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Air Breathing Engines, Propulsion Basics

Presentation · August 2018

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19266.84163

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Air-Breathing Engines
Unit 1

Shiva U 1
Aerospace Propulsion II

Faculty
Shiva U
Asst. Prof. (Sr. Scale)

Shiva U 2
Syllabus
• Classification, operational envelopes; Description and function of gas
generator, turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, turbo shaft, ramjet,
scramjet, turbojet/ramjet combined cycle engine; Engine thrust, take-
off thrust, installed thrust, thrust equation; Engine performance
parameters, specific thrust, specific fuel consumption and specific
impulse, thermal efficiency, propulsive efficiency, engine overall
efficiency and its impact on aircraft range and endurance; Engine cycle
analysis and performance analysis for turbojet, turbojet with
afterburner, turbofan engine, turboprop engine.

Shiva U 3
Shiva U 4
Operational Envelopes
Each engine type will operate only within a certain range of altitudes and Mach numbers (velocities).

The approximate velocity and altitude limits, or corridor of flight, within which airlift vehicles can operate. The
corridor is bounded by a lift limit, a temperature limit, and an aerodynamic force limit.

Shiva U 5
Shiva U 6
Shiva U 7
Shiva U 8
Air Breathing Propulsion

• Air breathing propulsion systems use oxygen in atmospheric air

to burn fuel stored on the vehicle
• Turbojet
• Turbofan (High BR, Low BR, Afterburning)
• Turboprop
• RAMJETS
• SCRAMJETS

Shiva U 9
Air Breathing Propulsion: Gas
Turbine Systems
Gas Generator
• The basis of turbojet, turbofan, and
turboprop propulsion is the gas generator
• Supplies high-temperature, high-pressure
gas
• Stand alone, most of the energy of this
device is used to drive turbines
• Turbine rotational energy is converted into
electricity
Shiva U 10
Air Breathing Propulsion
Turbojet

By adding an inlet and a nozzle a turbojet can be

constructed
• Gas generator still supplies high-temperature,
high-pressure gas
• Some of the energy of this device is used to
drive turbines and auxiliary systems
• Most of the energy in the high-temperature,
high-pressure gas is allowed to flow to the
nozzle
• Nozzle accelerates flow to high velocity to impart
thrust
Shiva U 11
Air Breathing Propulsion: Gas
Turbine Systems
Shiva U 12
Air Breathing Propulsion: Gas
Turbine Systems
Shiva U 13
Air Breathing Propulsion: Gas
Turbine Systems
Shiva U 14
Air Breathing Propulsion: Gas
Turbine Systems
Shiva U 15
Air Breathing Propulsion: Ducted
Systems
Shiva U 16
Air Breathing Propulsion: Ducted
Systems
Shiva U 17
Air Breathing Propulsion: Ducted
Systems
Shiva U 18
Air Breathing Propulsion: Ducted
Systems
Shiva U 19
TURBOJET
 Air sucked in through the inlet diffuser
 Compressed and used to burn the fuel in the combustor
 Combustion products used to drive the turbine
 Exhaust through the nozzle to generate jet propulsion

Shiva U 20
Shiva U 21
LIMITATIONS

At higher Mach numbers

 Fuel consumption increases
 Moving parts do not contribute to engine power
° Share of compressor at Mach 1 = 50 %
Mach 2 = 15 %
Mach 3 = 04 %
 Moving parts causes losses
 High temperatures (around 3000 K) are produced
 Compressor blades cannot withstand that temperature
 No such high temperature withstanding blade material exists
 Compression created by speed is enough to keep engine process

Shiva U 22
 RAMJET

 At speeds above Mach 3 a

passive intake can compress
the air due to ramming effect
(without use of compressor)
for subsonic combustion in
the combustion chamber

Shiva U 23
 Mach number decreased and point b kept constant
 TSFC becomes high
 Larger size of engine
 heat added increased and point d kept constant
 increase in maximum temperature
 material properties of engine walls

Shiva U 24
PERFORMANCE

Experimental Conditions
Inlet temp = 220 K
Cp = 0.24 kcal/kg-k
γ = 1.4

Shiva U 25
FUELS USED
 Gaseous Fuel Ramjet
* eg. hydrogen
 Liquid Fuel Ramjet
* kerosene , synthetic hydrocarbon fuel
eg. US made RJ1, RJ4 ; French CSD07T , CSD15T
 Solid Fuel Ramjet
* polymers loaded with metal particles like Mg ,Al or B
eg. Polyether , polyester , polyurethane

Shiva U 26
ADVANTAGES
 Able to attain high speeds up to mach 5
 No moving parts so less wear & tear and minimum losses
 Reduced weight and smaller engine
 Lighter and simpler than turbojet
 Higher temperatures can be employed

DISADVANTAGES
 Bad performance at lower speeds
 Needs booster to accelerate it to a speed where ramjet begins to
produce thrust
 Higher fuel consumption
 Maximum operating altitude is limited
 High temperature material required

Shiva U 27
SCRAMJET
 Supersonic Combustion RAMJET
 In ramjet supersonic speed of air is reduced to subsonic speeds in
combustion chamber thereby causing high temperature rise.
 If combustion is done at supersonic speed temperature rise could be
avoided.
 Achieving supersonic combustion is the ultimate challenge
Dwell time in the combustor is low

Shiva U 28
SUPERSONIC COMBUSTION

Major Issues
# Proper mixing
# Ignition
# Stable combustion

 Flight Mach no. is 6 to 10 Inlet Mach no. is 2 to 4

 Blockage caused by injection and heat release generates a “shock train”
 intense mixing and combustion with large gradients in flow properties
& chemical composition in the axial,radial and circumferential directions
 Divergent combustor adds to proper mixing and ignition and to
compensate for the pressure rise Shiva U 29
Schematic diagram of a scramjet engine

Shiva U 30
Shiva U 31
Hyper-X flight trajectory 32
Shiva U
Comparison between turbojet,ramjet,scramjet and rocket

Shiva U 33
Combined cycle engines

• Hypersonic propulsion systems can be categorized as liquid- and solid-fueled

rockets, turbojets, ramjets, ducted rockets, scramjets, and the dual-combustion
ramjet (DCR ). All existing hypersonic systems use either liquid or solid rockets as
their propulsion system.
• Ramjets and scramjets can operate efficiently at supersonic and hypersonic
speeds, but there tend to be limitations to the range of Mach numbers over
which they can operate.
• For instance, the need to have sufficient compression in the inlet ordinarily
requires that the ramjet engine operate supersonically. The inefficiencies of
slowing the flow down to subsonic speeds makes the ramjet difficult to use for
speeds exceeding Mach 5.

Shiva U 34
• Scramjets can be used above approximately Mach 5 but below that there is in
general insufficient energy in the captured airstream to enable efficient
combustion in the supersonic combustor.
• Both the ramjet and scramjet must be coupled with some additional form of
propulsion (for missiles, this is chiefly a rocket) to accelerate the vehicle to its
“take-over” Mach number.
• To overcome these limitations, combined cycle engines have been developed.

Shiva U 35
Engine cycles for hypersonic vehicles

Shiva U 36
• A subsequent version of the X-43B has had to be fully multi-use, and its main
objective was to test the hybrid power plant type RBCC (rocket-based-combined-
cycle), TBCC (turbine-based-combined cycle) and AAR (air-augmented rocket).
• The engine type is TBCC turbines placed separately over a high-speed ram and part
has its own entrance channel and nozzle. Most comprehensive and most complex
the engine AAR.
• It has all kinds of drive concentrated in a single flow channel. During take-off of the
rocket engine flows into the combustion chamber, additional fuel in excess of oxygen,
thereby increasing the tension of almost 50%. After reaching a speed of Mach 2, the
rocket motor shuts down and re-activation occurs only in the absence of atmospheric
oxygen in orbit. Wiring engine AAR and the principle of its operation is shown next slide.
RBCC engine is its principle similar to AAR, but can operate in a wider speed range by
changing the geometry of the engine. The advantages of such a drive train are clear.
After minimal adjustments feasible in flight, can work in rocketry, Ramjet, maximum or
jet mode.

Shiva U 37
Shiva U 38
Combined cycle engines- Turbo-Ramjet

• A simple combined cycle is a turbojet (or turbofan)/ramjet in which a secondary

flow bypasses the core turbojet and participates to produce thrust in an
afterburner.
• As the Mach number increases, typically beyond M = 3, the afterburner
transitions to operation as a ramjet while the turbojet maximum cycle
temperature is reduced to maintain an acceptable load on the rotating machinery
while maintaining the airflow path open to contribute to thrust generation in the
afterburner.
• The main issue in this configuration is, evidently, the matching of the core flow
with the bypass flow to avoid reversed flow on any of the sides. Additional
operational difficulties derive from the broad bypass ratio range during
acceleration and deceleration and the thermal management of the moving parts
during high enthalpy flight.
Shiva U 39
Shiva U 40
Shiva U 41
Engine issues for hypersonic airbreathing propulsion systems

Shiva U 42
Total Temperature Rise with Increasing Mach Number in Trans-atmospheric Flight
Shiva U 43
Shiva U 44
Shiva U 45
Thrust needs to be created for all flight regimes of the
aircraft:

• Take-off – normally maximumthrust

• Climb –reducing from maximumthrust
• Cruise –normally minimumthrust
• Manoeuvres – variable thrust
• Acceleration & Deceleration - variable
• Descend – Low thrust
• Landing – Less than maximumthrust

Shiva U 46
Jet Engine Performance
• It is seen that engine thrust is proportional to the mass flow rate through the
engine and to the excess of the jet velocity over the flight velocity.
• The specific thrust of an engine is defined as the ratio of the engine thrust to its
mass flow rate. The specific thrust is

Shiva U 47
• Because the engine mass flow rate is proportional to its exit area, A5/m depends
only on design nozzle exit conditions.
• As a consequence, F/m is independent of mass flow rate and depends only on
flight velocity and altitude.
• Assigning an engine design thrust then determines the required engine-mass flow
rate and nozzle exit area and thus the engine diameter. Thus the specific thrust,
F/m, is an important engine design parameter for scaling engine size with
required thrust at given flight conditions.
• Another important engine design parameter is the thrust specific fuel
consumption, TSFC, the ratio of the mass rate of fuel consumption to the engine
thrust

• Low values of TSFC, of course, are favorable. The distance an aircraft can fly
without refueling, called its range, is inversely proportional to the TSFC of its
engines.
Shiva U 48
Specific thrust may be written as :

• For a reasonable positive value of specific thrust to be achieved,

Either Ve>Va i.e. substantial acceleration through the engine needs to
be accomplished,
• or pe>pa i.e a substantial pressure (static) residual (at exit face) inside
the engine are required to be achieved.

Shiva U 49
 Lect-3

The thrust relation shown in the last slide is of general nature and is valid for
cases where a residual exit static pressure exists in the exhaust flow.

If it is assumed that the expansion in the nozzle is completed to Pa , and hence the
nd
2 term, pressure thrust, can be neglected. Thus net thrust is:

Then Fn = (Ve - Va)

For a net thrust Fn, the thrust power may be written as:

THP =Fn.Va

Shiva U 50
 The basic thrust equation indicates that as forward speed V a
increases it is necessary to increase either the mass flow, or exit
velocity Ve , or both, in order to hold the thrust, F, constant.
 The near-constant thrust characteristics at any altitude a
desirable and attractive feature of jet engines (flat rated
engines)
 A near-constant Fn results in almost direct increase in thrust
horsepower with forward speed.
 This characteristic of turbojet engines exists well up into the
high subsonic speed range, and with a properly designed inlet
diffuser, extends into the supersonic range.

51
Shiva U
 Lect-3

• In the supersonic region afterburner equipped engines enable

large increase in thrust with Mach number.

• This is possible from M=0 to M>3.0. At high flight speeds (Mach 1

and above), an appreciable proportion of the air compression is
accomplished by inlet diffuser ram effect.

• In fact, at a Mach number well above 3.0, due to enormous ram

effect it is economical to dispense with the compressor, and
hence, also the turbine.

• This has given rise to ramjet engines.

52
Shiva U
Overall Efficiency
Overall Efficiency

Thermal Efficiency Propulsive Efficiency

Shiva U 53
 Lect-3

The propulsive efficiency ηp can be defined as the ratio of

the useful propulsive energy or thrust power (F.Va) to the sum of that energy and
the unused kinetic energy of the jet. This is the kinetic energy relative to the earth,
and may be written as:
2
m.( Ve  Va ) /2

It then stands to reason that this unused exit kinetic energy is a waste energy and,
once it goes out of the engine body it is not of any use for thrust production.
Although inlet diffuser provides aerodynamic pre- compression of air, it also
produces ram drag.

54
Shiva U
Shiva U 55
Shiva U 56
 Lect-3

The propulsive efficiency ηp can be written as

m.Va.(Ve  Va) 2
η
 (Ve  Va ) 2

 1 Ve
p m.Va.(Ve  Va) 

 2  Va

ηp is also known as Froude efficiency.

From the above equations it is evident that :

• Fn is maximum when Va = 0, (Take off) but ηp =0
• ηp is maximum when Ve/Va = 1, when thrust is zero.

57
Shiva U
 Lect-3

•The propulsion efficiency is a measure of how well the propulsive

device is being used for propelling the aircraft.
•It is different from the efficiency of energy conversion.
• The efficiency of energy conversion is given by

 m .Q
m. Ve  Va
2 2 f fuel

 
η  2 

energy
Where, are the fuel mass flow and its
m and Qfuel heating value respectively
The denominator refers to the energy released
by burning of fuel
58
Shiva U
 Lect-3

The overall engine efficiency is given by

η  m.Va.( Ve  Va ) η η
 p. e
O m
f
.Q
fuel

59
Shiva U
 Lect-3

•At supersonic aircraft speeds the ram drag is also high.

•Moreover, at supersonic flight speeds it is difficult to design an air
intake to efficiently handle the air flows required by the engine,
which may have an afterburner for thrust enhancement.
•This requires matching the intake characteristics to the engine over
a wide operating range of flow conditions as well as altitudes.
•At hypersonic flight speeds this prompts us to look at ramjet for
thrust generation. Since there are no rotating components e.g.
compressor /turbine, matching the inlet to the engine is simplified.

60
Shiva U
 Lect-3

•Fuel consumption for turbojet and other jet engines is normally

presented in terms of thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC).
•The thrust specific fuel consumption varies with engine rpm, Mach number
and altitude generally a minimum at the tropopause at 80-90 % rated rpm.
•For jet engines with reheat or afterburning, the fuel consumption would
be quite high, and SFC would show up as high value. In such operation
sheer thrust requirement outweighs the high SFC.
•Turbo-props have lower SFC. This fact has prompted development
of Prop-fans .

61
Shiva U
Specific fuel consumption
Available thrust is usually quoted in kN or lbs. Fuel efficiency is usually
quoted as a specific fuel consumption

SFC can only be directly compared at a specific flight condition, usually a

nominal cruise condition.
Expressed in kg/N-hr or
mg/N-sec
Actual computation of fuel mass flow and net thrust would vary from one kind
of jet engine to another

Shiva U 62
Specific impulse
• Specific impulse is defined as the thrust (N) divided by the fuel weight
flow rate (N/s). The resulting measure is usually quoted in seconds
and defines the weight fraction that is necessary to give a particular
delta V for a rocket or range for an aircraft with a given lift to drag ratio.
• For a jet engine the specific impulse can be determined from the
specific fuel consumption. The product of SFC and Specific impulse is
one. The conversion factor between SFC (mg/Ns) and Specific impulse
-1
(s) is 102,000mg/N (1E6mg kg-1 /9.81N kg ). A high bypass turbofan
engines have cruise SFC around 15mg/Ns, and takeoff SFC of 8mg/Ns.

Shiva U 63
 Specific impulse of propulsion technologies

Engine SFC Specific impulse Energy Density

(mg/Ns) (s) (MJ/kg)
Turbofan 7.5 13,600 43
(Takeoff, M0.1)
Turbofan 15 6,800 43
(Cruise, M0.9)
Turbofan 30 3,400 43
(with Afterburning, M1.5)
Solid rocket 408 250 3.0
(including oxidizer)
LH2LO2 rocket 227 450 9.7
(including oxidizer)

Shiva U 64
Shiva U 65
 Engine cycle analysis and
performance analysis for turbojet,
turbojet with afterburner, turbofan
engine, turboprop engine.
Shiva U 66
 Lect-7

Gas Turbine Cycles

• Gas turbine engines operate on Brayton cycles.
• Ideal Brayton cycle is a closed cycle, whereas gas turbines
operate in the open cycle mode.
• Ideal cycle assumes that there are no irreversibilities in the
processes, air behaves like an ideal gas with constant specific
heats, and that there are no frictional losses.

6 67
Shiva U 7
 Brayton cycle

• The Brayton cycle was proposed by George Brayton in

1870 for use in reciprocating engines.
• Modern day gas turbines operate on Brayton cycle and
work with rotating machinery.
• Gas turbines operate in open-cycle mode, but can be
modelled as closed cycle using air- standard assumptions.
• Combustion and exhaust replaced by constant pressure
heat addition and rejection.

Shiva U 68
 Ideal Brayton cycle
The Brayton cycle consists of four
internally reversible processes:

– 1-2 Isentropic compression

(in a compressor)
– 2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
– 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a
turbine)
– 4-1Constant-pressure heat rejection

69
Shiva U
 Ideal Brayton cycle
P q Isentropic T Isobaric 3
in

2 3 q
in

2 4
q
out
1 4 1
q
out
v s

Brayton cycle on P-v and T-s diagrams

70
Shiva U
 Actual/Real Brayton cycle

• Actual Brayton cycles differ from the ideal cycles in all

the four processes.
• The compression process and expansion processes
are non-isentropic.
• Pressure drop during heat addition and heat rejection.
• The presence of irreversibilities causes the above
deviations.

71
Shiva U
Actual/Real Brayton cycle

Pressure drop
T 3

q
in

2a 4a
2s 4s

q
out
1
s

Actual Brayton cycle T-s diagram

72
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal cycle for jet engines

• All air-breathing jet engines operate on the Brayton cycle (open

cycle mode).
• The most basic form of a jet engine is a turbojet engine.
• Some of the parameters of a jet engine cycle are usually design
parameters and hence often fixed a priori: eg. compressor pressure
ratio, turbine inlet temperature etc.
• Cycle analysis involves determining the performance parameters
of the cycle with the known design parameters.

7 73
Shiva U 3
Ideal cycle for jet engines
Combustion chamber/burner
Diffuser Compressor Turbine Nozzle

a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Afterburner

Schematic of a turbojet engine and station numbering scheme

Shiva U 5 74
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-7

Ideal cycle for jet engines

The different processes in a turbojet cycle are the following:

• a-1: Air from far upstream is brought to the air intake

(diffuser) with some acceleration/deceleration
• 1-2: Air is decelerated as is passes through the diffuser
• 2-3: Air is compressed in a compressor (axial or centrifugal)
• 3-4 The air is heated using a combustion chamber/burner

75 75
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal cycle for jet engines

• 4-5: The air is expanded in a turbine to obtain power to drive the

compressor
• 5-6: The air may or may not be further heated in an afterburner
by adding further fuel
• 6-7: The air is accelerated and exhausted through the nozzle.

76 76
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal cycle for jet engines

4
T

5
3
7

2
a

Ideal turbojet cycle (without afterburning)

on a T-s diagram
77 77
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal cycle for jet engines

• Afterburning: used when the aircraft needs a substantial

increment in thrust. For eg. to accelerate to and cruise at
supersonic speeds.
• Since the air-fuel ratio in gas turbine engines are much
greater than the stoichiometric values, there is sufficient
amount of air available for combustion at the turbine exit.
• There are no rotating components like a turbine in the
afterburner, the temperatures can be taken to much higher
values than that at turbine entry.

78 78
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal cycle for jet engines

T 6a

5, 6 7a

2
a

s
Ideal turbojet cycle with afterburning on
a T-s diagram
79 79
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Turbofan engine
• Propulsion efficiency is a function of the exhaust
velocity to flight speed ratio.
• This can be increased by reducing the effective exhaust
velocity.
• In a turbofan engine, a fan of a larger diameter than
the compressor is used to generate a mass flow higher
than the core mass flow. This ratio m cold / m hot is
called the bypass ratio.
• Turbofan engines have a higher propulsion efficiency as
compared with turbojet engines operating in the same
speed range.

80 80
Shiva U
 Lect-7
Ideal turbofan engine
Diffuser 2’ 3’ Secondary 7’
nozzle
Fan Combustion chamber/burner

Compressor Turbine
Primary nozzle

a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Schematic of an unmixed turbofan engine and station numbering scheme

81 81
Shiva U
 Lect-7
Ideal turbofan
engine
Diffuser 2’ 3’ 7’ Nozzle

Fan Combustion chamber/burner

Compressor Turbine

a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Schematic of a mixed turbofan engine and station numbering scheme

 82
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal turbofan engine

• The different processes in an unmixed turbofan cycle

are the following:
• a-1: Air from far upstream is brought to the air intake
(diffuser) with some acceleration/deceleration
• 1-2’: Air is decelerated as is passes through the diffuser
• 2’-3’: Air is compressed in a fan
• 2-3: Air is compressed in a compressor (axial or centrifugal)

83
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal turbofan engine

• 3-4: The air is heated using a combustion chamber/burner

• 4-5: The air is expanded in a turbine to obtain power to drive the
compressor
• 5-6: The air may or may not be further heated in an
afterburner by adding further fuel
• 6-7: The air is accelerated and exhausted through the
primary nozzle.
• 3’-7’: The air in the bypass duct is accelerated and expanded
through the secondary nozzle.

84
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal turboprop and turboshaft

engines
• Turboprop engines generate a substantial shaft power in
addition to nozzle thrust.
• Turboshaft engines, generate only shaft power. These
engines are used in helicopters. The shaft power is used to
drive the main rotor blade.
• In a turboprop engine, the advantages and limitations
are those of the propeller.
• Both turboprops and turboshafts have applications
at relatively lower speeds.
 85
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal turboprop and turboshaft

engines
Propeller Nozzle
Compressor Combustion chamber/burner

Propeller
pitch
control

Gear box Compressor- Power turbine

turbine

Schematic of typical turboprop engine

 86
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal turboprop and turboshaft

engines
• Turboprops and turboshafts usually have a free-turbine or
power turbine to drive the propeller or the main rotor
blade (turboshafts).
• Stress limitations require that the large diameter propeller
rotate at a much lower rate and hence a speed reducer is
required.
• Turboprops may also have a thrust component due to the jet
exhaust in addition to the propeller thrust.
• In turboshafts, however, there is no thrust component
due to the nozzle.
 87
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal turboprop and turboshaft

engines

• In turboprops, thrust consists of two components, the

propeller thrust and the nozzle thrust.
• The total thrust of a propeller is equal to the sum of the
nozzle thrust and the propeller thrust.
 88
Shiva U
 Lect-7

Ideal turboprop and turboshaft

engines
6 P
5 h 05

7 05

aΔh P
06

h 06 P
a

s
Enthalpy-entropy diagram for power
turbine-exhaust nozzle analysis
89
Shiva U
Real cycle for turbojet engines
Combustion chamber/burner
Diffuser Compressor Turbine Nozzle

a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Afterburner

Schematic of a turbojet engine

and station numbering scheme
Shiva U 3 90
 Real cycle for turbojet engines

• The different processes in a turbojet cycle are the

following:
• a-1: Air from far upstream is brought to the air intake
(diffuser) with some acceleration/deceleration
• 1-2: Air is decelerated as is passes through the diffuser
• 2-3: Air is compressed in a compressor (axial or
centrifugal)
• 3-4 The air is heated using a combustion
chamber/burner

91
Shiva U
 Real cycle for turbojet engines

• 4-5: The air is expanded in a turbine to obtain power to

drive the compressor
• 5-6: The air may or may not be further heated in an
afterburner by adding further fuel
• 6-7: The air is accelerated and exhausted through
the nozzle.

92
Shiva U
 Real cycle for turbojet engines

T 4

3
7

2
a
s

Real turbojet cycle (without afterburning) on a T-s diagram

93
Shiva U
Real cycle for turbojet engines
6a

T 4

7
3 5, 6

2
a
s

Real turbojet cycle (with afterburning)

on a T-s diagram
94
Shiva U
 Real cycle for turbojet engines
• Afterburning: used when the aircraft needs a substantial
increment in thrust. For eg. to accelerate to and cruise at
supersonic speeds.
• Since the air-fuel ratio in gas turbine engines are much
greater than the stoichiometric values, there is sufficient
amount of air available for combustion at the turbine exit.
• There are no rotating components like a turbine in the
afterburner, the temperatures can be taken to much higher
values than that at turbine entry.

95
Shiva U
 Real cycle for turbojet engines
• For calculating the fuel flow rate required to achieve a
temperature of T6a, we carry out an energy balance
similar to that of the combustor.
• The total fuel flow rate, f, is equal to the sum of the
fuel flow rates in the main combustor and the
afterburner.
f = f 1 + f2
• Where f1 is the fuel flow rate in the main combustor
and f2, the fuel flow rate in the afterburner.

96
Shiva U
 Real cycle for turbofan engines
• A turbofan engine can have different configurations: Twin-
spool, three-spool, and geared turbofan. These may be
either unmixed or mixed.
• Cycle analysis of a turbofan can hence be slightly different
depending upon the configuration of the engine.
• We shall now carry out an real cycle analysis of an unmixed
twin-spool turbofan engine.

97
Shiva U
 Real cycle for turbofan engines
Diffuser 2’ Secondary 7’
3’ nozzle

Fan Combustion chamber/burner

Compressor Turbine
Primary nozzle

a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Schematic of an unmixed turbofan engine and station numbering scheme

98
Shiva U
Real cycle for turbofan engines
• The total thrust developed by the turbofan with two
separate unmixed streams will consist of thrust due to
primary nozzle and that due to the secondary nozzle.
• Fn= Fn(primary nozzle) + Fn (secondary nozzle)
Fn  mH (1 f )Vex V  m H (Vexf V )
assuming (Pe  Pa ) Ae to be negligible.

Shiva U 99
 Real cycle for turbofan engines
• The cycle analysis procedure will need to be slightly modified
depending upon the turbofan engine configuration.
• The differences in the various configuration arise because of the
number of spools and turbine-compressor/fan arrangements as well
as mixed and unmixed exhausts.
• If the turbofan is of a mixed configuration, then, we will have to
calculate the temperature at the nozzle entry from enthalpy balance
of the two streams.

10
Shiva U 0
Real cycle for turboprop and turboshaft
engines
Propeller Nozzle
Compressor Combustion chamber/burner

Propeller
pitch
control

Gear box Compressor- Power turbine

turbine

Schematic of typical turboprop engine

 10
Shiva U 1
 Real cycle for turboprop and turboshaft
engines

• Turboprops and turboshafts usually have a free-turbine or

power turbine to drive the propeller or the main rotor
blade (turboshafts).
• Stress limitations require that the large diameter propeller
rotate at a much lower rate and hence a speed reducer is
required.
• Turboprops may also have a thrust component due to the jet
exhaust in addition to the propeller thrust.
• In turboshafts, however, there is no thrust component due
to the nozzle.
 10
Shiva U 2
Real cycle for turboprop and turboshaft
engines
6 P
5 h 05

7 05

aΔh P
06

h 06 P
a

s
Enthalpy-entropy diagram for power
turbine-exhaust nozzle analysis
10
Shiva U 3
 Real cycle for turboprop and turboshaft engines

Lect-10
• Δh is the enthalpy drop in an ideal isentropic power turbine and
exhaust nozzle.
• a is the fraction of Δh that would beused by an isentropic turbine.
• The propeller thrust power,Fn, prV, is
 prgPTa Dh m
F
n, pr
V   
pr g PT a Dh m or, F
n, pr

V
 pr  propeller efficiency,g  gear box efficiency,
 PT  power turbine efficiency
Shiva U 10
4
 Lect-10

Real cycle for turboprop and

turboshaft engines
• The exhaust nozzle thrust, Fn ,
Fn  m(Vex V ), where, Vex  2(1a)nDh

• Thus, the total thrust is given by,

 
pr g PT a Dh m

F  Fn, pr  Fn   m( 2(1a)n Dh V )
V

10
Shiva U 5
Engine overall efficiency impact on
aircraft
range and endurance
Shiva U 106
 Lect-3

Typical thrust
generation capability of
small aircraft engines of
similar power

107
Shiva U
 Lect-3

Typical propulsive
efficiency of
small aircraft
engines of similar
power

108
Shiva U
 Lect-3

•Because Ve is considerably greater than Va, mainly at low

flying speeds, the efficiency is much lower than that
attainable with a propeller.
•Since propeller efficiency drops off rapidly at higher Mach
numbers (>0.7) there is a speed where jet propulsive
efficiency exceeds that of a propeller.
•Because the overall efficiency of a turbojet is lower, the
Mach number at which the overall efficiency of a turbojet
equals the overall efficiency of a prop-jet engine is more
than the Mach number at which their propulsive efficiencies
are equal .

109
Shiva U
 Lect-3
Jet Engine
Thrust
Characteristics
 110
Shiva U
 Lect-3

Jet Engine SFC

Characteristics

111
Shiva U
Shiva U 112
Shiva U 113
 Shiva U 114
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