device used
observed a container filled with alcohol and in
which a long narrow glass tube with a
reservoir at the upper end was placed. As
the response of temperature elements will temperature was increased the air trapped in
remain the same. The only difference will be the reservoir was also heated and the air was
the temperature scales that the data can re forced out of the tube it was trapped in . As the
recorded or measured in. temperature was decreased the remaining
The first and most important fact to trapped air would contract and allow some of
remember is that you cannot measure the alcohol to begiJl advancin g up the hollow
temperature directly . The implications of this glass tube. This "upside down " form of a
statement has greater significance than perhaps thermometer was the first thermometer which
is realized by many. We can only measure could be produced in mass in which every
temperature by observing changes in other thermometer would record the same results
objects or materials. Tbe typicaJ thermometer when subjected to the same temperature
is calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit and we change. Over the years many different form s
observe temperature change by observing the of temperature measurement scales were used
effect temperature has upon mercury . As the and it was not until Gabriel Fahrenbeit
temperature II1creases or decreases the established a scale with 0 degrees being the
mercury changes with respect to the lowest temperature he could record with his
temperature cbange. We observe the change in mixture of ice water and salt (ammonium
mercury , not the change of temperature. chloride). He chose the temperature point of
40 NJ ATe Fundam entals of Instrumentation . .. and More

the human body for the upper point. Why 96 freez ing and boiling points.
and not 100 degrees? It is theorized that The Rankine scale is merely another
Fahrenheit chose the multiple of twelve that form of measuring absolu te temperatu re using
earlier measurement scales had been using . the Fahrenheit scale.
Fahrenheit's temperature scale grew in FIGURE 7-1 shows the relationship
popularity due to the ease of production of the between the four temperature scales.
scales that he could make. Around Farenheits
time the practice of science increased Below are some conversion equations for the
dramaticall y and the resulting increase of fo ur scales .
scientifi c data recordings increased also.
Scienti sts would come to recognize the need C = 519 ( F - 32 )
for temperature scales with alternate units of F = 915 C + 32
measurement were needed. K=C+273.15
Approximately half a century later R = F + 459.67
Anders Celsius proposed a temperatu re scale
which contained one hundred degrees between As stated before, the four most
water's freezi ng and boiling points. This was common types of temperatu re transducers are:
the beginning of the Celsius scale. thermocouples, RTDs, integrated circuit
Around 1800 Lord Kelvin proposed a senso rs and thermistors. We cannot build a
universal thermodynamic scale based upon the temperature divider or add temperature as we
coefficient expansion of an ideal gas. Thi s can with resistive elements so we must use
scientific jargon simply exp lai ns that Kelvin temperatu re responses that have been
had created a model whi ch could theoreticall y established by physical properties. The
establish a point of absolu te zero, or the International Practical Temperatu re Scale
absence of heat. He used the Celsi us (lPTS) is a reference scale based upon these
temperatu re scale to record the changes that properties and establi shes a reference point.
his working model could produce and the Instruments we use today use these points as a
resulting Kelvin temperature scale uses the reference to extract temperature readin gs
concept of 100 degrees between water's between these points. Some of these

Fahre nheit ·:
: Rankine


..

..• Celsiu s
.• Kelvin

..•
---21"2-- - ---1----· f- -6-n -----. --i -00-·I----- ---- 1-373-------- B-oiliiig-po.iiToTwnle' -----------
:•
:
:
:•
:
:
:
:
I
..
----n- ~ --- : -- -- ... ~ -49r ----- . --- -{)-- ·I- ---- . ----< 1-273-------
:
:
:
:
rrcczmg-pOTnlotw8ter----------

:
:
:
:
... •
-- - 0-- - ~ --- !•----- ""460-------.------·
:
• 1'- ----------- -----------------------------
I'- ----i---·
:
:
:

:
--4{;Q -- f----1----·1--0--------.
:•
: •
. • :
--"'2-1-3- ~ ---- :•--- .
:•
I

FIGURE 7-1: Four temperature scales used in measurement and controls.


0--------- xb·.Gi.wzercr-----------------
r Chapter 7 - Fundamentals of Temperature 41

r_ instruments can be fairly exotic, but we will


concentrate on the four basic types.
temperature above zero has some current
flowing. By forcing the temperature reading of

r: THE THERMOCOUPLE
the ice bath to read "zero" we cancel out the
voltage that is present below zero.
In industry the thermocouple is used to
r When two dissimilar metals are joined
at both ends and one end is heated there is a
accurately measure temperatures
indication, alarm or control. A thermocouple
for

r continuous current which flows in the circuit.


If this circuit is broken at one end the resulting
open circuit voltage is a predictable reading
may be subjected to a temperature and its
output can be checked to reference sheets to
establish a temperature or the ice bath method
r that will depend upon the temperature and the
metal types used. All dissimilar metals present
can be used. Since the induced emf ( output
voltage ) is often in the range of milli-volts

r this effect and knowing the combination of


metals used we can measure the resulting
temperature from the voltage reading. In a
sensi tive equipment is used to detect this
voltage and convert to temperature.
One of the useful properties that is used
r physical relationship, for any small change in
temperature the voltage is linearly
effectively when employing thermocouples is
an isothermal block. This allows the use of

r proportional. This simply means that as the


temperature rises the voltage will rise at the
same rate. We cannot measure the voltage
dissimilar metals that will not cause an induced
voltage since the temperature will remain the
same across both junctions. This allows the
r at the open end of the circuit ( FIGURE 7-2)
because our voltmeter leads are also made of
use of less expensive lead wires to the
recording device since thermocouple wires are

r metal and introduce another form of current.


One way to measure the voltage at junction Eab
is to place the thermocouple junction into an
much more expensive. Copper wire is often
used for thermocouple extension wiring but it
is still important to realize that a temperature
r ice bath and force the output to be 0 degrees
Celsius or 32 degrees Fahrenl1ejt. It is
difference from the isothermal block will
cause an induced emf. For example, the
important to understand that the voltmeter temperature in a control room is hardly ever
r· reading at 0 degrees Celsius will not be zero
since the voltage is dependent upon the
the same as a field junction box. These
differences in potential voltage can be
r Absolute Temperature. For our purposes here
Absolute Temperature is the temperature scale
corrected as long as the reference temperature
of the thermocouple is known. Two of the
in which any reading above Zero shows the most widely used thermocouples, Iron-
r presence of some heat and conversely, at zero
there is no heat present and energy (our
Constantan and Copper-Constantan, often use
extension leads of the same material.
r measuring voltage) does not exist. In other
words at absolute zero there is no current
Extension wiring is color coded to minimize
mistakes when connecting them. Most often
flowing in the junction metals, but any the lead wiring of thermocouples are
r
r MotalA
+
r
r
Eab

Motal B >
·r FIGURE 7-2: Example of thermocouple metals and polarity.
42 Nl ATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

comparatively small (#14 through #20) but directly into the rocess. They are placed into
mostly the size is dependent upon the strength a protective covering called a thermGWerI
required to pull the conductors in a conduit. which is placed into the p rocess. This
The resistance of lead wires can also playa simplifies a lot since now the thermocouple is
part upon the calibration of a thermocouple protected and it can be removed without
since the resistance will change as lead wiring stopping the process. Thermowells are
is added. A thermocouple that has a known available in sizes from '/z " to 2" and are
reading for a 0 degree C temperature can be screwed into the vessel or line. Thermowells
forced at the control room to read 0 degrees are often made of 316 or 304 stainless steel,
Celsius also. One last fact that has to be but other alloys are available. Thermo weiis
known and is very important to the installation can slow the response time down of the
of thermocouples and thermocouple wiring is thermocouple since the thermowell acts as an
that care has to be taken where the insulator ( although poor) which can isolate
thermocouple is mounted and where any the thermocouple from process. Bare thin
resultant wiring is run. Because of the low strips of like thermocouple metal can be
levels of thermocouple wiring voltages, stray inserted into the thermocouple to reduce the
currents or voltages (noise) can greatly effect air gap isolating the thermocouple and speed
the final reading. Thermocouple lead wiring the process with the transfer of heat through
should always be placed away from high the metal parts. Bare or thin sheathed couples
voltage or high current conductors. Separate can also be furnished which greatly reduce
conduit or raceways are always recommended. response times, but the price of these increase
Shielded twisted pair wiring is another usefu l greatly.
precaution since the shield protects from noise Thermocouple and thermocouple
and the twisting of the pair negates additional wiring failure, or poor responses, can
induced emfs. generally be traced to one of seven
Thermocouples are rarely installed possibilities:

Various temperature displays, sensors and wells.


r Chapter 7 - Fundamentals of Temperature 43

r
r ISOTHERMAL BLOCK

r VOLTMETER
CU FE

r
r eu e

r L __ ~
Tref

r
r
r FIGURE 7-3: Calibrating a thermocouple by using an ice bath.

r 1. Poor junction connection point is that an adequate junction must be


2. Decalibration of thermocouple wire made such that any current flowing in the
r 3. Shunt impedance and Galvanic
action
conductor will see a minimal increase in
resistance. Soldering a joint limits the
r 4. Thermal shunting
5. Noise and Leakage currents
temperature at which the wiring can be
subjected to (solder melts a relatively low
6. Thermocouple specifications temperature), so welding the joints can allow
r 7. Documentation for higher temperature measurements. With
soldering and especially welding care must be

r There are a number of ways to connect


thermocouple wlnng, soldering, silver-
taken so that the wiring itself is not degraded
from the excessive temperature that is used
soldering, welding, and etc. The important when making the connection. With any
r connection point a degradation of
the joint will introduce some added

r resistance, reducing the output


voltage of the thermocouple.
Decali bration can be a
r more serious effect than an open or
shorted circuit sense the

r thermocouple appears to be
working normally. Decalibration is
the result of altering the
r thermocouple wiring so that it no
longer performs at its rated
Rosemount 3044CA Temperature Transmitter Assembly
r with General Purpose Sensor.
specifications. Decalibration can be
44 NJATC F undamentals of Instrumentation . .. and More

II 11111

0.25
(6)
® -----.~~~----- ~ ----~~

Rosemount 3044CA Temperature Transmitter Assembly with spring-loaded sensor, union ,


L@---I
nipple extension fitting an d therm owell.

the result of atmospheric diffusion caused by High temperature can degrade


high extreme temperatures. The most common thermocouple insulators. An insulator that is
decalibration is when the conductors are "cold subjected to hi gh temperatures loses its
worked" or stressed by drawing the in sulati ng properties. An insulator can be
conductors throu gh a conduit. This degraded to the point whe re a "virtual
coldworking stresses the conductor by junction" can be created which is in fact a
straining the conductor as if trying to stretch it " short" in tbe circuit. With an insulator that
and the resulting increase in resistance is has been broken down , the lack of resistance
introduced into the circuit. Vibration can play can create another path for junction current
a part in decalibration by degrading the which will result in false readings of the
conductor also. Annealing can occur in a wire thermocouple. This effect is known as Shunt
that undergoes constant large temperatu re Impedance.
changes . Galvanic action can change the output

Sensor Hex
Sensor Adaptor

Pipe Wall or Insulation


Process Container (If Req .)

Thermowell
Hex
Sensitive Portion
of Sensor Transmitter

Thermowell

Recommended process mounting for Rosemount 3044CA and 3044CH.


r Chapter 7 - Fundamentals of Temperature 45

r of a thermocouple reading .. Galvanic action is


the chemical breakdown of the metals used in
thermocouple and the voltmeter. Extension
wiring is generally larger than thermocouple

r the thermocouple. Sometimes dyes are used in


the manufacture of thermocouple insulators.
wiring and is easier to pull into a conduit (over
long distances) and is subjected to less
These dyes when in the presence of water will temperature extremes. a larger extension wire
r begin a galvanic process which could have a
result of increasing the voltage measurement
also reduces the effect of resistance on the
conductors and is less expensive than

r to many times higher than the original


thermocouple output.
thermocouple wiring. Another result of
extension wiring is to reduce the amount of
Thermal shunting~~ the~QrocesL()f noise imposed upon the conductor due to the
r reducing the effect~9J temperatureup-on_the
llieiinocouple iiidits associil-t~g _~!ril1g. As
construction of the conductors themselves.
Noise can be imposed upon conductors

r with other properties thermocouples absorb


some of the heat they were intended to
measure. If the process to be measured by a
but with care the affects can be minimized. As
we know all fluctuating forms of current ( AC
or Fluctuating DC ) creates a magnetic field
r thermocouple is relatively small the resultant
thermocouple must be small also. If you can
which will impose a current upon a conductor
that is within the field generated. The most

r picture a very small volume of a working


process. If the thermocouple that will be used
important and easiest way to offset this
property is to route all field wiring away from
to measure the process is large in comparison possible sources of noise. In some cases this is
r to the process, the thermocouple will in fact
draw heat as the process is being heated and
not possible so steps can be taken by the
controller to eliminate by integration, tree

r contribute heat to the process as the process is


being cooled. The result is a "Time Lag"
switching, and guarding which plainly means
that the controller can cancel the effects of an
which will not accurately reflect the unwanted reading. Thermocouple wire is
r temperature of the process. a smaller
thermocouple ( with smaller wiring ) is less
often furnished at a known specification, but
the known specification can be checked by


r
likely to have the "Time Lag" effects placed
upon it than a larger thermocouple. Also,
sometimes to minimize these effects extension
cali brating the wire at a known temperature.
Thermocouple wire will often resemble
thermocouple specifications but its output
r wiring can be used. Extension wiring is
intended to cover long distances between the
voltage may differ slightly and must be
'zeroed in". If a wire is calibrated to meet

r
r
r
r
r
r
r Incorrect conduit installation with Rosemount 3044C.
46 NJ ATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More

LEAD S OHMS

100 OHM
RTD
LEAD SOHMS

FIGURE 7-4: Example of one wiring configuration for a RTD.


.,
J

)
specifications than all the other possible types readings of the circuit. The bridge is a
of thermocouple error must be considered in practical way to eliminate resistive values
order to avoid decalibration. since the voltage read is taken directly across j
With the large number of data points the RTD. The bridge will require four
being monitored today it is possible that a connecting wires three temperature
faulty reading on a thermocouple may not be independent resistors and a power source. To
faulty at all. The data points should always avoid subjecting the three other resistors to
listed in an associated specification sheet and unwanted temperatures the RTD is connected j
care should always be taken to ensure that this to the bridge using connecting wires.

.,
data is recorded accurately. The three wire RTD can alleviate most
problems with resistance but unless you can J
THERTD accurately measure the load resistance or

The RTD (Resistance Temperature


balance the three other bridge resistors some
deviations in accuracy will still remain. In
.,
.,
Detector) is used today to measure some cases this circuit may be all that is
temperature in process systems. RTDs are able required, but in other cases a more accurate
to measure temperature by a phenomenon measurement circuit is needed. Consider then
discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy. Sir Davey
found that metals have a certain resistance that
depends upon the temperature of the metal.
Later Sir William Siemens proposed to use
platinum as the material of choice for RTDs.
what is needed to correct our circuit. We need
to be able to measure the voltage drop across
the RTD without losing any accuracy due to
unwanted resistance. If we could measure the
voltage without causing a change in the circuit
.,
Platinum is used as the most common high
accuracy element in high accuracy resistance
current we could obtain accurate results. The
answer is the four wire RTD (FIGURE 7-5).
i
thermometers. Platinum is especially suited for By using a current source for the
this since platinum is able to withstand high power supply we can control the RTD current.
temperatures while remaining fairly accurate, By adding the two extension wires for the
and platinum is not easily contaminated.
The common values of resistance for
voltage take-off we can monitor the voltage
across the RTD remotely. The addition of the
1
RTDs range from 10 ohms to more than
several thousand with the most common being
volt meter does not introduce a significant load
change to the circuit sense the resistance of the
-,
100 ohms. With the leads connected to a RTD voltmeter is several times higher than the
the total resistance of the circuit may be
several ohms more than the RTD. The
resistance of leads could present a problem,
but the use of a wheatstone bridge can
eliminate resistive values that could change the
RTD. For all practical purposes the voltmeter
leads can be considered an open circuit with
no current flow and therefore no voltage drop.
The output voltage is directly proportional to
the resistance of the RTD and only one
.,
i
r Chapter 7 - Fundamentals of Temperature 47

c
r +

r DVM 100 ohm RTD

r-
r-
FIGURE 7-5: Four Wire RTD wiring method.
r
conversion equation is used. The Digital precautions that must be taken when installing
r voltmeter measures only the voltage across the
RTD and is insensitive to the lead length. In
RTDs and could be a possible target for
trouble shooting RTD loops.

r fact usually the longer the leads are the better


since this merely will oppose more current
flow when the meter is connected. The only
Construction of the RTD: The RTD is
more fragile. than a thermocouple and care
must be taken when installing it to minimize
r disadvantage to using a four wire RTD is that
an extra extension wire needs to be run to the
damage. Self-Heating: The RTD is not
self-powered (like the Thermocouple). a

r voltmeter.
The same practical precautions that
apply to thermocouples must be observed for
current must be impressed through the RTD
which will in itself cause some additional
heating. To reduce self-heating effects use the
r RIDs. Use shields where possible, l:l~e twisted
pair wiring, avoid stressing the conductors,
smallest size measuring current that will
produce the voltage output wanted. Also use

r use a larger size wire for long pulls, avoid


high temperature areas, and maintain adequate
documentation. There are a few additional
the largest size RTD that will still produce an
adequate response time.
Thermal EMF: The platinum to copper
r
r Sealing
Compound

r
r
r:
r
r Process Container
Wall or Pipe Wall

r: Rosemount Model 3044CA process mounting with drain seal.


48 Nl ATe Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More i
connection that is made when the RTD is
measured can introduce some additional
voltage although very small. By referencing
the resistance readings of the RTD at a known
temperature these effects can be eliminated.
monitoring.
An additional disadvantage is that being
made of a semi-conductor material
Thermistors are very susceptible to high
temperature damage. Thermistors are usually
.,
J

limited to a few hundred degrees Celsius and j


THE THERMISTOR continued exposure to high temperature well
within the range specified can still lead to
The Thermistor is like the RTD in it is "drift". Thermistors are often made very
j
a temperature sensItIve resistor. The small which means their response time is fairly
thermocouple is the most versatile of fast, this also means that thermistors are j
temperature sensors and the RTD is the most susceptible to self-heating errors. Finally
stable. The Thermistor is the most sensitive of Thermistors are even more fragile than
all the methods. An additional advantage to the thermocouples or RTDs and must be carefully
j
Thermistor is that the measurement lead errors installed to prevent crushing or bond
that can be introduced are often 500 times less
than an equivalent RTD measurement circuit.
The Thermistor is made chiefly of
semiconductor materials which allows it to be
many times more sensitive than thermocouples
separation.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT SENSORS

A recent invention in the field of


.,
J

or RTDs. The disadvantage is that Thermistors temperature measurement is the use of the
do not maintain a direct proportional integrated circuit transducer. a voltage and
resistance change with temperature. The current output version can be applied
thermistor "works" the same as a RTD but the depending upon the circuit design and voltage j
non-linearity of the response provides the limitations. Both of these models produce an
difference in measuring techniques. a lot of output that is directly proportional to any j
research has focused on the development of a temperature change. a unique advantage to this
linear Thermistor but todays microprocessor circuit is that an analog value for temperature
based controllers provide an easy computing changes can be transmitted to remote locations
point to calculate temperature/resistance for monitoring, control, or indication. The
readings. As a rule of thumb, a Thermistor same problems will apply to this type of
will be connected to a microprocessor based temperature measurement as all the others and
controller or voltmeter to establish a baseline will have set parameters that they may be used
of temperature readings for either control or under. Proper documentation is again i
+
-,
-,
10K OHMS TO DVM j

CURRENT SENSOR
VOLTAGE SENSOR
-,
FIGURE 7-6: Current driven thermistor. FIGURE 7-7: Voltage set thermistor.
r Chapter 7 - Fundamentals of Temperature 49

r important to ensure that they are used under


the proper specifications.
r
r, 2-WIRE
RTDorOhms
3-WIRE
RTDorOhms
4-WIRE
RTD or Ohms
RTDwlth
COMPENSATION
LOOP

::) :~
1 1 1

r. )' :~
4
0
0
3
r" 2
1
2
1
2
1 +
2

:~ :> J 1~
r 4
0
4
o~ 40 -
0 0
3 0 -
3 3
r ~T
2
RTD or OHMS
S1-S2:::;~T
2
TIC
(2-WIRE)
2 -
mV
2
~TmV
+

r
r
r
r
r
r
r SENSOR
TERMINALS

r Rosemount 3044CA wiring diagram.

r
r
r
r
r
SO NJATC Fundamentals of In strumentation .. . and More

THERMOCOUPLE CHARACTERISTICS

Th e fo ll owing information is intended to supplement the the rmocoup le information


discussed earlier. Each of the fo llowing exhibit all of the characteri stics discussed earlier but
the re are a few distinct di ffe rences that cou ld be helpful when trying to eliminate those
troublesome loops.
Noble Metal Thermocouples ( type B, R, and S ): Noble metal thermocoup les are all made
of platinum or platinum-rhodiu m metals and sha re the following characteristics. Hi gh
temperatures can cause a form of metallic diffusion wh ich can change the calibration. The refore
these thermocouples should only be used when installed inside a non-metallic sheath such as hi gh-
purity alum ina. The only exception is to install these thermocouples insi de a platinum sheath and
this option is very expensive. These thermocouples are the most stabl e of all thermocouples and
type S is the most stable of a ll .
Base Metal The rmocouples ( type E, J, T, K, G, C, 0 and N): Uillike the nobl e metal
specifications, Base Metal thermocouples can be used under any chemical composition. Any
comb ination of metals may be used that resu lt in the des ired temperature vo ltage curve and this
leads to metal combinations that can be rather exotic.

Type E- Ideall y suited fo r low temperature measurements. Useful for detecting small
temperature changes.
Type J- Uses Iron for the positive element in a thermocouple. Should neve r be used above
760 degrees Celsiu s.
Do not fo ll ow performance specs espec ia ll y well due to impurities in the iron .
Popular because it is relative ly inexpensive.
Type T- Has on ly one copper lead. Advantage is that the copper material is the same as a
di gital moni to ring device which makes lead compensation unnecessary.
T ype K- To be used at hi gher temperatures typically 450 degrees Celsiu s and above All oy
content prevents di stortions due to oxidation at hi gh temperatures.
Type G,C,D- Normally used in high temperatu re areas but not in hi gh oxidation areas. Made of
Tungsten-rhenium they become very brittle when above 1200 degrees Celsiu s.
Rhenium a lloys are used in both therm ocoup le legs in order to make the w·,res
easier to handle .
Type N- Nickel based thermocoup le system in which very hi gh temperature measu rements
can be taken . T his thermocouple shows great stabili ty at working extremes.
Suitable for high temperature measurement only.

METALS COLOR

TYPE POSITIVE NEGATIVE RANGEDF POSITIVE NEGATIVE

E CHROMEL CONSTANTAN -300 to +1600 PURPLE RED/TRACE

J IRON CONSTANTAN -300 to + 1400 WH ITE RED/TRACE

T COPPER CONSTANTAN --300 to +650 BLUE RED/TRACE

K CHROMEL ALUMEL -300 to + 2300 YELLOW RED/TRACE


Chapter 8 - Fundamentals of Contro l Valves 51

Fundamentals of Control Valves

Control valves are used in industry to constant, but the flow rate downstream of the
regulate a process by controlling the rate of valve varies with the rate set by tbe control
flow or supply . By adjusting the opening in valve. The result is a pressure drop across the
the valve assembly through which the val ve that is dependent upon the valve
controlled process flows the valve regulates opening . The closer the flows rate is
the volume or rate of flow. The operation of downstream of a valve to the rate available
final control elements (control valves as well up stream the lower tbe pressure drop across
as other devices) include the steps needed to the valve. Also, the lower the pressure drop is
convert the control signal from a controller across the valve the closer tbe flow rate is too
into an appropriate response. maximum.
A control valve is often referred to as The capacity of a control valve must be
a variable orifice in the line and the equation sized so that it controls a process witbout
studied before called "Bernoulli's Theorem " varying the controlled flow ineffectively. A
can be used to calculate the differential flow valves characteristics can be calculated by
pressure and resulting flow that passes through using an equation which solves for the Cv
a valve. In short the flow throu gh a valve is which is the unit of the flow capability defined
proportional to the square root of tbe as the number of U.S. gallons of water per
differential pressure across the valve times the minute at ambient temperature that will flow
area of the valve opening. through a full y open valve with a 1 psi
The difference with control valves is pressure drop across it. It is important tbat a
that the control valve variables, flow rate and control valve is properly sized for economic
area of valve opening, are not constant. With reasons and controllability.
an upstream process supplied by other means If a valve is oversized, or larger than is
the flow rate available at a control valve is needed, the valve wi ll not have enough

Fisher valve used for flow control.


52 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

"resistance" to properly control the flow Where: Q or W = flow rate (liquid gpm,
except when the valve is almost closed. It is gases scfh, vapors Ib per hour)
apparent that this valve will allow the required SG = Specific Gravity
flow to pass through, but it is larger than is Tf = flowing temperature in degrees
needed and will cost more. If the valve is Rankine (deg F + 460)
undersized, or smaller than is needed , the dp = pressure drop in psi (PI-P2)
required flow will not be able to pass through PI = upstream pressure at the valve
the valve and the valve must be replaced with inlet in psia
the proper valve which includes a material cost P2 = downstream pressure at the valve
as well as a labor cost. v = downstream specific volume in
As an undersized control valve will cubic feet per pound
never pass the required flow capacity it is easy
to see that the control range of the valve is The equations above are used by
reduced significantly. With most undersized engineering to determine the actual response of
control valves the useable range of the valve a control valve to its process environment, but
does not exist and the valve will function as a the field technician who understands the
"block" valve. This means that the valve will concepts of Cv can intuitively decide if a
open fully when "signaled" to control the flow control valve is or is not functioning properly
and close fully when "signaled" to close. The merely by interpreting the results from the Cv
result is a valve that has no controllable action. equation.
When a valve is oversized it will When a control valve is installed it
attempt to regulate the flow by throttling the displays two attributes which we can
flow rate . This simply means that the valve recognize. A control valve will operate under
will operate at a nearly closed position and the a linear relationship which implies that for
full range of the valve is not used. Also when 25 % of stem travel 25 % of flow rate will
a valve operates at a nearly closed position change, or a valve will be non-linear which
high flow rates will be present which can implies that for 25 % of stem travel the flow
erode the valve seat. The Cv rate is the rate may vary more or less than 25 %. Proper
accepted way that industry selects control documentation should be available and should
valves for use, but the equation can be used to also be checked before any valve is taken "off-
determine if the flow rate can cause damage line" so its proper response can be checked
from excessive pressure drop or high rates of against its recorded response. Often enough
flow. The equation for flow rates varies with the conditions of the valves operating
the type of fluid controlled. environment can dictate whether a valve will
require additional maintenance other than

~
UQUIDS • Q -
G maintenance required for flow characteristics .
dp A control valve is designed to operate
without friction . If friction is detected it will
most likely be found where the valve stem
enters the valve packing. The valve stem often
STEAM VAPORS CY - -- , becomes corroded at the valve packing due to
63 .)
leaks in the packing itself and these leaks
should be stopped. Friction can also be caused
by excessive tightening of the valve packing.
In this case the valve packing is to tight against
GASES -Q- , TJ&SG
the valve stem and it hinders the proper
1360 f/p-rP2
movement of the valve stem.
The air supply to a control valve should
Chapter 8 - Fundamentals of Control Valves 53

be checked for leaks since a leak will cause the stroke properly check to see if the valve
valve to stroke improperly when signaled. The actuator spring has lost its tension to control
valve actuator will often leak where the the valve. Also the diaphragm can be
diaphragm is squeezed between the two stretched, from excessive air pressure, to the
halves of the diaphragm case. In some valves point where it can no longer properly control
a o-ring is found where the valve stem leaves the valve . If a diaphragm is worn out the valve
the diaphragm case and this o-ring can also may attempt to function correctly at a certain
leak. If the vent on a valve is plugged when it pressure . but not at any other pressure
is needed to vent improper operation may regardless of the tension of the spring
occur since added back pressure may hinder adjustment.
the valve. A less common valve leak , and For valves which require air to open
harder to locate, is a valve with a hole in the and are vented inside the diaphragm casing
diaphragm. All valve leaks should be repaired with a vent located at the top of the diaphragm
when it is determined feasible to do so. moisture may build up in the casing and begin
Inner valve wear can be
found on all control valves that
have been in operation. Corrosion,
cavitation, erosion, pressure, and
foreign material trapped in a valve
are all causes of valve wear. These
conditions will degrade the
operation of a valve sometimes to
the point where they can not be
tolerated and they must be
corrected. The only way to
properly check and repair a valve
is to remove it from service and
disassemble it.
If a control valve suddenly
\
quits responding to an operators
signals the chances are it has lost
the stem plug which will allow the
valve to be forced to its correct
position. The valve stem remember
is the part of the actuator which
will control the movement of the
valve. In this case the valve will
often swing to a position that is
determined by the process.
If a valve does not stroke
properly you will want to check for
the cases listed previously. Ensure
there are no air leaks ; there are
know obstructions in the valve
body, the stem is controlling the .it. _ _
valve hody, and there is not an A Control Valve that has been neglected and shows signs
excess of friction on the valve of faulty packin g. Notice the white build-up around the
stem. If the valve still does not valve stem.
.,
54 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
.,
to erode the diaphragm, stem, casing and etc.
in this case remove the valve and turn it upside
down. Supply air to the normal inlet to force
the water out of the casing. In some cases it
may be necessary to disassemble the valve to
For proper care and maintenance it is
important to follow the manufactures
guidelines for the correct procedures. As a
rule of thumb plug valves are the only ones
that may require internal lubrication. Most
.,
dry the moisture points inside. valves require lubrication in the bushings i
All valves should be equipped with located at the top of the yoke and on the stem
bug screens to prevent pluggage and foreign threads where exposed. If a valve is in a dusty j
material from entering the valve. If the valve or operates in a high temperature area it may
strokes slowly but reaches its full range be necessary to use a dry lubricant such as
chances are the vent is plugged. graphite to ensure proper lubrication. Some J
It is important to remember that when valves in a process line may be used seldom or
disassembling any valve it is to be done by a even never used. These types of valves are j
procedure established by the area you are usually shutoff valves used only during
working in. Control valves in process lines shutdown or emergency procedures. Shutoff
often contain hazardous materials and should valves require maintenance to ensure that the J
valve will function when required.

.,
be decontaminated. Any of the valve actuators
with tension springs should have the tension Maintenance of shutoff valves is usually j
springs removed first before disassembly limited to downtime and the maintenance is
begins. Once a valve is disassembled erosion usually more thorough and determined by the
may have caused internal parts to be worn to specific site procedures for emergency
the point that they have developed sharp shutdown 110.
edges. j
j

.,
.,
j

.,
i
Chapter 9 - Fundamentals of Pneumatics 55

Fundamentals of Pneumatics

The term pneumatic in strumentation t"""!llSUPPlY


covers a wi de range of applications in the
industrial and other fields were a monitoring
or controlling system is needed. Perhaps the ._-
most common app lication is to use the force
(pressure) of a gas (air) to move a piston or
diaphragm .
({
..,
,'-

1,-
In a pneumatic system "data" is carried
by the pressure of a gas in a pipe. If a length
of pipe is used fo r a pressure signal,
increasing the pressure at one end will cause
the pressure to be propagated down the length
IJ.Al
to the other end rai sing the pressure also. Th is
method of conveying in fo rmation is much
slower than the method of electronic control.
rv J\..r
The change of pressure wi ll trave l down the I
length of the pipe at approximately the speed /jf-S IGNALPiESSUi.E
of sou nd (1082 ft/sec) . For many process PNEUIIA l~ AIIPUllH
applications th e time delay does not effect the FIGURE 9-1: 20 view of a pneumatic
end product. A pneumatic type of signal was amp li fier
used for many years before the use of
electronic devices began to emerge. Pneumatic electrical signal does not warrant their change.
systems were considered then , and now for Fo r most app lications the gas used is " dry
some app lications, to be the safest way to instrument air" and the signal information has
control a process. Pneumatics are sti ll used been adjusted to a range of 3-15 psi. There are
today in some appl ication s: as a carryove r basicall y three different forms of pneumatic
from before, it has not been cost effective to signal converSIOns: amp lificat ion,
remove them, or the threat of sparks fro m an nozzle/flappe r, and current-to-pressu re.

PIVOT 0
FLAPPER

GAP
,/7( '\ 1 FLAPPER
MOTION

NOZZLE

L-..J
SUPPLY PRESSURE ~ r--1

RESTRICTION

) SIGNA L PRESSURE

FLAPPERINOZZLE SYSTEM

FIGURE 9-2: Working Schematic for a pneumatic controller


56 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

A pneumatic amplifier (booster or


relay) adjusts the pressure and/or volume by a
greater than 20 psi) applied to a singular tube
(nozzle) with a restricted area and a "flapper"
1
linear value with respect to the input signal. over the other end of a set tension strength. As
An example of an amplifier would be a "gain" pressure is increased the pressure forces the J
of 10 applied to the standard operating
pressure of 3-15 psi and the result would be a
range of 30-150 psi. Amplification is usually
flapper off of its seat on the nozzle. As air
pressure is further increased the nozzle is
moved further away from the nozzle by the
-,
accomplished by the use of a regulator. A
booster may be either forward or reverse
force of the applied pressure. When the air
pressure is decreased the flapper returns
-,
acting depending upon the service required but toward its seat until the force (tension) of the
the principles are reversed if an opposite nozzle is greater than the force of the applied
action is wanted. A high signal pressure that pressure. The sensitivity of operation of a
will cause the output pressure to decrease is nozzle/flapper system is great and it is easy to
known as a reverse acting booster and likewise see that a small adjustment on the flapper can 1
the lower the input pressure is the higher the
output pressure is called a forward acting
booster. Although many types of designs are
cause a significant change in resulting output
pressure. A nozzle/flapper device is often used
as a regulating device for a control system that
-,
used the principles will remain the same for varies its output pressure for a predicted
all. The most important fact is to remember control response.
that a pneumatic amplifier converts input Perhaps the most common signal
signals to a higher pressure or the same
pressure with a greater volume. An amplifier
conversion technique used today is the current
to pneumatic transducer ( liP converter). The
J
is often used to raise or lower a specific areas result of the I/P converter is the same as
controlling pneumatic pressure as needed. A anozzle/flapper system, to regulate the output j
most often used method to convert mechanical pressure. Often it is desirable to regulate the
motion to pneumatic pressure and vice versa is position of a valve by a low current (4-20mA) j
to use the nozzle/flapper system. This system over long distances or when a faster response
usually has a regulated air supply (usually time is needed. The liP converter provides us
i
j

i
NOZZLE
i
SUPPLY PRESSURE 20 P·..Q.SIL..-_...:!:.=--_ _ _--,
i
~
PRESSURE
SIGNAL
j
3-1S PSI
i
FUNDAMENTALS OF A CURRENT TO PRESSURE CONVERTER
i
FIGURE 9-3: Working schematic of a liP transducer
Chapter 9 - Fundamentals of Pneumatics 57

with a linear way to position a valve. For a diaphragm. Often the diaphragm casing is
direct acting valve a 4mA signal would result vented on one side so the differential pressure
in a valve that is 0% open, a 12mA signal across a diaphragm is a gage pressure applied
would translate into a valve position of 50 % to the inlet pressure port. The equation for the
and a signal of 20mA would result in a valve relationship is given as:
position of 100 % open. A reverse acting valve
contains the same relationship but with the F = (p I -p2)A whe re
clo sed position at 20mA not 4mA . With the F = force in (Newtons)
liP the flapper is adjusted by the use of a coi l p l-p2=pressure difference
to attract the flapper towards the nozzle A=diaphragm area
reducing signal pressure. The use of springs
and flapper adjustment allows the converter to From the previous equation it is easy to
be adjusted easi ly. For example, a direct see that to double the force while applying the
acting converter woul d have the adjustment so same working pressure we merely need to
that 4 rnA would equal 3 psi and 20mA would double the surface area of the diaphragm. This
correspond to 15 psi. is often more easi ly done rather than changing
Another pneumatic principle we must the working pressure of the actuator since the
become familiar with is the pneumatic actuator and associated linkages a re often
actuator. The actuator will receive a control calibrated at a 3-15 psi working range . The
signal and translate the signal into a force or working action of an actuator is a simp le
torque action as it is required to position a conversion of pressure to force. As pressure is
final control element. The concept of the applied to one side of the diaphragm the
actuator is based upon the principle of diaphragm is distorted away from the pressure
pressure as a force per unit area. A diaphragm and moves an attached actuator arm which is
of a known surface area can have a force connected to a valve or other appendage .
applied to it by differential pressure across the Springs are used to set a resistance torque and

,.-

liP Transducers mounted in a protective enclosure.


58 NJ ATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

are linearly related to the applied force. In Hysteresis will be a consideration when
other words, the compression of the spring is calibrating an instrument. The mounting
set to restrict the amount of diaphragm locations of pneumatic devices will have to be
movement for a specific input pressure. The considered also. A pneumatic device needs to
springs therefore are extremely sensitive and be placed away from areas with large
could be the cause of a faulty valve position. temperature swings if possible. A hazardous
Likewise the springs could be the adjustable location may not be as great a concern as with
component to correctly calibrate a valve an electronic instrument, but a "dirty"
positioner. The end result of the actuator is to environment will playa larger role in creating
move a shaft which is attached to a final control errors whether it is a calibration
control element (control valve) so that a 50 % problem or fouling of a moving linkage. When
input signal results in a actuator position of calibrating a pneumatic instrument care must
50% of travel and the final control element be taken to calibrate the device in the same
travels 50% also. The spring has another location as it will be mounted. The mechanical
important function and that is to return the parts in the device are subject to gravitational
valve to a set position on a loss on signal forces and a device that is installed differently
pressure. This is known as the fail safe valve than calibrated will have a tendency to drift
position. With all the devices and control towards the high or low range limits.
concepts discussed before there are a few Pneumatic instrumentation IS a proven
common traits that need to be discussed. monitoring and controlling means that has
Pneumatic instruments, devices and been in use much longer than electronics. The
transducers all contain mechanical linkages same zero shift and non-linearity errors will
and appendages. With mechanical parts still be present and are calibrated and adjusted
ambient conditions will playa greater role in by tile same methods as an electronic
determining if a device is or will function instrument. If for no other reason the
correctly when installed. Ambient fundamentals of pneumatics must be
compensation may be needed to adjust a understood to calibrate final control elements.
transducer that is calibrated in a controlled Air actuated control valves are and will
environment but is installed in a working probably maintain to be tile only elements with
environment. The dead band of pneumatic a "force" strong enough to position.
instruments will probably be more noticeable.

r;::== PRESSURE rNPUT r;::== PRESSURE rNPUT

VENT

IV ---r--SPRrNG

DIRECT ACTUATOR LOW PRESSURE STATE DIRECT ACTUATOR HIGH PRESSURE STATE

FIGURE 9-4: 20 view of a control valve actuator


Chapter 9 - Fundamentals of Pneumatics 59

Solenoids mounted inside a protective enclosu re. Solenoids operate by interrupti ng the
normal instrument air supply and allowing a final control element (valve) to go to its
fail position.

Control Valve Actuator.


60 NJ ATe Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More
.,
)

1
Loading Pressue Connection

J
-,

Diaphragm Case

Actuator spring
Actuator Stem

Spring Seat

Spring Adjustor

Stem Connector

Yoke

Travel Indicator

Valve Plug Stem DIRECT


ACTING
ACTUATOR
r Chapter 10 - Fundamentals of Controllers 61

r Fundamentals of Controllers

r In the process environment of


yesterday field operators would use a slide
program that will for most instances determine
an output given any set of inputs that the
program can use. It is easy to see that the
rule to help perform calculations to determine
r. the process mixtures, valve alignments, and
etc. The slide rule could not calculate any
program for one process may not be of any
use except for the application it has been

r. problem without interface or direction from


the operator; it had to be directed to provide
written for. The program for a blending
station will not perform at all when "down
solutions. The process environment of today loaded" to the microprocessor for a boiler.
r still calls for an operator to predict what will
happen given any circumstance for their
With software the application is determined by
the process, but there are some common

r process, but the control of the process is often


dictated by a microprocessor. Still, a computer
elements that are a part of all microprocessor
controllers.
Microprocessor-based controllers only
cannot perform functions that it has not been
r programmed to initiate. Often a computer
cannot be a stand alone controller and it must
perform control functions when they receive
inputs that can be read by the control
program. Inputs received by a controller may
r' prompt for and receive guidance from an
operator or receive all its inputs from the field be digital, analog, and in a few cases of an
optical form. A digital input is a signal
instruments. For the field technician to
r. adequately understand his job he must be
familiar with the operation of a
received by the controller that is either on or
off. A controller will determine if an input

r microprocessor-based controller and how his


instruments interact with it.
signal is received by reading the voltage across
the terminals for the digital input point and if
Computers are designed so that they voltage is present the signal is determined to
r· will perform only one task at a time even
though that task is often accomplished in a few
be on or "high," and "low" if the voltage is
off. An analog signal is the output of a field

r· micro seconds. The "brain" of a computer


does not function as a brain at all as it can
transmitter that is recording a process
variable. The signal is received by the
only follow a detailed set of instructions. The controller and it is called appropriately an
r. instructions are part of the "software" or the analog input. The analog input can be read in

r
r
r.
r
r,
FlOUD 1

Figure 10-1: A controller with various 110: DI, DO, AI.


62 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More

as a 4-20 mA current or it can be read as a 1-5 The memory of a com puter sto res
v DC voltage (these are the most common, but in formation until it is needed. The memory
there are some other less common ana log input functions only in the sense that it receives
ranges). Before an analog signal can be used , information, stores it and gives it up on
it is converted by the controller to a digital demand . The memory performs no
format. calculations , control functions or logic
Inputs mu st be connected to the fu nctions and it is stored in one or several
controller by field wiring . The fie ld wiring types of storage elements called drums, disks,
will provide the path for the signal to the co re, tape, or reg isters . The registe r is the
controller, but th e termination point on the only temporary form of a working memory in
controller for each input must be located . As that it only function s when power is supplied.
a ll PLC's (Programmable Logic Controllers) Working memory or RAM (Random Access
have a Chassis, Slot, and Point assignment to Memory) is the fastest way memory can be
configure I/O, the term ination point must be temporari ly stored and retrieved. ROM (Read
correctly assigned and terminated to ensu re o nl y Memory) is what its nam e implies; it is
the proper inpu t can be read when it is needed. memory that can only be read an d not written
Figure 1 shows a single chassis, three slot to nor changed . RAM is of memory register
PLC controller . Each slot is configured to type which implies that memory will be lost
perform a different function: Digital Input, when power is removed while the other
Analog Input , and Digital Output. The proper memory components wi ll maintain their
interpretation of documentation wi ll ensu re memory as long as they a re not subj ected to
that the co rrect " type" of input is terminated alter ing conditi ons.
in its co rrect location. A field loop sheet can We have covered how the controller
be one source to provide the inform ation will receive its inputs and how they must be
needed in order to terminate I/O to a terminated to specific locations or "poi nt
controller. ass ignm ents". We have read that the inputs,
Now that the inpu t is received by the once gathered by an input card for the
controller, the inputs are converted to a usable controller, are convened to a usable format.
form which is merely the letter of the alphabet We have discussed how once inpu ts are
converted into a series of digi tal commands. received by a controlle r, the controller can
These digital commands called Bits are provide the solution , or Outputs, that are
grouped as Bytes ( 8 bits)and finally into needed to accompli sh its control function. The
words (2 Bytes). When the computer wants order of control actions now depends upon the
information it can read, it is in the form of software that is " running" in the controlle r.
words. Still a basic order of events needs to The control program is often a user
establish before work can be performed and specified software program upon which, in a
this task is accomplished internall y by the language the particular controller unde rstands,
CPU. the " logic" of the program is written. Control
The CPU ( Central Processing Unit) languages can vary from the assembJy
controls all workin g memory, program language the computer can directly read or to
control, and arithmetic functions. It has a a hi gh level language (Pascal, C, C+, etc.)
"bus" on which it can send and receive signals that is more user friendly. A compiler is
and determine the order information is sometimes used to translate a high level
exchanged. The CPU receives inputs , language into machine lan guage. Perhaps tile
performs any calculation s needed and stores most favo ri te language is the ladder logic
the result in memory . The control uni t in a format which reminds us of the drawings we
computer controls the entire operation of have used for years w ith relay logic. The
memory allocation and logic functions. common thread to all languages is that they
Chapter 10 - Fu ndamentals of Controllers 63

must all be read sequentially in order to be correctly. The same reasoning can be used for
properly interpreted. Sequential operation an analog output signal. The controller does
(sequential Logic) forces a controller to not know how the field device is responding ,
perform the control program, in order, from but the field technician does. Therefore a
top to bottom within the specified time period. technician must be able to read I/O
One sequential reading of the program is termination points to provide solutions to
called a scan and the time the program is read wiring problems, and for an advanced field
in is called the scan time. technician he must be able to interpret the
Remember, a controller cannot provide ladder language most PLC controllers will
an output without established inputs and a use.
control program. Once the inputs are read , the There are several manufactures of
program determines the correct response and PLC's but they all function the same.
the outputs are signaled to perform a control Regardless of tile type used tile field technician
action. Outputs can be digital or analog , as will be able to interface with it and understand
inputs are, and the same point assignment how it works with hi s field I/O. A controller
procedure and documentation for each sti ll can also be a computer that has a visual
applies. The biggest difference is perhaps that interface or simply a single loop controller
the controller often does not know the which acts as a controller for a set num ber of
response of the field instrument it is inputs and outputs. A single loop controller
"driving." When a controller turn s "on" a often has its program stored into permanent
di gital output signal the solenoid , switch, memory and it cannot be changed or adapted
annunciator, etc. mayor may not respond as to fit any working process other than it was
it is supposed to. If the field technician knows designed for. Although, the single loop
when the field instruments should respond he controller does often have user selected
will know if the instrument is performing configurations which can perform a selected

..
.' _
• ..... - WO .... _ ,".

_~r~~~~ ~~~~~~
Typical Single Loop Controllers mounted in a central control room. Multiple
recorders , controllers and indicators for a process unit.
64 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

routine, the sin gle loop controller still will termination point may often be in a " local
have termination points to be connected, sti ll satellite" bui ldi ng. By using the local
will be configured, and still does not know the termination point much wirin g can be saved
response of its outputs. PID (Proportional , since the field wiring will not have to be run
[ntegral , Derivative) control actions are often back to the control room. These " remote
done on a single loop basis and the single loop termination points communicate with the DCS
controller does what its name implies: it system located in the control room by the use
provides control of the process on a loop by of one or more means. Fiber optics, coaxial
loop basis. A single loop controller may not be cable, and others, are a on ly a few ways
as versatile as a software configured system it communication is achieved. The remote
still can control the process for a process loop locations still have assignments for analog and
with a limited number of lIO . digital , inputs and outputs. When DCS
PLC's and Computer terminals are systems are present, they wi ll be the primary
only two of many forms of contro ll ers used controllers for the process's at the respective
today. For larger industrial sites a distributed industrial site. Often there are other
control system (DCS) will be the primary controllers which wi ll monitor the DCS
controller used. Honeywell, Bailey, and operation.
Foxboro are a few of the more common DCS [n areas which have hazardous
systems we may come into contact with . For substances or a danger to people from
ou r purposes here the termination of fie ld mechanical operation, you may find a PLC
instruments will be our only interface with acting as a guard over the process. These
these systems, but if a field technician wishes PLC's are a part of the " Critical Control
to remain working with instrumentation he Systems" often referred to as the Emergency
wi 11 have to come to know the working parts Shutdown System. The DCS will not have
of a DCS. A DCS loop contains the same "extra" shutdown actions w ritten into the
assignments as the loop for a PLC, but the control program for the set points used for

Typical DCS cabinets for remote termination of field TlO.


Chapter 10 - Fundamentals of Controllers 65

controlling are accessible to the operators who will be detected before its failure can cause a
can change them . A ESD (emergency hazardous result. Dedicated procedures for
shutdown) system is a stand-alone controller testing ESD I/O should be avai lable from the
that receives inputs from field instruments, site you are work in g in and Maintenance of
DCS control actions, valve positions, and critical 110 should be limited to the standard
more, but does not have process va riables that established for a particular device . with the
can be changed by human interaction. An ESD developm ent of increasin gly " smart" 110 the
system monitors the process to observe that a procedures wi ll surely cover a broader use of
dangerous condition is not ex istin g. If a communication techn iques for monitoring the
hazardous situation does arise the ESD system process but for monitoring the accuracy,
assumes control of the process and executes an repeatability, and all other functions of
orderly shutdown. Sometimes the field 110 instrumentation.
used for the DCS system is the same as for the The field of control systems is growing
ESD system and sometimes the ESD I/O are at a pace that wi ll ensure that there will be a
separate. In extremely critical areas a field demand for the in strument and control
technician wil l often find multiple sensors technician who can understand and evaluate a ll
recording the same process variable and all are components of a system. There are "new"
part of the ESD system. These sensors are devices coming into the market which will
evaluated through the use of software to verify expand upon existing know ledge. New I/O
accuracy, deviation, and comparisons of like will demand that a fie ld technician is fully
recordings . If a deviation IS present, aware of the fundamentals of instrumentation ,
procedures shou ld be available for correction. knows how a control scheme functions , and is
OSHA is now mandating that critica l capable to use micro-processor based
control 110 shall be tested at intervals that wi ll commun icators to ca librate . A field technician
ensure that a failed component of the system that knows the fundamentals has the greatest

An Emergency Shutdown System valve. Emergency shutdown devices are often painted
red in order to distillguish them from process only 1/0.
66 NlATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

Typical "smart" device , a Rosemount Analyzer. Such devices ensure that the function
of installing, calibrating and troubleshooting microprocessor devices must be studied.

potential for a outstanding future in the


along the smart guidelines established in the
controls field. 80's. The instruments of the future will
The future of instruments for the primarily be smart devices that will be capable
process industry will continue to advance

Power
Supply

A typical multi-drop network of several Rosemount Smart Transmitters connected to a single


communications transmission line. Such Transmitters communicate digitally, with the output
of the output of the transmitters set to 4 rnA.
Chapter 10 - Fundamentals of Controllers 67

of performing any or all of the measuring the control system with each device being
fu ndamentals that we have covered. Smart capab le (smart) of initiating comm unication,
instruments should become a welcome sight to decisions , response , a nd etc. such a system
the field technician who understands micro- when configured will have no central
processor controlled devices and/or systems. controller which governs the process , but will
The future of controllers for the have each device governing its on assignment.
process environment will also conti nue to Such systems wi ll demand accuracy so they
advance along the micro-processor lines, but may function properly. Such systems will also
even now new devices are beginning to be demand that the field technicians are equally
used for controllers. There are controllers that accurate and precise. The order of accuracy
are now no longer centralized, but rather each that microprocessors demand ensure that with
device is smart and can initiate the proper knowledge any problem is solvable.
communications with other devices. This is the Our job is to ensure that the demands of the
true concept of distributed control and will be micro-processor control led systems are met.
the trend of future control systems. Imagine
68 N] ATe Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More
,'.,,
-NOTES -

.,
j

~
,.,
j
,.,
,.,
,.,
,
.,
~

",.,
~

,.,
,~J
Chapter 11 - Fundamentals of Control 69

r Fundamentals of Control

r- An often used definition for process is a


function or operation utilized in the treatment of a
controller, setpoint, and a fmal control element
that does the control function.

r- material. The operation of adding heat to water is


a process as well as the operation of removing
heat from water through an exchanger. Processes
The response of the system will be
dependent upon resistance, capacitance, mass, and
dead-time that is in the control system. All of
r- are happening everywhere we go. Your home
water heater, driving a car, air-conditioning, and
these will combine together to create transfer lag
which is the time it takes for a change to be made

r etc. are all forms of process control.


Process control is the method by which we
to the process. We know that the sensor measures
the process variable, the controller then compares
regulate a particular process. The control action 0 f it to the setpoint and the final control element is
r a thermostat can be used to regulate the
motor/compressor operation which will directly
corrected or adjusted as needed to regulate the
process. The control loop functions together to
r-. control the temperature at the desired setpoint. In
industrial control the output of a flow transmitter
control the system. What is needed to be known is
how final control device corrections or
will directly represent the flow volume that it is adjustments are to be made so we can predict their
L measuring. For example, if a flow transmitter
transmitted an output that was equivalent to 5
response.
There are two basic control loops and they

r GPM and the desired rate of flow was 4 GPM we


know that some control action has to be taken to
reduce the flow rate to the desired setpoint. The
are open-loop control and closed-loop control. The
open loop system can be compared to a sensor
which measures a process variable, displays
r~ control action is what we are now going to study. and/ or records it and no comparisons or
There are several control possibilities that adjustments are made to regulate the process.
are available by most controllers and our objective There must be an interaction by another control
here is to be able to identify and understand how loop to regulate the process. This can be an
these controllers control a process. operator opening a valve manually to lower a tank
r There are several ways to initiate and
control processes. Mechanically, pneumatically,

r- electronically, and electrically are all control


methods and the control techniques can be either
analog, or discrete. A third method that will gain INPUT .. [
I

1 OUTPUT

r predominance as the technology develops will be


a pure digital control system where analog and/or
r I PROCESS
I

r: discrete control can be represented as a series of


discrete bits which can be interpreted to represent
CONTROLLER

analog or discrete signals. The important thing is {J.(I


r to remember that regardless of the technique(s)
used the basic control fundamentals remain the
FIXED
PROGRAM

r same.
A control loop is usually an instrument or
a group of instruments which are designed, PROCESS
r· installed, and calibrated to control a process at a
desired setpoint. This control loop usually
MA TERIALS TO
DERIVE PROCESS
WANTED
r contains a sensor which senses the process
variable, a process that will be controlled, a
Block Diagram that is showing a form of open loop control.
The process is measured and a variable is applied to the
process but the effects of the added variable are not
r sampled.
70 NJATC Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

level when the display indicates a level that is to systems has covered how to set and control the
high. The open loop control part is the sensor that process, i.e. what should the setpoint be set at to
is displaying a level. The open loop portion control the process. It is more important today to
indicates and/or records what is happening with cover the response of a system to a load change
the process , but it causes no corrective action to and how to correctly anticipate how a control loop
be taken to regulate the process. will measure and respond to a process change
The closed loop control system provides a and/or a control command. Process loading is the
form of "feedback" to the process under control. physical change in the process which requires
A process would be measured, compared to a adjustments to be made to control the change in
setpoint and a final control element is adjusted
accordingly. We now recognize this method of
LOAD OR
SETPOINT CHANGE

INPUT OUTPUT
-t>,<l-~"----1 PROCES S "---/1
-"<
MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT
REGULATOR SENSOR
(TRANSMITTER) PROCESS VARIABLE

(
TIME
REFERENCE
CONTROLLER POINT
(SETPOINT)
A low resistance response curve

the process .
Resistance is the response characteristic of
the system which delays a change in the process
Closed Loop Control. The process variable is measured and
compared to a setpoim and error corrections are adjusted variable when a load change is sensed. Any
out. physical material that reduces the rate of energy
transfer to a process can be referred to as
control as the predominant method used today ,
especially when process control is considered.
There are many , many types of control LOAD OR
technologies and control methods that can be used SETPOINT CHANGE
in closed loop control which provide feedback and
adjustment to a'process .

In a process environment which has an


PROCESS VARIABLE
established setpoint and control algorithm present
in the controller, a change in the process load is
what will determine if corrective action is needed .
For example if the rate of flow in a waste water
treatment facility were increased then the process
j
would require some adjustment to maintain TIME
stability. Therefore it IS easy to see that the change
in process loading is the cause of an adjustment to
A typical capacity response curve
the system. In the past electrical study of control
r
... ~

Chapter 11 - Fundamentals of Control 71

r SETPP/NT CHANGE
This impetus of flow rate is the
capacity of the process variable.
r This variable will also cause the
delay in the change of the process

r 1I- CONTROLLER RESPONSE


variable to the setpoint.
Dead-time can occur in all
Z
LU processes, but usually the. greater
r ()
a:=
w
a..
SMAll
CAPACITY
the volume the greater the chance
of seeing dead-time. When a
,...:
r ::>
a...
~
::>
o
change is initiated to a process
variable if there is any time
required before a change is
r observed in the process variable
this is called dead-time and not to

r o 2 3 4 5
be confused with transfer-lag. If in
a complicated industrial process a
TIME change is initiated into the system
r Transfer Lag is also dependent upon resistance/capacitance. Notice as
resistance and capacitance increases the transfer lag increases.
and the process variable remains
steady, then there is dead-time in

r resistance. Resistance is one element that adds


the system and this is usually
because the resistance of the
system is much greater than the capacity of the
r time to the response of a control system.
Capacity is the opposite of resistance. It is
process.
Transfer-lag is the time it takes for a

r the ability of a process to withstand change in the


process variable. For example, if a flow variable
process to recover from a change in the process
itself. A setpoint change can be viewed as a load

r'
suddenly was indicating a greater flow than change, the characteristics are the same. The time
i wanted, the control response would be to reduce it takes for a process variable to arrive at the
the flow rate. The flow liquid will have a certain setpoint is called the transfer lag.

r inertia that will resist change to a reduced rate.


fEED
VALVE.

r Process In ut

r . . . ~.
Process Output

r
r Time

r Transfer Lag

:::::::::::::::-
__-_-
OUlFLOW
__"'I'I.V,.-- - .

r Self-regulating process. As the controller allows more liquid


into the tank, an increase in outflow is made and the process
r Dead Time (Td) and Transfer lag shown with respect to
an input change. will again stabilize.
72 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

When the variables of resistance, dead-time of control must be utilized.


and transfer-lag are such that a change in the Controllers use many techniques to initiate
process variable is adjustable and most importantly control actions which depends upon the degree of
if the change in the process variable does not accuracy required. Controllers today are available
exceed the capacity of a system, then the process for mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, electronic,
variable is able to be controlled by self-regulation. and pneumatic methods of control. In each of the
We have studied how hydrostatic head is used to methods listed above the controllers job is to have
measure level. Lets use this example to picture a the system to respond to any deviation of the
self-regulated process. Suppose you have a tank process from setpoint. The majority of controllers
being used today are of the micro-

80
...Z 70
186.4"
I
I
processor variety. This form of
controller can accept an analog range as
an input which enables the controller to
view the process over a span of
designed values, or a discrete input
.,
I
I.IJ
U 60
I
I which we know allows the controller to
~ I
I.&J
a. 50
I
I
see the process at only one point
I
..: 40 I
I
(setpoint). The micro-processor
::J I
J: 30 I
I
controller uses what is called digital
::J
0 20 I
I control for all of its internal workings
I
10 I
I which is a form of converting analog
I
0

To
TIME
T1
..
I

T2 T3
signals to a series of zero's and one's
(AID converters) which represent the
same analog value received from the
-,
transmitter. This is digital logic and the
controllers of tomorrow will use only j
Regulation of a process is determined by five time constant intervals digital control logic and digital
which are calculated by the resistance and capacitance of the process.
communication methods. The sensing
elements will still see the process over a i
that is continuously fed by a water source and you
want to maintain a particular level in the tank. The 1
tank has a line flowing from it that cannot be
controlled, therefore the flow out is continuously
open. As the tanks level begins to rise the
,.,
hydrostatic head pressure increases at the bottom
of the tank until the pressure is great enough to OPEN i
force the exit of water such that it equals the PROCESS
VARIABLE ~ ----t.:-----J'---~~ SET
input. The resistance of the line size restricting
outflow was overcome by the capacity of the
I
- POINT i
FINAL ~
system. When the two are equaled, self-regulation CONTROL CLOSE
is possible. The time-lag is not present since there ELEMENT i
is no discernable difference between process load TIME -+
change and process level and there is zero j
transfer-lag since the process is remaining at the
desired level. Suppose there is no direct
interaction between the input and output of process i
variables as the above example portrays. Then the On-Off Control. As the process reaches setpoint the final
method of process control and its several methods control element reverses the process.
i
Chapter 11 - Fundamentals of Control 73

r wide range, but the communication method will


not be by an analog signal but rather as digital
control but in this case the difference is un-
noticeable.

r signals. Digital control is not to be confused with In time-cycle control a time cycle is
discrete control which can be referred to as on/off established, often by trial and error, which is used
control which is a form of two position control. to regulate the process variable. An example
c Two position control is the form of control
where the final control element is in one of two
would be when the temperature setpoint is reached
the fmal control element is adjusted to its oppos ite

c positions. An example would be a valve that is


either fully open or fully closed; there is no
position for a specified time period regardless of
the actual change in the process variable. This is
throttling of the flow rate to establish control. an adequate method of control for a system with a
r Two position control broadly defined has three
methods of control available: differential gap, time
significant amount of dead-time. If an excessive
amount of dead-time is present in a system the

r cycle, and on/off control with on/off being the


most important and the most used.
process variable will not show any change until
the process has absorbed an excessive amount of
The most common method of two-position capacity energy. This condition will cause a delay
control is on/off control which means that when in response to the control signal as well as an over
the setpoint is reached by a process variable from desired differential gap being present. Example

r either direction the final control element is


adjusted to its opposite position. The thermostat
would be an alc system that is turned on when the
temperature rises to setpoint. The unit will remain
controlled a/c system is a form of on/off control. running 1 hour regardless of the temperature
r As the temperature in a room rises to the setpoint
of the thermostat the thermostat sends a signal to
inside the room. It is easy to see that the
temperature inside the room will be well below the

r a relay which closes a contact and starts the


motor/compressor. The temperature in the room
setpoint and a significant amount of time will be
needed for the temperature to rise again to
begins to cool after a period of time called dead- setpoint. By trial and error, an adequate time cycl e
r time and continues to cool until the setpoint is
reached (cooling down-scale) called transfer lag.
can be established.
Two position control is by far the easiest

r The actual temperature in the room will fluctuate


above and below setpoint by a value referred to as
and least expensive methods of control.
Mechanical, pneumatic, electric, hydraulic, and
differential gap. This gap is desirable since it will electrical devices are easily used in such control
r "dampen" the input signal which simply means
that the cycling of the unit going on and off will
methods. For more complicated control actions;

r be reduced. When on/off control is used there


are several conditions about the process that are
immediately known. I-precise control is not
r needed. 2-the process must have enough capacity
in itself so that the final control element can keep

r up with process swings. 3- the process change is


relatively small when compared as an energy
change to the existing energy that exists in the
r process.
Differential gap control is exactly as it
'I Offset
r sounds. The final control element is adjusted
accordingly to a differential gap around the
Fast Change (proportional)

setpoint. Many homes use this method of control


r to keep the furnace from cycling on and off too
often. This results in a wider swing of the process

r variable (room temperature) than would on/off Proportional control response with resulting offset shown.
74 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
-,
ones that demand a greater accuracy such as is
used in industrial control, some method of final
control element is needed and the throttling of
fmal control elements is the answer. This is often
How much is the valve closed? Even more critical
when is the valve signaled to swing fully closed,
and likewise fully open? If the proportional band
is set at 20 % then the valve would swing fully
..,
referred to as proportional or throttling control. closed when the setpoint indicated 40% and wou1d

=
Throttling control is where the fmal control be open fully at 60 %. This 20 % range of control
action is referred to as the proportional band. At
a range greater than 40 % and less than 60 % the
valve is at some point between the two fully open
.,
J

-,
~ 1.0
......
0;:)
=r&.
... Z
~-
u
0 U and fully closed positions .
When the proportional control method is

2.0 I- PB - 50% GAIN" 2.0


used by itself the proportional band must be
established to allow efficient control. If the band
is set too narrow then the fmal control element
-,
=
......
III
..I;:) will often act as an on/off controller rather than as
PD -100%. GAIN" 1.0
~~ 1.0 I-
... ;:)
PD" 200%. GAIN" 0.5 a throttling type of controller. If the proportional
~o
U
I---
band is set too high then the controller will not
o
respond to small disturbances in the process
TIME variable and the process will not be controlled at
setpoint.
Another variable which will come into play
Proportional Band with the resulting Gain shown.
with proportional control is Gain or sensitivity.
Gain is defmed as the ratio of output divided by j
element is positioned somewhere between fully input of a control device and is often explained by
open and fully closed. Its purpose is to throttle the using the ratio of two resistances controlling an
process variable to a rate which can be controlled operational amplifier. Mathematically Gain is the
by the controller. reciprocal of the proportional band that is
Proportional control is usually called the indicated as a decimal value. Practically, Gain is
form of control where the position of the final determined by the relationship of change in a
control element is determined by the relationship process variable to the position of the final control
between the process variable and the setpoint. element. In our level tank example the
Proportional control is used where there is a proportional band is 20 %. Mathematically the
smoother method of control wanted than on/off Gain is the reciprocal of the proportional band,
control can provide. The final control element therefore the gain would equal 1/0.2 = 5. Perhaps
movement is directly proportional with the amount an easier way to calculate Gain is to use:

.,
of deviation from the setpoint. Likewise there is
no movement in the fmal control element unless a Gain = Controller Output (valve change)
change in the process variable is measured. It is
1
easy to follow this form of control, but there is Controller Input (process variable)
another variable that must be considered.
At what point does the final control Once the controller is installed the Gain is
element reach its fully open or fully closed set and cannot be changed unless the proportional
position? We now know that proportional control' band is changed. Another way to picture Gain is
applied to a tank level would act like the following to realize that if a Gain equal to 1 is used as the
with a setpoint for control set at 50% of span process variable changes its input measurement
measured by the level transmitter. If the tank level value by one unit then the output fmal control i
drops below 50 % the final control element is element is changed by one unit. If the Gain
closed some amount to raise the level in the tank.
r Chapter 11 - Fundamentals of Control 75

r equaled 2 then the process variable changing by

r-
one unit would cause a final control element
, /' response of two units and etc.
A proportional controller may also have a

r bias variable. Bias is used to allow the output to


be set at a predetermined value even if the setpoint
were changed. A bias is usually used when the
r output is wanted to be 50 % when the process
variable reaches setpoint. A bias usually indicates

r that the valve position is wanted to be 50 % of its


opening range given a 50% signal from the
controller. We studied this earlier as a linear
r. relationship. The Gain is predictable for a
proportional only controller and can be figured as

r follows. Let us use a proportional band of 100 %


to assume that we want to control over the entire Proportional plus integral control. The integral part of control
eliminates the offset that is present with proportional only
range of our process.
r O/P=[100/%proportional band] x [setpoint -
control.

r measurement] + [%Bias] change is detected. If a process variable change is


introduced to a process the difference is detected
If the desired level was 50 % with a bias of between the process variable and the setpoint and
r 50%, then when the process variable measurement
equals the setpoint ( 0 deviation ) then the valve
corrective action is taken. The controller is always
responding to a change and is having to measure

r position is 50 %. When the process variable is


measured at 60 % then
the process as it is now to initiate a change at
some point later; the result is a controller that uses
proportional control only cannot return to its
r O/P= [100/100] x [-10] + [50] = 40 % original settings because the Bias settings forces
the output to equal the Bias when 0 deviation is

r This implies that the output of the


controller will be 40 % of range. Likewise if the
process variable were measured at 40% then:
r O/P= [100/100] x [10] + [50] = 60%

r This implies that the output of the


controller will be 60 % of range. 5"'" 80-+---->r--"\-H~1--_+_--1

r One fact remains with Gain and therefore



5~ 60 --toooI:::~~\t-if-_+_--1
II: ~
101
PB .. 500%.
g~ 40~~~~~~~
r the proportional band when used in proportional
control. The higher the gain and therefore the
~~
z
8~ 20-t--+---t---t-~""k--I
CAIN ... 0.2
PB .. lOO%.
GAIN u 0.5
lower the proportional band the more the output
r will move when subjected to a change in the
process variable. o 20 40 60 80 100
PB = 1OC=.
GAIN .. 1

CONTROlL£R INPUT

r Another fact is, an automatic controller


cannot exist without proportional control being
(X MEASURED WATER l.EV£L CHANGE)

implemented. Proportional control tries to return


r a process variable to its setpoint when a process Proportional band verses gain comparisons.
76 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

present. that is proportional to the error. The proper


The difference between process variable amount of integral control action depends on how
and setpoint that is present in a system after the fast the process variable can respond to or be
system has stabilized is called the offset. The stabilized at setpoint. The integral element in a
offset in a process can be calculated by : control system is slow moving but does eliminate
any offset that would be present with proportional
~e = [%proportional bandllOO] x ~pv only control.
Proportional + Integral + derivative
Where ~e is the change in offset and ~pv control action is the most effective and efficient
is the change in the process variable . control mode since this type of control action will
respond to the widest range of control errors. The
It is easy to see that as the proportional derivative action produces an output that is
band approaches zero, the Gain approaches proportional to the rate of error change .
infinity and the offset will approach zero. We have The derivative action corrects a final
earlier studied what would happen to a controller control element by opposing change by an amount
with a high Gain; it acts as a on/off controller. It that is proportional to the rate of change.
is easy to see now that a low proportional band Derivative action adds to or subtracts energy from
has a high Gain and therefore a low offset since a the system. The derivative action dampens the
controller configured as such will only be able to response to a process variable change and provides
do on/off control with a minimal amount of dead- a stabilizing effect upon the system by reducing
time delaying response. the oscillations that are present. By reducing
Also, as the proportional band is increased system oscillations it allows the gain to be set at a
the Gain is decreased and more offset is higher value which allows a faster response by the
introduced into the system. If the proportional controller to a process load change. Derivative
band were increased to the full range of the action does not correct offset but reduces the
process variable then the Gain would be low amount of overshoot the is present when
enough that once the system were destabilized then proportional and integral control is used to
it could never recover until the bias is manually stabilize a system after a change has been made.
adjusted to stabilize the process. Being able to identify the methods of
When a process cannot stand the offset that control allows us to be able to determine if errors
is present in proportional only control and an are present and corrective action is needed. In
operator is not available to manually adjust the instrument calibration we would compile a
Bias setting, then another control function must be deviation chart which would be compared to the
employed. Reset when used in a control algorithm ideal case of instrument calibration and then
will integrate any difference between the process determine if any calibration changes needed to be
variable and the setpoint that is present in the performed. The same calibration procedures could
system and not just when the system is stabilized be performed here. The process could be
until the difference between the setpoint and the monitored and recorded and then compared to a
process variable is O. Reset performs the same chart to see if any of the control parameters
function as an operator who manually adjusts Bias needed adjustrnent.
until 0 deviation is reached. There is no substitute for practical
Proportional plus integral control action experience when trouble shooting control systems
automatically adjusts the offset that may be present but if you remember the methods discussed
in a process after a process load change has been previously )'Ou will have a better chance of
introduced, to 0 % deviation. The introduction of making an accurate diagnosis.
integral control action ( reset) has the ability to
adjust the position of a final control element when
there is an error present in the system, at a rate
r Chapter 12 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibration 77

r Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibration


r A smart instrument is often thought of as alternated between different manufacturers. A

r· an instrument that is micro-processor based. This


is a correct assumption of many but few
typical "bench" calibration hook-up is shown
below. A special point of interest is when bench

r: understand how this instrument differs from


conventional instrumentation. If an instrument is
described as being smart, then it does operate
calibrating a smart instrument you may connect
the positive lead of the ammeter to the positive test
point and the negative lead of the ammeter to the
differently from conventional analog transmitters. negative test point. Often smart transmitters are
r Popular beliefs today indicate that a vast majority
of installers and calibrators think there is an
calibrated on the "bench" first which ensures that
the transmitter is in good working order. Plus the
r "unknown or magic" sequence of operation for a
smart transmitter. This assumption could not be
hardware switches may be set so the internal
workings of the transmitter may not be exposed to

r further from the truth.


We will learn that the construction,
installation, and calibration of a typical smart
a hazardous atmosphere.
Most smart devices contain switches that
allow the person who is configuring the
r instrument is in fact a simpler job than having to
perform the same functions on a conventional
transmitter to select whether they would like the
transmitter to fail "Hi" or fail "Low". If a device

r analog transmitter. The predominant conventional


analog transmitter is the differential pressure type.
The same holds true for smart instruments and any
is selected to fail Hi, then when the internal
diagnostics of the transmitter detect an
unrecoverable error it will usually drive the analog
r examples of step-by-step procedures will refer to
the smart Rosemount Model 1151 DP.
signal to a value greater than 20 mAo Likewise, if
fail Lo is selected the transmitter will output a

r Communication to a smart instrument is


initiated with a communicator. The type of
communication device depends upon the
signal less than 4 mAo These switches are located
inside the housing cover and are accessible when
the cover is removed. These switches are often
r manufacturer and communicators cannot be overlooked when installed. Smart devices will

r
r 24 V de
Power
Supply

r
r bDrn~
r
Current

BB8
DDD
Meter

r DDD
DDD
DOD
DOD
r
k:i!iWW4 Typical Bench Calibration Hook-up.
78 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More .J
Fail Safe Mode Switch
transmitter "over range" error. This ,i
would imply that a high or low setting

.,
Transmitter Security Switch would be detectable as a "Bad Point"
error, but care should be taken to verify
the switches are still placed in the proper

.,
position.
The security switch is another
setting that may be used. The security
switch setting requires
that it is in the off position in order to
change or enter configuration data. To
enable the transmission of configuration
data the switch must be in the off position.
Once the configuration switches are in
their proper position, transmitter
Typical configuration switches shown in default positions. configuration/testing can proceed.
When the transmitter is connected
arrive with the switches in their default position as a bench calibration or as a Field connection a
and the installer should verify that the fail position Communicator can be connected. With a j
will not drive the output signal to a level that is Rosemount device a HART-based communicator
not detectable by monitoring equipment. An
example would be if a transmitter that is
would be turned on by pressing the ON/OFF key.
The communicator will search for a device and
i
measuring level was set to fail low and the alarm show that it is connected to a smart device. If it
points for the level monitored were for high levels does not, troubleshoot the loop to see where loss i
only, it is easy to see that a transmitter failure of communication is occurring. When connected
would not alarm for a high level condition. Most there are several test functions that may be
DCS (Distributed Control Systems) monitors performed and it is usually recommended that they
and! or controllers are capable of detecting a be done. Testing is often done when poor loop
j
Optional j

L1J
Chart
Model 1151 Smart Recorder
Pressure Transmitter
RL~250n i
......--~ --......
1-----.
+
+
i
i
BB8
DOD
BBa
000
ODD
Optional
Indicator .,
i

Typical Field Wiring Diagram. A Hart interface may be connected at any point in the loop.
Chapter 12 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibration 79

r performance is detected and when a device failure


occurs.
loop should indicate a signal of 4 mAo If 20 rnA
were chosen all devices in the loop should indicate

r A communicator test is performed to


ensure that the communicator is correctly
a signal of 20 mAo Sometimes, as with the
Rosemount 1151DP, the output signal will not
working. Most communicators perform a self-test register 4 rnA when it should and the digital trim
r when turned on and if an error or failure is
detected then the communicator will list a
should be adjusted (to be covered later). When
checking the output of the transmitter the

r diagnostic message. The important thing to note


here is if a communicator is in proper condition,
transmitter configuration may be continued.
"Engineering Units" should be indicated to
correspond to the working process. Setting the
engineering units to match the process allows the
r A transmitter test should also be
performed. Although smart devices are
calibrator to view the process in working
parameters. Therefore, if the engineering units

r continuously self-diagnosing signals and internal


diagnostics, a more extensive self-testing routine
indicated at 4 rnA does not correspond to a actual
loop indication of 4 rnA a trim is again required.
should be initiated with the transmitter test The above steps should be repeated
r routine. The transmitter test routine will identify
any errors and messages are displayed that will
whenever the testing and/or troubleshooting of a
device or loop is called for. Whenever you are

r indicate the source of the problem.


A loop test can be performed to verify
preparing to send or request data that will disrupt
the control loop or change the output of the
output of the transmitter, any recorders in the loop transmitter the loop should be placed in manual.
r and to ensure the proper wiring of the loop. A
loop test should be performed when the device is
Placing the loop in manual implies exactly what it
is. The transmitter will no longer provide a basis

r installed to ensure the proper connections in the


loop have been made. Messages will usually be
for loop operation. The prompt that appears in the
HART communicator display is a reminder only;
displayed which will remind you to put the loop in placing the loop in manual is a separate function.
r manual. This function is to ensure that there are
no devices that are being controlled from the
Once all of the above are verified and complete
the Transmitter Calibration can be verified.
r transmitter. If a device were being controlled from
the transmitter and a loop test was performed, the
Calibration of a smart transmitter requires
some basic steps that are the same for all smart
fmal control element would swing to its upper and devices. Calibration of the Rosemount 1151
r lower range limits. It is easy to see that a working
process cannot be subjected to such an extreme
requires 3 major steps. With other devices and
other manufactures the steps should be relatively

r variation. Communicators will allow the


transmitter in the loop test mode to output a
the same but device calibration procedures should
be referenced. First, the analog output parameters
chosen signal regardless of the input from the should be configured. Second, the Sensor should
r sensor. If 4 rnA were chosen, all devices in the be calibrated. Third, the 4-20 rnA output should

r Transmitter Bench Calibration Tasks Field Calibration Tasks

r Standard
Calibration
Tasks
1. Set output configuration parameters:
a) Set the transmitter range points.
b) Set the Output Units.
c) Set the Output Type (Linear or SqRt).
1) Reconfigure parameters if necessary
2) Zero Trim the transmitter to compensate
for mounting position effects or static
1151DP

r 1151GP
1151HP
1151LT
d) Set the Damping Value.

2. Optional: Perform a Full Sensor Trim


-- Pressure source required.
pressure effects.

r 3. Optional: Perform an Analog Output Trim


-- Multlmeter required.

r Rosemount model 1151 transmitter with calibration options.


j
80 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

be calibrated. connected to provide 50 and 100 psi and the


transmitter could bet "set" to the reference
Configuring The Analog Output Parameters pressure settings. 50 psi would be applied and
sufficient time would be allowed to stabilize the
Configuring the analog output parameters sensor and the 4 rnA setting would be selected.
requires four basic steps. First setting the process Likewise for the 20 rnA setting at 100 psi. j
variable units. Second, reranging. Third, setting There are also zero and span buttons
located inside the cover of the smart electronics
the output type wanted. Fourth, setting damping.
Setting the process variable units allows a housing. These "buttons" allow a user to set the i
calibrator to be able to view his calibration range zero and span ranges and settings by using a
in the same parameters as the process monitored. j
Often enough the smart transmitter is configured
from the factory in Engineering units other than
the process parameters. Several options are
available (14 with the Rosemount 1151 DP) and
the calibrator is able to select the options from the i
menu provided.
One of the most common calibration
procedures for any transmitter involves reranging
the 4 and 20 rnA outputs. The smart transmitter is
no different. Reranging a transmitters signal i
allows the transmitter to accurately match the
process measured. With the smart transmitter as
with a conventional transmitter the working range
i
selected by the user can not be outside the factory Span and Zero buttons for a smart transmitter. It is difficult to
allowable ranges. For example, if a transmitter find a smart transmitter that does not have provisions for j
manually providing a means for calibration.
were to be ranged for a range of 50 to 100 psi the
reranging could be performed in one of three
ways. By using the communicator only to set the reference pressure and performing the same
-,
4 rnA signal to 50 psi and 20 rnA equivalent to calibration procedure as with a conventional
100 psi.
A reference pressure supply can be
transmitter. The smart's zero and span buttons are
depressed to perform the same functions as the
zero and span screws on a conventional
transmitter. When a known accurate
reference variable is connected, depress
.,
J

the span and zero buttons simultaneously i


for at least five seconds to activate the
controls. The controls are active for 15
minutes and must be activated again after i
15 minutes has passed. Apply a zero
reference variable and press the zero j
button for five seconds. Verify the output
is at 4 rnA and do the same for the high
reference point by using the span button. i
Setting the output type is a user
selectable option that needs attention. We i
Calibration of a smart transmitter using a reference pressure to
know now that not all output signals will
establish a reference for the 4 and 20 rnA settings be proportional or linear. For example,
r Chapter 12 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibration 81

r some signals such as level will use a linear


representation of 50% (12 rnA) for a 50% level.
increments (Rosemount 1151).

r We know that flow rates due to the square root


relationship we studied earlier is not necessarily a
Calibrating The Sensor

linear function signal. With a conventional


r transmitter there must be a device or method
which will convert the signal to a usable value.
To properly comprehend the digital trim
function it must be understood that the smart
transmitter does not function the same as its
r With a smart transmitter the user can select a
square root output option that is proportional to
conventional counterpart. An important difference
the user should remember is that the smart

r flow when activated.


An often overlooked calibration step is to
set the damping. A smart transmitter damping
transmitter is factory categorized which means that
the reference input pressure is compared to the
known output signal.
r allows it to filter out noise or unwanted process
fluctuations. An example would be to use
This information is stored in the
transmitters EEPROM and is looked at and

r electronic damping to "smooth out" the output


when there are extremely rapid input variations.
High damping values filter out process noise and
compared to when the transmitter is in operation.
This simply means that at some time, perhaps
factory set, the reference pressure vs. output
r unwanted fluctuations while low damping values
increase the response time of the instrument but
signal has been set. When the transmitter is in
operation the transmitter uses the stored

r can introduce rapid fluctuations of input values.


Damping values are adjustable with a smart
calibrator from 0-16 seconds in 0.1 second
information to produce an output signal in
engineering units that corresponds to the input
reference pressure. Whether linear or non-linear
r
r Dead Weight Tester
Calibration Standard for
Sensor Trim Only

r
r
r
r
r
r HART-based
Communicator

r
r
Digital Trim connections for a 4-20 rnA Transmitter. Remember, a calibrated instrument is only as accurate as the calibration
r equipment.
82 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

the digital trim allows the user to make corrections correspond to the working zero wanted.
to the factory stored "curve " that is maintained in
the EEPROM. Digital trim is a two step process Output Calibration
consisting of sensor trim and adjusting the output
electronics. The function of digital trim should not Output calibration is another from of the
be confused as reranging since reranging does not trim procedure. Adjusting the output electronics is
effect the way a transmitter "sees and interprets" sometimes required when a transmitter has been
a process input. installed and in use for a period of time. To
Sensor trim exacts the digital process determine if output correction is needed connect a
variable to a precision pressure input. Sensor trim mill i-amp meter of known sufficient accuracy and
allows the user to change the way the transmitter the hart communicator. Perform a loop test
interprets the input variable. To understand what (remember to put loop in manual) and set the
digital trim is picture a transmitter with 50 psi output to 4 mAo The transmitter output should be
input applied (compared to a known gage within plus or minus 3 microamps.
pressure), but the transmitter sees a sl ight Next set the output to 20 mA o The value
difference in the input variable. The reason is the should also be within plus or minus 3 microamps .
factory stored "curve" was not set correctly so If the tolerances are to great, trimming the output
that the referenced input variable would indicate is required. Use a current meter to read the output
the correct value. Digital trim corrects that
difference by one of two methods, full and
zero trim.
A full trim is a two point
.-
- . §12 --[MDo~dIe~ 1 ~1115D1~~p~r~e~s~su~r~e~T~r~a~nfrstm~ic::tt=e.
11121313111 Sensor Zero Trim
r:. __
calibration procedure in which the lower ' -0 . 1)
" .
reference value is applied first . The lower Trimming the sensor zero is a one-point sensor calibration performed by
range limit input variable is applied and applying zero pressure to the transmitter.
allowed to stabilize. The upper range limit
~~~t ~~ ~CIIIlI4I4I<II f4I From the Online Menu, select Device
is appl ied and the signal is linearized
between them . Remember, a calibration
'!'I!f"+
31=10
5~.111:1
~& lnH2U
12 . e13e MR
setup.
4 LRU 9 . 9030 inH20
procure is only as accurate as the 5 URV 1813 . 1313130 inH20

equipment used. Rosemount recommends


using a input reference at least three times ~~B t~~ ~~t~~CII ~ From the Device Setup Menu , select
1 Process variables
as great as the 1151 DP. DiaglService.
m~t\!*ut
4 Det.ailed set.up
A zero trim is a much simpler one 5 Review COOiJ.!I
point process comparison. Perhaps a
second pressure is not available so the
"zero" is set accurately instead of a full
kt~§~5e~~f~~QI
1 Test. device
2 Loop t.est..
. From the DiagiService Menu, select
Calibration.
gIIE1lJmE'''!'
trim. Simply apply a reference variable
that corresponds to a process variable of
zero va lue and set. The reference applied
alibration +I From the Calibration Menu, select
must be within 3 % of the true zero stored 1 Re- range
2 TriM analo9 output Sensor trim.
in the EEPROM. This procedure is best gM#i§_'··W i4
performed when the transmitter is installed
in its final working position. This allows
the user to perhaps gain an advantage by ensor triM +I From the Sensor Trim Menu, select Zero
field setting a transmitter to a known zero ~·tJAsor trIM trim. Follow the on-line instructions .
3 Upper sensor tr iM
4 Sensor triM po ints
reference. When performing a zero trim
the curve used for the range specified is
not changed but merely "offset" to Rosemount !l51 digital output trim sequence.
Chapter 12 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibration 83

Power
Supply

Typical multi-drop network. Multiple transmitters connected on a single communications media communicating digitally.

units in milliamps and adjust the output to meet Rosemount set to 4 rnA). There are limits to the
the standard for the site you are working in. number of devices that are installed on a single
Trimming the analog output sets the output signal communications media and the manufactures
to equal what the reference measuring equipment specifications should be referenced.
indicates the transmitter should indicate . When mUltidropping transmitters each
Sometimes transmitters are connected to device connected to the communications media
transmit an output signal in the digital form rather must have an address. It is essential that a user
than the analog form we are used to. This does not verify which functions are deactivated (alarming,
mean that a transmitter connected to transmit 4-20 rnA, etc .) when re-addressing a transmitter.
digitally can not represent an analog range . A To set a multidropped transmitter the input
transmitter that communicates digitally is able reference variable must be kTIown . The output is
through a series of discrete bits to translate and set digitally to represent the known variable and
i n t e r p r et
information.
M u I t i Loop Connection Ports

dropping
transmitters refers
to the connection of
several transmitters
to a single Optional NICad
Recharger Jack
communications
Serial Port
transmission line.
Communication
between the host
and the transmitter
will occur digitally
and the output is Rosemount smart cal ibralOf rear connection panel. The HART Communicator needs a minimum
de-activated (with of 250 ohms resislance in the loop to function properly.
84 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More i
the host excepts the digital form as the reference data when it is required to give a transmitter j
variable. working parameters if working off-line.if working
Remember to "download" configuration on-line the transmitter will be needed to be

j
j

i
i
j
Online Menu

1 PolIAddress
2 Number of Request Preambles
3 BurstMode
4 Burst Option
i
Meas. Type
j
Isolator Mtrl
FdlType
Flange Type
Flange Mat
();'~MaL
j
OVMaL
'ofRmt
RSType
RSMat
RSFnt i
HART Communicator menu Tree for the 1151.
r Chapter 12 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibration 85
r-'
t updated.

r
r
r Function

Analog Output
Model 268 Fast Key Sequences

F3,F2

r Analog Output Alarm


Burst Mode Control
Burst Operation
Calibration
Not Applicable
F4,F4,F1
Not Applicable
Not Applicable

r Characterize
Damping
F4,F4,F2
F3,F2,F2
F3, F3, (F1 x 3)

r
Date
Descriptor F3,F3,F1
Digital To Analog Trim (4-20 mA Output) F4,F4,F3
Disable Local SpanlZero Adjustment F4,F4,F1

r Field Device Info


Full Trim
Keypad Input (Trim Points)
F3,F3
F4,F4,F3,F2,F1
F3.F2. F1

r Loop Test
Lower Range Value
Lower Sensor Trim
F2.F3
Process Variable Key. F2
F4.F4.F3.F2.F1.F2

r Message
Meter Type
Number Of Requested Preambles
F3,F3.F1.F1
F3, F3. (F1 x 4)
Not Applicable

r Percent Range
Poll Address
Pressure
Not Applicable
F1.F4.F4.F2.F3
Process Variable Key

r Range Values
Rerange
Scaled D/A Trim (4-20 mA Output)
F3.F2.F1
F4.F4.F3.F1.F1
F4.F4.F3.F1.F2

r
Self Test (Transmitter) F2.F2
Sensor Info F3.F3
Sensor Temperature Process Variable Key, F3

r Sensor Trim Points


Status
Tag
F3.F2. F1
Not Applicable
F3.F3

r
Transfer Function (Setting Output Type) F3.F2.F1.F1
Transmitter Security (Write Protect) Not Applicable
Trim Analog Output F4.F4.F3.F1
Units (Process Variable) F3.F2

r Upper Range Value


Upper Sensor Trim
Process Variable Key. F2
F4.F4.F3.F2.F1.F3

r
Zero Trim F4.F4.F3.F2.F2

Hart Fast key sequences for the Model 1151.

r
r
r
86 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

Model 1151 Smart Pressure Transmitter Exploded View.


r Chapter 12 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibration 87

r
r CONFIGURATION DATA SHEET

r Customer _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Model No. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
~ONo. __________________________

Line Item ________________________

r SST Tag No.

Software Tag: 1_1_1_1_1_1_1_1_1 (8 characters maximum)

r OUTPUT INFORMATION: (Software Selectable)

4mA= _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

r
KEY
romA= _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ * Default Values
Upper Range Limit*

o psi ** psiinH for0 forRanges Requires C9 Option I


r Units = 0 inH2 0*
OinHg
OftH2 0
OmmH 20
o bar
Ombar
Og/cm 2
OPa
OkPa
o Torr
OAtm
2 Ranges 3-5 in.
6-0 in.

r Output=

I Dampingl=
OmmHg
0 Linear*

_ _ _ __
o kglcm 2

o Square Root
seconds (Damping is electronically adjustable in 0.1 seconds in increments from 0.0 to 16.0 seconds.)

r TRANSMITTER INFORMATION: (Software Selectable)

I Descriptor:
r
1_1_1_1_1_1_1_1_1_1_1_'_1_1_1_1_1 (16 characters maximum)

Message: 1_1_1_1_1_1_1_1_'_1_'_'_1_1_1_'_1_'_1_1_1_1_'_1_1_'_1_1_1_1_1_1_1 (32 characters maximum)

r Date: o
(numeric)
00
Day
(alphabetic)
000
Month
(numeric)
00
Year

o Installed o None
r Integral Meter:
Flange Material:
O-ring Material:
0316 SST
o Viton
o HastelloyC
o Buna-N
o Monel o Carbon Steel
o Ethylene-Propylene
o Special

r Isolator Material:
o Teflon
0316SST
o Tantalum
o Special
o HastelloyC
o Go,d/Monel
o Monel
o Special
r Sensor Fluid:
DrainNent Valves:
Remote Seal Type:
o Silicone
0316 SST
o No Seal
o Inert
o HastelloyC
OCTW
o Monel
OEFW
o Carbon Steel o Special

r Remote Seal Fill Fluid


OPFW
OSCW
o No Seal
ORFW
oSSW
o Silicone
ORTW
OSpecia'
o Syltherrn 800
o Inert o Glycerin/H2O o Prop Gly/H20
r Remote Seallsoltr Mat'l:
o Neobee M-20
ONoSeal
o Special
0316SST o HastelloyC
o Tantalum o Special
r Number of Remote Seals: o No Seal DOne o Two

r Typical Smart Configuration Data Sheet. Example shown is for Rosemount Model 1151 Smart Pressure Transmitter.
88 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

i
HARDWARE SELECTABLE INFORMATION:

Failure Mode: rDHi9hl o Low


Transmitter Security:
~ DOn

SIGNAL SELECTION:

.,
Rosemount 1151 Smart Configuration Sheet Continued

j
Chapter 13 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibrators 89

Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibrators

A smart calibrator is used to provide


a working interface to a smart device . A
smart device is typically a transmitter that is
used to perform the same functions of reading
a process variable as its conventional
counterpart, but the smart device is micro-
processor driven and controlled .
"
A smart device is still installed with
the same process (impulse) rubing and wiring
arrangements as a conventional device. Being
able to "communicate" with a smart device is
what separates it from its conventional
counterpart. A smart instrument calibrator
communicates with the smart device and the
"protocol", or language, is determined by the
manufacrurer. Some smart devices
communicate digitally while others use the
field wiring to communicate with the use of a
carrier signal. The thing to remember is that Rear connection panel for the Rosemount Smart Communicator.
all smart calibrators perform the same
working interface function. The "keystrokes" may current directly but does use the loop resistance to
be different, or of a different sequence, but the calculate the loop current.
same objective exists . A smart calibrator should be The users can observe the actions and/or
accompanied by documentation that would functions of the smart device through the Liquid
familiarize the user to its specific keystroke Crystal Display (LCD) . The LCD can display,
functions. when connected to a device, the model number,
The device we will srudy here is the the instrument Tag number, and any messages that
Rosemount HART (Highway Addressable Remote
Transducer) Communicator. "The HkRT
Communicator is a handheld interface that NOTE: To temporailly installlhc opllooal 250 ohm Load RO Slstor:
1. Insert tho load resistor inl 0 Iho landso t jacks.
provides a common communication link to all 2. Opon the loop to allow connection 01 the resistor in series in lho loop.
3. Close Iho loop using Iho lead 501 connectors.
HART compatible microprocessor based
instruments " .
The HART communicator can interface to Power
Supply
a smart Rosemount device at the site of the
instrument, a junction box or termination point,
or in the control room . Loop connectors located BBB
on the rear of the communicator allow for access
HARToCOmpalJblo DeVice Ophonal250 Ohm
to the loop wiring. A PC (personal computer) Load Resistor

connection can be made through a serial port also


located on the rear of the communicator. When
connecting the Hart Communicator there must be
a minimum of 250 ohms loop resistance present. Hart Communicator Shown connected with the 250 ohm
The Hart Communicator does not measure loop resistor.
90 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

are wanted to be displayed. The bottom of the communicator was turned on, and another if a
display is reserved for the software function keys device is not found. If no device is found the
(FI-F4) which allow a user to flow through the communicator should say so and have available the
functions of communicating to a smart device. menu for offline configuration displayed.
"HELP" functions are available for certain If a device is connected the menu for online
routines and Help is displayed on the "F" keys should be displayed along with the relative device
when available. Function keys change as the user information. If a device is not found when
goes through the different menus that are connected to a device, troubleshoot the
displayed. Depending upon the menu displayed the connections and/or wiring until the problem is
function keys will display a set of instructions to located. It is not too soon to verify that you are
execute a commend, exit the menu, go to home trying to communicate to a "smart" device and not
menu, and etc. Function keys are not the only way its dumb "brother".
Sometimes a specific HART
device is not found when connected and the
ON/OFF
wiring and/or connections are proved to be
OK
HELP
Access online
Activates or
deactivates
ABORT
Terminate current
Acknowledge satisfactory. In these cases the user is
Information on
help a blt-enumerated
binary variable
task
screen limited to perform data exchange to the
RETRY
DEL
ESC ENTER
device because the device is not stored in
Delete current
Try to re-establish Leave a value Accept user-
communication
character or Hot
unchanged entered data the memory module of the calibrator.
Key Menu Item
QUIT Generic descriptions will have to be used.
EXIT SEND Terminate 888slon - EXIT
Leave the current Send configuration becausoofa Leave the current An example of this would be if you
menu data to device communication menu
error had an older communicator and a newer
YES
Answer to yea/no
PGUP
Move up one help
PGDN
Move down one
NO
Answer to yea/no
device, the communicator will not likely
question screen help screen question
know that such a device exists and will not
ALL NEXT ONE
PREV
Include current
Go to previous Go to next Include Hot Key be able to recognize it. The closest model to
Hot Key Item on message In a list of message In a list of Item for ene device
~ Hot Key Menu for
messages messages the device will have to be chosen for data
all devices
NEXT SAVE HOME exchange and the device will accept the
Go to the next Saves Information Go to the top menu
variable In offline to Memory Module In the device information since it should be downwardly
edit or Oats Pack description
MARK
compatible, but it may not have the same
FILTR
Opens
Toggles marked BACK parameters as the older model (URL, LRL,
customlzatlon
menu to sort
configurations
configuration
variables for
sending to a field
Go back to the
menu from which
HOME was praued
Sensor type, etc.). .1
device
To calibrate a newer device than the
XPAND
Opens detailed EDIT calibrator recognizes should never be
configuration Edit a variable value
Information attempted until proper authorization and
CMPRS
Closes detailed
ADD
Add current Item to
acknowledgment is received from whoever
conflguratlen
Information
Het Key Menu is directing the calibration procedures.
A handy feature of the HART
Rosemount Function key labels for its HART Communicator. Communicator is to allow the storage of
multiple devices that are configured offline
information and/or commands are selected. and "downloaded later". To configure devices for
Alphanumeric and shift keys are available downloading later the devices must be configured
to perform a fast selection of menu items and or offline and stored in the communicator for later
data entry. To enter data the shift keys are used in use. The manufacturers devices are listed and
conjunction to select the letter wanted and the when selected the model numbers appear and when
strings of letters are entered separately. selected the field device revision menu appears,
The HART Communicator when turned on and the menus continue onward until complete and
will generally display one of two menus. One a new device is selected.
menu if a device was found when the Regardless of whether a device is
Chapter 13 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibrators 91

replace the various components. The battery pack,


the memory module, and data packs are some of
the modules that can be exchanged and/or
~~roo:ol
~ L1J LLJ HART Communication replaced. Remember to store and exchange the

~
( " indicates connected
device is configurod in data saved in the memory module and data packs
the burst mode)
/
Efj:fi<!Cc~~rc.itc~~ll -- L" w Banery if it is needed later for saved memory to be
Access recalled.
PreviOl.ls
Menu The communicator provided by Rosemount
is typical of most communicators since it will
accept the alkaline or nicad rechargeable modules
as its power supply . There is a low battery icon
that will appear when approximately one hour of
usage in whichever type is used and the
Menu icons and associated key functions.
communicator should be serviced when this icon
appears. Continuing data entry and/or storage
configured online or offline the device parameters under the low power conditions may result in a
have to be correctly entered. The process range loss or corruption of data.
limits, analog output ranges, damping selection (if There are several common tasks and
any) must all be entered as specified . The actions functions that are done with the Rosemount
of entering data is menu driven and follows a communicator and the following trees and menu
predefined sequence of steps. Menu trees are selections are descriptions of the most common
available which a user can view to "see ahead" devices and procedures performed. The
what his selection will do before it is selected. If assumption will be made now that assumes we are
the menu trees are followed the user will have few able to tell if a device is online or offline and we
problems with a device being in-correctly are familiar with the technical terms such as range,
configured.
There are several menus that are
available for advanced diagnostics and
troubleshooting techniques and these
menus should not be activated unless the
consequences of selecting a configured
device for diagnostics are clearly
understood.
With other calibration equipment
Software-Defined Keys
(Green)

=
800di
---
~

it is necessary to verify the calibration of


the calibration equipment. With smart
communicators it is not generally Dedicated Keys
(Peach)
()
0
u.
;;;
.;,
/0001
DOD
~

necessary to verify its calibration. The


calibrator has no measuring circuitry and
<0
DOD N

does not measure analog or 'discrete DOD


values directly. Smart communicators are
Alphanumeric Keypad
(White) DOD
just what their name says. A smart
calibrator is a communications device
DOD
that provides an interface to a smart
Shift Keys
(White) DOD
device and is not subj ect to calibration
methods.
The modular construction of most The Rosemount HART Communicator with communicator keys
calibrators makes it easy to repair and including function, action, alaphanumeric, and shift.
-
§[ ""
N
fit
~
~
§p.
~5' 9
-g Model 1151 Pressure Transmitter
Menu Tree
FunctionlVariable
Analog Output 3
Fast-Key Sequence
~
(1)

a.
- -
Analog Output Alarm 1,4,3,3 ~ ~
1 PROCESS ~ 21 PressulO Burst Mode Control 1,4,3,4,3
::s
~ en
VARIABLES Percent Range
3 Analog Output Burst Operation 1,4,3,4,4 0 0
(JQ I-+)
1 T£ST DEVICE HI I Calibration 1,2,3 ~

-2
Selttest
2 Status
Characterize 1, 4, 1, 1, 2, 2 ~ ~
~.

_._.
Damping 1,3,6
2 DIAGNOSTICS ,... 2 LoopT8S1 1 RERANGE
H~~=I
~
AND SERVIce Date 1,3,4,1 p.
U 1 Dlgllal-to-Analog Trim 1 Descriptor 1,3,4,2 (JQ
a.
-s --.
2 TRIM ANALOG 2 Scalod DlA Trirri
3 CAUBRAll0Nf-- OUTPUT
D/A Trim (4-20 mA Output) 1,2,3,2,1
~
Field Device Info 1,4,4,1
~12 ZeroTrim
Lower Sensor Trim 0
Full Trim 1,2,3,3 ~
1 Tag 3 SENSOR TRIM 3 Upper Sensor Trim
4 Sensor Trim PoInts
1,2,3,1,1
?
2 Unit
Keypad Input e3"
1,2,2 ~
f-~=~= a a
Loop Test ~
3 BASIC SETUP I-
3 RANGE
VALUES
• DEVICE INFO
5 Trcwfor Func1ion
f-Date
1
2 OoseripIor
~ ~:a~oct
5 MotorTypo
Lower Range Value
Lower Sensor Trim
Message
4,1
1,2,3,3,2
1,3,4,3
(1)
f) ~
0
~
6 Damp
1 PROCESS
. VARIABLES
J~ ~rc I Meter Type
Number Of Requested Preambles
1,3,4,5
1,4,3,4,2
(1)

SENSOR TRlun
M21 Characterize
2 SENSOR Percent Range 1,1,2
SERVICE
1 SENSORS H,=eL Poll Address 1,4,3,4,1

1:'-- ~
3 Unit
2 Lwr Snar Trim Pressure 2
Online Menu 3 Upr Snar Trim
.. Silsr Trim Pts. Range Values 1,3.3
1 DEVICE
SETUP I-
2PV
3 AO
1 PROCESS
VARIABLES
K 1 Pressure
2 Pen:ont Range
,I Rerange
Scaled D/A Trim (4-20 mA Output)
1,2,3,1
1,2,3,2,2
• LRV 2 SlOMAL
CONDmON I- 2 RANGE
5URV Self Test (Transmitter) 1,2, 1, 1
H~~~I
VAWES
3 Unit 1,4,4,2
4 Trana1er Function Sensor Info

.. DETAILED ,...
5~
1 PROCESS
VARIABLES
H 1
2 PresaulO
Pen:ont~
3 Analog 0u1p(d
I Sensor Trim Points
Status
1,2,3,3,4
1,2,1,2

I 1,3,1
SETUP Tag

3 OUTPUT r-
2 ANALOG
OUTPUT
I- 21 =rut to-Analog Trim
3 Sc:alod CiA TrIm
Transfer Function (Setting Output Type)
Transmitter Security (Write Protect)
1,3,5
1,3,4,4
CONDfT1OH
3 Analog Output ~~RoqUOll Trim Analog Output 1,2,3,2
AWm PreambIoa
I~~~ Units (Process Variable) 1,3,2
• HART OUTPUT
Upper Range Value 5,2
~~
H'RBDDeVEE
INFO ~:or,=. Upper Sensor Trim 1,2,3,3,3
• DEVICE 2 SENSOR INFO ~=::
INFORMA11ON 3 Moler Typo
.. Self Teat !~~ ~~ProIId Zero Trim 1,2,3,3,1

5 RI!YIEW
OS=Ma1
7 DVMa1.
7 LocaIKoya
8 RevIsIonIla
:~~Soab

Rosemount Model 1151 Pressure Transmitter. Menu Tree. Rosemount Model 1151 Fast Key Sequence.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j ~ j ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j j
,,, , ,,, ,,,,,,,,
~
. Model 3144/3244MV Smart Temperature FunctionlVariable Fast-Key Sequence
_ I V Transmitter
:""- Menu Tree Process Temperature 1, 1
Process Variables 1, 1
PV Unit 1,3,2
Range Values 1,3,3
Review 1,5
RTD Current 1,2,3,7
Scaled D/A Trim 1,4,3,1,5
Secondary Variable 1,1,4
Sensor 1 Configuration 1,4,1,1,3,1
Sensor 2 Configuration (3244MV) 1,4,1,1,3,2
Sensor 1 Connection 1,3,4
Sensor 2 Connection (3244MV) 1,3,5
Sensor Information
Sensor Serial Number (3144)
Sensor 1 Serial Number (3244MV)
1,4,1,1,4
1,3,6
1,3,7
-
w

Sensor 2 Serial Number (3244MV) 1,3,8


Sensor Setup 1,4,1,1,3
Sensor Trim 1,2,3,3
Sensor Type 1,3,4
Signal Conditioning 1,4,2
Software Revision 1,5
Special Constants 1, 4, 1, 1, 3, 1, 4
Special Sensor 1, 4, 1, 1, 3, 1, 4
Status 1,2, 1, 1
Tag 1,3, 1
Terminal Temperature 1,4,1,2
Test Device 1,2,1

11_ URV (Upper Range Value)


USL (Upper Sensor Limit)
Variable Remap
1,2,3,2,2
1,2,3,2,5
1,1,6
Wires 1,3,4

Rosemount Model 3144/3244MV Smart Temperature Transmitter Rosemount Model 3144/3244MV Fast Key Sequence.
Menu Tree.
FunctionlVariable Fast-Key Sequence
Model 8712C/u Mag Flow Transmitter
Menu Tree Message 1,4,5,3
Meter Type 1,4,4,1
Number Requested Preams 1,4,4,3,2
Poll Address 1,4,4,3,1
Process Variables-PV 1, 1, 1
Pulse Output 1,1,2
Pulse Output Loop Test 1,4,3,3,3
• OUTPUT
Pulse Scaling 1,4,3,3,1
4 4 1'IIm
Pulse Width 1,4,3,3,2
PVDamping 1,4,2,4
PV Percent Range 1,4,2,1
PVUnit 1,3,1
Review 1,5
Revision Number 1,4,5,9
Scaled D/A Trim 1,4,4,2,5
Self Test 1,2,1,1,2
Sensor-PV 1,4,1,1
Sensor Configuration 1,4,1,4
Sensor Information 1,4,1,3
2 IJGIU1' Signal Processing 1,4,2,5
OnlinoMonu
1 D&VICE Signal Processing Control 1,4,2,5,1
IIl1'UP
2PV Signal Processing-Percent Rate 1,4,2,5,3
SAO
4 LAY Signal Processing-Samples 1,4,2,5,2
Signal Processing-Status 1,4,2,5,1
Signal Processing-llme Limit 1,4,2,5,4
Special Units 1,4,1,2,2
Tag 1,4,5,1
Totalizer Control 1,4,3,4
Totalizer Display 1,4,3,2
Totalizer Value 1,4,3,1
Transmitter Gain 1,3,8
Universal Auto Trim 1,3,6
IIDIMCElHfO
Volume Unit 1, 4, 1, 2, 2, 1
Write Protect 1,4,5,6
Zero Trim 1, 4, 1, 2, 2, 1

Rosemount Mode18712C/U Mag Flow Transmitter Menu Tree. Rosemount Mode18712C/U Fast Key Sequence.

J J
,, , , I,' ,
-~
FunctionlVariable Fast-Key Sequence
Model3051C Pressure Transmitter
Analog Output 3
Menu Tree
Analog Output Alarm 1.4.3.3
Burst Mode Control 1.4.3.4.3
H1~
1 PROCESS
VARtAB1.2S 2 Porc:enI RIngo Burst Operation 1.4.3.4.4
~=~I Calibration 1.2.3
Clone Data Left Arrow. 3
1 TEST DEVICE
H~ =:uateat I Damping 1.3.6
Date
ML~va':l
1 RERANQE 1.3.4.1
2 DlAGNOSncs I- 2 Loop Tost
AND SERVICE DeSCriptor 1.3.4,2

2 TRII1ANALOG U~ =tg;~Tnml D/A Trim (4-20 rnA Output) 1.2,3.2,1


3 CALlBRAnON I-- OUTPUT Disable Local SpanlZero Adjustment 1.4.4.1,7
W' Lower Sonsor Trim
2 ZoroTrim Field Device Info 1.4,4.1
1 'DIg 3 ~RTRIII ~ :~~ Full Trim 1.2,3,3
2 UnIl Keypad Input 1,2,3,1,1
1 ~Input
3 RANGE ..... 2 VBIIies Loop Test 1,2,2
VALUES
3 BASIC SETUP I- 1 Dale Lower Range Value 4, 1
4 DEVICE INFO I- 2 [)oacrfpIor
Lower Sensor Trim 1.2,3.3,2
5 Trans111f Fundlon :=r~
5Motor Message 1.3,4,3

~=lI
6~
1 PROCESS Meter Type 1,3.4,5
VAR1ABLES
Number Of Requested Preambles 1.4,3,4,2
2 8acsoR 1 SENSOR
SSMCI! TRIll ~ Percent Range 1,1.2
1 SENSORS
'~ 1..... ' ....
T. .Trim
2 Lwr Snsr ~ Poll Address Left Arrow,S, 1
2,...,.,. I' ~.!emp 3 ~SnsrTrim
Online Menu 2 Snsr Temp 4 Trim PoInta Pressure 2
1 DEVICE
1 PROCESS iJnds' Range Values 1.3,3
~ VARIABLES
SETUP 1 Proaaure
Rerange 1.2.3,1
~~~~~
2PV
3 AO 2 RANGE VALUES
4 LAY
5 URV
2 SIGNAL
CONDITION
3 Unit
.. TranslerFundIon
5 Dmnp
1
2
=elnpul
YaIues
Scaled D/A Trim (4-20 rnA Output)
Self Test (Transmitter)
1,2,3,2,2
1,2, 1, 1
1 PROCESS 1 Pressure Sensor Info 1,4,4,2

4 DETAILED
SETUP ~
VARIABLES

2 ANALOG
~ 2 Pen:ent Range

~~~
1 LoopT"t
I Sensor Temperature
Sensor Temperature Units
1, 1, 4
1.4,1,2,2
OUTPUT ~2~~TrIm Sensor Trim Points 1.2.3,3,4 :

u' . . -.
3 Sc810d DlA Trim
3 OUTPUT Status 1.2,1.2
CONDmOH 3 Analog Output 2 Numbor 01 Requoa1
Alarm Preambles Tag 1,3,1
3 BuI'ltModo
.. BuI'lltOption Transfer Function (Setting Output Type) 1,3,5
4 HART OUTPUT
11 Tag Transmitter Security (Write Protect) 1.3,4,4
1 AELD DEVICE 2 Dale
4 DEVICE
INFO
2 SENSOR INFO ~:::~. 3 Descriptor
.. Message
Trim Analog Output 1.2,3,2
3 FilITypo
INFORMATION 311ETERlYPE Units (Process Variable) 1,3,2
h 5 Model
:=~
4 SeIlTeat 6 WIlle PrcCec:t
6 O-Ring Mal. 7 Local Keys Upper Range Value 5, 2
l~li~P 7 DVMat. 8 RevlaionS'a
Upper Sensor Trim 1,2,3,3,3
5 REVIEW : ~t:,SeaIs Zero Trim 1,2,3,3,1

Rosemount Model 3051 C Pressure Transmitter Menu Tree. Rosemount Model 3051 C Fast Key Sequence.
FunctionlVariable Fast· Key Sequence
Model 8800 Vortex Flowmeter
Menu Tree Num req preams 1, 4, 3, 6,2
Pipe inside diameter 1,4, 1.3,4
Poll Address 1, 4,3,6 , 1
Process Density" 1, 4,1 , 2 , 3
Process Temperature 1,4,1.4, 1, 1
Process Variables 1, 1
Pulse Output 1, 1, 5
Pulse Output Mode 1, 4,3, 4, 2
Pulse Output Test 1, 2, 2. 2
PV Percent Range 1, 1, 2
PV sensor serial number 1, 4 , 1,3, 5
Range Values 1, 3, 3
fl.OW ..... Review 1,5
Revision Numbers 1,3,4,9
Scaled D/A Trim 1, 2, 3,2
Self Test 1,2, 1, 1
Service Type 1, 4 , 1,3, 3
Special Units 1,4, 1,2, 2
Online Spool Body Type 1.3,4,8,3
Me"U
Status 1,2,1,2
Tag 1. 3,2
Total 1. 1, 6
Totalizer Control 1.4,3.5,3
Transmitter Test 1, 2, 1, 1
Trigger Level 1. 4, 2, 5, 4
URV 1,3, 3, 1
USL 1,4, 1, 4,3
Vol Unit 1, 4, 1, 2, 2, 1
Vortex Frequency 1, 1. 4
Welled Materials 1,3, 4,8,2
Write Protect 1,3,4,7

Rosemount Model 8800 VOI1ex Flowmeter Menu Tree. Rosemount Model 8800 Fast Key Sequence.
-tEl Model 3680 Density Transmitter
Menu Tree
FunctionNariable
Poll Address
Fast·Key Sequence
1,4,3,4,3

1 PrtIOtM VatIabIt Process Descriplion 1,4,3,6


1 PAOCUS
"""IA.loU 2 PV P-.m Rarog.
, """"""
.. PVUnits
H-
Process Sample
Process Sample Dura tion
1,2, 3,3
1,2,3,3,2
I w l Ae!i1._ Process Sample (Start New) 1,2.3,3,3

, ...
.....".,.
21 Tesl El
DevIce
1 REFERENCe

2 ~tlon Corv.
l 3f~t.
RlferltlOe MII.flal l
" New Rei.,.n<:.
Process Vari able 2
AHD iHAVlCE LoopT",
1 C.l.UBRATE
........
3 PAOCE88

H~ ==~~ I
Process Variable % of Range
Process Variable Damping
1,1 ,2
1,3,4, 1
" o.n..;ty 0ItuI Process Variable Output 3
Process Variable Units 1, 1,4
>Tog
'''''''"''
2 Upper Rarvt va.
Reference (Start New) 1, 2, 3, 1,4

......,..,...
3~~vu..
.. Upper s.nior U'nI:
2 RANGE .. UNITS 5 ~s.r.ort..mlt Reference Material 1, 2, 3, 1, 4
e o.r.ty cI c.m.r
7 Denelya! ....... Reference Temperature 1,4, 1,3, 1
1, 4, 1, 3,3
S DATE61WE
H''''
2 TlrN-1'bn
3n-..-~
Rho 1
w
,........
Rho 2 t , 4, t , 3, 5
,,~~:'~~==-
-"""'~

,_ .
Scaled D/A Trim (4-20 mA Output) 1,4, 2, 2
2
Source Type 1, 4, 3, 1
Sensor Serial Numbe r 1, 4, 3,3

' ..........ruM .....


1~
..... 'Rho
~==-
Tag 1,3,1

.....
Online Menu
, ....,.,. COIO'ENOATIOH

.... ,'
"T~1
Temp 1 1,4,1,3,4

. ......,... Temp 2 1,4, 1,3,6


,'1"1"'"'-
HOV
............11OH IT~2
Temperature 1, 1, 5
""" , ....
4 RHSOA TYPe"
~ ~~20mAl Temperature Compensation Status 1,4, I, 1

.....
. . . .AUD 2 OUJPUT_ H~ =~~TllmI
Temperature Input Type· RTD
Temperature Input Type (4-20 mA
1,4,1 ,4, 1
1,4, 1,4,2

,-
Output

....... .,..,.,.
_TIOH ._-
.--
:~s.r

'-
,--
:~-
. . .
.....- 1',-
YANA8la
. --
.... ,
Temperature Units
Time-Hours
Time-Minutes
Upper Range Value
Upper Sensor Limit
1, 4, 1, 2
1,3, 3,2
1,3,3, 3
4
1, 3, 2, 4
'"'"
::;'
c
3
(1)

'"
~

......
Rosemount Model 3680 DensIty Transrmller Menu Tree. RosemoulI! Model 3680 Fast Key Sequence.
~
98 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More J

i
Message Description
CAUTION- OFLN Memory is cleared for new information.
Progressing will clear
OflnMem
Data saved in OFLN Off-line configuration data are saved in the Off-line Memory and can
Mem for downloading be downloaded or sent to the flowmeter at an appropriate time.
Different XMTR type Flowmeter did not accept data sent because the data is meant for a
connected-XMTR different type of transmitter.
Mem not changed
End of List
ERR-Filter Auto Ad) The low pass filter auto-adjust sequence error occurs under the
following conditions:
• no flow in pipe
• erratic flowrate
j
• filter tracking disabled
Remedy conditions and repeat function.
ERR-Hard/software is
not compatible
i
ERR-Not in output
mode
ERR-Not xmtr Flowmeter does not understand the command sent by the Model

.,
command 268. Press F4, RESTART to restart the flowmeter, or press F3 to
suppress the error message ad REVIEW the software revision level.
You may need to contact the Rosemount Service Center.
ERR-out of range
ERR-PV out of limits
ERR-Update failure
ERR-Value was too hi
ERR-Value was too 10
ERR-Xmtr fault
..,
ERR-Xmtr will not The flowmeter does not understand the Model 268 command. Press
support command F4, RESTART or press F3, REVIEW to review the software revision
level of the flowmeter. Check compatibility.
ERR-268 Data err
Errors Detected-XMTR Flowmeter did not accept data because it contained nonpermissible
Mem not changed values. Data errors must be corrected and the data sent again.

.,
FAILURE-Electronics
Gen failure-No. 1 i
Making changes Data is being sent to flowmeter and flowmeter is accepting the data.
permanent-PLEASE
WAIT
No data modified to Data with no changes is being sent. Press F4 to continue.
send
No data saved In OFLN
Mem
There are no data in the Off-line Memory to review. i
Rosemount Model 268 Communicator Diagnostic Messages.

i
r Chapter 13 - Fundamentals of Smart Instrument Calibrators 99

r
r
r Message

No data saved In SAFE


Description

There are no data in the Safe Memory to review.

r Mem
Ofln Mem not
compatJblewith WORK
The data stored in Off-line Memory and WOrking Register are from
different kinds of transmitters, or the Off-line Memory is empty. Press

r REGS-Data not
transferred
SAFE Mem from dlff
F4, REVIEW, F2 to see the data in Off-line Memory and connect the
Model 268 to similar transmitter.
Data in the Safe Memory and Working Register are from different
Xmtr than WORK transmitters. Press F4, REVIEW, F1 and find the flowmeter serial

r REGS-Data not
transferred
SAFE Mem not
number. Connect the Model 268 to the flowmeter with thflt serial
number and press RESTART.
The unique identifier in the Safe Memory and the transmitter are

r compatJblewith WORK
REGS-Data not
transferred
different. Press F4, REVIEW, F1 to see the data in the Safe Memory.
Connect the Model 268 to the matching transmitter and press
RESTART.

r· The Xmtr has returned


an error
WARN-Used nearest The value entered has too many decimal places. The Model 8800
legal table value defaults to the closest value available.

r WARN-Value at limit
reverse direction
The entered value is beyond the upper or lower limit. Adjust to a
value within the limits.
WARN-Value entered The Model 268 will not accept the entered value. Enter an acceptable

r is Illegal, nMtnter
WARN-Value out of
limits, altered by 268,
value (see relevant section in manual).
The Model 268 could not store the entered value so it changed to the
maximum allowable value. Check the new value.

r re-check data
WARNING-Analog
output outside range

r points
WARNING-Control
loop should be in
Before sending the data that could affect the 4-20 mA output signal,
set the loop to manual control. After it is set, press F4.
manual

r WARNING-Data
transmission error
Previous communication between Model 268 and the flowmeter was
not successful. If this message appears repeatedly, check the loop
for a source of noise that could corrupt the signal.

r WARNING-Loop may
be returned to auto
After completing a communication that required the loop to be set in
manual, you may return the loop to automatic control.
WARNING-Match xmtr Check to be sure that the entered flowmeter serial number is the

r SIN to nameplate SIN


WARNING-Not on line
same as that on the flowmeter nameplate.
The key you have pressed is not applicable for off-line configuration
tasks.

r WARNING-Process
has been aborted
WARNING-PV out of
Indicates that the self-test has been aborted by pressing any key.

r range
WARNING-Some of
the changes were not
Flowmeter did not receive all configuration changes. Note
differences in configuration data and reconfigure the flowmeter
saved In the xmtr mem accordingly.

r WARNING-This
address already being
Another transmitter is already using the entered multi-drop address.
Enter a new address.
used

r Rosemount Model 268 Communicator Diagnostic Messages.

r
100 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

IVIes sage Description j


WARNINcrThis will Data in the Working Register will be replaced with data from a
erase work reg
WARNINcrXmtr1268
another location.
Model 268 did not get answer from flowmeter: i
not in communication • Check connections
• Check that power is reaching flowmeter
• Check for minimum 250 ohms resistance in loop
WARNINcrXmtr in During start·up and restart. the transmitter milliamp output does not
output mode reflect the process variable. Press F4.
WARNINcrXmtr is not Model 268 did not get answer from flowmeter: j
communicating • Check connections
• Check that power is reaching flowmeter
• Check for minimum 250 ohms resistance in loop
WARNINcr268 does Model 268 recognizes a Rosemount transmitter in the loop but
not know this Xmtr cannot communicate with it. The message usually indicates a
software revision level incompatibility between the Model 268 and
the transmitter.
XMTR Mem diff than Data in the Working Register and in the flowmeter have different
WORK Regs-XMTR unique identifiers. The Model 268 was probably connected to
not changed different flowmeter without RESTART or power·off/power-on
sequence. Press RESTART to erase the Working Register or save
the Working Register to the Off-line Memory and download to the
proper flowmeter at a later time.
Xmtr Security: On-
XMTR will not accept
changes to Memory
Xmtr still busy Flowmeter is running a computational or diagnostic routine and
cannot respond to the Model 268 instructions. Press the PREVIOUS
FUNCTION key to cancel.
XXXX=YYYY ERR-
Illegal value
j
XXXX=YYYY ERR-out
of range
XXXX=YYYY ERR-
Span too small
XXXX=YYYY ERR-Valu
was too hi
XXXX=YYYY ERR-Valu
was too 10
XXXX=YYYY ERR-LRV j
too hi
XXXX=YYYYERR-LRV
too 10
XXXX=YYYYERR-LRV
& URV out limits
XXXX=YYYY ERR-
URVtoohi
XXXX=YYYY ERR-
URVtoolo
XXXX=YYYY ERR-268
data err
268 Failure-No.1
268 Failure-No.2
268 Test: FAIL
Rosemount Model 268 C·ommunicator Diagnostic Messages.
Chapter 14 - Fundamentals of Instrument Installation 101

r Fundamentals of Instrument Installation


r The most widely used
7.5 (191) Max.

r· field transmitter is one of the


differential pressure type. We Yz-14 NPT
Conduit
Connection
with Optional Meter _~----'t----- 0.75 (19)
Clearance for
Cover Removal
know from our studies that the (Typical)

r differential
transmitter
pressure
performs by
(2 Places)

,
Transmitter

r sensing the differential


pressure of a process to obtain
Meter~
Housing
,
,
~
I
Circuitry
This Side

flow, level, pressure and in


r some cases temperature to
sense a process change. Our
,,

r· studies here will be to show


the steps that are used to
Terminal Connections ~'
This Side
1.625
(41)

install a differential pressure


r
%-18 NPTon--___
type transmitter. The steps Flanges for Pressure
Connection without
following can be generally Flange Adapters

r applied to all devices used in a


"normal" process Yz-14 NPT on
Flange A
\ Blank Flange
~ Used on
environment. AP and GP

r
Adapters (See Table) Transmitters
Instrument installation
consists of three separate Typical dimensional drawing for Model 1151 transmitter. Side view.

r functions: mounting, tubing,


and wiring. Each function should be perfonned so
as to cause a minimum amount of process
deviation as well as signal
4.5 (114)
value. Max. Permanent
Tag (Optional)

r Sometimes the installer


has little choice over the
mounting position, wiring and
r tubing while at other times he
may have the choice for all 9.0 (229) Max.

r three. Each separate part of an


instruments installation is
important to the overall
r function of the device.
The accuracy of any field %-18 NPTfor

r mounted transmitter depends


upon the instailation of that
Side DrainNent
(Optional Top
or Bottom)
3.69
(94)
device. If a transmitter is
r mounted in such a position as
to change the actual process
Flanges Can

r pressure that it is measuring,


then the overall goal of
3.375
(86) Be Rotated

maintaining an efficient,
r Typical dimensional drawin~ for Model 1151 transmitter. Front view.
102 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

accurate, and automatic process can not be dependent upon the location the instrument is to be -,
achieved. Likewise if the wiring is run as such to installed in. Specific requirements for instrument
introduce stray signals the end result is the same
Once the proper position for mounting with
installations should be available from the site you
are working in. But there are general requirements
i
respect to the impulse tubing is chosen, the for all instrument installations.
installer will also need to check other
considerations. Accessability, safety for field In general transmitters should be installed

-,
.,
, . 6 5 r S 7 (98)

i
.,
Transmitter mounted on an instrument (pipe) stand.
~_-+-2.625
(67)

.,
personnel, ease of field calibration, and a practical to minimize vibration, shock, and temperature
working environment are other considerations a fluctuations. Most transmitters may be mounted in
field installer should consider. one of three ways: wall-mounted, panel-mounted,
Installations in certain process or attached to an instrument (pipe) stand.
environments may cause the need for special seals Regardless of the mounting method, when
and other installation requirements to satisfy mounting a transmitter you must take into account j
regulations for such as the food, beverage and the ease of getting to the transmitters electronics

i
1.65(42~
/' 3:87(98)
Mounting Holes
0.375 Diameter
(10)
-,
0

0
0

I
2.81 Typ.
(71) .,
1

1.40 2.625
(36) (67)
j
Transmitter panel mounted.
j
pharmaceutical industries. In short, the as well as its field wiring terminations and do not
requirements for specific site installations will be forget the zero and span adjustments. You want to
r Chapter 14 - Fundamentals of Instrument Installation 103

·r
r Zero
Screw Optional
Side-mounted

r DralnNent Valve

r Span
Screw Flow

r
r Rosemount conventional analog zero and span adjustment
screws.

r
H
consider the process connections and the
drain/vent valves on the transmitter so that when DralnNent

r they are opened they will be directed away from


the field technician.
Valve
Tap, tubing and mounting position for liquid service.
The electronics housing may be rotated no
r more than 90 degrees when mounting. If you
rotate the housing more than 90 degrees you may
change that is introduced from shifting the sensor
position with respect to gravity.
r damage the internal sensor wiring. To rotate the
housing less than 90 degrees you must loosen the
Different mounting requirements are also
considerations that depend upon the type of
housing lock nut and tum the housing, don't service the transmitter is to record. Steam, liquid,
r forget to tighten when complete. If the housing
needs to be turned more than 90 degrees the
or gas are the three types of process we may have
to measure.
.r transmitter must be disassembled and reassembled
with the housing correctly positioned.
For liquid measurement you want to mount
the transmitter such that the process measuring
Once the process side has been established taps are to the side of the line so that sediment
r care must be taken so that proper access is
available for the electronics side. Only 3/4" is
does not
become trapped.
r required to remove most electronics housings, but
6 inches is preferable. The electronics side is not
Mount
transmitter to
the

r generally opened once installed, but care should


be given to ensure its ease anyway. Wiring
connections are to be made through the conduit
the side or
below the taps
to ensure that
r openings located on the top of the housing.
We have studied earlier that the mounting
air does not
become trapped'

-r position of the transmitter must be the same as the


calibrated position. For electronic devices the heat
dissipation of the electronics can cause slight
in the impulse
tubing.
For
r variations in the transmitters reading. When a
differential pressure transmitter that is measuring
measuring gas
flows or gas
liquid level is mounted in a position other than levels the
.r calibrated the sensor will record a slight difference
also. This difference is equivalent to the amount of
process taps
should be Tap, tubing and mounting position
r "zero" shift which is the amount of the "head" located in the for gas service.
104 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

Bloc king
used to deal ing with must be considered.
Valves Mounting details should provide all necessary
Plugged Tee requirements for mounting height with respect to
for Steam Service
for Sea ling Flu id tap positions .
It is possible that gas measuring devices
could be mounted to show an excess or lack of
process due to relationship of the process to
mounting position. Mounting details should be
Sufficient
Length for provided for special service devices to ensure that
Cooling
they are not located improperly.
The piping (tubing) between the process
and the transmitter should remain at the shortest
H
length possible . Using a minimum of impulse
piping insures that the accuracy of the device is
not decreased. When installing a device the
3-valve
Manifold installer must consider the field impulse tubing
route as well as the electrical signal wiring route .
Tap, tubing and mounting position for steam service.
Impulse tubing caries the signal from the
process to the transmitter. The tubing must be of
top or the side of the line to ensure that liquid will the shortest length possible. The installer must
drain into the process line. For steam also consider the elevation changes between the
measurement the process taps should be located in process and the transmitter. If the tubing elevation
the side of the line and the transmitter should be changes the process pressure sensed by the
mounted below the taps to ensure the process transmitter can be of a different value than the
tubing remains fi lled with condensate . actual process that is wanted to be measured.
As most transmitters are equipped with Also, if the tubing is routed as such as to allow
drains and/or vent valves, the process measured moisture to accumulate in the tubing the process
determines how these valves are arranged. If pressure can be changed. There are the
measuring liquid the va lves should be mounted following rules that when followed should
upward of the line to allow gases to vent. If alleviate most problems associated with the
measuring gases the valves should be mounted to
allow any liquids that has collected in the process
tubing to drain . Also if measuring steam the
valves should be mounted the same as with liquid
measurement since we know now that the lines
should be filled with water. Filling the steam
service lines with water is required to prevent
steam from coming into contact with the
transmitter sensor.
Remember the relationships studied earlier
that should remind us of the potential zero shift
due to excessive pressure being provided to the
sensor of the transmitter. Elevation and/or
suppression are two conditions that a installer
must consider when measuring liquids. For
special cases of gas measurement elevation and
suppress ion maybe a consideration but now a
process that is lighter than the relationship we are Process line cross-section indicating tap positions.
Chapter 14 - Fundamentals of Instrument Installation 105

transmitter tubing and mounting location. Process devices .


tubing should remain as short as possible. Process There are two sets of terminals located in
tubing should be sloped upward from the the compartment that is opposite the electronics
transmitter to the process for liquid measurement housing . The signal terminals are the upper
and downward from the transmitter to the process terminals and the test terminals are the lower set.
for gas measurement. Tubing should be routed as The signal terminals is where the signal wiring is
such to avoid "high spots or crowns" in a liquid connected or terminated. Simply connect the
measuring line. Tubing should be routed to avoid wiring conductor that originates from the positive
valleys where liquids can collect when measuring side of whatever is supplying power to the loop to
gases . Sometimes drains are required for low the positive terminal and the negative conductor to
points to drain any liquids that may accumulate. the negative terminal. Often enough the
Both process tubing legs, if used for such transmitter is the last device mounted and when
as flow measurement and closed vessel level mounted the loop is completed and a signal should
measurement should remain the same temperature be able to be transmitted. Remember that the
and it is preferred to keep the length the same. As hazardous area classifications exist for instrument
with liquid drains for low points in gas tubing a signal wiring and the same precautions should be
drain for gases must be present for liquid lines . observed as for electrical power wiring.
Often enough the temperature change can The test terminals have an identical output
introduce condensation into a line that measures for a 4-20 rnA loop as the signal terminals do. The
gases . only wiring that should be connected to any test
If "wet legs" are used, then the same level terminal is a integral meter for the device and you
of liquid must be supplied to both legs . Keep may use the test terminals for reading the current
sediment deposits out of liquid filled process of a 4-20 rnA loop. If an integral display meter is
tubing lines . used follow the mounting instructions carefully
Sometimes it is necessary to purge a tap since individual device types will vary .
connection to a process to prevent the lap from In some cases to measure loop current
plugging. When purging is used make the purge simply place the leads of a meter positive to
connection as close to the taps as possible . Try to positive with the test terminals and negative to
avoid purging through the transmitter. On a negative and a current should be able to be
related note all hot and/or corrosive process measured . Remember do not connect power to the
materials must be kept from coming into
contact with the sensor of the transmitter.
We now know the general rules for
running process tubing and for
determining the correct mounting location
for the instrument. Wiring considerations
must also be made to allow for the ease
and efficient and accurate process
measurement signal. Remember, it is the
electrical signal that transmits the process
variable to a controller. All other
considerations may have been made
correctly and still the error is introduced
on the signal side of the transmitter and
not on the sensor side. The following
wiring example is for the Rosemount
Model 1151 DP transmitter, but the
guidelines may be used for practically all LCD meter for a Rosemount field mounted transmitter.
106 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

test terminals. Connecting a voltage to the test twisted together to cancel .any magnetic field
terminals may burn out a biasing diode which will effects. The shield is also there to cancel any
not allow any local indication of the current in the capacitive effects that may also be present.
loop. The shield of the signal wiring can be left
Signal wiring as we know carries the 4-20 un-grounded, but some applications may call for
rnA loop current that is used by a device or a grounded shield. The shield should be grounded
controller that will indicate the process measured. at the source end which means whatever is
Care must be taken when routing signal wiring supplying power for the transmitter and resulting
that it does not "pick up" stray voltages or noise. signal current is the source end. The negative
terminal of the source end is a
good point for grounding. Wiring
diagrams should show in detail
where the shields should be
grounded.
In addition the transmitter
+ case must be grounded. It is most
likely that however the transmitter

+~
o
1-----1.--,
'
was mounted that sufficient
grounding was provided, but if
needed a direct connection from
-'---
the case to a grounding electrode
can be made. It is important to
note that the loop wiring sheets
Typical loop wiring and terminal connections. should also indicate where a loop
is to be grounded if at all.
If signal wiring is routed in conduit or open trays Consider the conduit run (if conduit is
near heavy power loads or high voltages it is easy used) for the signal wiring. Conduit should be run
to see that a difference in the signal strength can to allow for maximum clearances around potential
be added to the current loop. noise sources. Do not parallel high current/voltage
lines if possible. Do not terminate the conduit so
Most wiring methods for signal wmng as to provide a channel for moisture into an
incorporates the use of a "twisted pair with electronics enclosure.
shield". This implies that the signal conductors are Conduit seals are recommended when

Conduit _ _ -l71
lines

Soallng
Compound

CORRECT CORRECT INCORRECT

Conduit installation diagrams showing correct and incorrect methods of installations.


Chapter 14 - Fundamentals of Instrument Installation 107

terminating to a field transmitter. Unused conduit


openings should be plugged and sealed. 4-20 rnA
analog signals are easier to route conduit for than
say a temperature loop that is concerned with
reading an analog range of milli-volts . Also if a
digital signal, such as used for multi-dropped
transmitters, extra care must be taken to observe
noise sources as well as the wiring methods used.
For some cases the category 1 through 5
wiring types must be used depending upon the
service requested. Again this should be specified
on the associated documentation sheets.
Lastly conduit runs that contain signal
loops should be run so that high frequency
switching is not impressed upon the signal wiring.
If a high frequency switching load is present in the
area the conventional wiring (4-20 rnA) loop
should not be run in the same conduit as the high
frequency switching source.
It is acceptable in most cases to run
mUltiple analog signal loops in the same conduit if
shielded twisted pairs are used .
108 Fundamentals of Instrumentation.. .and More J..
-NOTES- ~.

,.,.
j

,
1

,
~
-,.
j

~
~

,
j

'-1
1
J.
,.,
}
Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance 109

Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance

Instrument maintenance in a working


environment is often dictated by a set procedure. &WARNING
A Preventative Maintenance (PM) schedule is
Exposure to hazardous substances can cause death or
often adopted by a "working" site as a possible serious injury. If a hazardous substance is identified, a
security measure to detect faulty devices. Material Safety Data Sheet (MS DS), required by law to be
available to people exposed to specific hazardous
The process that is under control along substances, must be included with the returned goods.
with the location of devices will determine the
extent of any "on-line" maintenance procedures .
On line testing is a procedure that allows for
testing of a device for errors while it is recording enough does record and transmit a correct signal
and transmitting process variables. for the process but it still is not performing
The type of device under inspection also correctly. It may take to much time to reach its
determines the maintenance procedure that is output signal compared to process change; it may
followed . If a device is smart, different procedures transmit "spikes" (harmonic or electronic
will be used from devices that are conventional. distortions) in its output signal; it may sense a
There is also a thin line between maintenance and process change through a partially plugged sensor
troubleshooting. Often enough PM schedules will or require a longer time to sense the process
incorporate predetermined troubleshooting steps change because of a faulty sensor seal. The
into the PM procedure for particular devices. examples given above are only a few of the many,
Conventional devices are much more likely many inaccurate signals that can be transmitted by
to contain a set procedure that establishes certain a faulty transmitter.
PM steps to repair/replace/rebuild for several Often enough there is nothing wrong with
reasons. A conventional device has been around a device that is suspected of causing a problematic
longer and therefore has had more time to become signal. The problem may lie in related field
familiar to the maintenance personnel. Also there wiring, termination points, configuration in
are more conventional devices than smart devices controllers, location, etc. If enough variables are
(although this is changing rapidly) installed and not given to really confuse a troubleshooter the
therefore more likely to be involved in a trouble faulty signal could be the result of a weather
shooting procedure. Lastly and more importantly change that effects the working environment and
is that a smart device can often do a simple self reference pressures of instruments.
check procedure to find possible trouble spots. The following information tries to separate
Regular PM schedules for smart and dumb the troubleshooting steps for a smart device and a
devices often are written to test a device for conventional one, but there are several similarities
proper accuracy , functionality, signal proportions, that you will notice. Refer to the following
repeatability, and etc . If a device does not meet guidelines for possible steps that you may take to
the criteria that is given in the PM procedure it is discover a faulty process variable reading. The
often up to the person performing the procedure to first step, if possible, is to remove power
determine its cause. There is no substitute for source(s) and supply pressures. Also, block any
field experience when troubleshooting
instrumentation. Troubleshooting guidelines are
given in this chapter only as a guideline. It is &WARNING
important for the field technician who is
ExplOSions can cause death or serious injury. Both
performing the troubleshooting procedure to be transmitter covers must be fully engaged to meet
able to recognize a faulty device . A device often explosion-proof requirements.
110 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

Optional
Chart
Recorder

+
Power

~
Supply

+ 1------'--- ,
833 o I
----'--

I
Optional
Indicator

Field hook-up for a typical Rosemount smart device.

process fluids from the sensor until needed . problems can be eliminated by connecting directly
at the transmitter and then at a remote location and
SMART DEVICE TROUBLESHOOTING comparing the response of the communicator to
the two locations.
a) Fauity Communications Another related troubleshooting point for
loop wiring is at any intrinsically safe wiring
To perform diagnostic procedures to a barriers that are in the loop wiring. Barrier trouble
smart device a communicator must be connected to shooting documentation is the only way to
the loop wiring. Sometimes the communicator can determine if a barrier is performing correctly and
not "see" the device and troubleshooting steps the procedure(s) must be followed correctly to
must be taken to establish communications. determine if any error measurements are in the
Potential causes of a communications failure barrier.
generally exist with the loop wiring. In the loop
wiring there are several possible explanations why b) Consistent High Output
a device is not communicating . There may not be
the 250 ohms minimal loop resistance present. Once communications are established the
There must be a minimum of 17 volts present for
the communicator to operate . Measure the loop
trouble spots may be isolated and diagnosed.
Suppose the signal of a device is consistently
-
voltage to see if possible shorts and/or open
circuits are preventing a continuous operating
voltage. Multiple ground points could be inducing
loop currents that effect the signal between the
communicator and the smart device. Also verify
higher than it is supposed to be. Of course the
calibration should be verified first and if errors
still exist proceed to the following. Check for
restrictions at the primary element such as
-
that the device you are trying to communicate with
is a smart device. You will not be the first
&WARNING
....
troubleshooter who has written a device inspection Explosions can result In death or serious Injury. Do not
make connections to the serial port or NICad recharger jack
procedure calling for a smart device maintenance in an explosive atmosphere.
on a dumb device. A lot of related field wiring
Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance III

crimped tubing, valves closed, etc. check the


process tubing for leaks , blockages . Verify that all &WARNING '
blocking/isolating valves are fully open. Bleed all Process leaks can cause death or serious injury. An incorrectly
of the process tubing (if allowed) to ensure that installed backup ring can destroy the o-ring and ceuse process
leeks. Installltle backup ring using 1I1e following procedure.
gases are not present in the tubing. Ensure that the
density/specific gravity of the fluid has not
changed. Clean out any sediment that may have transmitter electronics has been checked through
accumulated in the process flanges/taps . the use of the transmitter test procedure of the
The power supply output should be smart calibrator, the problem may exist within the
checked to verify the voltage at the device is in the sensing element of the device. Sometimes a visible
operating range. The internal workings of the leak in a sensor is detectable and sometimes it is
smart transmitter electronics depends upon an not. Regardless the sensor is not repairable while
established range for a working voltage. Any it is in service and the device must be removed to
voltage outside that range and the transmitter may disassemble and repair if possible (to be covered
continue to operate but with faulty readings and/or later).
signals.
The transmitter electronics can also be a c) Consistent Low Output
source of errors even if the working voltage is
within the working range. The transmitter test The same points of interest for a high
mode should be accessed and executed to find any output should be inspected for a low output.
errors with the electronics. Sometimes intermittent Calibration should be verified first and then
results are obtained from an transmitter test troubleshooting should begin. The primary
command given from the communicator. This element should be checked for restrictions.
could also be the same cause as the one that is Verify all process tubing is in good
giving a high output. Clean the electronic post working order. Check the process's specific
connectors to ensure a constant cOIOI)1unication gravity to ensure proper calibration ranges.
path is available and verify the transmitter Sediment and/or gases trapped in the lines could
response again. alter signal proportions . Blocking valves could
Once the process tubing is checked and the prohibit the process from being accurately
power supply(s) have been measured and the measured if one is partially closed.

Transmitter signal Transmitter signal

• Expected Signal
Actual Signal

Offset
Offset
-""
b"X"p~cted Signal
. /
Actual Signal

TIME
TIME
-..
ex ected response
Transmitter With chart~d res~nse ~~~i:enl unt\e'r-osi'bn.al .
~~~\~Ille~~onse VS. e'kllected tes\l~nse at a Itansmitter under IDSl'eCtlOn.
~~ t ,\l.\S ect'\0n. COn'>\,\et\\ \)"N~eH_~~'&~.a\•...._ - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
_
112 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

The loop wiring should be verified as is not always the case . A power supply will
being correct by checking the following. The normally be current-limited which means that the
working voltage range should be checked. power supply will not be able to output enough
Multiple ground points should be eliminated. current to satisfy the requirements of all of the
Check the loop impedance to see if the loop supplied devices. By recalling Ohm's law and
impedance is too high and limits output signal. related Kirchoffs laws we know that only the loop
An often overlooked troubles pot is power source with the most resistance will be affected first and
overloauing. An overloaded power source can not then others will follow as the load is increased.
supply adequate current to all of the devices This not always the case but it is good to
connected to it. A power supply's total mill i-amp remember as a possibility.
output should be compared to the total of all In addition a device that is outputting a low
devices connected to the source. A common signal (or no signal) should be checked for the
mistake is to assume that if a power supply is polarity at all termination points . An insulation
overloaded that all devices will be affected. This test of the signal conductors should be performed

-
Rosem ount M ocJeJ U 5 ) S
marc Tran .
smllCer exploded .
VIew.
r Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance 113

r &WARNING
d) Other Error Modes

r The following performance limitations may inhibit efficient or


safe operation. Critical applications should have appropriate
diagnostic and backup systems in place.
Other error{s) may be present in a smart
device's signal such as an erratic output or a
Pressure transmitters contain an internal fill fluid. It is used
transmitter does not record the process except in
to transmit the process pressure through the isolating segments of the working range. By checking and
diaphragms to the pressure sensing element. In rare cases,
verifying the methods of troubleshooting given
r oil leak paths in oil·filled pressure transmitters can be
created. Possible causes include: physical damage to the
isolator diaphragms, process fluid freezing, isolator
corrosion due to an incompatible process fluid, etc.
previously a field technician can eliminate most of
them.

r A transmitter with an oil fill fluid leak can continue to perform


normally for a period of time. Sustained oil loss will
eventually cause one or more of the operating parameters
The advantage of the smart device is the
hand-held communicator. A hand held
communicator can save a lot of time when
r to exceed published specifications while a small drift in
operating point output continues. Symptoms of advanced oil
loss and other unrelated problems include:
troubleshooting devices. The functions of loop test
and transmitter test should be used to the fullest of

r • Sustained drift rate in true zero and span or operating


point output or both
• Sluggish response to Increasing or decreasing
their potential. Some industrial sites require the
transmitter test and loop test commands to be
performed on a regular schedule to verify a
r
pressure or both
• Limited output rate or very nonlinear output or both working process loop integrity. Such actions
• Change in output process nOise
should always be performed with the

r • Noticeable drift in operating point output


• Abrupt increase in drift rate of true zero or span or both
acknowledgment of the proper personnel and care
must be taken to observe the working order of
manual and automatic process loops that can
r • Unstable output
• Output saturated high or low
possibly be influenced.
Sometimes an intermittent error is

r to verify a short is not causing a bleed off of some


of the signal's strength.
observed for which there is no quickly discernable
answer. Often enough a field hand will refer to
such an error as a unidentifiable one. That may be
r A transmitter that outputs a constant 4 rnA
when hooked up and put on-line may be in the
the case for the first time. If you are present when
such an error is observed, record the
multi-drop mode. Recall that the multi-drop mode environmental conditions, process working
of a Rosemount transmitter is field selectable. A conditions, other work (maintenance/construction)
previous installation/calibration procedure may that may be occurring, alarms that may have been
r have resulted in an inadvertent switch setting in
the multi-drop mode. A communicator loop test
received at the same time, other devices and/or
loops that may have been effected, etc. Chances
can fmd a lot of the loop wiring problems but are as time goes on and the conditions listed above
remember to put all loops that may be affected which seemingly may have no effect on the loop
into manual mode. maybe shown to be related after all. This is the
The transmitter electronics should be true meaning of having good field experience and
tested. A transmitter test should be initiated from it should begin now.
the communicator to find any electronics failures.
If no error is found and the electronics is still CONVENTIONAL TROUBLESHOOTING
suspect then the electronics can be replaced (to be
r covered later).
Finally the cause of the error may be in the
a) Consistent High Output

r sensing element. The element is not generally field


repairable and must be replaced (to be covered
Of course the calibration should be verified
first and if errors still exist proceed to the
later). following. Check for restrictions at the primary
element such as crimped tubing, valves closed,
114 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

etc. check the process tubing for leaks, blockages. power supply(s) have been measured and the
Verify that all blocking/isolating valves are fully transmitter electronics has been checked
open. Bleed all of the process tubing (if allowed) (connected), the problem may exist within the
to ensure that gases are not present in the tubing. sensing element of the device. Sometimes a visible
Ensure that the density/specific gravity of the fluid leak in a sensor is detectable and sometimes it is
has not changed. Clean out any sediment that may not. Regardless the sensor is not repairable while
have accumulated in the process flanges/taps. it is in service and the device must be removed to
The power supply output should be disassemble and repair if possible (to be covered
checked to verify the voltage at the device is in the later).
operating range. The internal electronics of the
transmitter depends upon an established range for b) Consistent Low Output
a working voltage. Any voltage outside that range
and the transmitter may continue to operate but The same points of interest for a high
with faulty readings and/or signals. output should be inspected for a low output.
The transmitter electronics can also be a Calibration should be verified first and then
source of errors even if the working voltage is troubleshooting should begin. The primary
within the working range. Clean the electronic element should be checked for restrictions.
post connectors to ensure a constant path is Verify all process tubing is in good
available and verify the transmitter response working order. Check the process's specific
agam. gravity to ensure proper calibration ranges.
Once the process tubing is checked and the Sediment and/or gases trapped in the lines could
alter signal
Electronics proportions.
Cover Blocking val ves
could prohibit the
Electronics
process from being
Housing accurately measured
if one is partially
Electronics
closed.
The loop
wiring should be
verified as being
correct by checking
the following. The
working voltage
range should be
checked. Multiple
ground points
should be
eliminated. Check
the loop impedance
to see if the loop
impedance is too
high and limits
output signal. An
often overlooked
Blank Flange
for AP and GP troublespot IS
Rosemount Conventional Model 1151 exploded view. power source
r Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance 115

Other error(s} may be present in a


'&'WARNING conventional device' signal such as an erratic

r Explosions can cause death or serious Injury. Both


transmitter covers must be fully engaged to meet explosion-
proof requirements.
output or a transmitter does not record the process
except in segments of the working range. By
checking and verifying the methods of
r overloading. An overloaded power source can not
troubleshooting given previously a field technician
can eliminate most of them.

r supply adequate current to all of the devices


connected to it. A power supply's total mill i-amp
The advantage of the conventional device
is that it is more familiar to most personnel. There
output should be compared to the total of all
r devices connected to the source. A common
mistake is to assume that if a power supply is '&'WARNING

r overloaded that all devices will be affected. This


is not always the case. A power supply will
normally be current-limited which means that the
Isolate a failed transmitter from Its pressure source as soon
as possible. Pressure that may be present could cause
death or serious injury to personnel if the transmitter Is

r power supply will not be able to output enough


current to satisfy the requirements of all of the
disassembled or ruptures under pressure.

r supplied devices. By recalling Ohm's law and


related Kirchoff's laws we know that only the loop
is a chance that someone where you are working
has already experienced the same problem(s) that
with the most resistance will be effected first and you may be.
r then others will follow as the load is increased.
This not always the case but it is good to As with smart devices there sometimes is

r remember as a possibility .
In addition a device that is outputting a low
an intermittent error that is observed for which
there is no quickly discernable answer. Often
signal (or no signal) should be checked for the enough a field hand will refer to such an error as
r polarity at all termination points. An insulation
test of the signal conductors should be performed
a unidentifiable one. That may be the case for the
frrst time. If you are present when such an error is

·r to verify a short is not causing a bleed off of some


of the signal's strength.
observed, record the environmental conditions,
process working conditions, other work
The transmitter electronics should be tested (maintenance/construction) that may be occurring,
r to see if they are properly connected. If no error
is found and the electronics is still suspect then the
alarms that may have been received at the same
time, other devices and/or loops that may have
r electronics can be replaced (to be covered later).
Finally the cause of the error may be in the
been effected, etc. Chances are as time goes on
and the conditions listed above which seemingly
sensing element. The element is not generally field may have no effect on the loop maybe shown to be
r
,-.,·,·i
related after all. This is the true meaning of
having good field experience and it should begin

r &WARNING
explosions can result In death or serious Injury. Before
to be prepared now. More data should be present
for the conventional device than the smart one.
connecting the HART Communicator In an explosive Care should be taken not to overlook perhaps the
r atmosphere. make sure the Instruments In the loop are
Installed In accordance with Intrinsically safe or
nonlncendlve field wiring practices.
greatest database for instrument errors.
Most process environments have a device

r repairable and must be replaced (to be covered


history list which is exactly what it sounds like. A
device is tracked from its installation through the

r'
later). present and any significant data that reflects
(
troubleshooting, replacement of parts, repair of
parts, and etc. should be located there. There are

r d) Other Error Modes very few errors that are actually recorded for the

\.1
116 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

Loosen the locknut and remove the standoffs.


&WARNING The sensor module is now ready to be
Explosions can cause death or serious injury. Do nol
removed . Unscrew the sensing module from the
disassemble th e glass in the meIer cover in explosive electronics housing. The sensor leads need special
atmospheres . Disassembling the glass in the meter cover
invalidates the explosion-proof meier rating.
care when unscrewing so they do not become
damaged. When unscrewed pull the header
assembly board through the hole. The wiring
connection is sealed with a sealing compound and
first time . Usually a segment or perhaps the entire the connection must be broken to proceed.
error is indicated by the response, or lack of The sensing module is not repairable since
response, by an instrument. it is a welded assembly. Visually check out the
sensor for poss ible points of damage . There may
Sometimes a device's errors can be
interpreted from the action of other dev ices that
are record ing the same process variable. This is
often the case with critical control devices that are
duplicated and sometimes triplicated . Such
multiple sensing and/or final control elements are
"voted " and used in controller diagnostics to
determine instrument errors and control responses.
The nature of such devices often confuses
or makes a field hand extra cautious. For example,
a triplicated process variable wi ll require a process
variable that is the " med ian" of the three. That is
the middle value that is recorded from the
triplicated set is the one used . If one of the
triplicated devices is erratic , then the error device
will have no bearing upon the controller since it
will not be the middle valued device. The thing to
remember is that with voted transmitters the safety
for process and personnel is the intent behind the Removal of Electronics.
multiple senso rs and/or final control elements.
be a hole in the sensor. There may be burn marks
on the sensor from being exposed to a process
Sensor Body Removal
temperature outside the working range of the
Our discuss ions here will be limited to the transmitter. A loss of fill fluid may be discernable.
differential pressure transmitter Rosemount Model
115l. The sensor body is the assemblage that If no obvious defect can be found the
measures the actua l process differential pressure. sensor module can be checked out as follows .
The transmitter should be removed from Remove the header board connection assembly
service and process pressure and power supplies from its post connectors. The sensor module and
should be disconnected first. When the transmitter the electronics can remain attached for the
is removed from service the process flanges are to checkout. Check the resistance between the sensor
be removed by removing the four process flange module housing and pins one, two, three, and
bolts. four. This function checks the resistance between
Unscrew the cover on the term inal side of the capacitor plates and ground . The reading
the transmitter after verifying power is removed. should be in excess of 10 M ohms.
Remove the screws and unplug the electronics. Measure the resistance between pin eight
Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance 117

convenient for installation and tighten the locknut.


If a transmitter is of high pressure type or
oo 0 gage pressure type there is a slightly different
Pg()O/\o 0 00
procedure for re-bolting the process flanges to the
10 V
sensor. For a standard DP sensor the bolts are
1 {/OOOO
20
0
@ tightened diagonally to the specified torque
~OO established by the location you are working at.
(COMPONENT SIDE UP) The transmitter is now ready for calibration with
a new sensor installed.
Header Board Connections.
Retrofitting Smart Transmitter Electronics
and the sensor module to ensure that the module is
grounded . This resistance should be zero ohms. The vast majority of Rosemount
The above measurements are only to check transmitters have either an E or a J as an output
for possible shorting or isolating conditions of the code and is identified by the eighth letter from the
sensor. There are other possible errors that may left as given on the nameplate. These two types
come into play. If a problem still persists and you will be the guidelines for electronics retrofitting
suspect that the cause may be a faulty sensor, then procedures. Granted, not every device is a
replace the sensor. Rosemount device. The guidelines used here are
To reinstall the components a device only guidelines. The actual procedure for a
should be visually inspected to verify there are no particular device should be used whenever
damaged pieces. O-rings, diaphragms, screws, possible . The steps here are taken to familiarize
brass seats, etc. should all be checked out while everyone with the proper cares and concerns that
the device is disassembled and easier to view. will be encountered by a field technician who is
Lightly coat the o-rings with an inert oil. retrofitting a Rosemount electronic device.
Then insert the header assembly board 'through the Retrofitting a device is not necessarily the
electronics housing. Screw the sensor module into process of refitting a device with its present
the electrical housing until the threads are fully options for recording a process variable. Some
engaged being careful not to damage the sensor locations wish to upgrade their existing devices
leads . Align the sensor so it faces the way that is when the device is being rebuilt. Rebuilding a
device allows a user to be able to have the latest
in technology for measurement and control while
Process Flange
Metal Back-up Ring maintaining budget requirements. Here we are to
O-ring be concerned with making a conventional device
into a smart device .
First, all power must be removed from the
terminal and the circuit side of the device. The
circuit and terminal connections will be exposed
during the procedure and could come into contact
with grounded equipment.
Second, remove the cover from tp.e circuit
side of the transmitter. Exposing the circuit side
of the transmitter exposes one of two type circuit

l Flet Side (shiny side) Toward O-ring


Beveled Side Toward Process Flange
boards. One is for the standard amplifier board (2)
if the transmitter is configured for a linear output.
If the . transmitter has a square root output
Detail showing process o-ring and backup ring installation for electronics an additional board will be present to
model 115IHP and GP range 9. perform the squaring function.
118 Fundamentals of Instrumentation... and More j

j
-,
j

i
i
j
LINEAR OUTPUT

13 Two-board Amplifier/Squaring
i
Assembly (Square Root)
14 Calibration Board (Square j
Root)

SQUARE ROOT OUTPUT

Model 1151 Analog Electronics Assemblies. i


Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance 119

Third, in either case removing the


retainer screws allows the board/assembly
to be removed from its bayonet connectors
(6). Standoffs are permanently attached to
the assembly.

Removing three retainer screws.

Fourth, pull the amplifier/assembly


directly off of the bayonet connectors.

Removing the amplifier board and square root asse mbly. For
transmitters with a linear output there would only be one board the
amplifier assembly.
120 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

Fifth, pull the header board off of


the amplifier assembly and/or bayonet
connectors. Notice that the header board
assembly (3) is connected to the amplifier
assembly(2) . The header board can be
removed from the amplifier/assembly and
there is enough slack in the wires (9) to do
so and the wires are not to be cut.

Removing Header Board.

Sixth, remove the three standoffs if


the transmitter has linear characteristics.
A transmitter with linear characteristics
has three standoffs (4) that must be
removed before the calibration board is
unplugged. In the transmitter with the
amplifier and square root assembly the
standoffs are removed with the
amplifier/squaring assembly.

Removing the three standoffs for a linear output model 1151.


Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance 121

Seventh, adjust the zero and span


screws such that they are perpendicular to
the board . Aligning the screws allows the
board to be removed. An oval window is
present to view the alignment. Removing
the calibration board disab les the
conventional zero and span screws.
Eighth, remove the calibration
board . One of the standoffs that was
removed earl ier may be needed now to
assist in removing the calibration board.

Aligning the zero and span screws 50 (hey are perpendicular to the board
assembl y.

Two standoffs remaIn (7) in


transmitters with linear output, do not
remove them. Transmitters with square
root assemblies does not have the standoffs
and must be inserted to acco mmodate the
retrofit assembly . Do not attempt to
remove the remaining circuit board (8)
fro m the assembly. When the standoffs are
inserted the transmitter is ready to receive
the smart device electronics.

Removing the Calibriuion Board.

J
122 Fundamentals of Instrumentation . .. and More

WJ
H ' , ,, ,,
'

1'\\\s s\de faces bottom


of electronics assembly
k o ~
~ 0
This side faces toward
electronics housing cover

oo 'PW"YiiZ"
~.:
.:.:.
_J]j __.....1[1 0
0
o 0
~ 0
Spacer Assembly

The following steps describe how


to install the smart electronics retrofit
package into a conventional assembly.
First slide the bottom half of one
spacer over one row of the bayonet
connectors. Repeat for the other row.
AI ign the header board with the bayonet
pins and slide half-way down. Then align
the tops of both spacers with the bayonet
connector pins and slide them down the
pins. Push firmly to seat the spacer and
header boards.

Sliding the spacer over Ule bayonet pins

Second al ign the smart electronics


assembly with the bayonet pins and push
until firmly seated.

Aligning Ule electronics assembly.


Chapter 15 - Fundamentals of Instrument Maintenance 123

Third, tighten the three captive


screws on the smart electronic assembly to
secure.
Fourth, attach the electronics cover
and tighten.

Tightening the electronics assembly.

Install the eyelets for the smart


communicator under the positive and
negative screws on the terminal side of the
transmitter housing . Reattach cover and
secure firmly.
Now the electronics are installed
for a smart transmitter in a conventional
housing . Be sure and update all
appropriate documentation. The
transmitter is now ready for
characterization.

[nstalling eyelets for smart communicalOr hook-up.


124 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

Characterization remember is the one-time


calibration of the sensor. Recall that a sensor and
accompanying electronics has a series of "curves"
which are used to interpret the output signal of a
transmitter when exposed to a process variable .
The retrofitted transmitter has no curves and must
be told how to respond when a pressure
differential is sensed .
Characterization of a retrofitted transmitter
requires the use of a hart communicator, a
pressure source, a mill i-ammeter and a power
supply. It is good practice to 'pressure up" the
sensing plates on a retrofitted transmitter several
times before beginning characterization procedures
to ensure the devices installed have been seated
properly.
Characterization involves comparing the
pressure input to the output of each transmitters
sensor module. Remember that the calibration of
a transmitter is only as good as the calibration
equipment that is being used . The same standards
of accuracy apply here as we apply to standard
calibration procedures.
Chapter 16 - Fundamentals of Valve Maintenance 125

Fundamentals of Valve Maintenance

We know from our previous studies that pressure is used as the method of actuating a
the objective of the control valve is to provide a valve.
method of controlling a process in a closed loop We have studied how the valve diaphragm
design. A control valve is positioned so that a is opposed by a spring or co il of set tension, By
process flow is regulated to achieve a desired app lying a set pressure on one side of the
result. A control valve is not a device that can diaphragm the force becomes stronger than the
typically operate under its own guidance. An opposing spring and valve stem movement occurs.
actuator is used to provide the necessary force to By knowing the force opposing the diaphragm and
actuate the control valve. The actuator converts knowing the supply pressure of the diaphragm we
the signal that is received from the controller to a can calculate a valve position,
form that can be used to actuate the control valve. Sometimes it becomes necessary to verify
A control valve may not have an actuator and/or to require that a valve has reached a known
connected, A valve may be manually positioned position. This is were the use of a valve positioner
and therefore requires no automatic positioner. A comes into play,
valve may simply be an open/closed valve with no A valve positioner is used for overcoming
control position used other than fully open or fu lly the forces that oppose valve movement. It is easy
closed , Such a valve still requires an actuator to to picture a new valve that is installed into a
provide the force and signal conversion to actuate process line and how eas ily that valve is actuated
the valve, and positioned without any oppos ing forces other
A proven performer in the "type" of an than the valve is designed for. Add the factors of
actuator is the pneumatic actuator. This method of time , process erosion, corrosion of moving
conversion of signal to force has been used for components, repetitive actions, and it becomes
many years and is a proven method of actuation. easy to see that original supplied pressure will not
We have studied previously how to calculqte the move the valve the same amount as originally
working force of a pneumatic diaphragm. We installed .
know that the working force of supplied pneumatic A valve positioner is a repeat of the
flappe r/nozz le
applications we
studied earlier
but with a twist.
~ ,
~ . . •. Recall that the
lG ~ flapper nozzle

" ,, 1.. ~ arrangement is a


way to regulate
. ..' ,:..-: -;:..11 an o utlet
-. .....,11 pressure given a

, ~,~ e) . ~• ' D··


~.
• •
.... .

constant
pressure .
regulation
inlet
The
.: .
..
. .. . component for a
positioner is the
GLOBE VALVE WITH SPRING BALL VALVE WITH PNEUMATIC
AND DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR PISTON ACTUATOR AND POSITIONER va lve positIOn
AND POSITIONER asse mbly ,
Globe (Stem) and Ball (Rotary) valve assemblies. Linkages reflect
Graphic Counesy of Fisher Controls
126 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

a valve position upon the positioner and it is (1) Pneumatic Regulator


compared to the flapper position and if a
difference is present the nozzle is adjusted A regulator is often used to maintain a
accordingly to place the valve in the correct constant working pressure. A regulator is often
position. A pOSItioner is essentially a thought of as a secure piece of equipment but that
flapper/nozzle arrangement that acts as a is not always the case. A regulator may be
proportional only controller. The positioner acts subjected to extreme temperatures and/or
when a difference is detected between the actual pressures that could damage internal workings. A
valve position and the desired valve position that regulator may vent the working gas to atmosphere
is set by the controller. and care must be taken to ensure that the gases are
If a difference, or error, exists between the not vented dangerously (towards personnel) or in
actual valve position and the wanted valve position
the nozzle/tlapper varies the air pressure that is
applied to the diaphragm appropriately so the
valve is positioned towards the desired position.
Let's make a list of the various interacting
components of a control valve arrangement. We
have the supply pressure to the valve diaphragm
assembly that has to be regulated by a
(l)regulator. The (2)valve actuator is then used to
force movement of the control valve stem which TYPE
67AF OA
forces control valve movement. The original 67AFR

position of the valve is taken care of by a


(3)transducer (sometimes referred to as a liP)
which converts the controllers position signal
(usually 4-20mA) to a force used by the
diaphragm (usually 3-15psi) . Then we have a
(4)positioner that can repeat or change the
actuating pressure set by the transducer to
reposition a valve.
Each of the above listed components are
susceptible to error. Therefore it becomes
necessary for a field technician to know how each
component in the final control assembly interacts TYPI CAL
PNEUMATIC
with the others. Also, a field technician must POSITIONER

know how to maintain a good working order of


and how to repair them when they are not in a
good working order. We have plenty to discuss
with the above and we still have not made it to any
actual (5)valve maintenance or repair.
Actual valve maintenance and repair will
be discussed after the above mentioned for all of
the components above influence the control valves
performance. The components of a control valve
assembly all perform the same function regardless
of the manufacturer of the valve so we can discuss
them in general terms here. Regulator mOWlted on valve assembly.
Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls.
Chapter 16 - Fundamentals of Valve Maintenance 127

a dangerous location (hazardous). method of how a control valve receives


A regulator is often ordered and received stimulation.
with the working pressures calibrated in from the Maintenance procedures involving
factory. Most regulators have a point of actuators vary and the individual device type
adjustment of working (outlet) pressure. Care guidelines should be referenced . Often process
should be taken not to set the outlet pressure industries have set procedures for valve actuator
higher than the upper range limit specified on the checkouts, repairs, rebuilds, calibrations and etc.
regulator or damage can occur. Actuator parts are subject to the same normal wear
We see again the use of the flapper/nozzle and tear of any workable device. Actuators should
arrangement being used to directly control be visually inspected whenever called for and
pneumatic pressure . By adjusting the flapper of when suspected of malfunction. The frequency of
the arrangement the outlet pressure can be set to the inspection is often predetermined and is
the desired pressure. The tension of the flapper influenced by the type of service and the operating
can be adjusted to bring the working pressure back conditions of the actuator.
into tolerances specified for the valve assembly. Most actuators can operate in either a
Sometimes -the valve assembly does not
contain a regUlator at the valve but rather has a
regulator located at the point of the "instrument
air supply ". With such an arraignment, regulation
is achieved the same way as at the valve but with
a higher volume. Volume air flow is reduced for
individual devices through the methods discussed
..------
in the "Fundamentals of Pneumatics" Chapter,
namely boosters, amplifiers, and relays .
A regulator is generally mounted with or
has the capability to mount a gage on the
downstream side of the regulator. Often

--
maintenance procedures on regulators consists of
adjusting the working pressure by turning an
adjustment screw on the regulator to the
prescribed pressure indicated by this gage . The
adjustment screw of a regulator adjusts the tension
- ... --
of the flapper of the flapper/nozzle arrangement. .......
Adjusting pressures of a regulator requires
that the pneumatic gas used should be able to vent
properly. The vent port of a regulator needs to
.... -
remain open at all times. The spring case vent
hole should also remain open.
--
Yo.

(2) Valve Actuator

The valve actuator we have studied earlier


--
in the "Fundamentals of Pneumatics" also. We - ... - DIRECT
know how to calculate the force of an actuator ACTING
diaphragms surface area from the applied ACTUATOjl
pressure. We know that the control valve actually
receives its commands from the actuator via the
valve stem. A variety of components effect the Direct acting diaphragm type actuator.
128 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

vertical or horizontal position but always check to its original posItIon. For either case the
the manufacturers specifications to eliminate a components of the actuator will not vary but rather
possible trouble spot. their mounting/connecting positions will.
Actuators do have calibrated, or have A piston type actuator is another type of
adjusted components, that have to be checked on valve actuator. A piston actuator will normally be
a regular basis: the spring adjustment, travel used where the requirements of a diaphragm
adjustment and adjustable travel/stop. actuator did not have to be or could not be met.
The spring adjustment is an adjustable The piston actuator does not have the same force
locknut (usually) that allows the actuator tension as the diaphragm but it is more compact. The
to be adjusted. This action can also affect its travel piston actuator uses levers and angles of lever
parameters . The adjustable/travel stop is related to movement to transfer and increase its operating
the travel and spring adjustments and care should force. The combined use of a lever and operating
be taken when adjusting one of the parameters that angles allows a piston type actuator to "build up"
the others are checked al so . an adequate amount of operating force.
Before any work begins on the valve Due to its construction a piston type
actuator be sure that all sources of pneumatic actuator can deliver force or torque action beyond
and/or electric power sources are removed. Be what is available with a diaphragm type actuator
sure that the actuator can not suddenly open or through its use of levers . A piston type actuator is
close. Only by blocking the process, supply usually used under high operating pressure
power, pneumatic pressure and following an conditions and extra care must be taken to ensure
established procedure can you ensure a safe work that the actuator is "locked out" before any work
area and procedure. is to be performed . A piston type actuator is a
Reducing the spring adjustment reduces the good actuator for a quarter-turn valve, that is a
0
tension or seating force of a valve . If the va lve is valve that can open/close in 90 of travel (to be
direct acting the spring tension varies the seating discussed later).
of the valve and oppositely if the valve is reverse Regardless of the actuator type used the
acting . If the spring tension is reduced on a direct adjustment parameters for springes) , tensions and
acting valve that is fail closed the valve seating stops; all are adjustments that time and usage will
when closed may not be enough to prevent change. True maintenance procedures should
leakage . If a valve is fail open the spring reference through experience which settings
adjustment may prohibit the valve from reaching shou ld be subject to the most deviation. The
a fully open state if incorrectly
adjusted .
Pneumatic va lve actuators are Piston Spring
generally either the diaphragm or the
piston type. The diaphragm actuator is
of one of two types, direct acting
(push)or reverse acting (pull).
/ Shaft
Depending upon the process operating
parameters the control valve will need
to close or open and the direct or
reverse acting actuators can provide
the means for the movement.
The direct acting actuator has
its spring tension set to oppose the
input pressure that positions the valve.
The reverse acting actuator has its Housing
spring tension set to pull a valve back Piston Type Pneumatic Actuator.
r·· Chapter 16 - Fundamentals of Valve Maintenance 129

r deviation from all the adjustments in combination


with friction and the non-linear response of an
as it is installed. The molded diaphragm also
provides a relatively constant working (surface)
area for all amounts of valve travel.
r actuator can present a fairly common error in
valve position known as hysteresis. By comparison think of a diaphragm as a
flat sheet. To cause any movement of the
As with pneumatic instruments we know
r- that hysteresis is the error that is present between
the upscale and downscale valve positioning. The
diaphragm due to inlet pressure a "bubble" would
have to be created to cause valve movement. This

r valve packing, nonlinear diaphragm construction,


actuator adjustments, friction and process pressure
bubble is opposing valve movement and is another
contributor (albeit a small one) to the non-linear
output of the valve position. This is not to say
across the valve can contribute to the hysteresis
r until the level could reach has high as 10%.
We know that the maintenance personnel
that in an emergency a flat diaphragm could not be
used to replace a molded one because it can in an

r are usually the ones who have to troubleshoot


problems discovered in the control system.
emergency. A flat diaphragm should be replaced
with its specific molded one as soon as possible.
Trouble shooting a valve that does not position To remove a diaphragm fIrst all process
r well in a process line can be the result of anyone
or more of the above mentioned. The actuator
and pneumatic pressures and power supplies
should be disconnected. There are tensions and
r adjustments (in conjunction with positioner
adjustments) can alleviate some of the error.
pressures in an actuator that can cause sever harm.
The process line should be blocked to prevent
The nonlinear construction of the sudden process surges from re-positioning the
r diaphragm can be explained by picturing a
diaphragm with its opposing spring . As a small
valve and therefore the actuator. The electrical
signals could cause an unwanted spark, short, etc.
r pressure (about 1 psi) is applied to the valve
diaphragm the actuator will have a little movement
Some type of actuators do not require an
external adjustment and therefore accessability to
because the spring tension is relatively small. As the tension springs for release. Such actuators are
r pressure is increased the resulting· diaphragm
movement is made against a stiffer (greater)
generally used on rotary shaft valves and spring
compression or release for diaphragm replacement
r opposing tension. Suppose the valve actuator has
traveled 90 % of its range.
is not generally required.
For normal diaphragm replacement the
Apply 1 psi of additional pressure to the procedure is a simple one. Remove the upper
r diaphragm. It is easy to "picture" that the
opposing force will be great enough to reduce
diaphragm case. If the valve is direct acting the
valve diaphragm can be lifted out. If the actuator
r actuator movement due to the increased tension of
the actuator spring. This reduced movement
is reverse acting the head assembly (spring rods,
tensioners, etc.) Must be released to remove the
compared to movement of the valve when the fIrst diaphragm. When a diaphragm is replaced the
r psi of pressure was applied gives the non-linear diaphragm casing must be uniformly sealed to
relationship. prevent leakage .
.r The valve does not travel the same amount
with respect to the inlet pressure for its entire
Even if all the care in the world has been
taken so that the actuator is performing as it
range. Why is this significant for actuator study? should, a valve still may not be controlling as it is
r Well as the diaphragm wears it is more likely to designed. A valve with hysteresis can make it
become deformed or stretched (altered). To seem as if the controller has to much proportional
r understand the consequences of a diaphragms
deformation we need to understand its
band and low gain, but the fault may lie with the
valve assembly such as the actuator. The use of a
construction. positioner ·can be used to stop hysteresis errors,
Most pneumatic diaphragms are of the but first we need to understand how the signal is
molded variety. Molded diaphragms are easier to converted from the controller to a signal
install since the diaphragm is formed to fit exactly understood by the actuator.
130 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

(3) Transducer (liP) observations should be made of the transducer as


other pneumatic devices. The proper venting of
We became familiar with how a transducer bleed pressures, the venting of exhaust pressures
operates in the "Fundamentals of Pneumatics " and general working order should be verified . To
chapter. We should understand by now that the be able to troubleshootlrepair a transducer
transducer is a method of converting energy of requires that a field technician has an adequate
one form to another. understanding of how it operates.
Most controllers today output a signal of A transducer is a very simple form of the
the current type and most valves today use flapper nozzle arrangement. A coil is wound or
pneumatic pressure to force valve movement. The fixed around a permanent magnet. When a
transducer converts the current (usually 4-20mA) current flows in the coil the electromatic forces
to a comparable pneumatic pressure (usually 3-15 and the permanent magnetic forces are in direct
psi) . The use of the nozzle flapper arrangement opposition of each other. The opposition of forces
again provides the method of calibration. causes a flapper movement to occur forcing the
Transducers require calibration also and flapper to open or close depending upon the
the same characteristics of zero and span can be construction. A nozzle/flapper could be designed
applied. Most transducers allow for field so that it closes when current is applied or opens
adjustmt!nts to be made even though the transducer when current is applied.
was probably ordered with the correct working A simple self test using working pressures
parameters for pneumatics and electric signals and currents can quickly be performed to
calibrated from the factory. determine an liP's design. Connect a current
It is supply to the transducer and run through the range
emphasized of the input signal (usually 4-20mA) and record
here again that the output pressures of the transducer. You should
the working be able to determine if the transducer is direct
components of acting, follows 3-15psi from 4-20mA , or reverse
a device are acting, 15-3psi from 4-20mA. Therefore that is
subject to the crux of the maintenance problems of an liP. If
wear and the construction type of the lIP is known the liP
deformation can be adjusted to output 3 psi for 4 mill i-amps or
and therefore 15 psi for 4 mill-amps or reverse acting .
will need Reversing of a transducer is accomplished by
adjusting. The switching the input leads and recalibrating for the
liP will desired range.
require that a Most transducers include a booster
specified (sometimes called a pneumatic relay) that allows
current can be for the boosting of the pneumatic pressure. These
measured and boosters are the same as the relays we have
the output studied before and we know that relays are
pressure can capable of amplification. By using boosters a
be regulated transducer is available with a number of input and
through tuning· output ranges for various configuration properties
the flapper to such as split ranging.
adjust the Split range systems are designed such that
outlet a control valve may perform from the 3-9 psi
pressure. range while another may operate from the 9-15
Fisher Type 846 Transducer mounted range. Split range designs are to provide a wider
The
on actuator.
Graphic cou nesy of Fisher Controls. sam e range of control that perhaps can not be controlled
Chapter 16 - Fundamentals of Valve Maintenance 131

require the use of a positioner to "position" the


valve as it is signaled to be placed.
The signal from a controller is interpreted
by the transducer and the corresponding pressure
is applied to the diaphragm and the valve stem
changes valve position according ly. We know the
MODULE HOlISING-,
friction from the valve packing, hysteresis from
actuator response, friction from the process flow ,
and others can cause an incorrect positioning of
the valve. When errors are introduced in the valve
positioning a positioner can be used to alleviate
most of the errors .
ELECTRONIC
A positioner is also used when accurate
CIRCUIT 80ARO-__....
response is demanded quickly for a process
MODULE FINAL
variable. The positioner receives its input from the
controller and determines from the controllers
signal what the desired valve position should be.
A feedback assembly is mounted on the valve stem
that provides feedback to the positioner which is
used to compare the actual stem position to the
desired position.
If corrections are needed the positioner
calls for an actuator adjustment until the desired
and actual pos itions are the same. The comparison
Fisher Transducer Type 846 Modular
Construction. of positions is done mechanically and the output is
Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls

by a single valve. The calibration of the transducer


makes this possible. The versatility of the
transducer is evident in its ease of calibration.
A transducer may be calibrated over a wide
range including split ranging but it is reversible
also. Again working pressures are involved and
care must be taken when disassembling
transducers and when performing other types of
transducer maintenance procedures .

(4) Positioners

In a closed loop system the goal is to keep


one or more process variables within tolerances
specified by the controller. We have read how the
build up of friction, hysteresis and other factors
can cause an incorrect positioning of the control
valve. In a closed loop system there may be a We255

small allowance or tolerance in the finished


Fisher Valve with positioner type DVC50JO Digital Valve
product. The small tolerances for error sometimes Controller.
Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls
132 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

a pneumatic pressure. equivalent zero signal (4mA) and the positioner


The pressure used by a positioner is often compares the controllers signal to the valve

.,
separate from the pressure that is used to force position. The positioner is adjusted such that at the
diaphragm movement. The different pressure zero signal the positioner is calling for a zero
sources allows for a positioner that is using the position. As the signal is increased the positioner
conventional pneumatic range of 3-15psi to control should be adjusted (if needed) to call for an
an alternate pressure such as a 6-3Opsi range. increase in the actuator working pressure.
To calibrate a positioner we must recall the Therefore the two variables that need to be
concepts of zero and span. A positioner is monitored are the controller's signal and the valve
calibrated by the same method as we have studied stem position.
-,
earlier, but before calibration starts all of the
relevant information has to be gathered. Signal
pressure, full or split range, supply pressure,
actuator working pressure range, valve travel and
Adjust the zero setting to allow the stem
position to remain at zero and accordingly
throughout the valve stem range. If the valve has
a linear response the valve stem position should be
., J

is the action forward or reverse acting must be


obtained before the necessary calibration
at 50 % for a 50 % controller signal. The span
adjustment is adjusted until the span of the valve
corresponds with the controller signal. The valve
-,
procedure can begin. The calibration of a

.,
positioner has to assume that the actuator is stem should indicate full travel when 100 % of j
adjusted as it should be within its proper working controller signal is received.
range. It is important that when setting the span
The objective with positioner calibration is for valve positions that the span adjust is not made
to establish an accurate starting point referred to to where it takes an exaggerated signal to move
as zero. The controller is manipulated to send an the valve from its furthermost point of travel.
S 0 m e
90 manufacturers

..,
80 suggest that the
70 valve travel for
ffi 80
(,)
100% should be
a:
ILl
Do 50 set at a value
J
slightly less than
i ILl
~
40

30 full range. i
~ 20 Likewise the
valve should be
o . adjusted fully
DIRECT 0 10' 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1
REVERSE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 closed when a
PERCENT OF RATED INPUT SPAN
signal slightly
greater than zero
position is
received.
There are
reverse acting
Stem position feedback linkages often includ~ a c~m, as sho~n in t~e figure at the I~ft. The positioners, and
contours of the cam can be designed to prOVide different relationships between the Input actuators
signal and valve travel. This ultimately results in a well defined relationship between the Input therefore it is
signal and control valve Cv (flOW). By selecting different cams, the system ca.n be necessary to
characterized according to special needs. For example, there may be a requirement to
increase or decrease valve response at low lifts.
obtain the proper
"specs" for each \
Positioner Characterization.
Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls assembly before ~--.
Chapter 16 - Fundamentals of Valve Maintenance 133

proceeding. It is also essential that when adjusting


for span in the positioner adjustment that zero is
referenced again since the two do interact.

(5) Control Valves

The aforementioned devices (1-4) are


usually the responsibility of the field technician to
maintain in an efficient working order. The above
devices will have set maintenance/repair
procedures that are to be followed and minimum
work and downtime of the process is the result.
The difficult maintenancelrepair
procedures for valve bodies and the fact that the
valve body is the only segment of the control Rotary Control Valve.
Graphic couretsy of Fisher Controls
valve assembly that can not be visually inspected
is what separates the valve body from the rest.
With all of the other appendages we are able to other appendages to be attached to the valve body.
visually inspect the control valve assembly and
could make a reasonable judgement as to if the Typically the sliding stem globe valve is a
valve assembly is in adequate working condition. standard valve for standard performance
Our study so far in this chapter has been guidelines. A sliding stem valve is often referred
limited to the appendages of the control valve to as a globe valve and the globe name comes
assembly. All of the accessories so far are present from the chamber of the valve body through which
to provide an efficient method for the control the process flows .
valve to maintain position. The reason the sliding stem valve is not the
We know the control valve functions by only valve in use is that a globe valve often causes
regulating flow but now we will learn the basic the process flow fO change direction many times
type of valves and how they function . before it can exit the valve body. It is easy to
Valve bodies contain the process flow and picture a process flow of a high volume and
the resulting process pressure drops across them. capacity with resulting pressure drop causing a
Valve bodies also must provide a means for the significant amount of erosion in the valve body.
The result is there are several types of
valves that allow for different services. The
Sliding Stem (Glohe_Valve), Rotary, and Butterfly
valves are probably the most common types.
For each valve type the procedures will
differ for valve disassembly/assembly and repair.
Within each valve type there are variations which
will effect procedures also. Then different
manufacturers will have different guidelines for
the same type of valve. The point is, the
manufactures guidelines along with any variations
from the site you are working in should contain all
necessary information to evaluate and repair the
valve body. We will discuss here the general
Sliding Stem Control Valve. outlines for the predominately used valve types:
Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls (A) Sliding Stem, and (B) Rotary.
134 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation .. . and More

are cage guided.


Practically
PACKING
all stem and post
guided val ves
follow the same
convention. Stem
and post guiding
SEAT
valves are
relatively open
and allows an
easier flow
through then
compared to the
cage valve. Stem
and post guiding
valves are good
Sliding Stem, Stem Guiding Valve . Graphic counesy of Fisher Controls performers in the
slurry or of the
gritty type.
(A) Sliding Stem Stem guiding types are typically used at a
lower operating pressure than the post guided. The
The sliding stem control valve has been the post guided valve is a better performer in the high
mainstay of the process control environment. This pressure drop area as well as it is better at
type valve is not the only type valve that is .used reducing vibration, noise, and trim wear. The post
for control nor is there only one type of shdmg guided valve sometimes may have two posts to
stem valve. The sliding stem valve has the provide greater stability in higher pressure drop
conventional body , the slant body ana the angle process lines.
body types. In addition each type of sliding stem One good note about both types is that the
valve has different methods of performing. Some valves are placed into the valve body through a top
are stem guided, some are post guided, and some entry point. This makes it easy and possible to
inspect the valve
without removing
it from the
process line. This
also allows for
removal of
various
BUSHING components
without having to
remove the valve
body from the
process line.
The
limitations of a
control valve may
be the cause of
Wl88$· 1 maintenance
Sliding Stem, Post Guiding Valve. Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls
work since the
Chapter 16 - Fundamentals of Valve Maintenance 135

limitations of a increased damage to the valve chamber.


valve is also the Valves are often required to be checked by
breaking point for seating the valve and checking to see if a good seat
components in the was made. Dye, paint, lapping compounds are
valve assembly. some of the methods used to check valve seating.
There is a The trim and seat are compared after they are
pressure point seated to check to see if the seating is even
that will cause throughout the seating area called a seat ring .
CAGE-~__J£~~ damage to a Knowing that a stem type valve that is post
control valve. or stem guided is working in the upper ranges of
Sliding stem and its design with respect to pressure drops can be an
post type valves indicator that a valve seating problem is shortly
generally work at ahead. A good reason for understanding how a
the lower end of device works when performing a maintenance
the pressure procedure.
W1 673-2
ranges. The Cage guiding type valves generally pick up
valves will tend to where the sliding stem and post designs leave off.
chatter at higher The cage design allows for an even alignment
Sliding Stem.
Graphic counesy of Fishe r Controls pressures causIng throughout the entire range of the stroke of the
seat and trim sliding stem. The stem and post guided valves tend
damage. The valve may tend to slam open or to be pushed to one side when subjected to higher
closed depending upon the throttling action taken. pressures and volumes but the cage assembly has
The high pressures also create uneven forces on the force spread out to cover the entire trim area of
the valve seat and trim which could cause the valve so valve seating is not endangered.
The cage provides a
method for rigidly seating
the valve without the
sideways push that is present
to prevent chattering or
noise . Another good
PRESSURE-BALANCED
principle of the cage valve
TRIM
and a point that must be
understood by the field hand
is the cage val ve has
FLOW DISTRIBUTION different cages for different
flow characteristics.
The cage openings
through which flow takes
place can made to allow for
certain types of flows
wanted . A linear flow can be
made to where as the valve
strokes an equal amount of
flow can be allowed to pass.
When valve assembly is
performed an effort needs to
Sliding Stem, Cage Guiding Valve .
Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls
136 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

As you would think, there are a variety of


rotary valve actuators that are available. When
adjusting the actuator you must determine the
characteristics of the actuator; is it push to open or
push to close? The connecting linkage for the
actuator to the va lve body contains a lever that is
connected to the stem by a key and keyway or the
lever is mounted on spl ines of the stem. Most
actuators are equipped with lines showing the
orientation of the stemllever position.
The predominant testing procedure for a
rotary type valve is to test to see if the valve is
fully opened or fully closed. To do this test the
valve shou ld be removed from its process
environment. The nose and trailing edge of a disc
type (butterfly) valve should be checked for
clearances when open and closed.
CONVENTIONAL BUTTERFLY A ball type valve will also need to be
removed for testing. The ball type valve is a rotary
An economical choice for general service type valve that when open provides an easy path of
and some corrosive and high temperature flow for a process with a minimum pressure drop
services where i shutoff is not across the valve .
ROlary Valve, Butterfly Type . Butterfly valves get their name from the
Graphic counesy of Fisher Control s
operation of the valve closing member. A circular
disk is used to rotate it across the opening.
be made to verifY the flow characteristics wanted . Butterfly valves used to not be used for anything
A valve that should cause a linear flow other than low pressure processes . New valve
characteristics will not have the same cage linings and actuation methods are now allowing
assembly as a quick opening type. these types of valves to be used for high pressure
app lications.
(B) Rotary Valves

A rotary type valve is a style


of valve that uses a quarter turn of
the valve stem to position a valve
closure member. A rotary type valve
may be of the fo llow ing types: ACTUATOR ROD

partial ball, full ball, or disk.


A quick way to determine the ACTUATOR ROD
actuation of a control valve is to ENO BEARING

visually inspect the valve assembly. ,LI';-~:--... - - -


__ -------rril~~c~ACTUATOR LE VER
LEVER INDEX
A rotary type valve will not have a MARKS (4)

~ I'r.l~--II--- VALVE SHAFT


stem that is used to "push or pull" INDEX MARK

the valve into a correct position. A


rotary valve still has a stem, but it is ~;;;:.J-_ ------__ -----::::.
~c:=?J
used to position a valve by rotating ]J!ICAL ACTUATOR (TYPE 1052)
SECTIONAL THROUGH HOUSING
the stem until the correct flow is Typical Rotary Valve Actuator.
passing through the valve. Graphic courtesy of Fisher COnlrols
Chapter 16 - Fl!ndamentals of Valve Maintenance 137

Butterfly valves still tend to slam closed


when almost closed and to slam open when almost
fully open. Fish-tail designs help to alleviate this
tendency by diverting flow vanes and the use of
the actuator. Butterfly actuators use a positive gear
system which only allows for the butterfly to be in
the position as
the actuator
FLANGE GASKETS
allows. BE SURE THESE ARE
CENTERED ALONG WITH
Despite VALVE PIPE FLANGES OPENED

1m
ENOUGH TO ALLOW THE
VALVE AND GASKETS TO
the tendency of SLIP EASILY INTO PLACE

butterfly valves
to slam shut or
open these valves
remain some of GASKETS

the largest valves


in operation,
some valves are
BOTTOM FLANGE BOLTS
in excess of FORMING A CRADLE TO
REST VALVE ON DURING
twenty feet in INSTALLATION

diameter. The VALVE IN CLOSED POSITION


DURING INSTALLATION TO
simplistics of PREVENT DAMAGE TO
OISC SEALING AREA
design, various
designs, ease of
maintenance, and FLANGE BOLTS
TIGHTENED EVENLY
the few moving TO PREVENT
GASKET LEAKAGE
parts are all
reasons to use a
butterfly valve • Read instruction manual
when possible.
• Upstream piping clean.

• No process pressure

• Pipe flanges and valve faces cleaned and in good condition.

• Pipe flanges aligned and flange faces parallel.

• Pipe flanges opened wide enough to allow installation of both valve and gaskets.

• Valve disk fully closed.

• Verify valve orientation.

• Valve centered between gaskets.

• Flange gaskets centered with the valve and pipe flanges .

• Alternately tighten line bolts a little at a time until correctly torqued.

• Check alignment.

Installation Checklist.
Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls
138 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

Single port valves have evolved as a modern standard for controlling a broad range of fluids
under widely varying service conditions. Compared to double port designs. they are more
efficient. less costly. and easier to maintain .
Single Port Sliding Stem Control Valve.
Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls

Double port globe valves similar to this early pressure balanced design remain in use today.
Although the tortuous flow path may limit effective valve capacity. this configuration allows
the passage of solids suspended in the flow stream.

Double Port Sliding Stem Control Valve.


Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls
Chapter 16 - Fundamentals of Valve Maintenance 139

PISTON RING
SPIRAL WOUN" G',SK''' - -., CAGE

CAGEGA!IKE·r--t__~____~ VALVE PLUG

GROOVE PIN _l_1,""]r-;Jt1;~

Sliding Slem, Bal;U1ced Cage COlllrol Valve.


Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls.

.,"" '-.

QUICK OPENING LINEAR EQUAL PERCENTAGE

Quick opening cages provide Linear cages provide an Equal percentage cages
an inherent flow inherent characteristic which provide an inherent flow
characteristic in which there can be represented ideally characteristic in which a
is maximum flow coefficient by a straight line plot of flow given percentage change of
with minimum travel. coefficient versus percent of valve travel will produce an
rated travel. (Equal equal percentage change in
increments of travel produce the existing flow coefficient.
equal increments of change
in flow at a constant
pressure drop.)
Three Cage designs available for charac(eri zing fl ow.
Graphic courtesy of Fi sher Controls
140 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

......,

iii ==
iii
CONVENTIONAL SLANT BODY ANGlE
GLOBE BODY BODY

Globe valves present a tortuous flow path w hen compared to slant or angle designs. A
general rule for predicting relative valve capacity is that fewer turns in the flow path allow
higher capacity for a given va lve size. For example, while a common single port globe valve
(having 4 flow turns) supplies 16.5 C, per square inch of port area, an angle body (with only 1
flow turn) may have nearly twice the capacity per square inch of port area. Slant va lve design
capacity falls between the two.

Alternate body styles .


Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls

ANGLE BODY PUSH-DOWN-TO-OPEN 3-WAY VALVE


CONSTRUCTION

Angle bodies provide a self- Push-down-to-open valves Three-way cage guided


draining feature . They also incorporate a bottom flange valves are used in a variety
fill th e need for a control to allow access to the trim of flow mixing or diverting
valve that is also an elbow. and other internal parts. services.

Alternate body styles.


Graphic courtesy of Fisher Controls
Chapter 17 - Fundamentals of Instrument Tubing 141

Fundamentals of Instrument Tubing

Instrument tubing is the tubing that carries Improperly run impulse tubing may be a
a process variable pressure to the sensor. more significant error than a miscalibrated
Instrument tubing is sometimes called process transmitter may be. Suppose tubing was run for a
tubing, impulse tubing, and etc. The proper name differential pressure transmitter that allowed air to
is probably closer to impulse tubing than any accumulate in the tubing at the transmitter. The
other. A process change is reflected through the tubing did not have a method for gaseous detection
tubing to a sensor which measures these such as a "drain" nor was it run such as to allow
"impulses" as a process variable. draining at the transmitter. The partial change
By now you have probably figured out that equal to the amount of "Head" sensed by the high
practically all instrumentation that performs one of or low side of the differential pressure transmitter
the three major process variables (pressure, level , will be reflected by the transmitters signal.
and flow) does so through the measurement of There are times a transmitter shows a
pressure; more importantly through the pressure sudden change in a process variable and such
differential. The fourth variable, temperature, can changes are easily detectable . Tap pluggage, a
also be measured from a pressure sensor. crimped impulse tubing that becomes plugged, etc.
A change that is presented to the control system
that is fast will almost always be noticed by the
FLOW. controlling equipment, an operator, or the worker
responsible for the instrumentation.
An impulse tubing line that allows moisture
to build-up slowly will present to the system an
error that is slow to increase and therefore slow to
detect. A change in the signal of a process
variable that is slow perhaps will not be noticed
until the boundaries for a safe operating process
are approached. The change is simply not
noticeable when a person may be watching several
hundred 110 that are active and changing with the
process.
H L Often a moisture build-up in impulse
tubing does not add nor change a process variable
Typical tubing inslallalion with the use of isolalion or block but rather makes the measurement of the process
valves localed at the laps. A manifold for transformer variable sluggish. The moisture in the tubing acts
isolation is sometimes used.
as a weight that must be moved to allow the
impulse to travel the length of the tubing. This
Impulse tubing is the tubing run which creates a transmitter signal that varies as a
connects the transmitter sensor to the point of pendulum does; initial movement then there are
process measurement. Process tubing therefore following measurements that appear to swing back
provides the path for the process variable to reach and forth around the actual process variable .
the measurements sensor. An incorrect path, Some impulse tubing is designed for fill
mounting, or support for impulse tubing can fluids to be present in the "legs" of the impulse
generate an error in the measurement of the tubing. This impulse tubing is sometimes referred
process variable just as surely as a faulty or to as wet leg tubing,or filled leg tubing. Filled leg
miscalibrated transmitter can . or wet leg tubing contains fluids in the process
142 Fundamentals ofInstrumentation ... and More

tubing that are used to transmit the signal of


differential pressure. Sometimes the fluid in the
legs of the transmitter tubing is not of the same
type as the process fluid being measured . Special
diaphragms are used to isolate the two fluid s from
coming into contact with each other but still be r--------J--
t T
r
--1--r--;G~ -
able to transmit impulses of pressure differentials.
Wet leg tubing must be installed to allow
the bleeding of any gases that may become trapped '----------'
in the tubing . Gas trapped in the tubing will tend Let X equal the vertical distance between the minimum and maximum
measurable levels (5IJO in.).
to prevent small changes in the process variable Let Y equal the vertical distance between Ihe transmitter datum line and the
minimum measu rable level (50 in.).
from being propagated the length of the tubing . l eI z equal the vertical distance between the top of the liquid in the wet Jeg
Large changes in the process variable may be a nd the transmi tter datum line (600 in.).
leI SG I equallhe specilic gravity o f the fluid (1 .0).
delayed from being sensed by the transmitter. The l ei SG2 equallhe specilic gravity of the fluid in the wet leg (1. I ).
Lei h equal the maximum head pressure to be measured in inches of wa ter.
trapped gas acts as a cushion in the tubing Let e equal the head pressure produced by Y expressed in inches 01water.
absorbing process deviations , until an impulse is let s equal head pressu re produced by z expressed in inches 01 water.
l et Range equal e - s 10 h + e - s.
strong enough to compress the trapped gas, Then h = (X)(SG 1)
causing the liquid on the other side of the trapped = 500 x 1.0
= 500 in H 20
gas to be moved and therefore resulting in a e = (Y)(SG,)

process deviation being measured . = SOx 1.0


= 50 inH20
Wet leg tubing demands that the legs of the s = (z)(SG2)
= 600 x 1.1
high and low side of the transmitter must be of the = 660 inH 20
correct length. If you are measuring flow than the Range = e - s to h + 0-5 .
=
50-660 10500+50-660
legs will need to be the same length . If you are = -6 10 10 - 110 inH20
measuring level then you need to verify instrument
mounting location and subsequently the impulse I
tubing to avoid suppress ing or elevating the 1....._ - - - ..~ 1 20
ZERO ELEVATION - - -___

signal. I
Some processes call for special tubing. I I mAde
Corrosive chemical reactions may necessitate the I I
installation of certain alloy tubing for certain I I
processes . The specifications for the device I I
~~---------~--1-4
I
installed (called a spec sheet) should reflect the ·610 -110 o
installation of special alloys if called for.
These are some of the errors that
instrument tubing can introduce. We will discuss An example problem calcul anng the range of the level
now the general guidelines that are for running transmitter (LT) while allowing for mounting location
(suppresion) and the use of a wet leg (Z) of a different
impulse tubing.
specific gravi ty than the process variable.
A tubing installation that is installed
accurately will have accurate bends resulting from
accurate measurements . All tubing installations are tubing. Tubing benders have a mark, which
to be done in a neat and workmanlike manner. signifies the edge of radius, at the centerline of the
Tubing is run exactly into fittings and the entry to tubing.
tubing terminations must be straight. The installer When your measurement is taken , use a
should be aware that he is responsible for the sharp pencil to indicate the measurement point. It
tubing run he is to install. is sometimes necessary to use a ferrule to mark
When measuring for a tubing bend it is around the tubing in a precise plane. Never use a
helpful to measure along the centerline of the sharp penetrating object to mark on tubing. The
Chapter 17 - Fundamentals of Instrument Tubing 143

conduit there is a certain amount of springback


that comes when bending tubing. A good rule of
thumb is to use 2°_3 ° of springback per 90° of
"'I----_~I bend . Remember , the bend angle will be
magnified over great distances so be sure to reach
the correct bend before installing the piece of
tubing. It is always best to underbend the tubing
Centerlin~2/ first and then incrementally add angle to the bend
so you do not go over the desired angle. It is hard
to remove angle of bend from a piece of tubing
without kinking or damaging the tubing.
Sometimes you may wish to premeasure
Measure from point 10 point along the centerline several bends in the tubing run before making the
for a correct measurement .
first bend. Remember gain will be introduced into
the tubing length. We usually measure out tubing
When measuring impulse tubing measure from centerline to runs on 90° angles but we do not allow for the
centerline of the bends. radius of the bend not traveling the full length of
the prescribed route. The result is gain in the
scratches left on tubing can be a source for instrument tubing and subsequent bends. A good
corrosion and a possible path for process fluids to rule of thumb is to allow one tubing diameter for
leak. each 90° bend made.
A good rule to follow is to bend your Once the tubing is routed and placed into
tubing in only one direction. Since elevation position, the tubing must be clamped to stabilize
changes in process tubing is significant, be sure to it. Tubing vibration will allow tubing to loosen its
scribe a mark on the first piece of tubing installed fittings , vibrate and cause tubing fatigue to the
for the top side and continue in one direction from point where the tubing may rupture. Sags or
there. By using scribe marks on your tubing it is crowns may appear to trap moisture or gases.
easier to bend a piece of
tubing multiple times
without having to put it in
Place each time to see
how it fits.
Suppose you have
two 90° bends that are
used to change elevation.
Distance want~ for back (0 back bends
You would make your
first bend and then x
measure for the second
bend from the centerline Start Mark on bender l
to centerline of the
tubing. You would place
your bender in the same
direction as the first bend Pencil mark. for length of bend
with the top side reflected measured (rom centerli ne 10 centerline

on the tubing and bend


until the 90 ° mark is
reached.
As with bending
144 Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
-
Stress may be placed on fittings that will
eventually break.
There are no adopted standards that are
present for use by industry' nation wide. Individual
locations mayor may not have standards which
are to be used in relation to impulse tubing
mounting. When some rules of thumb are needed
use the following guidelines.
Tubing may be stacked to save space. The
distance between clamps for 114" through Ih"
tubing is 3 feet. For 3/8" through 7/8" tubing the
supports need to be placed 4 feet apart. 1" tubing
needs to be supported every 5 feet and 1-1 /4"
tubing needs to be supported every seven feet.
These are general distances given for a typical
installation. The presence of vibration, heavy
traffic, etc . may call for the use of additional
supports .
Tubing that is run as to allow no process
variable errors is considered to be an adequate
instrument run. A process tubing run that has no
errors and is installed in such a manner to prevent
the presence of instrument errors from occurring
and is in a neat and workmanlike manner is
considered to be preferred.
r Chapter 18 - Documentation 145

r
Documentation
r The documentation used by a field will insure the proper installation of the device.

r technician is considered the major link between


the design process and the building process of an
For example a differential pressure
transmitter is to be used to measure the level of a
instrument installation. The field technician will HF acid tank. Installation details should show or
r probably not work for the engineering design firm
that has designed the installation, but he will be
reference all necessary information for the
installation. Tap locations, device type, impulse

r the one that uses the documentation to interpret


the design.
tubing size, Monel construction/material type,
mounting height to prevent elevation or
It does not matter if a technician works in suppression errors, conduit entry point, wiring
r the construction or maintenance field, he must
know the proper documentation for the job. The
terminations, Tag Number, safety considerations,
and others that are deemed necessary are all

r very nature of instrumentation and/or control


systems requires that time must be spent reviewing
P&ID's, Spec Sheets, Wiring Diagrams, Wiring
required to install one device.
Installation details are intended to save
time and to prevent the incorrect installation of a
r Installation Details, etc. A significant amount of
time on every project involving control systems is
device.

r spent studying or reviewing documentation.


Although every job does not require every
drawing in order to be completed, the majority
Instrument Index Sheet

Instrument indexes provide a method for


r will require the following: Installation Details,
Instrument Index Sheets, Instrument Specification
listing every instrument that will be used for the
job. A summary usually accompanies each listing

r Sheets, Loop Sheets, Panel Drawings, Plot Plans,


and P&ID's. There are a considerable number of
other drawings that could be required for special
that gives the present standing/location of the
device. An instrument index provides an accurate
way to gage the amount of work that must be done
r purpose jobs, but for general installation jobs the
above are adequate.
or is remaining to be done.
An index should be started at the beginning
of the job and as items are added the list increases.
Installation Details Relevant shipping and receiving dates should be
included. The changes that are made to the job and
r Installation Details show the intended
design application of piping, tubing, material types
how it effects the instrument index should also be
reflected. A device once entered into the list

r (stainless steel, aluminum, etc.), electrical


connections, wire size and number of conductors,
should never be removed, just updated to show
present status.
An instrument index should contain the
r- conduit size and other reference specifications as
deemed necessary by the design firm. Installation
details are usually job specific which means that
devices that are to be included in the present job
requirement. This is a minimum requirement and

r for an instrument mounting installation detail the


wire size, number of conductors, etc. will not be
each job will require variations to satisfy the
particular job.
included. What will be included is the necessary
r instrument, mounting location, mounting height,
material types to be used, bolt patterns and any
Instrument Specification Sheets

r other information that may be needed.


When installation details are available and
Instrument Specification Sheets, .or the
more common name of Spec Sheets, are used to
used properly they can save many labor hours and tell a variety of people a wealth of information
146 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and More ...

about the device the spec sheet is written for. Spec identifying method for records, accountants,
sheets are generally sorted by Tag Numbers and material handlers and for the field technician. By
are usually located in a pennanent records library. having items with the same Tag Number shown on
Spec sheets serve as a pennanent record of the same Loop Sheet, a simple method of data
devices that are in use or have been in use. The keeping is available to all involved.
process conditions, calibration ranges, Tag For the field worker the Loop Sheet shows
number(s), transmitter type, control functions and what devices are likely to be affected, where the
others are included on the spec sheet. Engineering device is located, the power requirements of that
considers spec sheets to be the primary source of device, the controlling method for that device, the
instrument information when ordering, designing, intermediate wiring, junction boxes, terminal
controlling, etc., a process. strips, and the list goes on.
Purchasing departments often refer to the For jobs that have pneumatic
spec sheets to determine the number of devices on instrumentation involved their is a loop sheet also.
hand compared to the average failure rate to get a Instruments with Tag numbers are shown along
rough idea on the estimated repair costs. Spec with their hook-up details.
sheets provide the easy path for interaction
between the engineering and front office
personnel.
Loop Sheets are printed in a variety of
sizes, but the majority is on 11 x 17 (B) size
drawing paper. The information that is to be .,
j

Spec sheets will also contain the necessary


information for the field personnel to maintain and
dispiayed often is the detennining factor for paper
size. At some locations a standard Loop Sheet size
.,
install the instrument. Sometimes the spec sheet is
not completed until after installation to allow for
the checking and reviewing of a device. For such
devices the Instrument Index Sheet will be the
guiding documentation until a spec sheet is
will be adopted and it is expected that all
documentation is to follow along those lines.
For the field worker, the Loop Sheet is his
link to the process. It is conceivable for all as-built
drawings to be submitted in loop sheet form for an
.,
completed. instrument job. The as-built drawings can be j
subjected to a reverse design procedure that can

.,
Loop Sheets fill in the gaps where associated drawings should
indicate new work or changes in old work.
Loop sheets are arguably the document that The Loop Sheet is also used during start-up
will receive the most use by installers,
troubleshooters and maintenance personnel of
instrumentation. An instrument Loop Sheet is as
and loop checking procedures. Loop checking
procedures follow the path of wiring that is
indicated by a loop sheet until all possible error .,
the name would imply; a loop sheet that depicts
the actual schematic wiring diagram of the field
wiring.
The current path on a loop sheet can be
points are confmned as being error free.
The simple example of a Loop Sheet with
a transmitter and a controller can be checked by
forcing a signal on the pair of wires that are
.,
traced from beginning to end until it traverses a
complete loop. Each device that will function
within that wiring loop will be depicted. The
connected to a transmitter and then monitoring the
respons~ of the controller to verify that the
associated wiring is correctly installed along with
-r
simplest loop sheet will be one that has a the controllers configuration limits. ~
transmitter and controller on it and nothing else. In other words, a 4-20mA signal is applied
More complicated loop sheets will have to the pair of wires to the controller and then the
recorders, alarms, pilot lights, gages, control signal strength is adjusted. The signal will be read
valves, and etc. The common point to a single in by the controller and it should be compared to
loop sheet is that the devices on each sheet are the sending signal strength to verify proper
generally categorized by instrument Tag Number. working order.
Recall that the Tag Number is used as an A Loop Sheet often has calibration data on
i
Chapter 18 - Documentation 147

it such as calibration range and any associated are mounted on the panel is often shown on a
setpoints . It is critical that on such drawings that sequence of drawings that· are called panel
a field worker be aware of the hierarchy of the drawings. Like other drawings a hierarchy must
drawing system at the site helshe is working in. be established in the area you are working. There
For most locations a specification sheet will have will be conflicts between panel drawings and Loop
what is considered superior data on it. Therefore Sheets, wiring diagrams, plot plans, and even
if a Loop Sheet specifies a calibration range and P&ID's . The important thing is to realize that the
the Spec Sheet does not agree, the Spec Sheet will a panel drawing contains only information that is
be taken as being correct. If a conflict exists pertaining to that panel and nothing else. Conflicts
between two forms of documentation the worker within that panel are to be documented only on
is to call attention to it before any work is done . that drawing, but conflicts with other drawings
A Loop Sheet may have incorrect data on shall be established by the site you are working in.
it pertaining to calibration ranges, setpoints, etc. Panel drawings show where devices are
and the filed worker must be aware of possible mounted and the associated wiring for that panel
conflicts before helshe starts. There have been only. Often panels are manufactured as separate
numerous accounts of industrial shutdowns due to pieces of equipment that are brought to the job-site
incorrect data on Loop Sheets that was taken for when completely finished. The drawing package
granted to be correct when the hierarchy of the that accompanies such a panel must contain within
documentation system stated that the specification itself all necessary information for understanding
sheets had precedence over Loop Sheets. what is the function of every device on the panel.
Therefore it is easy to see that if the only
drawings that are used for as-builts are the Loop Plot Plans
Sheets then extra care must be taken to ensure that
the proper updates of documentation is carried out We are used to plot plans in the electrical
as far as necessary to insure that all documentation industry showing us where pieces of equipment
is updated accordingly. are located and their relationship to others.
An instrument plot plan is no different.
Panel Drawings Plot Plans show associated instruments that are to
be categorized by Tag Number. Tag Numbers will
Panel drawings are generally a simpler be shown on drawings that will reflect instruments
approach to layouts of monitoring, recording, and in reference to where they will be located .
transmitting equipment. Panels are mounting A Plot Plan is a handy tool for figuring out
points of availability for devices to be mounted so where a device is to be installed by area only.
that the devices are accessible and observable to Elevation details, Installation details, Loop Wiring
operators andlor instrument workers. An methods, and etc. are not shown on Plot Plans.
instrument panel can have a variety of forms and Once the area of a device is known you must refer
concepts but the panel drawings generally are the to other documentation to receive more details.
same. There is one other consideration that must
Panel drawings show first of all where be remembered when using Plot Plans. Some
devices are located that are mounted on the panel. engineering companies only show on plot plans
The devices are given locations along lines to those devices that have both piping and electrical
allow for the ease of installations and for connections . Devices such as a roto-meter, which
maintenance procedures that will come later. is a type of flow meter that is locally monitored ,
An "Elevation" view is one form of will only show up on installation details and
information that is contained on a panel drawing. process diagrams, but not Plot Plans.
Another form is to show what is behind the panel. In todays environment there is often two
The interior wiring of all the devices that sets of plot plans. One showing all devices with
148 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and More ... .j
el~ctriCa1 connections and one showing devices .j
"~ook" how it is in the field. It is relatively easy to
WIth associated piping or pneumatic connections. pIck out a pump or a burner from the P&ID but
Care must be taken not to create any conflicts on the instrumentation may present a slightly diff;rent
usi~g such drawings for often, as we now know,
deVIces have both electrical and pneumatic
connections and will be shown on two drawings.
If a conflict with the two arises then the site you
problem.
With instrumentation the symbology
becomes much more critical. Instrument devices
are shown by their appropriate symbol and must
.,
are working in must establish hierarchy since there be recognized by the installer for interpretation.
is no standard for Plot Plans. Again devices are categorized by their respective
'j
Tag Numbers.
P&ID's

Process and Instrumentation Diagrams,


commonly abbreviated to P&ID's, are the
considered the primary source of reference for
Tag Numbers along with the type of
service is depicted on the P&ID and from there
the instrument worker must determine what is
needed. From P&ID's troubleshooting can take
place by observing a devices function with respect
.,
1.

documentation of control systems. to the process. If a process does not respond how
P&ID's contain information about the it should than the P&ID can often provide a hint to
the underlying problem.
process, piping, relevant pieces of equipment,
.1
control and monitoring instrumentation, process
reactions, temperatures, and about any thing else
For todays control systems the controller
that is shown on the P&ID will be shown as a
"black box". The reason for this is that electronic
.,
,.,
that could be considered relevant to the process
and/or control of the process. control methods and/or logic is not to be shown on
Such an excessive amount of information the drawing to eliminate control confusion.
that is packed into such a relatively small drawing Electronic and therefore microprocessor
must employ the use of symbols to maintain order control methods are a separate controlling method
among such limited space. that is not to be confused with the process. Often J
P&ID's ofte~ are split into two separate enough several control schemes may be run with
drawings. One which shows the mechahlcal
relationships to the process and another which
each using the same instrumentation located on the
same pieces of equipment to make different
i
shows the electrical relationship. When two products by only changing the "logic" of the
drawings are used it is urged for the drawings to process.
be combined into one drawing, where it is Some P&ID's depict setpoints and

.,
possible, to save future conflicts. transmitter ranges, but these are the exception
P&ID's try to expose a pictorial rather than the norm. When a conflict does occur
representation of the process that is being between the P&ID and any other source of
represented. Often several P&ID's are needed to documentation the P&ID usually has authority, but
fully picture an entire process. It is easy to picture care should always be taken to follow the proper
the number ofP&ID's that are needed to depict an
entire industrial plant will number in the
documentation hierarchy for the location you are
working in.
i
hundreds. The volume of P&ID's that must be
kept up to date and reviewed requires a consistent
approach to representation.
Elevations with respect to different pieces
of equipment are attempted to be related. The
.,
i

-,
.,
process line sizes are attempted to represent
magnitude of flow. In general the physical
machinery, vessels, piping, etc. used is made to
Chapter 18 - Documentation 149

An example of a differential pressure transmitter's specification sheet that is used for records.
".

NO. BY . / I SHEET REV.; ~;}


NJATC t):) ( DATE REVISION / /O,/c,.../J I 01 '"

INSTRUMENT SPECIFICATIONS

DIFF-PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS

GENERAL DIFFERENTIAL UNIT


24 APPLICATION,c;fLOW)LEVEL PRESSUR
I TAG, ffltJO/
2 TYPE, RECORDER IND ICATOR (C"ONTROLLER) 25 ELEMENT: BELLOWS I"OiAPHRAtlY OT

<::)"RANS MITTEIY BLIND }4f ur ~/r"'0 26 MATERIAL: cll6SS::> OTH ER


27 BODY RATING : J04 PSIG~60 DEG F
3 CASE,
4 COLOR,
5 MOUNTING,
CASE
FLUSH
2i
c..M!:..R. STD. jOTHER
MFD.~
URFACE:> YOKE
28 MA TERIAL: WBON _uED
OTHER
29 DIFFERENT IAL CONNECTION : 1/2" NPt:§j
6 POWER SUPPL VOLTS .:74 / 30 DIFFERENTIAL RANGE:
7 ELECTRICAL CLASS IFICATION, d '~,,"'d'o-'5 SUPPRESS ION, <ELEVATION: " )

RECORDER INDICATOR
c2// d6
8 NO. PTS. RECORD ING,";/,f'- INDICATING ACCESSORI ES
9 CHART TYPE, .#'#-12"
CIRCULAR OTHER 31 FILTER & REGULATOR:
10 CHART RANGE, ,-<//1- NUMBER 32 AIR SUPPLY GUAGliS, / '
I I CHART SPEED, /Y"/I- DRIVE 33 LOCAL INDICATOR: V /h 61'f1l
12 IN DI CATOR SIZE AND TYPE, ~ 34 CHARTS & INKSET:
13 IN DICATOR RANGE/O ""'NUMBER 35 INTEGRATOR:
CONTROLLER 36 ELECTRICAL SWITCH:
14 TYPE, PNEUMATIC ELECTRIC 37 OTHER:
15 CONTROL MODES , PROP. %, RATE NOTES,
AUTO RESET
OTHER
M SET
:Z:;;;M!k" ~)c,-.1 J ?J7C'",gII'(!..
16
17
OUTPUT, 3- 15 PSI - rnA OTI
ON MEASUREMENT INCR .. ~:~,t/;;rt',J~/I~lfd/e.. 6c/c?5
18
OUTPUT INCRE
AUTO-MAN S
DE
H, AUTO TRACK IN
ES
N. BAL. (y/~t~ t If"It1/.. iJ
(;
19 SET POI
UAL,
DJUSTMENT,
LOCAL REMOTE
AUTO SET 3- 15PSI 4-20rnA OTHER
V(;r?t!- 6) - /.J 7. 7 1
%0
TRANSM ITTER
20 TYPE, PNEUMATIC LECT RIC::>
21 OUTPUT, 3-15PS I Q,20rnA )OTHER
STATIC PRESSURE OR RECEIVER ELEMENT
22 TYPE, MATERIAL, I
23 RANGE, /"j"
/eo
if/I J5
FOR OUTLINE DIMENSIONS SEE, CATALOG CERTIFIED PRINT MFR. MOD . NO.
150 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and More ...

An example spec sheet of multiple instruments recorded for records. -,


NJATC
NO.
<!JOl
BY ~
h~
~ SHEET REV.
./
DATE !
INSTRUMENT SPECIFICAnONS
DATE REVISION / -Z. dj'd)2..
MANUFACTURER

PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS BY APPRV'D

J
REV QUANTITY TAG. NO. DIFFRANGE NRM,L MAXSTATI MEAS. INC. OIP SERVICE NOTES j
---- --
T"\

/ / ~.nol /J .../~~ ?If 4--'0 hf,p: ~../


/ '/ ~T/4fJ~
j
-
A --/t("h
,,, ~- ~n"" JIJ. L"",/
I / -
171~"" ~ -..:lid g;;F '-
..../--""..- A ~~
Q ,
j

.,
.,
.,
.,
i_'

.,
i

.,
-r Chapter 18 - The Future of Instrumentation and Controls 151

r The Future of Instrumentation and Controls

The future of instrumentation only has one installed and connected along these same

r- certainty; there will be change and it will require


a workforce that understands control systems. By
completing the beginning chapters of the
guidelines. The conventional methods of control
will no longer apply. Digital communication will
replace analog as well as discrete control. Every
Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More, you device will be capable of operating on its on or
are now familiar with the concepts, complications operating in concert with hundreds or even
thousands of other devices.
r and advantages that will be present during the
installation and testing of instruments.
Today it is easy to grasp what devices are
Today computer networks called Local
Area Networks are able to maintain an efficient
r doing and even how they are doing it. Differential
Pressure instruments are able to use pressure
working environment even though there is no
controller (Master) that is commanding attached

r differentials to extract just about any process


variable that can be thought of. These devices are
then sending a typical analog signal of 4-20mA to
devices (slaves). Computer networks allow for the
sharing of information; information that can be
used by a multiple of working devices and each
represent the range of the measurement. device is able to process its on information to
Differential pressure devices of the future establish some control.
will also work the same way to extract the To fully grasp the magnitude of what this
information, but the difference will be in how arraignment does, lets look at a conventional

r' .
these devices are installed, calibrated, hooked-up, commercial building first. Imagine a building in
I
I
and tested. which every device that is in it is a smart device.
It is virtually guaranteed that the These smart devices are in effect computers

r installation of smart devices will continue to grow.


There are a few hints at what smart devices will
themselves. Each device has a processor, memory,
EEPROM's, non-volatile memory, and high level
be able to do and how they will accomplish their language interfaces. These devices will all be
r
'-
goals. Smart devices will be able to be multi-
variable which implies that each device will be
attached to one giant network which will cover
every electronic device in this building.
able to measure flow, level, pressure, or Such a system allows for the interaction
temperature. The astounding fact is that these between systems that has not been possible until
devices will be able to do all at the same time. this convention is installed. Imagine for a moment
r Therefore it is likely that the installation of
these devices will be altered. The mounting
the events that can be scheduled from such an
arrangement.
r~ height, tubing arraignments, environmental Suppose Jane Doe arrives for work early
conditions, etc. will all be factors that will have to one morning. She scans in at the front door with

r- be considered. The accuracy of devices will be


increased which calls for an increase in the
accuracy of calibration equipment, calibration
the security system to gain access to the building.
Instantly her identity is available to every device
in the building. The lights come on for her to

r
I
i
procedures, record keeping and the list goes on.
To fully picture the magnitude of what is
reach her office. The HVAC system goes into an
occupied mode only for the area she is in. The

r- coming for the controls field a person must look


further down the/road. Years from now the only
type of system that will be used is a smart system.
security system allows for Jane Doe's access but
maintains security for all other offices and points
of building entry. Jane's copy machine is turned
We are aware today of the potential and the on and begins warming up. Telephone answering
processing/working power of computer networks. systems now realize Jane is in the building and
Imagine control systems that will be will forward calls. Jane's desktop computer is
r
\. .
152 The Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More j
connected to the same network and comes out of accept the future as the present. He will find that
power save mode when she arrives and begins to the jobs available for his company will be reduced
go through the nights mail. also.
Multiply these events by about a hundred The exciting part is to realize the potential
and you begin to get a grasp of the magnitude of for LON systems and the market share that can be

.,
j
what such systems are capable of for Jane alone. gathered for our workforce and contractors. For a
Now apply the same building with hundreds or committed contractor and for a skilled workforce
even thousands of employees and look at the LON systems are not a problem. Yes there will be
events that are possible. some errors in the beginning. Yes there will be
Such systems are coming in the future, but incorrect configurations of the networks and yes
they are available today. Local Operating there will not be a comfortable feeling for LON j
Networks (LON) are networks that are created to systems until several have been completed; which
satisfy the criteria of networking devices together. brings us to another point.
Some manufacturers, such as Echelon, have Suppose that a multi-floored commercial i
embraced this concept of installing systems. LON office building is installed using LON technology.
systems have been installed in various buildings Who do you think will receive the maintenance on j
and arraignments and the success rate has far such a building? Probably the contractor who
outweighed the failure rate of these networked installed it for two reasons. The contractor knows
systems. the network and he has the workforce to maintain
How does Local Operating Networks affect it since it was installed by his company.
the electrician? LON systems will replace a This requires an effort on the part of both
substantial amount of working control systems as groups. The commitment by contractors to go
we know them today. Yes, the existing type of after the work and the workforce being committed
control systems will remain for awhile but their to learning the configuration of and how to install i
existence will reduce over the years. A worker the systems.
that limits his/her areas of work to control systems
other than LON systems will find a reduced
demand for his/her skills.
Commercial applications of LON systems
is only the beginning. After the commercial
industry has shown the validity of such systems .,
~1

Additionally the conventional wiring


methods for power wiring will change. In a
the industrial market will adopt such systems also.
For anyone who is familiar with the control
,.,
building that employs the concept of LON systems
switch legs will no longer be needed. Smart
switches and smart fixtures will be able to
communicate over the network to establish control
over the light state. Perhaps the method of
systems involved in industry it is easy to picture
the impact of LON systems upon it.
The very nature of industrial work with its
hazardous environments requires that before a
control system is employed that it is a proven
.,
communication for such devices will be the power system. But once it is proven the market place will
line conductors that supply power to the fixture. be expanded tremendously.
The technology for such systems does exist The question everyone now has is why?
today and it is being used. We are not at a time of Why should LON systems take over the
hardship with control systems but rather at a time marketplace? Why will LON systems replace
of opportunity. The worker who understands the conventional methods?
concepts of smart systems will be the worker who The answer is probably more visible than
works on LON systems. One day LON systems most people realize. Expense. LON systems when
will be the primary building installation method properly installed reduce the overall cost of the
that is used. A worker who limits his or herself to electrical installation, control systems, and some
a market other than LON systems will find their mechanical installations. The magnitude of savings
demands shrinking over time. from copper switch legs alone will be enough to
What about the contractor that does not drive the market even without the other hundred
Chapter 18 - The Future of Instrumentation and Controls 153

,
r",'
' possibilities we have discussed here.
Also, the cheaper cost of future additions
installer must become familiar with the concepts
of digital networking. Local Area Networks
(LANs) are being installed today to enable
r and!orchanges to the existing network need to be
considered. Suppose you had a conventional wired computer systems to utilize information that is
stored on the "network". Control systems of the
office building and the tenants of one floor moved
rL
out and another took their place. We are familiar future will utilize the same concept. Tele-
communication wiring methods will be the method
with the work involved to change just the lighting

r'
f
arraignments plus HV AC, security, and etc. Now
with the same building installed with LO N
of choice and necessity to integrate smart control
systems.
Also in industrial applications there is a
systems what would the expense be with the same
r conditions?
LON systems allow for the ease of
method that is used to network devices and it is
called "Fieldbus" . Fieldbus is a wIfing

r',':i
configuration for additions and! or changes to the
network. It is conceivable for the work that could
arrangement not unlike Rosemount's mutidropped
system. Like Rosemount's Hart Protocol, Fieldbus
number in the several tens of thousands of dollars also uses a digital communication language. The
r to replaced by a software program which can
make the same changes in about a day.
standard for Fieldbus is still in debate for the
protocol to be used. But, let it be understood that

r The magnitude of savings for initial


installments and the savings of future changes
the wiring installation methods have been
established. A technician must understand how to
guarantees the market will see such networks install such systems, calibrate, configure and
appearing in greater numbers. troubleshoot such systems.
The cost is not likely to increase either.

r LON systems are what is called an open


architecture system. Vendors will compete with
each other as to who will gather their share of the
r market. Such competition will be on the device
scale as well as the network scale.

r For today LON devices are available. The


prices are rather expensive when compared to
conventional devices but the market is already
r starting to force these price ranges downward at

r',
an ever increasing pace.
For today we can be content with our
"

:
wiring methods and probably we will not see a
great impact for a few years. For those whom
venture into LON systems early the rewards will
be large, but to succeed skill will have to be

r gained.
Companies that exalt LON systems such as
Echelon may change names, may be purchased by
r rivals, may take a direction that the market will
not accept. The point is that the technology is here
r to stay. How it is used may change. It also brings
us to another interesting parallel.
The fundamentals of Local Operating
Networks will have to be understood before the
installation begins.

r Now to install such operating systems an


154 The Fundamentals of Instrumentation.. .and More
.~t
'J.,

-,
NOTES

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160 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

GLOSSARY i
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE-
Gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
AMBIENT CONDITIONS-
Conditions around the device examined
i
~- -- .. -- .--'

(pressure, temperature, etc.).


ABSOLUTE ZERO- j
Temperature at which thermal energy is at a AMMETER-
minimum. Defined as 0 K~ An instrument used to measure current.

ACCEssmLE- AMPERE- ~.
A term to a device or function 'that can be A unit used to defme the rate of current flow
used or be seen by an operator for the (I amp=1 coulomb per second). j
purpose of performing contro(actions. -
AMPLIFICATION-
ACCURACY-
Conformity to an indicated, standard, or true
value, usually expressed as a percentage (of
span, reading, or upper range value)
The dimension less ratio of output/input in a
device intended by design to have this ratio
greater than unity.
.,
j

deviation from the indicated, standard, or


true value.
AMPLIFIER-
A device whose output by design is an
.,
.,
enlarged reproduction of the input signal and
which is energized from a source other than
ALARM-
the input.
A device or function that s~~nals the
existence of an abnormal condition by means
AMPLITUDE-
of an audible or visible discrete changes, or
i
.,
A measurement of the distance from the
both, intended to attract attention.
highest to the lowest excursion of motion.
For example the peak-ttJ-PeiI(swing of an
ALGORITHM- electrical waveform.
A detailed set of instructions that is to be
executed by the CPU.
r---- """""
AMPLITUDE RATIO- J
The ratio of the magnitude of a steady state
ALPHANUMERIC-
A character set that contains both letters and
sinusoidal output with respect to the input.
i
digits. ANALOG-
a continuous operating signal.
AMBIENT COMPENSATION-
(I}The design of an instrument such that ANALOG COMPUTER-
A computer operating on continuous
changes in ambient temperature do not effect
variables.
readings of the instrument. (2) Compensation
for ambient conditions when mounting an ANALOG OUTPUT-
instrument. A voltage or current signal that is a
continuous function of the measured
parameter.
r Glossary 161

r ANALOG SIMULATOR-
An electronic, pneumatic or mechanical
deviation of this measured value from a
selected reference.
r device that solves problems by simulation of
the physical system under study using AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM-

r electrical or physical variables to represent


the process variables.
An operable arraignment of one or more
automatic controllers along with their

r ANALOG-TO
(AlD)-
DIGITAL CONVERTER
associated equipment connected in closed
loops with one or more processes.

r A device or circuit that outputs a binary


number corresponding to an analog signal
AUTOMATIC RESET-
The integral function on a PID controller
r level at the input.

ANEMOMETER-
which adjusts the proportional bandwidth
with respect to the set point to compensate
r An instrument for measuring
indicating the velocity of air flow.
and/or for droop in the circuit, i.e., adjusts a
controlled process to a set point after the
system stabilizes.
L ANSI-
American National Standards Institute.
r- ASCll-
AUTOMATION-
The act or method of making a processing or
manufacturing system without the necessary
American Standard Code for Information
L Interchange. A seven or eight bit code used
operator intervention.
to represent alphanumeric characters.
r ASSIGNABLE- ::
BACK GROUND NOISE-
The total noise floor from all sources of
interference in a measurement system,
L A term applied to a feature permitting the
channeling (or directing) of a signal from one independent of the presence of a data signal.
device to another without the need for
L switching, patching, or wiring changes. BACKUP-
A system, device, file or facility that can be
r ATTENUATION-
A decrease in signal magnitude-- The
used as an alternative in case of loss of data.

~C --
reciprocal of GAIN.

AUTO-MANUAL STATION-
BALLOON-
Synonym for bubble.

r-- U..;-1 ., Synonym for control station.


,WJ - - -
BANDWIDTH-
r AUTO-ZERO-
A symmetrical region around the set point in
An automatic internal correction for offsets
and/or drift at zero voltage input.
BAUD-
--
which proportional control occurs.

U/ I f
"""

AUTOMATIC CONTROLLER- A unit of data transmission speed equal to the


r A device, or combination of devices, which
measure the value of the variable, quantity or
number of bits per second (1200
BAUD = 1200 Bits/sec.)
condition and operates to correct or limit
~
162 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

\
BEHIND THE PANEL-
A term applied to a location that is within an
area that contains (1) The Instrument Panel,
(2) its associated rack-mounted hardware, or
straight line segments of a plotted curve.
BTU-
British Thermal Unit. The quantity of
thermal energy required to raise one pound
.,
(3) is enclosed within the panel. of water one degree F, at its maximum
density (lBTU = 0.293 watt-hours = 252
j
BETA RATIO-
The ratio of the diameter of a pipeline
calories).
-,
constriction to the unconstricted pipe BUBBLE-
diameter. The circular symbol used to denote and i
identify the purpose of an instrument or
BINARY-
A term applied to a signal or device that has
function. It may contain a tag number.
i
only two discrete positions or states (onloff). BUFFER- ~1

BINARY CODED DECIMAL (BCD)-


-- A storage for data that is used to compensate
for a speed difference, when transferring data
Tl)e representation of a decimal number (0-9 from one device to another. j
base 10) by means of a 4 bit binary code.
BULK STORAGE- i
BIT- An auxiliary memory device with storage
,.,
Acronym for binary digit. The smallest unit
of computer information, it is a binary 0 or
1.
capacity, many orders of magnitude greater
than working memory; for example disk
files, drums, magnetic tape drives. .,
BLOCK-
A set of things such as words, characters,
BURST PRESSURE-
The maximum pressure applied to a
,.,
digits, or parameters handled as a unit. transducer sensing element or case without
causing leakage. j
~ J' v
BOARD- (/~~
A synonym for panel. BUS- ~
~
One or more conductors to transfer signals or
BODE DIAGRAM-
A plot of log-gain and phase angle value on
power. -,
a log-frequency base for an element, loop, or BYTE-
output transfer function. It also comprises The representation of a character in binary.
similar functional plots of involved variables. Eight bits.
j
BOILING POINT- CALIBRATION-
The process of adjusting an instrument or j
The temperature at which a substance in the
compiling a deviation chart so that its reading
liquid phase transforms to the ~ous phase.
can be correlated to the actual value being
measured. ~
BREAKPOINT-
The point of intersection of two confluent
}-
Glossary 163

CAPACITANCE- CLOSED LOOP (FEEDBACK LOOP)-


the property that may be expressed as the Several automatic control units and the
time integral of flow rate (heat, electric process connected so as to provide a signal
current, and so on) to or from a storage path that includes a forward path, a feedback
divided by the associated potential change. path, and a summing point. The controlled
variable is consistently measured, and if it
CAPACITY- deviates from that which has been
Measure of capability to store liquid volume, prescribed, corrective action is applied to the
mass, h\!at, information, or any additional final element in such direction as to return
form of energy or matter. the controlled variable to the desired value.

CASCADE CONTROL SYSTEM- COLOR CODE-


A control system in which the output of one The ANSI established color code for
controller is the setpoint of another. thermocouple wires in the Negative lead is
always red. Color code for base metal
CAVITATION- thermocouples is yellow for type k, black for
The boiling of a liquid caused by a decrease type J, purple for type E and blue for type T.
in pressure rather than by an increase in
temperature. COMMUNICATION-
Transmission and reception of data among
CELSIUS (CENTIGRADE)- data processing equipment and related
A temperature scale defined by 0 deg. At the peripherals.
freezing point and 100 deg. At the boiling
point of water at sea level. COMPENSATION-
An addition of specific materials or devices
CENTRIPETAL FORCE- to counteract a known error.
A force exerted on an object moving in a
circular path which is exerted inward toward COMPILER-
the center of rotation. A program that translates a higher level
language like "BASIC" or "FORTRAN" into
CFM- assembly or machine language, which the
The volumetric flow rate of a liquid or gas in CPU can execute.
cubic feet per minute.
COMPUTER-
CHARACTER- A device that performs mathematical
A letter, digit or other symbol that is used as calculations. It may range from a simple
the representation of other data. A connected device (such as a slide rule) to a very
sequence of characters is called a character complicated one (such as a digital computer).
string. In process control, the computer is either an
analog mechanism set up to perform a
CHATTER- continuous calculation on one or more input
The rapid cycling on and off of a relay in a signals and to provide an output as a function
control process. of time without relying on external assistance
(human prompting), or a digital device used
CHIP- in direct control (DDC).
An integrated circuit.
164 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More
.,-
COMPUTING DEVICE-
A device or function that performs one or
CONTROL STATION- I
A manual loading station that also provides
more calculations or logic operations, or switching between manual and automatic
both, and transmits one or more resultant
control modes of a control loop.
output signals. Sometimes called a computing
relay.

CONDUCTANCE-
The measure of the ability of a solution to
CONTROL SYSTEM-
A system in which deliberate guidance or
manipulation is used to achieve a prescribed
value of variable.
.,
j

carry an electrical current.

CONFIGURABLE- CONTROL VALVE-


A term applied to a device or system whose
functional characteristics can be selected or
A device, other than a common hand
actuated ON-OFF valve or self actuated
i
rearranged through programming or other
methods.
check valve, that directly manipulates the
flow of one or more fluid process streams.
-,
CONTROLLER-
CONTROLLED SYSTEM-
A device having an output that varies to
The part of a system under control--The
regulate a controlled variable in a specified
Process.
manner.

-,
CONTROL ACCURACY-
The degree of correspondence between the
controlled variable and the desired value after
stability has been achieved.
CONTROLLING MEANS-
The elements in a control system that
contribute to the required corrective action .

CONVERTER-
.,
CONTROL LOOP- A device that receives information in one
Starts at the process in the form of a form of an instrument signal and transmits an
measurement or variable, is monitored, and output signal in another form.
returns to the process in the form of a
manipulated variable or "valve position" CORIOLIS FORCE- j
being controlled by some means. A result of centripetal force on a mass
-,
.,
moving with a velocity radially outward in a
CONTROL MODE- rotating plane.
The output form or type of control action
used by a controller to perform control CPS-
functions, i.e., on/off, time proportioning,
PID.

CONTROL POINT-
Cycles per second; the rate or the number of
periodic events in one second.

CPU-
",
i
The value at which the controlled system or Central Processing Unit. The portion of a
process settles out or stabilizes. It mayor computer that decodes the instructions,
may not agree with the set point applied to performs the actual computations, and keeps
the controller. order in the execution of programs.
~ J
r Glossary 165

·r CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA-
With reference to circular pipe used for flow
DERIVATIVE ACTION-
Control action in which the rate of change of
r routing, the cross-sectional area is found by
the equation:
the error signal determines the amplItude of
the corrective action applied. It is calibrated

r A=1txr2
where 1t = 3.14 and r= inside diameter/2.
in time units. When subjected to a ramp
change, the derivative output precedes the

r CYCLING-
straight proportional action by this time.

A periodic change in the factor under DEVIATION-


r control, usually resulting in equal excursions The departure from a desired value. The
above and below the control point. system deviation that exists after the process
has been stabilized.
DAMPING-
Progressive reduction in the amplitude of DIAPHRAGM-
cycling of a system. Critically Damped The sensing element consisting of a
describes a system that is damped just membrane which is deformed by the pressure
enough to prevent overshoot following an differential formed across it.
abrupt change of input variable(s).
r DATA-
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT-
Related to the force of attraction between two
r A general term to denote any information
that can be processed.
opposite charges separated by a distance in
a uniform medium.

L DATA BASE-
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE-
The difference in static pressure between two
r A large amount of data stored in a well
organized manner.
identical pressure taps at the same elevation
located in two different locations in a
primary device.
L DEAD BAND-
The change through which the input to an DIGITAL-
r instrument can be varied without initiating
instrument response.
A term applied to a signal or device that uses
binary digits to represent continuous values

r DEAD TIME, INSTRUMENT-


or discrete states.

The time that elapses while the input to an DIGITAL COMPUTER-


instrument varies sufficiently to pass through A computer operating on data in the form of
digits--discrete quantities of variable rather
r'.
the dead band zone and causes the instrument
I to respond. than continuous.

.r DEBUG-
To find and correct mistakes in a program.
DIGITAL OUTPUT-
An output signal which represents the size of
an input in the form of a series of discrete
r DENSITY-
quantities.

r:- Mass per unit volume such as pounds/cu. ft.


166 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More
i
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERTER wires that obscures the wanted information i
(D/A)- signal.
A device or circuit to convert a digital value j
to an analog signal value. ELEVATION-
Additional or unwanted pressure on the low j
DISCRETE- side of a DP cell. The term normally applies
A control signal that is either on or off. Also
to a condition that causes the 4 rnA output of
referred to as a control system.
a DP cell to be low when there is 0 % level
i
so the output is adjusted to zero.
DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS)- j
Program used to control the transfer of
information to and from a disk, such as MS ENDOTHERMIC-
DOS. Absorbs heat. A process is said to be j
endothermic when it absorbs heat.
DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM- j
A system which, while being functionally EPROM-
integrated, consists of subsystems which Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory .
may be physically separate and remotely
j
The prom can be erased by ultraviolet light
located from one another. or electricity.
j
DRIFf- EQUILmRIUM-
A change of a reading or a set point value The condition of a system when all inputs j
over long periods due to several factors
and outputs (supply and demand) have
including change in ambient temperature,
time, and line voltage.
steadied down and are in balance. i
ERROR-
DUAL ELEMENT SENSOR-
A sensor assembly with two independent The difference between the actual and the
i
sensing elements. true value, often expressed as a percentage of
either span or upper-range value. i
DUPLEX WIRE-
A pair of wires insulated from each other and EXCITATION- j
with an outer jacket of insulation around the the external application of electrical voltage
inner insulated pair. or current applied to a transduced for normal j
operation.
DUTY CYCLE-
The total time to one onloff cycle. Usually
j
EXOTHERMIC-
refers to the onloff cycle time of a Gives off heat. A process is said to be
temperature controller. exothermic when it gives off heat. i
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR-
Behavior as a function of time.
FAHRENHEIT- i
A temperature scale dermed by 32 degrees at
the ice point and 212 degrees at the boiling j
ELECTRICAL INTERFERENCE- point of water at sea level.
The electrical noise induced upon the signal
j
r"
i
.

Glossary 167

r FEEDBACK- line drawn asymptotieally to the log-gain


Information about the status of the controlled versus log-frequency curve and the unit log-
r variable that may be compared with
information that is desired in the interest of
gain abscissa.

making them coincide. FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS-


A system of dynamic analysis that consists of

r FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT-


Component of a control system (such as a
applying sinusoidal changes to the input and
recording both the input and output on the
valve) which directly regulates the flow of same time base using oscillograph. By
r energy or material to the process. applying these data to the Bode diagram, the
dynamic characteristics can be graphically
~r FLOPPY DISK- determined.
A small flexible disk carrying a magnetic
r- medium in which digital data is stored for
later retrieval and use.
FRICTION-
A facet resulting in energy loss, due to heat

r FLOW·
dissipation, when fluid is moving through a
pipe. Friction results when a moving fluid
Travel of liquids or gases in response to a comes into contact with the pipe walls. The
r force (gravity or pressure). viscosity and the fluid motion result in heat
energy which must take away the total
r FLOW METER-
A device used for measuring the flow or
energy of the moving fluid.

r quantity of a moving fluid. FUNCTION-


The purpose of, or an action performed by a

r FLOW RATE-
The actual speed or velocity of fluid
device.

movement. GAGE PRESSURE-


r Absolute pressure minus local atmospheric
FPM- pressure .
.r Flow velocity in feet per minute.
GAIN (magnitude ratio)-
r FPS-
Flow velocity in feet per second.
The ratio of change in output divided by the
change in input that caused it. Both output

r:- FREQUENCY-
and input must be expressed in the same
units, making gain a pure (dimension less)
Occurrence of a periodic function ( with time number.
r as the independent variable), generally
specified as a certain number of cycles per GAIN, LOOP-
r unit time. The combined output/input magnitude ratios
of all the individual loop components

r FREQUENCY CORNER-
That frequency in the Bode diagram indicated
multiplied to obtain the overall gain.

by a breakpoint--the intersection of a straight


J~-
/
168 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More i
-,
GAIN, MARGIN-
The sinusoidal frequency at which the
HEAT-
Thermal energy. Heat is expressed in units of
.,
output/input magnitude ratio equals unity and
feedback achieves a phase angel of -180
degrees.

GAIN, STATIC (zero-frequency gain)-


calories or BTU's.

HEAT TRANSFER-
The process of thermal energy flowing from
a body of high energy to a body of low
.,
The output/input amplitude ratio of a energy. i
component or system as frequency
approaches zero. Used to denote the amount HOST- i
of "Gain" in milliamps per input change. The primary or controlling computer in a
multiple part system. i\
GPH-
Volumetric flow rate in gallons per hour. HUNTING-
Oscillation or cycling that may be of
appreciable amplitude caused by the system's .,
.,
GPM-
Volumetric flow rate in gallons per minute. persistent effort to achieve a prescribed level
of control.
HANDLER-
A small program that handles data flow to HYSTE~SIS-
and from specific pieces of hardware for use
by the other software.
Difference between upscale and downscale
results in instrument response when subjected
i
to the same input approached from opposite
directions.
j
HARDCOPY-
Output in a· permanent form (usually a
printout) rather than in temporary form, as ICON- i
A graphical functional symbol of display. A
on disk or display terminal.
graphic representation of a function or -,. j "

HARDWARE- functions to be performed by the computer.


Physical equipment; for example,
mechanical, magnetic, electrical, or IDENTIFICATION-
electronic devices. Something that you can The sequence of letters or digits, or both,
touch with your finger. used to designate an individual instrument or i
loop.
HEAD LOSS-
The loss of pressure in a flow system IMPEDANCE-
.,.
measured using a length parameter (Le.,
inches of water).

HEAD PRESSURE-
The total opposition to current flow (resistive
plus reactive).

INPUT-
.,
Expression of pressure in terms of the height Incoming signal to measuring instrument,
of fluid. control units, or system.
...., 1
Glossary 169

INPUT IMPEDANCE- INTEGRATOR-


The impedance of a meter as seen from the often used with a flowmeter to totalize the
source. In the case of a voltmeter, this area under the flow record; for example,
impedance has to be taken into account when gallons per minute x minutes = total gallons.
the source impedance is high; in the case of It produces a digital readout of total flow.
an ammeter when the source impedance is
low. INTERFACE-
The means by which two systems or devices
INSTRUMENT- are connected and interact with each other.
In process measurement and control; this
term is used broadly to describe any device INTRINSICALLY SAFE-
that performs a measuring or controlling An instrument which will not produce any
function. spark or thermal effects under normal or
abnormal conditions that will ignite a
INSTRUMENTATION- specified gas mixture.
The application of instruments to an
industrial process for the purpose of 1/0-
measuring or controlling its activity . The Input/Output: the interface between
term is also applied to the instruments peripheral equipment and the digital systems.
themselves.
ISA-
INTEGRAL CONTROL ACTION- Instrument Society of America.
Action in which the controller's output is
proportional to the time integral of the error JOULE-
input. When used in combination with The basic unit of thermal energy.
proportiorial action, it was previously called
reset action. JUNCTION-
The point in a thermocouple where the two
INTEGRAL TIME- dissimilar metals are joined.
The calibrated time on the controller integral
(reset) dial which represents the time that KELVIN-
will elapse while the open-loop controller Symbol K. The unit of absolute or
repeats proportional action. thermodynamic temperature scale based upon
the Celsius scale with 100 units between the
INTEGRAL WINDUP- ice point and boiling point of water at sea
The overcharging, in the presence of a level. (DOC =273.1S0K)
continuous error, of the integral capacitor
(bellows, in a pneumatic controller) which LAG-
must discharge through a longtime constant A delay in output change following a change
discharge path and which prevents a quick in input.
, return to the desired control point.
170 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

LAMINAR FLOW- LOAD IMPEDANCE-


Streamlined flow of a fluid where viscous The impedance presented to the output
forces are more significant than inertial terminals of a transducer by the associated
forces, generally below a Reynolds number external circuitry.
of 2000.
LOCAL-
LAPLACE TRANSFORM- The location of an instrument that is neither
A transfer function that is the operational in nor on a panel or console, nor is it
equivalent of a complex mathematical mounted in a control room. The term "field"
function permitting solution by simple is often used for "local" .
arithmetic techniques.
LOCAL PANEL-
LEAKAGE RATE- A panel that is not a central or main panel.
The maximum rate at which a fluid is
permitted or determined to leak through a LOG GAIN-
seal. The type of fluid, the differential Gain expressed on a logarithmic scale.
pressure across the seal, the direction of
leakage, and the location of the seal must be LOOP-
A signal path. A combination of two or more
specified.
instruments or control functions arraigned so
that signals pass from one to another for the
LIFE CYCLE-
purpose of measurement and/or control.
The minimum number of cycles a transducer
can endure and still remain within a specified
LOOP RESISTANCE-
tolerance.
The total resistance of a thermocouple circuit
caused by the resistance of the thermocouple
LINEARITY- wire.
The closeness of a calibration curve to a
specified straight line. Linearity is expressed MANIPULATED VARIABLE-
as the maximum deviation of any calibration That which is altered by the automatic
point on a specified straight line during any control equipment so as to change the
one calibration cycle. variable under control and make it conform
with the desired value.
LIMITING-
A boundary imposed on the upper or lower MANUAL LOADING STATION-
range of a variable (for example, the pressure A device or function having a manually
in a steam boiler as limited by as safety adjusted output that is used to actuate one or
valve) . more remote devices.

LINE PRESSURE- MANUAL RESET (ADJUSTMENT)-


Pressure measured at any point of a moving The adjustment on a proportioning controller
fluid usually referenced to atmospheric which shifts the proportioning band in
pressure. relationship to the set point to eliminate
droop or offset errors.
r Glossary 171

.r MASS FLOW RATE-


Volumetric flowrate times density, Le.
orifice while the downstream run allows the
flow to exit the orifice with a minimum of
r pounds per hour. back pressure.

MASS STORAGE- MICROAMP-


A device like a disk or magnetic tape 1/1,000,000 of an ampere (IlA).
(magtape)that can store large amounts of data
readily accessible to the Central Processing MILLIAMP-
1/1,000 of an ampere (rnA).
r Unit.

MAXIMUM OPERATING TEMPERATURE- MINERAL-INSULATED


r The maximum temperature at which an
instrument or sensor can be safely operated.
THERMO C OUPLE-
A type of thermocouple cable which has an
r:" MAXIMUM POWER RATING-
outer metal sheath and mineral (magnesium
oxide) insulation inside separating a pair of
r- The maxi-mum power in watts that a device
can safely handle.
thermocouple wires from themselves and the
outer sheath. It is ideally suited for high

r MEAN-
temperature and severe duty applications.

The average of the maximum and the


r minimum of a process equilibrium.
MONITOR-
A general term for an instrument or
instrument system used to measure or sense
r MEASURING ELEMENT-
An element that converts any system activity
the status or magnitude of one or more
variables for the purpose of deriving useful
r or condition into a form or language that the
controller can understand.
information.

r MEASUREMENT-
NEMA-4-
A standard from the National Electrical

r The determination of the existence or the


magnitude of a variable.
Manufacturers Association, which defmes
enclosures intended for indoor and outdoor
use primarily to provide a degree of
r MEMORY- protection against windblown dust and rain,
Pertaining to that storage device in which splashing water and hose directed water.
r· programs and data are stored and easily
obtained by the CPU for execution. NEMA-7-
r METER RUN-
A standard from the National Electrical
Manufacturers Association, which defines

r A field term used to describe the upstream


and downstream piping including orifice and
explosion-proof enclosures for use in
locations classified as Class I, Groups

r orifice flanging. The straight runs of piping


upstream and downstream allows the flow to
A,B,C, or D, as specified by the ~ational
Electrical Code.
stabilize prior to passing through a flow
.r
172 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More

NEMA -12-
A standard from the National Electrical OPERATING SYSTEM-
Manufacturers Association, which defmes A collection of programs that controls the
enclosures with protection against dirt, overall operation of the computer and
splashes with non-corrosive liquids, and salt performs such tasks as assigning places in
spray. memory to programs and data, processing J
interrupts, scheduling jobs and controlling
NICHOLS DIAGRAM (NICHOLS CHART)- the overall input/output of the system. j
A plot of magnitude and phase contours of
OPTIMUM-
return-transfer function referred to ordinates
of logarithmic loop gain and abscissae of
The highest obtainable proficiency of control; .1
for example, supply equals demand, and
loop phase angel. offset has been reduced to a minimum j
(hopefully zero).
NOISE-
Unwanted signal components that obscure the ORIFICE FLANGE- j
genuine signal information that is being
sought (electrical interference ).
A circular bolted pipe flange designed to
accept an orifice plate for flow measurement.
Orifice flanges are usually thicker than
..,
.

NPT- regular flanges to allow for taping (for


National Pipe Thread.

O.D.-
Outside Diameter.
differential pressure measurements).

ORIFICE PLATE-
A circular plate with an outSide diameter
.,
j

.,
slightly smaller than the associated orifice
OFF-LINE- flange to allow clearance for flange bolts. i
(1) Pertaining to equipment or programs not The plate has a hole in the middle of set
under control of the computer. (2) Pertaining
to a computer that is not actively monitoring
or controlling a process.
diameter so that when a fluid moves through
it a differential pressure results that can be
measured. Orifice plates are also equipped
with a TAG as well as stamped to show the
direction of fluid flow.
.,
OFFSET-
The difference between what we get and
what we want--the difference between the OSCILLOGRAPH RECORDER-
pont at which the process stabilizes and the A device that makes a high-speed record or
instruction introduced into the controller by electrical variations with respect to time; for
the set point. example, an ordinary recorder might have a
chart speed of 3/4 inch per hour while an .J
ON-LINE- oscillograph could have a chart speed of 3/4
(1) Pertaining to equipment or programs
under control of the computer. (2) Pertaining
inch per second or faster. i
to a computer that is actively monitoring or
OUTPUT-
controlling a process or operation.
The signal provided by an instrument; for
OPEN LOOP- example, the signal that the controller
Control without feedback; for example, an delivers to the valve operator is the controller
automatic washer. output.
r Glossary 173

r OVERDAMPED-
Damped so that overshoot cannot occur.
PID-
Proportional, Integral, Derivative. A three

r OVERSHOOT-
mode control action where the controller has
time proportioning, integral (auto reset), and
derivative rate action.
The persistent effort of the control system to
L reach the desired level, which frequently
PILOT LIGHT-
r results in going beyond (overshooting) the
mark.
A light that indicates which of a number of
normal conditions of a system or device

r PANEL-
A structure that has a group of instruments
exists.

PIXEL-
r mounted on it, houses an operator-process
interface, and is chosen to have an unique
Picture element. Definable locations on a
display screen that are used to form images

r designation. on the screen. For graphic displays, screens


with more pixels provide higher resolution.

r PANEL-MOUNTED-
A term applied to an instrument that is PORT-
A signal input ( access ) or output point on a
mounted on a panel or console and is
r accessible for an operators normal use. computer.

r PARALLAX-
An optical illusion which occurs in analog
POTENTIOMETER-
1. A variable resistor often used to control a
circuit. 2. A balancing bridge used to
r meters and causes reading errors. It occurs
when the viewing eye is not in the same
measure voltage.

r plane, perpendicular to the meter face, as the


indicating needle.
POWER SUPPLY-
A separate unit or part of a circuit that

r PERIPHERAL-
A device that is external to the CPU and
supplies power to the rest of the circuit or
system.

r main memory (printer), but is connected by


the appropriate electrical connections.
PPM-
Parts Per Million, sometimes used to express

r PHASE-
temperature coefficients.

The condition of a periodic function with PRECISION-


c respect to a reference time. the ability of an instrument to provide the
same output signal given the identical input.
r PHASE DIFFERENCE-
The time, usually expressed in electrical PRIMARY ELEMENT-
Synonym for sensor.
r degrees, by which one wave leads or lags
another.
PROBE-
r P&ID-
Process and Instrumentation Diagrams.
A generic term that is used to describe many
types of temperature sensors.

-r
174 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More i
PRO CESS-
The variable for which supply and demand
Control action in which there is a fixed gain
or attenuation between output and input.
.-,
must be balanced-the system under control,
excluding the equipment that does the PROTECTION HEAD- j
controlling. An enclosure usually made out of metal at

PROCESS METER-
the end of a heater or probe where "1
connections are made.
A panel meter with sizable zero and span
adjustment capabilities which can be scaled PROTECTION TUBE- i
for readout in engineering units for signals A metal or ceramic tube, closed at one end
such as 4-20mA, 10-50mA, 1-5vDC. into which a temperature sensor is inserted. i
The tube protects the sensor from the
PROCESS V ARIABLE-

.,
i
medium into which it is inserted.
Any variable property of a process. The part
of the process that changes and therefore PROTOCOL-
needs to be controlled. A formal definition that describes how data is
to be exchanged.
PRO GRAM- j
A series of instructions that logically solve PSIA-
given problems and manipulate data. Pounds Per Square Inch Absolute. Pressure
referenced to a vacuum.
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONT-
ROLLER-
A controller, usually with multiple inputs and
outputs, that contains an alterable program.
PSID-
Pounds Per Square Inch Differential.
Pressure difference between two points. .,
i

PROM- PSIG-
Programmable Read-Only Memory. A Pounds Per Square Inch Gage. Pressure i
semiconductor whose contents cannot be referenced to ambient air pressure.
changed by the computer after it has been i
programmed. PSIS·

PROOF PRESSURE-
The specified pressure which may be applied
Pounds Per Square Inch Standard. Pressure
referenced to a standard atmosphere.
.,
to the sensing element of a transducer
without causing a permanent change in the
RAMP-
An increase or decrease of the variable at a .,
output characteristics.

PROPORTIONAL BAND-
the reciprocal of gain expressed as a
constant rate of change.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)-


Memory that can be read and changed during
.,
percentage. Refers to the percentage of the
-,
controllers's span of measurement over
which the full travel of the control valve
computer operation. Unlike other semi-
conductor memory, RAM is volatile. If
.,
.,
occurs. power to the RAM is disrupted or lost, all
stored data is lost.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL-
Glossary 175

RANGE- RELAY-
Those values over which a transmitter IS A device whose function is to pass on
intended to measure. information in an unchanged form or in some
modified form.
RANKINE (DEG. R)-
An absolute temperature scale based upon the REPEAT ABILITY-
Farenheight scale with 180 degrees between The ability of a transmitter to reproduce
the ice point and boiling point of water. output readings when the same measured
(459.67° R = 0 ° F) value is applied to it consecutively, under the
same conditions, and in the same direction.
RATE ACTION- Repeatability is expressed as the maximum
That portion of controller output that is difference between two readings .
proportional to the rate of change of input.
See Derivative action. REPRODUCIBILITY-
The exactness with which a measurement or
REACTION CURVE- other condition can be duplicated over time.
In process control, a reaction curve is
obtained by applying a step change (either in RESET ACTION-
load or set point) and plotting the response of See INTEGRAL CONTROL ACTION
the controlled variable with respect to time .
RESET TIME-
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)- See INTEGRAL TIME.
Memory that contains fixed data. The
computer can read the data but cannot change RESET WINDUP-
the data in any way. See INTEGRAL WINDUP

REAL-TIME CLOCK- RESISTANCE-


A device that automatically maintains time in An opposition to flow that accounts for the
conventional time units for use in program dissipation of energy an limits flow. Flow
execution and event initiation. from a water tap, for example, is limited to
what the available pressure can push through
RECOVERY TIME- the tap opening electrical resistance
The length of time required which it takes a
transducer to return to normal after a proof- potential (expressed in volts)
pressure has been applied. (ohms) =
flow (expressed in amperes)
REFERENCE JUNCTION-
The cold junction in a thermocouple circuit RESOLUTION-
which is held at a stable known temperature. The smallest detectable increment of
Usually ooe (32°F), but any reference measurement. Resolution is usually defined
temperature can be used. by the smallest number of bits used to define
a reading (measurement).
., 1..

176 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More

RESONANT FREQUENCY (lNSTRUMENT)-


The measured frequency in which a
SECONDARY DEVICE-
A part of a flow meter which receives a
.,
transducer responds with maximum signal proportional to the flow rate, from the j
amplitude. primary device, and displays, records and/or

RESPONSE-
transmits the signal.
-,
Reaction to a forcing function applied to the SELF HEATING-
input. The variation in measured variables
Internal heating of a transducer as a result of
power dissipation.
i
that occurs as the result of step sinusoidal,
ram, or other kind of input.
SELF-REGULATION-
j
RESPONSE TIME (TIME CONSTANT)- The ability of an open-loop process or other
The time required by a sensor to reach
63.2 % of a step change under a specified set
device to settle out (stabilize) at some new i
operating plant after a load change has taken

.,
of conditions. Five time constants are place. j
required for the sensor to stabilize at 100 %
of the step change value. SENSING ELEMENT-

REYNOLDS NUMBER-
The part of a transducer which reacts directly
in response to the input.
,
The ratio of inertial and viscous forces in a
fluid defined by the formula:

VD
SENSITIVITY-
The minimum change in an input signal to
which an instrument can respond.
.,
Re =px
SENSOR-
That part of a loop or instrument which first
-,
senses the value of a process variable. The
where p = Density of fluid, p, (mu)
=Viscosity in centipoise (CP), V = Velocity, sensor is also known as a detector or primary 1
and D = Inside diameter of pipe. element.
I
(NOTE: This is the basic Reynolds Number SERVO TECHNIQUES-
equation. This equation will yield the same
results as the equation presented in Chapter
4 of the text.)
The mathematical and graphical methods
devised to analyze and optimize the behavior
of control systems. .,
1

ROUTINE-
A small program used by many other
SET POINT-
the desired value where the process should be
maintained.
..,
programs to perform a specific task.
~-
SHARED CONTROLLER- c
RTD-
Resistance Temperature Detector. A controller containing preprogrammed
algorithms that are usually accessible, j
SCAN- configurable, and assignable. Permits a
To sample, in a predetermined manner, each
of a number of variables intermittently.
number of process variables to be controlled
by a single device.
-r
----
r Glossary 177

·r SHARED DISPLAY-
The operator interface device (usually a
mass of water 1 deg.
STABILITY-
r video screen) used to display process control
information from a number of sources at the
That desirable condition in which input and
output are in balance and will remain so
r- command of the operator. unless subjected to an external stimulus.

r SIGNAL-
Information in the form of a pneumatic
STATIC BEHAVIOR-
Behavior which is either not a function of
pressure, and electric current or mechanical time or which takes place over a sufficient
r position that carries information from one length of time that dynamic changes become
control loop component to another. of minor importance.
~.
SOFTWARE- STATIC PRESSURE-
r The collection of programs and routines
associated with a computer.
Pressure of a fluid whether in motion or at
rest. It can be sensed in a small hole drilled

~
perpendicular to and flush with the flow
SPAN- boundaries so as not to disturb the flow

r The difference between the upper and lower


limits of a range expressed in the same units
boundaries in any way.

as the range. STEADY FLOW-


r A flow rate in the measuring section of a
SPAN ADJUSTMENT- flow line that does not vary significantly with
r The ability to adjust the gain of a process or
instrument so that a specified display span in
time.

r engineering units corresponds to a specified


signal span. For instance, a display of 200
STEADY STATE-
A state in which static conditions prevail and
r... -
deg.F may correspond to the 16mA span of
a 4-20mA transmitter signal.
all dynamic changes may be assumed
completed .

r SPAN ERROR- STEP CHANGE-


errors identified as an output signal that does A change from one level to another in
r not reflect 100 % of the output signal or does
not follow the input span.
supposedly zero time.

r SPECIFIC GRAVITY-
STRAIN GAGE-
A measuring element for converting force,
r The ratio of mass of any material to the mass
of the same volume of water at 4 0 c.
pressure, tension, etc., into an electrical
signal.

r SPECIFIC HEAT- SUMMING POINT-

r The ratio of thermal energy required to raise


the temperature of a body 1 deg. to the
thermal energy required to raise an equal
A point which several signals can be
algebraically added.

-. r
~,
178 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More j
SUPPRESSION- example, CRT's, typewriters teletypes with j
lowering the output caused by an additional keyboard input, or telephone modems.
or unwanted pressure on the high side of a
DP cell. The term is normally used for a TEST POINT- i
condition that has the 4mA output high when A process connection in which no instrument
there is 0 % level. is permanently connected, but which is i
intended for the temporary or intermittent
connection of an instrument.
SURGE CURRENT- i
A current of a short duration that occurs THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY-
when capacitive power is first applied to The property of a material to conduct heat in j
capacitive loads or temperature dependent the form of thermal energy.
resistive loads. Usually not lasting more than
several cycles. THERMAL EXPANSION-
i
An increase in size due to an increase in
SWITCH- temperature expressed in units of an increase i
A device that connects, disconnects, selects, in length or increase in size per degree.
or transfers one or more circuits and is not j
designated as a controller, a relay, or control THERMOCOUPLE-

.,
A device constructed of two dissimilar metals
valve.
that generates a small voltage as a function of
temperature difference between a measuring
SYNTAX- and reference junction. The voltage can be
The rules governing the structure of a measured and its magnitude used as' a
language. measure of the temperature in question.
i
SYSTEM- THERMOWELL-
Generally refers to all control components, A closed end tube designed to protect
including process, measurements, controller, temperature sensors (thermocouples) from
operator, and valves, along with any other harsh environments.
additional equipment that may contribute to
its operation. TIME CONSTANT-
The product of resistance x capacitance (t =
RC), which becomes the time required for of
TAG NUMBER- a first-order system to reach 63.2 percent of
alpha-numeric sequence which identifies a a total change when forced by a step. In so-
device by assigning a unique identifier. called high-order systems there is a time
constant for each of the first order
TEMPERATURE RANGE, OPERABLE- components.
The range of ambient temperature, given by
their extremes, within which a transducer TRANSDUCER-
may be operated. Exceeding compensated A device which converts information of one
range may require recalibration. physical form to another physical type in its
output (e.g, a thermocouple converts
TERMINAL- temperature into milli-voltage).
A device for operator-machine interface; for
r Glossary 179

TRANSFER FUNCTION- VACUUM-


A mathematical description of the output Any pressure less than atmospheric pressure.
divided by input relationship which a
component or a complete system exhibits. It VALUE-
often refers to the Laplace transform of The level of the signal being measured or
output over the Laplace transform of input
controlled.
with zero initial conditions.

c TRANSMITTER-
VARlABLE-
a level, quantity, or other condition that is
r A device that senses a process variable
through the medium of a sensor and has an
subject to change. This may be regulated
(the controlled variable) or simply measured
output whose steady-state value varies only
r as a predetermined function of the process
(a barometer measuring atmospheric
pressure).
variable. The sensor mayor may not be
r integral with the transmitter.
VELOCITY-
TRANSMITTER (2-WIRE)- The time rate of change of displacement;
A device which is used to transmit (Ilx/Ilt).
temperature data from either a thermocouple
or RTD via a two-wire current loop. The VENA CONTRACTA-
loop has an external power supply and the A term used to describe the point
r transmitter acts as a variable resister with downstream of an orifice plate where the
fluid velocity is greatest and pressure is
respect to its input signal.
r TRANSPORTATION LAG-
lowest due to the inertia of the moving fluid.

r A delay caused by the time required for


material to travel from one point to another;
VISCOSITY-
The inherent resistance of a substance to

r- for example, water flowing in a pipe at 10


feet per second requires 10.0 seconds to
flow.

travel 100 feet, and if this 100 feet exists VOLUME FLOW RATE-
r between manipulation and measurement, it Calculated using the area of the full closed
would constitute at 10-second lag. conduit and the average fluid velocity in the
r' TURBULENT FLOW-
form, Q= VA, to arrive at the total volume
quantity of flow. Q = volumetric flow rate,
r· When forces due to inertia are more
significant than forces due to viscosity. This
V = average fluid velocity, and A = cross
sectional area of the pipe.
typically occurs with a Reynolds number in
~r~ excess of 4000. WORD-

r ULTIMATE PERIOD-
The time period of one cycle at the natural
Number of bits treated as a single unit by the
CPU. In an 8-bit machine, the word length is
8-bits; in a 16-bit machine, the word length
r~ frequency of the system where it is allowed is 16-bits.
to oscillate without damping.
'.r--
180 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation ... and More ~
ZERO ADJUSTMENT- -,
The ability to adjust the display of a process
or meter so that a zero on the display
corresponds to a non-zero signal, such as 4
mAo The adjustment is normally expressed in
counts.
.,
oj

ZERO FREQUENCY GAIN- i


Static gain or change in output divided by the
change in input which caused it, after i
sufficient time has elapsed to eliminate the
dynamic behavior components.

ZERO OFFSET-
The difference expressed in degrees between
i
true zero and an indication given by a
measuring instrument. i
ZERO SHIFT- i
Change resulting from an error that is the
same throughout the scale.

ZERO SUPPRESSION-
The span of an indicator or chart recorder
may be offset from zero (zero suppressed)
such that neither limit of the span ·will be
zero.

i
i
r Glossary 181

r'
r Look for the future NJATC courses:

r- Instrumentation Module 2: An advanced course


for the journeyman who wants to study advanced
r~
forms of measurement and control. This course
will continue the study of instrumentation by
studying those devices which are not considered
c to be the norm. In addition, loop checking
procedures, troubleshooting methods, startup
r strategies, valve structures, pneumatic control
and micro-processor devices and controllers will
r be covered.

r Instrumentation Module 3: a course for the


advanced journeyman. Course topics will include
L~
elementary engineering design principles, device
selections and/or design, control system response
r- analysis, functional charting using engineering
chart functions, software development, controller

r functionality and documentation procedures.

L
~r:­
·r-
, .

r
r_-
r~

r
r
l'-
r

182 NJATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation . . . and More


~,
Notes

-~

-3
-,
,
.,-
~.
~ 1

~,

~
J,
..

-~.!

1-
-; '-'

--,
-,
, ~

-,
r '0..,;:
i
.\:' " ' '
. _, __ .'.
.--
Glossary 183

r--
----
. - Notes

r~­

.r:
r~
L-
r

r
~r
r~
r~

,L,-
1C

r
r
rr
r-
184 NIATC Fundamentals of Instrumentation. . . and More

Notes
,
-,. ~.'.:t

-,
:,,
,

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