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WATER PIPELINES AND BLOOD VESSELS: A COMPARISON OF HARD AND SOFT


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Journal of Materials Education Vol. 34 (3-4): 59 - 68 (2012)

WATER PIPELINES AND BLOOD VESSELS: A COMPARISON OF


HARD AND SOFT MATERIALS

Michael Schorr1, Benjamin Valdez1, Ernesto Valdez3, Amir Eliezer4, Noah Lotan2 and Monica
Carrillo1
1
Laboratorio de Materiales, Minerales y Corrosión, Instituto de Ingenieria, Universidad Autónoma
de Baja California, C.P. 21280, Mexicali, México. mschorr2000@yahoo.com
2
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
3
Centro de Investigación Medica. “Ixchel”, Mexicali, México
4
Corrosion Research Center, Sami Shamoon College of Engineering, Beer Sheva, Israel

ABSTRACT

We provide a comparison of two classes of fluid conveying materials systems: hard, structural
materials for infrastructure systems, and soft, and functional materials in the human body. They are
part of two vital systems indispensable for human life: water pipelines (WP) and blood vessels (BV).
A comparative assessment of their physical and chemical characteristics, their structures and
functions, their deterioration mechanisms, repair procedures and protection methods is presented.
Both water and blood are conveyed in tubular systems: water in steel, plastics and cement pipelines,
which should be maintained free from corrosion, scaling, erosion and fouling; and blood vessels,
which need to be maintained without the formation of plaques and clots, to keep blood circulating
freely.

This comparative analysis promotes the interaction of teachers and students from different fields of
endeavor to explain and understand fundamental structures, technologies and processes, addressing
regular materials in industry in parallel to the biological world of the human body.

Keywords: Materials; blood vessels; water pipelines; corrosion; aging.

1. INTRODUCTION transport of oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide


(CO2), nutrients and waste products, to
Water pipelines and human body blood vessels maintain human body functions 2.
(BVs) have certain similar features. Here we
compare them, displaying similarities and In the world’s physical infrastructure many
diversities in their structural and functional different types of water transport systems
materials, chemical constitution, flow include: municipal potable, irrigation for
performance and degradation processes. It is, agricultural crops, industrial for utilities and
indeed, a sequel to a previously published facilities, rain and storm water. However, for
article 1. Both are being used in the interaction the sake of brevity this study deals only with
between teachers and students to explain the potable waters and their supply pipelines.
fundamental, natural processes and industrial,
technological system. The BV: arteries, veins This comparative knowledge of the human
and capillaries constitute the cardiovascular body, its organs, tissues, water and energy
tubular system, which is pivotal for the infrastructure, their mechanisms and mainten-
60 Michael Schorr, Benjamin Valdez, Ernesto Valdez, Amir Eliezer, Noah Lotan and Monica Carrillo

ance procedures will result in the benefit of blood and bones in the vertebrates’ skeleton.
humankind, for generations to come.
The importance and relevance of materials
science and engineering (MSE) for the global
2. MATERIALS, HARD AND SOFT economy and modern society are evident by the
activities of the diverse national and inter-
What are the characteristic attributes of a national professional associations e.g. ASM,
material to be classified as hard or soft? From ASTM, ISO, MRS, ICME, TMS; education
the dawn of civilization, humankind applied organizations; R&D institutions; materials
hard and soft materials, differentiating between science museums6; congresses and symposia;
them, according to their properties and usage. materials journals, etc. Numerous educators,
scientists, engineers, researchers, administrators
Stone, flint, sun-dried mud bricks (adobe) and are involved in this titanic worldwide work of
wood were the hard materials that prehistoric creation, invention and diffusion of knowledge.
men used to shape their tools and weapons, as
well as to build their shelters during thousands It is interesting to note that special journals,
of years. From soft, organic materials, such as devoted separately to either soft or hard
rush, reed, natural fibers, pitch and animal skins materials are being published, e.g. Journal of
they made the light structures and cloths for Hard Materials, International Journal of
protection from the weather. Refractory Metals and Hard Materials; Hard
Materials: Advanced Synthesis and Under-
All these natural materials originate in the
standing (special issue of Materials) and Soft
mineral, animal and vegetable kingdoms.
Materials, Soft Matter World, Soft Matter, Soft
Metallic minerals such as malachite and
Matter and Biological Physics.
hematite are reduced into copper and iron,
respectively, and earth minerals, e.g. clays and
silicates are converted into ceramics and 3. FLUID CONVEYANCE
glasses; all hard, stiff, strong and tough
materials but heavy 3. Ceramic biomaterials are Fluids comprise liquids, gases, steam, fuels,
used for repair and replacement of diseased and blood, since they can flow in tubular devices
damaged parts of the human body 4. such as arteries and pipes. They are character-
ized by their physical properties, such as
Soft, natural organic materials are easily shaped density, velocity, viscosity, temperature, press-
by mechanical stress, abrupt thermal changes ure as functions of space and time. Fluids flow
and moderately elevated temperatures. These when a force is applied and, then, they take the
are biological constituents of the human body shape of their container.
organs and tissues, such as skin, muscles, and Fluid motion, such as blood flow, is governed
cartilages and, in particular, of the cardio- by the basic laws of fluid dynamics, thermo-
vascular tubes: arteries, veins and capillaries in dynamics and conservation of mass and energy.
which the blood circulates 5. These are soft, The flow regimen may change from laminar,
elastic, and flexible and light materials but smooth flow to turbulent, irregular flow,
weak. affecting its behavior and its interaction with
the internal walls of the tubes and pipes. Fluid
Materials according to their origin are distin- mechanics deals with fluids at rest and at
guished between natural, as mentioned above, motion and the forces acting on them, from a
and man-made e.g. steel, cement and plastics. macroscopic point of view. The following
Another classification, related to their applica- paragraph covers the basic concepts of transport
tion, comprises structural materials which offer phenomena 7, 8 in water pipelines and blood
high strength and toughness for bridges, tools vessels, both being cylindrical tubes.
and machines on the one hand and, on the other
hand, functional materials, e.g. electricity The Reynolds transport theorem represents an
conducting cables, arteries for circulation of useful tool to study flow behavior in water

Journal of Materials Education Vol. 34 (3-4)


Water Pipelines and Blood Vessels: A Comparison of Hard and Soft Materials 61

pipelines and in blood arteries and veins. It fluid at the wall equals the velocity of the wall.
states that for a conserved quantity of B in a For the pipe, this constrains the flow to be zero
control volume of the fluid, its rate of change in at the walls. Hence the velocity is slow around
the system (Bsys) must be equal to the total of the edges and rises to a maximum in the centre
the rate change of B in the control volume of the pipe and the flow has a profile as shown
(BCV) plus the flux of B through the control in Figure 1.
surface (QB).
Bsys = BCV + QB (1)
The flux through the control surface (the
boundary of the control volume) is found in
general by considering an infinitesimal area of
the surface and finding the amount of B that
flows through it.
Figure 1. Flow behavior in water pipelines and in
To find the mass flux into a parent artery it is blood vessels.
necessary to consider that every unit of time, a
length µ0 of blood flows into the artery.
Therefore, every unit of time, a volume A0 µ0 of 4. WATER AND BLOOD
blood flows into the artery (this is the volume
flux Q0 with dimensions volume per unit time). Water is the main constituent of the body fluids,
Also, every unit of time, a mass ρ A0µ0 of blood which are essential to maintain the body’s
(with density ρ) flows into the artery. This is functions and to transport the products of
the mass flux m0 through the parent artery metabolism. Water behavior and its interaction
(dimensions mass divided by time). Similarly with hard and soft materials depend on its
the mass flux out of each of the daughter physicochemical properties, its contained
arteries is m1 = ρA1µ1.We can define β as the molecular and ionized species and its chemical
amount of B per unit mass, and the amount of B bonding. Water is considered as a versatile
per unit volume is ρ β. solvent, since a wide spectrum of chemical
substances have a finite solubility in water.
To find the infinitesimal volume, consider a Water is dissociated into ions:
small rectangle of area dA on the surface.
During a short time dt, a parallelepiped of fluid H2O ↔ H+ + OH- (3)
flows through the surface. Its volume is the area forming the hydronium ion H3O+, a complex
of the base (dA), multiplied by its perpendicular between a hydrogen ion H+ and a water
height. The dynamic viscosity component for molecule. Water is the medium for countless
the edge of the parallelepiped (vector u) thus chemical and biological processes, including
leads to the expression for the volume of the vegetal and animal metabolic ones. Water
parallelepiped as (u●n) dA dt, where n is the unit contains dissolved gases, in particular O2 and
normal vector to the surface. Hence the amount CO2 that are involved in metal corrosion and
of B crossing the infinitesimal surface in the biological respiration. CO2, as a greenhouse-gas
infinitesimal time is ρβ (u●n) dA dt and the rate product acidifies water9,10, according to the
of crossing is ρβ (u●n) dA. Thus


following equilibrium:
QB = ρβ (u●n) dA (2) CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3 --
control surface (4)
Until now, we assumed uniform flow neglect- The basic characteristics of 'water' vary accord-
ing the effects of the viscosity of the fluid, ing to its origin and usage. Its pH lies in a wide
which is a kind of internal friction in the fluid. range between 4.5 and 8.5. The main corrosive
It also enforces a no-slip boundary condition on agents are dissolved molecular oxygen (O2),
rigid surface, meaning that the velocity of the with content between 6 to 8 mg/l, depending on

Journal of Materials Education Vol. 34 (3-4)


62 Michael Schorr, Benjamin Valdez, Ernesto Valdez, Amir Eliezer, Noah Lotan and Monica Carrillo

temperature and salinity, mainly due to operated remotely from computerized control
dissolved NaCl11. rooms and by satellite surveillance to detect
leaks or mechanical fractures. The water supply
As noted, the dominant component of the systems in private homes and public buildings
human body is water, accounting for 70% of its consist of a network of smaller diameter pipes,
weight and containing about 1% of salts. joint fittings and valves. The construction
mainly NaCl 12. Blood is the most vital body industry has gradually shifted to the use of
fluid since it carries and delivers nutrients and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) piping for the
O2 to the tissues of the whole body, in distribution of both potable and waste water in
particular to the brain. Plasma, its main com- residential and commercial buildings 14.
ponent, is an aqueous phase charged with
proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and red blood Inspection techniques to detect WP failures are
cells, which contain haemoglobin, a tetrameric applied to maintain pipeline integrity, to assure
protein 1, 13, based on porphyrin-bound Fe2+. continuous efficient operation. Non-destructive
Haemoglobin picks up O2 in the lungs, carries it evaluation techniques provide information
to the tissues and releases it there, where it is about the pipeline conditions to prevent failures
used. Human blood is bright red when its and shutdown of the desired operation. The
haemoglobin is oxygenated. water quality and its influence on human health
depend on the pipeline performance, free from
The pH of blood stays in the narrow range of corrosion, scaling and fouling.
7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly alkaline. Its
concentrations of dissolved O2 and CO2 are 4.2. Blood Vessels
regulated by mechanisms related to their partial
pressures in the air of the respiratory system. The BVs are part of the cardiovascular system
Blood also transports heat throughout the body, that conveys blood throughout the whole
as a part of the body thermoregulation mechan- human body. The BV assembly is made of three
ism. The average adult has 5 to 6 liters of major components: the arteries that transport
blood. The heart, performing like a pump, is the blood from the heart, the capillaries that
responsible for the blood flow in the body, distribute the blood from the arteries to the
within the arteries, veins and capillaries13. organs and the tissues, and the veins that collect
blood from the capillaries and carry it back to
4.1 Water Pipelines the heart. The diameter of the BV varies from
25 mm in the aorta to 8 µm in the capillaries.
A pipeline system consists of a large number of The wall thickness of the BVs depends on their
pipes, pump stations and valves, for moving proximity to the heart: some 2 mm for the
fluids: water, natural gas, fuels, slurries for arteries and 0.1 to 0.2 µm for the tiny capill-
transportation from a source to a consump-tion aries, to facilitate the exchange of nutrients and
location. Usually, water pipelines (WP) are wastes.
fabricated from carbon steel (CS) 12 and from
ductile cast iron (DCI) 14, if based on the Amer- The artery wall consists of three layers or
ican Petroleum Institute Standards, e.g. Stand- tunics: the innermost layer called tunica intima,
ard 5 L, but may also be constructed from the middle layer, the tunica media and the
concrete or plastics, including reinforced outermost layer, the tunica adventitia. All these
plastics 14. layers are formed by muscle cells, elastic fibers
and collagen fibers that impart strength, elast-
Such pipes have an inner diameter between icity and flexibility so the arteries are able to
0.10 m and 2 m; most pipelines are buried at support the blood flow 16.
depths of 1.0 m to 2.0 m and the fluids flow at Veins collect oxygen-depleted blood from the
speeds of 1 m/s to 6 m/s. A pipe size is capillaries, and carry it to the right upper
specified accord-ing to the quantitative ratio chamber of the heart. The veins walls also
between its diameter and its wall thickness that consist of three layers of similar tissues as the
determines the pipe strength15. Modern WP are

Journal of Materials Education Vol. 34 (3-4)


Water Pipelines and Blood Vessels: A Comparison of Hard and Soft Materials 63

arteries; they tend to parallel the course of the the built in capability to grow and produce
arteries. Many veins, particularly in the legs and ramifications in specific directions and to well
arms, are fitted with valves to prevent the blood delineate targets, as instructed by outside
backflow. Arteries are located mostly in the biochemical signals. While retaining within
muscular tissues, while veins are often near to
them the fluid that passes through, they
the skin.
The BVs are built as composite materials, made nevertheless allow mass transfer of selected
of highly organized assemblies of living entities components to take place across their walls. In
and intrinsically active organs17, 18, schematic- summary, it is clear that the BV structure,
ally depicted in Figure 2. Their components organization, composition and multiple func-
“communicate” among themselves as well as tions are completely different from the static,
with their environment. This communication strong solid, rigid, fixed, impermeable steel WP
activity is vital to the well-being of the entire used for transport of water.
assembly as a functional organ. The BV´s have

Figure 2. Blood vessel structure

5. MATERIALS DETERIORATION differences in their meaning. Both concepts


AND DEGRADATION implicate that the materials lose their useful
properties, but the common use relates deterior-
The terms deterioration and degradation seem ation to physical and mechanical factors and
to be synonymous but a search about their mechanisms such as wear, abrasion and
usage in the materials science and engineering breakage. On the other hand, degradation is the
literature indicate that there are some fine outcome of chemical, biochemical or enzim-
atical processes, such as oxidation, hydrolysis,

Journal of Materials Education Vol. 34 (3-4)


64 Michael Schorr, Benjamin Valdez, Ernesto Valdez, Amir Eliezer, Noah Lotan and Monica Carrillo

or depolymerization processes of plastics, Fe(OH)2 is further oxidized to Fe(OH)3 and


rubber and animal tissues19, resulting in eventually turn to rust with Fe2O3·3H2O being
decomposition into smaller molecules. the corrosion product. Suspended rust particles
impart a “rouge” tone to the water.
Historically, the Bible mentions the deter-
ioration of materials: “Do not store up for Waters with high concentration of dissolved
yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and and suspended solids such as carbonates,
rust destroy” (Matthew 6:19). silicates, phosphates and hydroxides form thick
scales that may plug the pipes and interfere
with water flow. Under deposited porous scales
Textile materials exhibit a typical case of
corrosion takes place frequently due to accum-
progressive deterioration due to combined
ulation of corrosive agents, e.g. chloride salts.
factors, namely, mechanical, weathering, sun-
Sometimes macro- and microorganisms thrive
light, high temperature, insects and rodents that
in water; they adhere and grow on the pipe
make them useless 20.
surface, secrete polymer substances forming a
film that may generate acids and induces
Pollutants in water, soil and the atmosphere, corrosion. DO is the main corrodent in aqueous
coming from industrial, agricultural and system. Different DO concentrations on a
municipal wastes may accelerate the materials rusted steel surface form differential, galvanic
decay processes. cells with anodic and cathodic areas, where the
anodic area undergoes corrosion 18.
BV deterioration and degradation phenomena
occur with the appearance of vessels diseases 5.2 Aging, Plaques and Clots
such as constriction that decrease the transport
of oxygen, hardening of the arteries walls, Aging of structures and materials, in general, is
deposits of noxious substances: lipid lumps, fat the continued process of losing useful
and cholesterol plaques and formation of clots; properties. The human body is the target of life-
all interfere with blood flow. The size of BV threatening diseases that affect its organs and
and the arterial pressure generated by the hearth tissues. Aging of BV results in a loss of
pumping influences the efficiency of the blood flexibility, elasticity and abrasion resistance,
circulatory system, which may be subject to leading to hardening of the arteries and to high
various malfunctions. Normally, the body blood pressure. Damage appears in the walls of
maintains the blood pressure within a narrow the arteries and veins, for example cracks,
range. If it is too high, it can damage the BV blisters, fissures and debonding of their wall
and even rupture it; but if it is too low, not layers. As swelling and inflammation occur, the
enough blood reaches the whole body. vessels are strained and tensile strength
5.1 Corrosion, Scaling and Fouling decreases. Varicose veins form in the legs with
a blue-greenish color.
Corrosion of steel is an electrochemical process
that takes place on its surface, upon reaction Cardiovascular pathologies affect structure and
with the solution components, such as dissolved functionality of the BV such as restenosis: the
oxygen (DO) and salts. The corrosion rate is vessels narrowing that contribute to occlusion
affected by pH, temperature and flow regimen. by thrombosis and atherosclerosis, an
The overall process is the combination of two inflammatory illness22-25. Plaques are formed by
reactions: oxidation (anodic) and reduction fats, lipids or cholesterol; clots are thick lumps
(cathodic). For Fe the reactions are: of coagulated blood, both deposits in the inner
2 Fe 2 Fe+2 + 4e- (5) wall of BV.

O2 + 2 H2O + 4e -
4 OH -
(6)
The overall corrosion reaction is: 6. CLIMATE CHANGE

2 Fe + O2 + 2 H2O 2 Fe(OH)2 (7)

Journal of Materials Education Vol. 34 (3-4)


Water Pipelines and Blood Vessels: A Comparison of Hard and Soft Materials 65

There is a general agreement that changes in rotary device, the same size as the pipe’s
frequency or intensity of extreme weather and diameter, fitted with brushes moving in the pipe
climatic events have profound impacts on two and scrapping the pipe’s interior clean 31.
worrisome domains: human health and the
physical infrastructure, particularly of the In the arteries, deposits of fatty substances,
hydraulic infrastructure 26. In this context, there cellular wastes products and calcium salts build
is today a deep universal concern about the up. In order to assure free blood circulation,
influence of the climate change, the global these clogged arteries are cleaned and opened
warming and the greenhouse gas emissions (all by providing vasodilator medicines to widen
interrelated complex phenomena) on the dur- the vessels, or by mechanical intrusive
ability and functionality of the structures27. procedures, e.g. angioplasty and deployment of
They are already affecting biological and stents. Stents are manufactured from metallic
physical systems. Extreme climate events such and plastic materials. Some stents are coated
as floods due to torrential rains and swollen with medicines for their slow release into the
rivers; droughts with high solar radiation, ele- blood stream 32.
vated temperatures and dry atmospheres;
tropical storms: typhoons, hurricanes, tornados, To prevent and/or to mitigate corrosion, CS and
causing loss of life and property28. Torrid DCI WPs are provided with cathodic protection
temperatures, reaching 45 to 50 ºC in cities (CP) and by coating the external and internal
located in arid/desertic regions, provoke a surfaces with paints and coatings made from
phenomenon called the urban heat island (UHI) rubbers and polymers. The interior coating
when the metropolitan area is significantly should be compatible with potable water, to
warmer than its surrounding rural areas29. In the avoid its contamination. These protection
USA an average of 1,000 people die each year techniques are implemented and maintained to
due to extreme heat30. Death is caused by avoid the aging and deterioration of this vital
severe dehydration and alteration of blood part of the civil infrastructure33. Ruptured,
natural properties and behavior 30. leaking pipes are rapidly repaired with clamps,
by encirclement with steel or plastic sleeves or
by bondage with fiberglass cloths impregnated
7. CLEANING, REPAIR AND with polymeric resins.
PROTECTION
Treatment with vasodilator medicines against
Healthy, open, smooth BV and clean WP, free blood hypertension will assist in maintaining
from obstructions that impede the regular the normal blood pressure. Special drug –
circulation of the fluids contained are essential containing nanoparticles deliver medical agents
for their respective operation and function. into the blood stream by a slow-release
mechanism. Drug-eluting stents are inserted in
Cleaning of a DCI pipe’s internal wall, to arteries to keep them open and ensure regular
remove rust, scale, oil, and loose dirt proceeds blood circulation. BV´s, damaged by disease or
by mechanical or chemical means such as injury are repaired by invasive surgery, cutting
abrasives, acids or solvents. A special mech- or replacement, and then they are clamped and
anical technique called “pigging” consists of a sewn together 34.

Table 1. Comparative evaluation of water pipelines and blood vessels.


System Man-made materials Human body
Equipment Pipelines Vascular tubes
Material CS/DCI/PVC1 Organic tissues
Wall permeability Impermeable Permeable
Circulation Open Closed

Journal of Materials Education Vol. 34 (3-4)


66 Michael Schorr, Benjamin Valdez, Ernesto Valdez, Amir Eliezer, Noah Lotan and Monica Carrillo

Fluid Water Blood


pH 6 to 7 6.5 to 7.5
Gases O2, CO2, CH4, etc. O2, CO2
Deterioration Corrosion Aging
Mechanism Electrochemical Biochemical
Products Rust H2O, CO2, energy
Protection CP2, coatings Drugs, stents
Note 1: Carbon Steel, Ductile Cast Iron, Polyvinyl Chloride.
Note 2: Cathodic Protection.

8. COMPARATIVE OVERVIEW
Comparative studies have been carried out
As said in the beginning, we compare two about various aspects of educational systems to
classes of materials systems: hard, structural for promote the understanding of the differences
the infrastructures elements, soft, and multi- between the two systems considered and their
functional in the human body. These tubular contribution to the student’s academic
systems are used to convey two vital fluids: achievement 35.
water and blood; without them human life
cannot exist. Table 1 presents a comparative In conversation with science and technology
evaluation of hard, man-made materials, students, they expressed their interest and
common in industrial projects and soft, organic feeling that the subject of this paper arouses
materials that the human body is built of. their curiosity, as well as expanding their
Metallic pipes for water supply, storm water understanding and knowledge into two different
drainage and municipal sewage disposal are fields: metallurgy of metals and biology of the
made of CS and/or DCI. Plastic pipes for water human body. During teaching and discussing
distribution in buildings and homes are the contents of this paper with students, we
produced, mainly, from PVC. Their character- emphasized that the similarities and disparities
istics depend on their chemical composition and between pipelines and blood vessels are related
structure. Other properties, listed in the lower to their basic features: material, structure,
part of Table 1, are the result of the interaction dimension, function, maintenance, deterioration
between the material surface and the fluids and preventive and curative procedures.
conducted; the products of these reactions, the
deterioration mechanisms and the protection Many special activities are devoted to the
procedures are mentioned. Hard materials can education of tomorrow materials scientist and
be reused and returned to the supply chain but engineers, e.g. a biomedical nanotechnology
soft materials cannot be reused after deter- education program implemented in Taiwan 36,
ioration and loss of bodily function. visits to museum exhibits organized by the
Materials Research Society (MRS) are
On the other hand, the mechanical procedures reported6 and biomedical nanoscience concepts
necessary to clean and repair WP and BV are - are applied in the classroom 37.
in principle - similar, since both WP and BV
are hollow cylinders that should be maintained Summarizing, we provide herewith a tool for
open and without leaking holes or cracks to teaching and learning to support, explain and
ensure their operation and function. understand the fundamentals of science and
Furthermore, both of them age with the passing technology in four basic areas:
of time and both should be rehabilitated or  Materials, similarities and differences
replaced with new material. between man-made, hard, structural and
biological, soft, functional materials.
9. EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS  Fluid conveyance, based on fluid mech-
anics and transport phenomena in industrial

Journal of Materials Education Vol. 34 (3-4)


Water Pipelines and Blood Vessels: A Comparison of Hard and Soft Materials 67

and biological systems.


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68 Michael Schorr, Benjamin Valdez, Ernesto Valdez, Amir Eliezer, Noah Lotan and Monica Carrillo

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