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08
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Soil Compaction -1

Swell-Shrinkage response of
Activity clay = f (Period, magnitude of
precipitation and
evapotranspiration)
Kaolinite – Smallest swelling
capacity
Illite – May swell up to 15% and
intermixed illite and montmorillonite
may swell up to 60-100%
 Swelling of Ca Montmorillonite
swell up to 50-100% and Na
Montmorillonite swell up to 2000%
 Range of the degree of
expansiveness of a clay
based on the activity
(After Bell, 1993)
Example 1
For a soil specimen, given:
Passing 2 mm sieve = 100 %; Passing 0.425 mm sieve = 85 %;
Passing No. 200 sieve = 38 %
LL = 20 % and PI = 12 %
Classify the soil by the Unified soil classification system

Solution for Example 1
- Soil is a coarse grained soil (Percent

passing No. 200 sieve < 50).
- Sands (percent of coarse fraction passing
No. 4 sieve > 50)
- Since more than 12 % passes No. 200
sieve, it must be SM or SC
- PI = 20 – 12 = 8 > 7 [above A-line]
Hence the soil classification is SC
Example 2
For a soil specimen, given:

Passing No. 4 sieve = 92 %; Passing No. 40 sieve = 78 %;
Passing No. 10 sieve = 81 %; Passing No. 200 sieve = 65 %
LL = 48 % and PI = 32 %
Classify the soil by the unified Soil classification system
No. 4 sieve = 4.75 mm

No. 10 sieve = 2 mm;
No. 40 sieve = 0.425 mm sieve

Since more than 50 % is passing through a

No. 200 sieve, it is a fine-grained soil, i.e., it
could be ML, CL, OL, MH, OH, CH or OH.
Now, if we plot LL =48 and PI = 32 on the
plasticity chart, it falls in the zone CL.
So the soil is classified as CL

Example 3
Limit tests performed on a clay indicate a liquid

limit of 67 and a plastic limit of 32. From a
hydrometer analysis to determine particle sizes,
it is found that 80 % of the sample consists of
particles smaller than 0.002 mm. From this
information, indicate the activity classification
and the probable type of clay mineral.

PI = LL – PL
PI
= 67 – 32 Ac =
= 35 C
Ac = 35/80 = 0.44
The clay mineral is Kaolinite as Ac: 0.3 – 0.5

Example 4:
Use the grain-size distribution curve shown below to

classify soils A and B using the USCS. Soil B’s Atterberg
limits are LL = 49% and PL = 45%.

For soil A, G = 2%, S = 98%;
M = 0% & C = 0%.
CU = 1.4/0.5 = 2.8; Cc = 0.952/(1.4)*(0.5) = 1.29
Soil A is a poorly graded sand (SP)
For soil B, G = 0%, S = 61%;

M = 35% & C = 4%.
CU = 0.45/0.005 = 90
Soil A is a very well graded silty sand (SM)

Compaction
In many situations soil itself used as a construction material.
- Such as:
⇒When soil is used as a
Highway embankments
Railway embankments foundation material, it is
Earth dams desirable that the in-place
Highway/Airfield pavements material possess certain
Backfilled trenches
properties.
Landfills
The purpose of compaction is to produce a soil

having physical properties appropriate for a
particular project.
Compaction
 Compaction is defined as the process of

increasing the unit weight of soil by forcing the soil
solids into a dense state and reducing the air voids
(No significant change in volume of water in the
soil)
 This is achieved by applying static or dynamic
load to the soil.
 Compaction is measured quantitatively in terms of
the dry unit weight γd of the soil.

Compaction generally leads to the following
desirable effects on soils:

Purpose of Compaction
1. Maximum shear strength occurs approximately

at minimum void ratio.
2. Large air voids may lead to compaction under
working loads, causing settlement of the
structure during service.
3. Larger voids if left may get filled with water
which reduces the shear strength .
4. Increase in water content is also accompanied
by swelling and loss of shear strength in some
clays.
Advantages of Compaction
1. Settlements can be reduced or prevented.
2. Soil strength increases and stability can be
improved.
3. Load carrying capacity of pavement sub-grades
can be improved.
4. Undesirable volume changes (by frost action,
swelling, shrinkage) may be controlled.

Compaction
When loose are soils are applied to a construction
site, compressive mechanical energy is applied to
the soil using special equipment to densify the soil
(or reduce the void ratio).
Densification ⇒ Reduction in Volume of Air Voids
 It is almost an instantaneous phenomena and soil
is always partially saturated.
Typically applies to soils that are applied or re-
applied to a construction site.
Compaction is a old technique adopted in
Ancient China/India (e.g. Great Wall of China/Tajmahal)
Compaction of cohesion-less soils
When speaking of cohesion-less soils, gravelly
soils, there are many possibilities:
Loose, Angular soil Dense, Angular soil
Honeycombed
Loose Dense
soil, Very Loose
Soils in loose or honeycombed state are avoided,
or compacted before being built upon, since they
are prone to densification when subjected to
vibratory or shock loading (as from earthquakes or
vibrating machinery)

The relative looseness of a soil in its natural, in-situ

state is determined by measuring/computing its
relative density, Dr
The smaller Dr is for a given soil deposit, the more
prone that soil deposit will be to densification and
settlement.
For uniformly (poorly graded) spherical grained soils,
the theoretical range of void ratios is 0.35 < e <0.90.

For non-uniform, well-graded soils, the possible
range of void ratios is much smaller.
Well-graded, sub-angular sand: 0.35 < e < 0.75
Well-graded, silty sand: 0.25 < e < 0.65
The range of void ratios for well-graded soils is less
than that for uniformly graded soils.
That is why it is generally preferred to use well-
graded soils in geotechnical applications as opposed
to uniform soils.

Cohesion-less soils are compacted by vibration.
Static load produces very little compaction of loose
sand.
Medium and fine sands do not get compacted
easily when moist because of the shear strength
developed by capillary forces.
Dry or submerged sands can be compacted by
Vibration.

Compaction of Clayey soils
Clays cannot be compacted by vibration.
 Shaking or vibration does not change the volume.
A very small amount of static pressure produces a
large volume decrease of the platelet particles (like
mica flakes).
In compacting the clay, position of the particles
must be changed by forcing the contact points along
adjacent surfaces to positions nearly more parallel
with reduced voids.

Thickness of adsorbed water + Free water
= f(water content) 
Platelet particles
Loose structure of clay Dense structure of clay

before compaction after compaction
When the clay has a higher water content less than

saturation, a thick layer of free water surrounds the
particles (low viscosity). Under this condition only a
small amount of pressure is required to force the
particles to new positions.
But a high degree of compaction cannot be
produced with this high water content because the
thick layer of free water prevents the particles from
being forced close together.

Proctor’s Theory - After R.R. Proctor (1930)
Proctor showed that:
1. There exists a definite relationship between the
soil moisture content and the degree of dry
density to which a soil may be compacted.
2. That for a specific amount of compaction
energy applied on the soil there is one
moisture content termed Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC) at which a particular soil
attains maximum dry density.

Proctor’s Theory
Proctor proposed tests to determine relationship

between w, γd or e of a compacted soil in a
standard manner and to determine the OMC
(optimum moisture content) for the soil.
Compaction = f [ γd , compactive effort, and soil

type (gradation, presence of clay minerals, etc.) ]
Compactive effort is a measure of mechanical

energy applied to a soil mass.
Measuring compaction of soils in the
laboratory
1. Standard Proctor compaction test
2. Modified Proctor compaction test

Standard Proctor Test
Scope
This method covers the determination of the
relationship between the moisture content and
density of soils compacted in a mould of a given
size with a 2.5 kg rammer dropped from a height of
305 mm.

Compactive Energy E applied to soil per
unit volume
N = No. of blows per layer
NnWh n = No. of layers

E= W = Hammer weight
V h = Height of drop
V = Volume of mould
25 × 3 × 2.5 × 0.305 kg m kJ
Compactive Effort = −6
= 57187.5 3 = 594 3
10 ×10
3
m m

Standard Proctor Test – Procedure
Dry unit weight Calculation
Volume of Proctor mould =V
Bulk unit weight of soil,γb = W/V
Dry unit weight of soil, γd = γb / (1+w)

Typical moisture content-dry unit weight
relationship
γd, max
OMC

Principle of compaction and moisture-
density relations
Compaction of soils is achieved by reducing the

volume of voids. It is assumed that the compaction
process does not decrease the volume of solids or
soil grains.

Principles of compaction and moisture-
density relations
The degree of compaction of a soil is measured by the
dry unit weight of the skeleton. The dry unit weight
correlates with the degree of packing of the soil grains.
Recall that: Gs γ w
γd =
1+ e
The more compacted a soil is:
-The smaller its void ratio will be and thus
-The higher its dry unit weight γd will be
Principle of compaction and moisture-
density relations
Water plays a critical role in the soil compaction

process:
-It lubricates the soil grains so that they slide more
easily over each other and can thus achieve a
more densely packed arrangement.
-While a little bit of water facilitates compaction.

Too much water inhibits compaction.

Principle of compaction and moisture-density relations
• At low values of water
content most soils tend to be stiff
and are difficult to compact.
• As the water content is
increased the soil becomes
more workable, facilitating
compaction and resulting in
higher dry densities.
• At high water contents,
however, the dry density
decreases with increasing water
content, an increasing
proportion of the soil volume
being occupied by water.
Compaction In practice this dry unit
weight is never achieved
but it represents theoretical
upper bound.
AIR
AIR
WATER WATER WATER
SOLIDS SOLIDS SOLIDS
Un-compacted soil Compacted soil Theoretically maximum

degree of compaction
Principles of compaction and
moisture-density relations Saturation lines:
 
 
γd =
Gs γ
  w   w
1 + 
S 
Gs 

  r  

Air-Void lines:
 Gs (1 − na ) 
γd =  γ w
 1 + wGs 
na = n(1 − S r ) = nac
ac = Va/VV na = Va/V
Saturation Line or Zero Voids Line
1. Saturation line is a hypothetical line.

2. Points on the line denote density for
completely saturated condition at respective
water contents.
3. It is the maximum possible dry density for any
soil.
4. Practically it is not possible  
to achieve this density.  1 
5. Dry density for saturation line γ d = γ w  
 1 + w 
is given by  
  Gs 

AASHTO or Modified Proctor Test
1. Standard Proctor test is not sufficient for airways

and highways.
2. US Army Corps of Engineers developed Modified
Proctor Test which used greater levels of
compaction and produced higher dry densities.
3. Modified Proctor Test was later adopted by
AASHTO & ASTM.

Modified Proctor Test Specifications
No. of blows : 25 per layer
No. of layers : 5 layers
Wt. of hammer : 4.5 kg
Falling height : 0.45m
4.5 × 0.45 × 5 × 25 kg m
Compactive Effort = = 253125
103 × 10-6 m3
Dry Density-Moisture content curve
 
 1 
γd = γw 
 1 + w 
  Gs 


Importance of Proctor Test
1. It gives the density that must be achieved in the
field.
2. Provides the moisture range that allows for
minimum compactive effort to achieve density.
3. Provides data on the behaviour of the material in
relation to various moisture contents.
4. It is not possible to determine whether a density
test passes or fails without it.

Factors influencing Compaction
Factors Influencing Compaction
Moisture Content Soil Type Effect of Compactive

Effort
Nature of Effort Amount of Effort
Load Duration Area of Contact

Soil Type
1. Soil type, grain size, shape of the soil grains,
amount and type of clay minerals present and
the Gs of soil solids, have a great influence on
the γd and OMC.
2. In poorly graded sands γd initially decreases
as the moisture content increases, and then
increases to a maximum value with further
increase in moisture.
3. At lower moisture contents, the capillary
tension inhibits the tendency of the soil
particles to move around and be compacted.

Compaction curve – effect of soil type
gravel-sand-clay
Compactibility
or ease with which
soils can be
compacted will
depend on the soil
type

Soil Type
At a given moisture content a clay with low

plasticity will be stronger than a heavy or high
plastic clay, as it will be easier to compact.
The reason is attributed to:

For a given compactive effort the air voids can be
removed more easily for a low plasticity clay and
because it will have a lower moisture content
anyway, a higher dry unit weight can be obtained.

Dry density-water
content curves for a
range of soil types 

Effect of Compactive Effort
Amount of compactive effort

1. Maximum dry unit weight increases with
increase in compactive effort.
2. Increase in compactive effort decreases
optimum moisture content to some extent.

Effect of
Compactive Effort
Applying more energy Increasing
to a soil will reduce the compaction
air voids content further energy
and increase the dry
unit weight.
More compaction
energy can be
beneficial especially
for soils dry of OMC

If a soil is already moist, weaker and above OMC
then applying more energy is wasteful since air
can quickly be removed.
Applying large amounts of energy to a very moist soil

may be damaging since no more air can be expelled
but high pore water pressures can build up which
could cause:
-Slope Instability during construction
- Consolidation settlements as they dissipate after
construction.
Nature of Effort - Load Duration and Contact Area
1. Longer time duration leads to reduced shear

stiffness response and greater compaction.
2. Greater contact area leads to greater depth of

influence

Degree of compaction generally increases with

increasing compactive effort.
However, beyond a certain point, increased

compactive effort produces only very small increase
in dry unit weight. i.e. It takes a great deal of
additional compactive effort E to see significant
increase in dry unit weight.


Moisture Density Relationships of
Cohesion-less Soils Bulking phenomena
Surface tension induces
apparent cohesive
strength, resisting
compaction initially
decreasing in dry density.
Thin water film
grain

Effect of compaction on soil structure
Direction of
Flocculated increasing
dispersion
E
Highly
B Dispersed
D
A
Highly
C
Flocculated
Dispersed
High strength, more k, less Low strength, low k, more
shrinkage, more swelling shrinkage, less swelling

Effect of compaction on soil structure
1. At low water contents, attractive forces
between clay particles predominate, creating
a more or less random orientation of plate like
particles. (results in low density)
2. The addition of water increases repulsion
between particles leading them to assume
more parallel orientation near OMC.
3. If compacted wet of optimum parallel
orientation is further increased leading to what
is described as dispersed structure.

Compaction equipment
In the field, fill soils are typically imported to a site

and applied to the existing grade level in layers
which are called lifts.
When a lift of soil is placed, it will be very loose.

Special compaction equipment is then used to
compact this lift of the soil.
 Rollers, Rammers and Vibrators

Types of Rollers
 Smooth-wheel rollers
 Vibratory rollers
 Pneumatic-tire rollers
 Sheepsfoot rollers

Rammers
 Dropping weight (including piling equipment)
 Internal combustion type
 Pneumatic type

Smooth Wheeled Rollers
100 % coverage area under wheel with ground
contact pressures upto 380 kPa.
1. Conventional three wheel type - 18 tons

Tandem rollers - 1 to 14 tons
Three axle tandem rollers - 12 to 18 tons
Weight increased by ballasting the rolls with
water or by a heavy sliding weight.
2. Performance is affected by the load unit width
under the compaction rolls, and the width and
diameter of the rolls.

Smooth Wheeled Rollers
3. Load per unit width and diameter control the

pressure in the surface layer of soil; dimension
of the rolls affect rate with which this pressure
decreases with depth.
4. Suitable for gravels, sands, hardcore, crushed

rock and any material where crushing action is
needed.

Pneumatic-tyred Roller
80 % coverage area (i.e. 80 % of area is covered by tires)
With tire pressures upto 700 kPa
• Suitable for fine grained soils (closely graded
sands). Best performance on cohesive soils
obtained when moisture content is 2-4% below
PL.
• Depth of compaction:
Light rollers (200kN) – 150 mm
Med. rollers (500kN) – 300 mm
Heavy rollers (1800kN) – 450 mm
Sheepsfoot Rollers
• Sheepsfoot rollers are most
suitable for fine soils, both
plastic and non-plastic,
especially at water contents dry
of optimum.
• Compaction is by tamping
and kneading
Area of protrusions range from 30 to 80 cm2.

8 – 12 % coverage, very high contact pressures
are possible, ranging from 1400 to 7000 kPa
Vibrators
 Out of balance type
 Pulsating hydraulic type

Out of balance type vibrator

Vibrators
1. Vibrators consist of a vibrating unit of either

the out-of-balance weight type or a
pulsating hydraulic type mounted on a plate
or roller.
2. Vibrators give maximum dry density much in
excess of the corresponding compaction
test value at OMC.
3. Frequencies range 1500-2500 cycles/min.
(Frequency range within natural frequency
of most soils)
Compaction equipment
Equipment type Soil type
Smooth wheel rollers Sands and Gravels
Pneumatic rubber tired rollers Silts and clays
Sheepsfoot rollers Silts and clays
Vibratory rollers Sands and Gravels
Vibratory tampers Sands and Gravels
To increase the compaction energy applied to the soil in the field:

a) Increase the mass/weight of the compaction equipment;
b) Decrease the thickness of lift thickness; and
c) Increase number of machinery passes.
Field compaction and specifications
Two categories of earthwork specifications:
1. End product specifications

2. Method specifications
With End product

specifications, a certain
relative compaction or percent compaction, is
specified.

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08

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

- Soil is a coarse grained soil (Percent

For a soil specimen, given:

No. 4 sieve = 4.75 mm

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Since more than 50 % is passing through a

So the soil is classified as CL

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Limit tests performed on a clay indicate a liquid

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

The clay mineral is Kaolinite as Ac: 0.3 – 0.5

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Use the grain-size distribution curve shown below to

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

For soil B, G = 0%, S = 61%;

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

The purpose of compaction is to produce a soil

 Compaction is defined as the process of

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

1. Maximum shear strength occurs approximately

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Loose, Angular soil Dense, Angular soil

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

The relative looseness of a soil in its natural, in-situ

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Loose structure of clay Dense structure of clay

When the clay has a higher water content less than

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Proctor proposed tests to determine relationship

Compaction = f [ γd , compactive effort, and soil

Compactive effort is a measure of mechanical

1. Standard Proctor compaction test

2. Modified Proctor compaction test

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

NnWh n = No. of layers

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Dry unit weight Calculation

Volume of Proctor mould =V

Bulk unit weight of soil,γb = W/V

Dry unit weight of soil, γd = γb / (1+w)

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Compaction of soils is achieved by reducing the

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Water plays a critical role in the soil compaction

-While a little bit of water facilitates compaction.

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

WATER WATER WATER

SOLIDS SOLIDS SOLIDS

Un-compacted soil Compacted soil Theoretically maximum

1. Saturation line is a hypothetical line.

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

1. Standard Proctor test is not sufficient for airways

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay