FOUNDED 1883. COPYRIGHT.

T. A. SOUT):-IERN LTD.~
THE U.M.8.
THIS PAPER
WAS THE FIRST
I~ SUPPLIED ON'
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING
IN THE
SCHOOL
WORLD.
fil'&e ~~al.~ ~~wof. CONDITION
IT IS
EXCLUSIVELY
THAT.
RESERVED·
FOR,
INCOl!F'ORATEO 1931. CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN USE.

MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS

Answers MG/I.
SOME NOTES ON CHEMISTRY.

1. What is meant by the term " element " in chemistry ? Name the five elements with which we
are chiefly concerned in mining.

ELEMENTS.
An element may be defined as a substance which cannot by any known chemical process be split
up into two or more simpler substances. It is an assemblage of atoms which are all of the same kind.
Altogether, there are some 92 elements. They are all simple substances from which all other kinds
of matter are formed. Three of the commones.t elements are oxygen (a gas), silicon (a non-metal).
and aluminium (a metal).
The five elements with which we are chiefly concerned in mining are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,.
carbon and sulphur. The first three of these are gases, and the last two are solids (non-metals) under
normal conditions.

2. Explain carefully what is meant by the terms (a) compound, and (b) mixture. What are the
main differences between the two ? Give examples.
COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES.
(a) A compound is a substance which is composed of two or more elements chemically combined
in certain, constant proportions by weight. Its composition.Is definite and can be represented by a
chemical formula.
In a compound, chemical combination takes place between the atoms of the different elements
concerned. Examples are water (H20), methane (CH4), carbon-dioxide (C02), common salt
(sodium chloride, N aC 1 ), and calcium carbonate ( CaC03 ).
(b) A mixture is composed of a number of substances (either elements, or compounds, or both).
which are physically intermingled in proportions that may vary within wide limits. A mixture
cannot be represented by a single formula, but only by a series of symbols or formulae which specify the
constituent substances separately.
In a mixture, physical intermingling takes place between the molecules of the substances con-
cerned, or between larger particles which are aggregations of molecules, Examples of molecular inter-
mingling are air· (chiefly oxygen and nitrogen) ; afterdamp (the gaseous mixture produced by a mine
explosion); coal gas (the mixture of gases supplied through domestic gas pipes and consisting chiefly
of hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide); firedamp (the mixture of gases, chiefly methane, given
off from the coal in a mine) ; ·and solutions pf solids (e.g. salt and sugar) in liquids. Mixtures of larger
particles include gunpowder, most rocks, and samples of dust taken on mine roadways.
The main differences between compounds and mixtures (apart from those already specified)are:-·
Compounds. Mixtures.
1. ThC constituent elements can only be 1. The constituent substances can be·
separated by chemical means. separated by physical methods.
2. Each constituent· element loses its identity - 2. Each constituent substance retains its.
in th,e compound. own· identity.
3. The properties of a compound are peculiar 3· The properties of a mixture are an:
to itself and are usually quite different from average of the properties of the constituent
tLose of its constituents. substances.

--~---~---'-----'··
4802
 MG/l
Some Notes 'm Chemistry
A/2

3. What is the essential difference between a physical change and a chemical change ? What other
differences are there ? . Give examples of each.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES e .

The essential difference between a physical change and a chemical change is that a physical
-change is one which does not affect the composition of a body, whereas a chemical change always
involves a change of composition. Other differences are :-
Physical Change. Chemical Change.
1. Is usually reversible. l. Is not easily reversible, and rs sometimes
irreversible .
. 2. Produces no new kind of substance. 2. Always produces a new kind of substance.
3. Causes no change in weight. 3. The new substances produced individually
have a different weight from the original
substances, although the sum total remains
the same.
·4. Is not accompanied by evolution of heat ''4. Is usually accompanied by great ·heat
-or light. change.
Examples of a physical change are (a) conversion of solids to liquids or liquids to gases, and vice
versa ; (b) magnetisation of iron ; and ( c) expansion of metals due to heat. \
Examples of a chemical change are (a) the burning of any substance in air; (b) the rusting of i
.iron ; ( c) the slaking of lime ; and (d) the softening of boiler feed-water. f

4. What is an atom, and what is a molecule? Distinguish between elementary and compound
molecules.
. ATOMS AND MOLECULES.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical change, or can enter
into chemical combination with one or more atoms of· other elements. The atoms of any one element
.are all alike in structure (which may be very complex) and in weight, but the atoms of different elements
have different structures and weights. Atoms are chemically very active :ind,. except in the case of a
.few monatomic elements (rare inert gases), they unite with other atoms to form molecules.
A molecule is a group of atoms held together by the force of chemical affinity and it is the smallest
-quantity of any substance which can exist separately and still retain the normal characteristics of the
.substance concerned:
An elementary molecule is one in which all the atoms are of the same kind, as in a molecule
-of hydrogen, H2•
A compound molecule consists of unlike atoms which have chemically combined, as in a molecule
-of carbon dioxide, C02, where one atom of carbon has· combined chemically with two atoms of oxygen.
A molecule is the smallest part into which a compound can be divided, for if it is further broken up, the
compound ceases to exist, and is resolved into its constituent elements.

5. Define the meaning of the terms " chemical symbol " and " chemi'calformula " and explain wl..:zt
information we can derive from them.
j
:SYMBOLS AND FORMULAE. ·~

A symbol, in chemistry, is a letter, or a pair of letters, denoting the name of an element, and strictly
-stands for one atom of the element. If we wish to refer to an element in its molecular form, we add I
to it an index :figure (written slightly below the symbol) showing the number of atoms in the molecule.
'Thus 0 is the symbol for one atom of oxygen, and 02 for one molecule" of oxygen.
A formula, in chemistry, is a group of chemical symbols, with appropriate index Sgures, denoting
'
-one molecule of a compound substance. Thus CH4 is the formula for one molecule df methane.
If we wish to refer to two molecules of methane, we write 2CI:I4•
The information afforded by chemical symbols and formulae includes (1) the names of t..e elements
· -contair.ed within the substance, (2) the number of atoms of each element . present in the molecule and
{3) if we make use of the table of atomic weights, the proportion by weight of each element present. We
-can also calculate (4) the molecular weight and, in the case of a gas, (5) the vapour density and (6) the
specific gravity.
For example, the formula for carbon-dioxide is C02, rhowing that one atom of carbon is combined
-with two atoms of oxygen. The proportions by weight are 12 parts of carbon to 32 parts of oxygeD,
'The molecular weight is 44, the vapour density 22, and the specific gravity 22 --:- 14·475 = 1·520.

*[Note. Some authorities would describe 02 as the formula for a molecule of oxygen, reserving
the name symbol for the single atom = 0. There does not seem to be a definite rulin on the point,
'-~~~b-ut-it---is--ofmi1101 import nee.
 MG/1
The Universal Mininf School, Cardiff
A3

6. Define clearly what is meant by the terms (a) molecular weight, (b) vapour density, and
(c) specific gravity of gases.
DEFINITION OF TERMS.
(a) The molecular weight of any substance is a number which represents the weight of the
molecule compared with the weight of one atom of hydrogen. It is found by adding together the atomic
weights of all the atoms contained within the molecule.
(b) The vapour density of a gas is a number which expresses how much heavier a given volume
(or one molecule) of the gas is than the same volume (or one molecule) of hydrogen at the same tem-
perature and pressure. It is always equal to half the molecular weight of the gas.
(c) Thespeciflc gravity of a gas is similar to vapour density except that air is taken as the standard
of comparison, instead of hydrogen. The specific gravity may be found by dividing the vapour density
of the gas by 14·475, which is itself the vapour density of air.

7. . The molecule of a certain gas contains two atoms of carbon and six atoms of hydrogen. Write
its formula, and calculate its molecular weight, vapour density, and specific gravity.
FORMULA .QF A GAS.
The formula of the. gas referred to is C2 H6 ( · ethane).
The molecular weight is equal to the sum of the weights of the constituent atoms.
30
Now 2 atoms of C weigh 2 x 12 24 The vapour density = 15.
2
and 6 ~toms of H weigh 6 x 1 6 15
The specific gravity = 1·036.
. ·. Molecular weight of C2 H6 30 14·475

.1 8. The formulae of a number of mine gases are CO, H2 S, C02 and CH4• Calculate their specific
gravities and place them in order of increasing weight.
SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF GASES.
Gas Molecular weight. Vapour density. Specific gravity.
co Carbon monoxide 12 16+ 28 28 2 14 14- 14·475 = 0·967
H2S Sulphuretted hydrogen 2 32+ 34 34 2 17 17 14·475 = 1·175
C02 Carbon dioxide 12 32+ 44 44 2 22 22 14·475 = 1·520
~H4 Methane 12 4+ 16 16 2 8 8 14·475 = O· 553

The gases, in order of increasing weight; are :-

( 1) CH4 (lightest), (2) CO, (3) H2S, and (4) C02 (heaviest).

9. What are the three physical states of matter ? Give examples of substances which can be
induced to change their physical state without change of composition.

TH\ PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER.

The three physical states of matter are solid, liquid and gaseous, although it is not always easy
to draw a hard and fast line between them.
Ina solrd, the molecules are closely packed (relatively speaking) and the force of cohesion is dominant.
In a liquid, the molecules are free to slide over each other, and some of the molecules may even escape
from the surface of the liquid and assume the vapour form. In a gas, the molecules are free to roam
in any direction, and cohesion ceases to exist. . ·
;i.·
The most familiar example of a substance which can readily be 'induced to change its state is
water which is a solid, ice, when very cold ; a liquid at ordinary temperatures ; and an invisible gas,
steam, when very hot.
Carbon dioxide is ordinarily a gas and it is well-known as such as one of the constituents of " black-
damp" in a mine; but it may be stored as a liquid under great pressure in a steel cylinder. Moreover,
if the 1.P.quid is allowed to vaporise rapidly by being poured quickly from the cylinder, intense cold is
thereby produced and some of the liquid may become converted to a snow-like solid which may be
oaught in a cloth wrapped around the outlet.
Most metals, of course, can be melted to a liquid, although high temperatures are sometimes
equt
It will be understood that, in all these cases, the change is purely physical and not in any sense
chemical in character. The composition of the substance remains unaltered in each case.
MG/1
Some Notes on Chemistry
A/4

10. Give one or more examples of a simple kind to illustrate the great and surprising change, in
properties that often occurs when two or more elements enter. into chemical combination.

EFFECT OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION.

When two or more elements combine to form a compound, they completely lose their original
identity, and the result is often some substance with properties very widely different ·from those of the
elements of which the compound is composed. Examples are :-

Carbon monoxide (CO.)

As shown by its formula, the molecule of this gas consists of 1 atom of carbon chemically combined
with 1 atom of oxygen. Now carbon in some form is an essential ingredient of many foodstuffs, whilst
oxygen is essential to the continuance of all animal life. Yet carbon monoxide is a deadly poisonous

{
i1
gas, found in the afterdamp of.an explosion, in the exhaust fumes of motor cars, and in the coal gas used ,.,
for domestic purposes. As little as O· 02% in· the atmosphere will cause death in a short time.
.,·

Sodium Chloride, NaCl ( = common salt). .)·.(.j

Sodium is a soft white metal that melts and rushes about vigorously when placed in water, liberating
hydrogen from the water, and itself combining with oxygen and -hydrogen to form caustic soda (NaOH).
Chlorine, on the other hand, is a greenish-yellow poisonous gas. Yet common salt, which consists
of sodium and chlorine in chemical combination, is a harmless . white crystalline solid and a necessary
and appetising ingredient of our daily food.

11. What makes it possible for matter to . expand when. heated and contract when cooled ? If a
piece of steel weighing 12·6 lbs. at 60°F is heated to 300°F.and again weighed, would you expect its
weight to be greater or less ?

EXPANSION OF STEEL.
The property of matter to expand, or increase in volume, when heated, and to contract, or decrease
in volume when cooled, is. due to the existence of interspaces between its molecules and to the capacity
of the molecules for movement. The application of heat reduces the force of cohesion and permits
greater movement of the molecules. Hence they tend to move further apart. Conversely, cooling
permits the force _of cohesion to become more· dominant and the molecules move closer together.
If a piece of steel is merely heated from 60°F to 300°F, its volume would be increased but I should
expect its weight to remain unaltered, for only the interspaces have expanded and these weigh nothing
at all. The density of the steel, i.e. its weight per unit volume, would be less, but the total weight
would remain at 12· 6 lbs.
[Note. Some students go so far as to say that the steel would melt ! But th'.e melting point of
steel is somewhere about 1400°C_;_;_lS00°C, or 2550°F~2730°F, depending on its carbon content) 1

. i

~ ..;{ ...
~~---
 FOUNDED 1888 COPYRIGHT
THE U,M.S.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.,-
THIS PAPER
WAS-THE FlRSi IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE
l)
~AINING SCHOOL
IN THE WORLD.
ggc ~~af ~ £,Jwof; CONDITION
IT IS RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
THAT

l .. OORl>ORATED 1931. CARDIFF (Grr. BRl'l.,AIN.) YOUR OWN USE

MlNE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

Lesson MG/2.
FURTHER NOTES ON GENERAL SCIENCE.

We have seen that matter can be divided into three main Classes, namely elements, compounds).
and mixtures; that it may exist in three physical states, namely solids, liquids, and gases; and that,
whilst the smallest particle of an element is an atom, matter normally exists in the form of aggregations
of atoms called molecules.

We have also seen that (1) all the molecules of a substance are individually separated from each
other by interspaces, and (2) ·all the molecules are in continual motion. It is with matter and its motion
that we are here chiefly concerned.

MATTER AND ITS MOTION.

As evdryone knows, the sun, with its planets, is continually travelling through space at tremendous
velocity. The earth is moving annually in its long journey or orbit around the sun. All the other
planets are moving in a similar .manner at rates which are inversely proportional to their distances
from the sun. The earth is spinning around daily on its own axis, and the moon performs its monthly
journey around.ithe earth. All these are well-known facts and yet, from the scientific point of view,
they are not more important than the motion of the infinitesimally small particles we call molecules.

All the molecules of matter are in a state of continual motion, and at prodigious speeds. All
available evidence suggests that this idea is true, and it is only on this theory that many scientific
phenomena (i.e., processes) can be explained.

Solids, Liquids, and Gases.

The differences between these three " physical states '~ of matter are largely bound up with,
differences in their rate of molecular movement.
c
In a solid, the molecules are held relatively close together in more or less fixed relative positions
'by the 'force of cohesion. Each molecule, although moving incessantly, travels such a short distance
before it collides with another molecule that the constant bounding and rebounding may be aptly
described as vibration or oscillation.

In a liquid, the molecules move more rapidly and are free to slide over one another in all directions.
They eare penned down, as it were, by gravity, but cohesion now acts less effectively.
··.;.;
In a gas, the molecules are widely separated and have unlimited freedom. of movement, the force
Qcf. cohesion being entirely absent.
The speed of the molecules in a gas depends partly on its relative densit'J, and partly on its
• temperature, but, at any given temperature, the lighter the gas, the greater is its molecular velocity.

The average speed of the molecules of hydrogen (the lightest gas) is abour 6,050 feet per second.
The speed of oxyge~ molecules, which are 16 times as heavy, is one-quarter that-of hydrogen, namely
1,510 feet per pecond. And, in general, the molecular velocity of a gas varies inversely as the square
"' root of the relative density. This will be better understood after we have considered the process of
diffusion of gases. Questions on this subject are repeatedly being asked at mining examinations and it
shq,µld ·be wellgunderstood.
I
I l.i?
~;·

rv··
1;1; Diffusion is the process whereby one gas will gradually intermingle with another gas by virtue
·· j only of eheir molecular movement and without external aid. Once two or more gases have become
'~.·.·.·.1;~\ r uniformly diffused, they will not again separate. out, or stratify into layers according to their relative
' ,; I dexsities, but will remain for ever uniformly mixed.
---1:t'.b-~·
--: ----~lj5110)'!' .,
If'
~. ~r : ., r'

'\i: -·
 Further Notes on General Science.

The fact of gaseous diffusion may be easily demonstrated if we take two glass jars, one containing
the heavy gas carbon dioxide, CO 2, and the other containing air which is lighter than CO 2. If,now,
we place the two jars vertically, .mouth to mouth, with the CO 2 jar below the jar containing air, We
will, after a time, find that some of the heavy CO 2 will have ascended into the upper jar, whilst some .,
of the air will have descended into the lower jar. If we .wait long enough, the CO 2 and the air will ()
be uniformly mixed. · ·
TI:~re are several important ~onclusions we can draw from the above simple experiment:-

\ ~f) Diffusion takes place in spite of any diff ere nee in. the relative densities of the .gases concerned ••
(n(ft because of such a difference as some students suggest). It will be seen later that the density only,
affects the relative rates of diffusion. ·

Vj~2) Diffusion takes place even in oppositton to the effect or gravitz, but _we may use gravity to
assist the process, e.g., by placing the heavy CO 2 jar uppermost and allowing the CO 2 to descend by
gravity into the air, some of it being diffused .on the way.

Diffusion wm take place between two bodies of gas even if both bodies are stationary. ,,
. The 'cause of diffusion is simply that the molecules of matter are in 'corrtinual motion ; and if
1· one body of gas becomes adjacent- to another, the flying molecules of the one gas will continu:tllY •
penetr.ate the. molecu.I.ar interspac.es o_r.t~
·. . e other until . a uniform mixture· is produced. Diffusion will
·. even take place through a porous partition.

That perfectly diffused gases will never again stratify into layers· according to their densities
is shown by atmospheric air which consists of oxygen, nitrogen, CO 2, argon, and other gases in ..
' approximately the same percentages all over the earth and at all accessible heights. None of these
gases .is ever found as a '' layer '' anywhere.

In a mine, of course, we often find the light gas CH 4 (methane or " firedamp") in greater concen-
tration near the roof, and the heavy gas C0,2 (carbon dioxide) near the floor. But this is due partly
to the natural tendency for a light gas to rise and a heavy gas to sink ; partly to the constant aceessioa •
of fresh gas from the strata ; and partly to the fact that diffusion has not been completed.

In mining,. diffusion is constantly going on. It is by this process that firedamp in a roof ca.vitr
will descend and gradually mix with the air in the roadway below (even in the absence of a ventilati~~
current) and the concentration of gas in the cavity will eventually cease to exist unless it is replenishe~
by a feeder from the strata.
0

Diffusion, however, must be carefully distinguished from meehantealmixlng; e.g., as by thewove_:,

ment of tubs,. or by aventilatingcurrent in a mine. Diffusion-isstrictly a molecular process; independe]lt
of external aid, but the intermingling of the molecules may· obviously be. assisted or · ?iCce,ler~ted ·1>:~·
mechanical means. Thus, we can ventilate a cavity and remove gas from it more or less forcibly b,J:
erecting a hurdle cloth to direct the ventilating current into the cavity. This both removes the :gas
and dilutes it, but it is diffusion plus mechanical mixing, and not diffusion alone; '.)

Diffusion, by itself, would be quite inadequate for ventilating a mine; or even a roadway in a
mine ; but the ability of gases to diffuse, i.e., to become intermingled one with another, forms <ln
essential element in mine ventilation and enables the ventilating current effectively to dilute and •
render harmless noxious and inflammable gases and carry them out of the mine.

Conversely, diffusion of air into an accumulation of firedamp may render an oth~rwise non-explosive ,
atmosphere highly explosive, by 'diluting the firedamp and producing gas-and-air mixtures which
lie within the. limits of inflammability (from 5% to 15°k of CH 4 in air).

One further word of caution. Contrary to. whatsome students appear to think, diffusionis purely
a physical process. It is not a chemical process. No .combination of atoms takes -place. No change
of physical state.occurs; No new gases are formed. Ch~mical affinity has nothing whatever to do with
it. It is only the molecules that intermingle until a uniform gaseous mixture is c;btained.
' i\

·.~ G~AM'S LAW OF DIFFUSION.

\..,/ \Ne have 'seen that light molecules have a greater velocity than heavier molecules, and we can
no-v say tJ:.at light gases diffuse more quic.klytha,n heavy gases. Graham's Law states that:'-
()·.

The relative rates of diffusion of a number of gases vary

inversely as the square root .ot their relative densities. 0

In symbols, v o: where' V = relative rate of diffusion and D = relative degs~:'ty.

y'D
0 -~·
If, then, we, calculate the value of -·- for each gas concerned, this value will represent the
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~y'-H~- ~~-~~~
relative rate of diifusion.

o
0
c
 MG/2
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. 3-

Ex'C.l.mple 1. What are the relative rates of diffusion of CO 2 and CH 4 into air, assuming that of
air to be unity ( = 1) ?

Answer. We must first consider the relative densities of the gases concerned. These may be
expressed either as molecular weights, or as vapour densities, or as specific gravities, or merely as
arbitrary numbers. It doesn't matter much which, so long as all the gases are treated on the same
\.
terms. It is only comparative figures with which we are concerned. The main thing is to choose the
easiest way of arriving at a correct result.

In the present case, as air is to be· the standard ( = 1) it is most convenient to take the relative
densities in terms of specific gravities. The S.G. of air = 1 ; -of CO 2 = 1 ·520 ; and of CH 4 = 0 ·553.
1
Now fmd the value of-- in each case.
yD
Air Carbon Dioxide Methane
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
----- - ----
y1) ,;-1 y:b yl ·526 1 ·23 yD yb·553 0·744
1i)
I. 0·81 (approx.). 1 ·34 (approx.).

It follows that the relative rates of diffusion of these three gases are l, 0 ·81, and 1 ·34. In other
words, CH 4 diffuses 1 ·34 times as fast as air, or 34% faster than air. C02 diffuses 0 ~sl times as fast
as air, or 19% more slowly than air; whilst CH 4 diffuses I ·34 --:-- 0 ·81 = 1 ·65 times as quickly as
CO 2, i.e., about 65% faster than CO 2.

'° '""·• If we were asked only to give the relative rates of diffusion of two gases, e.g., CH 4 and CO 2, we
could proceed more directly as follows, and, on this occasion, we will use the. molecular weights of
CH 4 and CO 2, namely 16 and 44, as the relative 'densi'ties, although it would be quite permissible
to use the specific gravities as before. Then :-

Relative rate of diffusion of CH 4 yRelative density of C02 6·63 1 ·66

Relative rate of diffusion of CO 2 . y Relative density of CH 4 4 1

Hence CH 4 diffuses about 1 ·66 times as fast as CO 2•

Diff~Jsion Between Liquids.

Diffusion also takes place between certain liquids, e.g., between alcohol and water, or between
glycerine and jwater, but far more slowly than with gases because the attractive forces between the
molecules of a· liquid, and their smaller facility for movement, make it more difficult for them to
\}1sinuate themselves into each other's molecular interspaces. A familiar instance in which diffusion
will not take place is that of oil and water.
<l

Diffusion Between Solids.

Strange as it may seem, diffusion may also take place between solids, although very slowly. If,
for example, a plate of copper and one .of lead be firmly clamped together, it will be found that, after
a ye~r or more, the molecules of the copper and lead have intermingled at the plane of uriion .

HEAT AND MOLECULAR VELOCITY.

It will be evident from what has been said, that. there is a very .close relation between heat and
.. molecular velocity, for most forms of matter expand when heated and changes of physical state are
brought about by1 changes of temperature. In.all such cases, there is a change in the molecular velocity.

We can now rfiake the statement that heat is nothing but the energy due to the moving molecules
of a body. Ir
the molecules are in violent motion, the body produces a sensation of great heat, i.e';
it has a high temperature. If the molecules are moving relatively slowly, the body has a low temper-
. ature. In . fact,
~ the absolute temperature of a substance varies as the square of the molecular velocity.
Perhaps the highest temperature exists in the interior of the stars. Astronomers tell us that the
temperature of the centre of the sun is something like 40,000,000°C. The temperature of the surface
of the sun is estimated at about 6,000°C. The electric carbon arc gives a temperature of about 3,500°C.
A poker at "white heat" is well over l,000°C. So much for high temperatures. .
~
, "·At the other end of the scale, if we could cool a body to a sufficiently lo~ temperature, molecular
.~---~--"'~' ~-·-.-----m&ven1e11t~~ttl~s~alt0g~tl=ie..+-.an.fl-Wg_w~Jd-rea&h-t~~mpe1·.atuH~~kn~Wii-as-.absGlute~.e~-
' numerical value of absolute zero is -273 ·13°C. or ~459 ·63F. The lowest temperature ever reached
in-experimental work is -272·18°C.,_ at which temperature the gas helium has been frozen to ~ solid.
 ~~L~-- Further Notes on General Science.
4
<111'

Pressure Exerted by Gases.

When a gas is enclosed within a vessel, or steam within a boiler, it exerts a pressure on the sider
of the vessel, and this pressure is due to nothing else than the continual pounding of the molecules
against the internal surfaces. The pressure exerted is, in fact, proportional to the sum of the .kinetic
(or veloci~y) energies of all the, molecules contained within the vessel.

U heat be applied to the gas, the velocity of the molecules will be increased, they will pound more
energetically on the sides of the vessel, and the pressure thereon will in consequence be increased.
It is possible, as you all know, so to increase the pressure by the application of heat (additional mole-
cular velocity) that the vessel is unable to resist the strain and bursts asunder.

Evaporation and Condensation.

H you place a vessel of water in a room, the water will gradually disappear. In ordinary language,
we call this process evaporation. In scientific language, we say that the molecules of water, at the
·surface of the liquid, have acquired sufficient energy of movement to overcome the cohesive forces
in the liquid and to fly off into the atmosphere. Only the more rapidly- moving molecules can escape . ~
in this way, with the result that the average velocity of the remaining molecules is less than it was
before. The parent liquid thus becomes cooler. a principle taken advantage of in hot countries where
water is stored in earthenware jars which permit of slow, but constant, evaporation and thus keep the
water cool. -

Conversely, some of the vapour molecules in the atmosphere may lose molecular energy ii.e., heat)
unt il a stage is reached when they behave again as a liquid. This process is called condensation.

\Ve may here point out that evaporation in a closed vessel at a given temperature ceases when a
certain pressure of vapour is attained, for condensation of the vapour then balances the evaporat~1
of the liquid. .

TRANSMISSION OF HEAT.
Heat may be transmitted through a body, or from a hot body to a colder body, by three entirely
different processes, namely (a) by conduction, without any change of position of the particles of matter;
(b) by convection, i.e., by the actual movement or interchange of matter ; and (c) by radiation, without
the intervention of matter at all. .

Conduction of heat through a body is effected by one molecule colliding against another and
transferring its chargeof kinetic energy (or part of it) to neighbouring molecules.

For example, if a poker be placed in a fire, its outer end becomes heated by conduction. The
molecules of that portion of the metal which is in contact with the fire become violently agitated
and, vibrating with increased velocity, they collide with other molecules not actually in touch with
the fire. In this way, the increased molecular velocity is passed on from molecule to molecule in turn
until finally the outer end of the poker may become too hot to hold.

Some substances are better conductors than others. Most metals are good conductors, silver
being one of the best. The following tables give the relative values of a number of good conductors,
and also those of a number of bad conductors (obstructors) of heat. Gases and liquids, with the exception
of mercury, are all bad conductors of heat.

TABLE 1. TABLE 2_

ik
'·
Relative
Silver ...
Value of Good Conductors.
100·0
Relative Value of Bad Conductors.
!--'--------------·-------··----------
Silicate Cotton 100·0
•
Copper 73·6 Hair felt 85·4
Aluminium 31 ·3 Cotton Wool 82·0 -~~
Brass 23·6 Sheep's Wool 73·5
Zinc
Iron
19·0
11 ·9
Charcoal
Sawdust
71 ·4
61 ·3 t
Steel 11 ·6 Coke Breeze 43·4
Lead 8·5 \Vood ... 35·7
Mercury 1 ·3

Convection of heat refers to the manner by which liquids and gases are most readily heated,
and is a mode of heat-transmission in which the molecules, for the most part, act as vessels carrying
thetr cargo of energy from one place to another and circulating in currents known as convection
currents."

*[These currents have nothing whatever to do with electric currents, as some students erroneously
imagine.] __/jj) . ,
 MG/2,
The Uni·versal Mining School, Cardiff -5-

For example, take a glass vessel containing water in which a little bran has been placed, and
heat it from below. The lower or heated portion of the water then becomes less dense (i'.e., the molecules
become more separated and the interspaces increase in size) and the water rises vertically upwards
immediately above the source of heat until it reaches the surface of the water. Meanwhile the cooler
'111i:,
and. therefore denser water (where the molecules are closer together) descends around the sides of
the vessel and is heated in turn. A circulating current (or currents) of water is thus set up which is
made visible by the moving bran, and this current will continue so long as heat is applied to the
bottom of the vessel.

Other examples of convection currents are furnished by an ordinary house boiler, by water-tube
boilers for the generation of steam for powerpurposes, and (on a large scale) by the so-called "Trade
Winds '' so well known to mariners.

Radiation of heat refers to the almost instantaneous transmission of energy from one body to
another through theintervening space. Radiation will occur even in a vacuum, i,e., in a space devoid
of matter. It cannot therefore be due to molecular velocity. It is by radiation that the heat energy
reaches us from the sun in spite of the fact that there is some 93 million miles of empty space between
the sun and the· earth.

In order to account for the passage of energy from one body to another in this way, it has been
assumed by men of science that all space is filled with a medium which, for want of a better description,
we may consider as a very finely attenuated fluid, which is practically without weight. This medium
is called the Ether.** No one has proved that the Ether exists. We cannot see it, or feel it, or
demonstrate its existence ; and scientists are by no means agreed that it actually does exist. It may
well be that some other explanation of the radiation of energy through space is the true one. To enter
'more deeply into the controversy, however, would be quite out of place here. It is sufficient to know
· thatradiation of heat does take place, and that the energy is transmitted through space, not as heat
(molecular velocity) but as electro-magnetic waves (or vibrations. of the hypothetical ether) which
travel with the speed of light, namely about 186,000 miles per second.

These -electro-magnetic waves are not "hot," in the ordinary sense of the term, for they do not,
represent molecular velocity, but if they are arrested, the energy is absorbed as molecular motion
(i.e., as heat) in the arresting body. For instance, if you hold your hand in the sun's rays, or in front
of a fire, the wave motion from the sun, or the fire, is transmitted through the supposed Ether to
your hand. Here, the wave motion is arrested and you now feel it as heat.

.; Some kinds of matter are transparent to radiated "heat " just as some kinds are transparent to
cclight," and others to X-rays, and others to radio (" wireless ") waves. One of these comparatively
" transparent" media is air which, however, we must not consider as being perfectly transparent,
because it does arrest a small portion of the " heat." If you hold your hand in front of a fire, it is
warmed by radiation, although the air between the fire and your hand is warmed but slightly.

Radiation is practically an instantaneous action (so far as distances on this earth are concerned).
If you place a screen in front of the fire, this will at once prevent the electro-magnetic waves reaching
your hand, but if the screen be removed, the radiation is immediately felt once more and its energy
reconverted into molecular motion in your hand.

Absorption ~f heat is the converse of radiation. All bodies radiate energy to some extent, and
all bodies receive, or absorb, to some extent the energy radiated from the bodies by which they are
surrounded. ·The· energy which is not absorbed, is reflected. Good radiators are good absorbers, and
to an exactly equal degree. Reflecting power is the
exact inverse of radiating power.
TABLE 3.
The radiating and absorbing power depends on
the nature of the body and also on the extent or area
Relative Value of Radiators.
of surface it presents. Rough and dull surfaces, other
things being eqical, · radiate and absorb heat more Lampblack or soot 100
readily than smooth surfaces. If a "flat'' surface CastIron, polished 26
were absolutely smooth, all of it could be seen in plan. Steel, polished . 18
Brass, polished . 7
A rough surface cannot ; for a rough surface is a Copper, polished 5
mountainous surface in miniature. Hence, rougher Silver, polished ... 3
<surfaces radiate more heat simply because, to all
intents and purposes, they are larger surfaces. For
this reason, the covers of steam-engine cylinders, etc., are as a rule, highly polished, the object being
that tffiey shall radiate into space as small a· proportion as possible of the energy they are designed
to transmit.

**[The same word "ether '' is unfortunately also used to denote a volatile liquid, produced by
the distillation of alcohol with an acid, and used as an anaesthetic in surgery. In this case the definite
article "the" is usually omitted. Students must be careful to avoid confusing these two terms.]
"JJG/2. Further Notes on General Science.
-6-

On the other hand, we may desire, in certain Circumstances, to dissipate energy as fast as possible,
instead of economising it. For example, in a flame safety lamp, we cannot do without the light afforded
by the flame, but we desire to dissipate the heat at once. \Ve therefore surround the flame partly with ·;J)
a glass ~hich transmits the light, and partly with an iron gauze which admits the necessary air anc!,
also rapidly con~ucts the heat ~way and dissipates it by radiation into }he outer atmosphere. Similarly,
cables for carrymg large electric currents are made of many small wires instead of a single thick wire,
because, for .a given cross-sectional area, the bunch of smaller wires is not only more flexible but
affords the larger surface from which the heat generated by the current can be radiated into the
surrounding atmosphere.

We_may now summarise what we have learnt about the transmission of heat by saying that
conduction represents the transference of energy from one molecule to another: convection represents
the movement of heated molecules of a fluid circulating in currents and carrying their heat with them :
whilst radiation represents . the direct transmission of energy from one body to another without the
intervention of matter. All three processes may be going on at the same time within a very limited
area. In a boiler furnace, for example, some of the heat is transferred to the crown and sides of the
furnace by radiation; it passes through the boiler-plates by conduction : and the water in the boiler
is heated by convection.

Types of Radiation. TABLE 4.

As a matter of general interest, we may here Electro-Magnetic Waves.
note that .. the so-called gamma rays given out by
radium, as well as X-rays, ultra-violet rays, light rays,
heat rays, and radio waves are all fundamentally alike. Kind of T-i''ave. Wave-Length.
They all represent electro-magnetic· vibrations set up Gamma rays & X-rays About 0 ·000002 mm.
in the hypothetical Ether by the excitation of atoms. Ultra-violet rays 0 ·0002 mm.
They all travel at the same velocity, namely about Light rays ... From 0 ·0004 to 0 ·0007
186,000 miles per second. Their only difference lies in mm.
Infra-red (heat) rays From 0 ·001to0 -Lm.m .
their wave-length and frequency, as shown approxim- Radio Waves 60' cm. to 20,000
ately in Table 4, and it is this that gives the difference meters.
in the properties and uses of the various rays.

HEAT AND COMBUSTION.

Apart from heat received by radiation from the sun, and excluding the processes of atomic nuclear
energy now being developed, the chief source of heat energy is the combustion of coal and oil.
By " combustion,'' of course, is meant the chemical reaction between the atoms constituting the
complex molecules of the fuel and the atoms of oxygen in the air. In such reactions, only the oieter
electrons of the atoms are affected· and only a small proportion of the total available energy within
the atoms is set free. The nucleus of the atoms, wherein resides most of the atomic energy, remains
entirely unaffected.

Now the various molecules of which coal or oil is formed have their atoms held together by an?
attractive force, commonly known as "chemical affinity," which requires some force to overcome it.
To start the process of combustion, therefore, we must first apply heat from an externalsource to set
free the atoms from their molecular bonds, as it were, and enable them to combine with other free
atoms (oxygen) for which they have greater chemical affinity. Once this has been done, sufficient
further heat is made available by the combustion process itself to ensure continuance of the action.

But note. The internal, atomic, energy of the products of combustion is less than that of1the
same atoms before the combination took place. The atoms, of course, have not been destroyed;
they have merely been re-arranged in new ways in the products of combustion. Nor has any of the"
original energy been lost. The sum-total remains the same.

If then, the atomic energy of the products of combustion is less than that of the original fuel
and oxygen, what has happened to the balance? The answer is that the released atomic energy is
now converted to greater molecular energy and the new molecules rush about more vigorously. This
is only another way of saying that the products of combustion are hot.

Combustion, then, is a chemical process whereby some of the internal· atomic energy of the sub-
stances taking part in the reaction is converted into increased molecular energy in the final products,
the latter therefore being at a very much higher temperature than before. The heated- products of
comUustion carry on the process of initiating further chemical reactions, whilst a large balance o!,
heat remains over to be effectively utilised for other purposes.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.
Just as there is a principle, called the law of Conservation of Mass, which affirms that matter can
be neither created nor destroyed, but only altered in form, so also there is a corresponding principfe
called the law of Conservation of Energy, which affirms that energy is uncreatable and indestructible.
Its sum-total is a fixed and constant quantity. We can neither add anything to it, nor substract anything
from it. It can only be changed in form.
@ ..

FOUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT

THE u,M.S •. THIS PAPER
WAS· rHE FIRSi IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING
IN THE
SCHOOL
WORLD.
~ge ~~af ~ ~~wof; CONDITION
IT rs
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EXCLUSIVELY FOR
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MINE GASES AND EXPLOSION·S

Answers MG/2
FURTHER NOTES ON GENERA! .. SCIENCE.
1. Explain how the 'Velocity of the molecules of a gas is affected by (a) their we·ight and (b) their
temperature.

,EFFECT OF WEIGHT AND TEMPERATURE ON MOLECULAR VELOCITY.

(a) Weight.
The effect of the weight of a gas molecule (or the relative density of the gas) on its molecular
velocity is expressed by the law that the molecular velocity of a gas varies inversely as the square root
of its relative density. In other words, the lighter the molecule, the greater is its molecular velocity,
the temperature being constant. Thus a. hydrogen. molecule moves 4 times as quickly as an oxygen
molecule which is 16 times as heavy.

(b) Temperature.
The effect of the application of heat to a body of gas is to increase the speed of .the molecules
to the extent that the absolute temperature varies directly as the square of the molecular velocity.
When we heat a gas, we do not make its molecules any lighter. We simply increase their rate ot
movement and, if the gas is free to expand, we drive the molecules further apart. The gas as a whole
then becomes less dense, and its weight per unit volume is decreased. Conversely, if the gas is not
free to expand, its density remains unaltered, but its pressure increases because of the more violent
motion of the molecules.

''----1.---:----'-----------·--. ---.-------·---,

2. What causes Matter to change its physical state-?

CHANGES OF PHYSICAL STATE.

By a change of physical state is. meant simply a change from solid to liquid, or from liquid to
gas, or vice versa, without change of chemical composition. Such a change is always due to an alteration
in the molecular velocity: i.e., either additional energy is imparted to the molecules, causing a solid
to become liquid, or a liquid to become gas: or else some energy is given up by the molecules to
surrounding matter and the substance changes from a gas to a liquid, or frorri a liquid to a solid.
Briefly, the change is caused by an acquisition or a loss of molecular energy.

3. Why is it that, other things be~ng equal, liquids evaporate more, quickly in a warmer atmosphere?

EVAPORATION.
Liquids evaporate more quickly in a warmer atmosphere (other things being equal) because
their molecular velocities are then greater, and the molecules of the liquid are thereby invested with
greater energy, corresponding to their greater velocity, which enables them to escape at a faster rate
from the surface of the liquid into the atmosphere.
[Nate. . It is important to say " other things being equal '' because other things besides temper-
• ature affect the rate of evaporation of a liquid. Thus we find that the same quantity of liquid
evaporates (". . ) more quickly in a flat dish than a deep one, as the free surface from which the molecules
ccan escape is then greater ; (2) more quickly (in the case of water) if the atmosphere is dry, i.e., contains
little water vapour, for then fewer molecules which escape from the liquid are liable to return to it
and become re-condensed; and (3) more quickly if air is· blowing over the liquid, for then the evaporated
particles are constantly being carried away. These various factors make it possible for evaporation
sometimes to take place more rapidly in a cold but dry atmosphere than in a warmer but humid
atmosphere.] ·
---i51TO)~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
 MG/2
. A/2, -- Answers on General Science .
c
4. A toy balloon is not well blown out : you heat it at the fire, .and the pressure of the air unthin. the
balloon extends it to bursting point. Explain why this is so.
\ ,,,
DEVELOPMENT OF PRESSURE BY HEAT.

When the balloon is heated at the fire, the velocity of the molecules of the gases, chiefly oxygen
and nitrogen, within the balloon is gradually and. cumulatively increased with the result that they
pound with increasing violence on the internal surfaces of the balloon. The gaseous pressure is thereby
built up and the balloon expands until finally the pressure of the pounding. molecules exceeds the
strength of the balloon fabric and the latter bursts. ••
The relation between pressure and temperature in the case of gases is expressed by the statement
that the pressure developed varies as the absolute temperature, assuming the volume to remain constant.
Conversely, if a . gas is. free to expand so that its pressure remains. constant, the volume of a given
mass of gas varies as its absolute temperature. The latter statement is known as Oharles" Law. ·
In the case of a balloon, both the . pressure and the volume of the gases are increased and both
the laws referred to play their part in varying measure: I\

5. When _you turn 011, a gas jet in. your home, why does it not become ignited until a lighted match is
applied? __ ) ·(_)

INITIATION OF COMBUSTION.

The gas (which is really a mixture of gases, chiefly methane, hydrogen and carbon monoxide)
will not ignite when the jet is turned on, until a lighted match is applied, because the atoms comprising
each molecule of the various gases are bound together by a force called chemical affinity, a force which •
is associated with the arrangement of the electrons in their orbits around the nucleus. The liberation
of these atoms, so that they may enter into new combinations, must be effected by the application
of sufficient heat (the lighted .ma.tch) to overcome affinity.

Heat so increases the molecular velocity of the gas and so agitates the atoms within each molecule,
that the atoms are enabled to free themselves from their existing bonds: whereupon the released
atoms immediately enter into new chemcial combination with atoms of oxygen from the atmosphere,
for which element they have a greater affinity. This change-over process is the chemical reaction
which we refer to as combustion.

The same remarks apply to all forms of rapid combustion, whether of coal in a fire grate, or of
petrol vapour in a motor-car engine, or of firedamp in a mine. All these chemical reactions require'
an initial expenditure of heat. Thereafter, some of the heat of combustion is utilised to liberate furfher
atoms so that continuous combustion is maintained.

(a) What is understood by the expression " diffusion of gases," and why does such diffusion take
place ? (b) Define Graham's Law of Diffus1:on.

DIFFUSION OF GASES.
(a) The expression "diffusion of gases " refers to the fact that any number of gases placed in a
given vessel or otherwise becoming adjacent to one another will diffuse into (i.e., intermingle with)
each other irrespective of any difference in their densities and in opposition to the irfi1uen,~e of gravity.
Ii
Such diffusion takes place for the simple reason that molecules are never at rest, particularly
in the case of gases, and so the flying molecules of one body of gas are continually penetrating the
molecular interspaces of adjacent bodies of gas. This goes on even if all the bodies of gas concerned
are apparently stationary, although the process may be accelerated by mechanical movement of th~,
gases.

The final result is that a uniform mixture of gases is produced, having the same composition
throughout. Such a mixture (except in so far as fresh gases are introduced) is permanent, i.e., the
gases concerned will never again stratify into layers in accordance with. their specific gravities. ..

(b) Graham's Law of Diffusion states that the relative rates of diffusion of a number of different
.
gases vary inversely as the square roots of their relative densities.
--~-----~-~---~-~-_, , ,__ ··-~---o--,--' ~~=~""---
 MG/2
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. ,. A/3~

Given four .gases whose comparative densities are as 1, 4, 9, and 16. Ar what relative rates wilL
each of the three last diffuse into the first when brought into contact with it separately, and under
such conditions that there is no mechanical movement in either of them, and that the lighter gas
is uppermost ?

PROBLEM ON DIFFUSION.

It is specified that there is no mechanical movement and that the lighter gas is uppermost in
each case. It follows that no factor has to be considered other than pure diffusion, in. which case -
Graham's Law may correctly be applied, namely that the relative rates of diffusion vary as l

Let us calculate the values of --- in each case. We then have :-

yb

t 1 j
•. 1.-
r
Gas (a). D 1, and relative rate of diffusion
yD
1
yl
1

1
Gas (b). D 4, ·2
yD y4
1
Gas (c), D 9, .i,
3
yfT y§
1
Gas (d). D J_
16, " 4
• yD yJ.6
It thus follows that gas (b) diffuses half-as fast as gas (a); gas (c) diffuses at one-third the rate
of gas (a) ; and gas (d) diffuses at one-quarter the rate of gas (a). -

We can get rid of the fractions by multiplying all the rates of diffusion by 12, and without altering
their relative values. The relative rates of diffusion are then 12 : 6 : 4 : 3, from which it is easy to
draw further conclusions. Thus gas (b) diffuses twice as fast as gas (d) and lltimes as fast as gas (c).
The lightest gas (a) diffuses fastest of all, whilst the heaviest gas (d) has the slowest rate of diffusion.

[NOTE. Some students assume the given comparative
then proceed to divide by 14 · 475 in order to convert to
1 relative rates of diffusion. Such a procedure, however, is
g¥tit~ imaginary. Only relative' densities are required and
as given in the question.]
densities to be vapour densities and they
specific gravities before working out the
quite unnecessary. The given gases are
these may be purely arbitrary numbers,

8. What is meant by the law of Conservation of Energy ?

{

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.
The law of Conservation of Energy states that :
(1) The total amount of energy in the universe is absolutely unalterable, i.e., no energy is ever
{;
created or destroyed.
(2) The various forms of energy may be converted; one into another.
Energy may be transferred from one body to another, but the energy lost by one body is gained
by other bodies, and vice versa.
a
[Note. 'This law explains why it is impossible to get more energy out of machine than you put
into it. We can only change its form. It is in defiance of the law that optimistic inventors have tried
to devise pe(petual motion machines and, of course, with a conspicuous lack of success.
( The law ignores the now known fact that matter is itself convertible into energy and that a given
mass of matter has an exact equivalent in terms of energy. This is justifiable, however, because, in all
ordinary chemical processes where heat energy is evolved, the change of mass is so small that it cannot
be detected. Even in radioactive atomic processes where splitting of the nucleus is involved, only
a very partial conversion of matter to energy occurs.
" c It has been calculated by physicists that; if one lb. of matter could by some means be converted
--~~-~-~~~~-~-wh-el-1y----i-n-t--0-----g.ngr--g¥,i.Lwo_uld__yr.itld about 11.000 million KW-hours of~ergy~ This is a fantastic figure
.. when we remember that only about 4 KW-hours of heat energy are produced'by mereiy-~burning an--
• c equal weight of coal and that only about 1 KW-hour of energy is actually delivered to the bus-bars
/er;- of the most efficient power stations per lb. of coal consumed.]
MG/2 Answers on General Science.
A/4 --·· -----·---···-·------------ _

9. Gioe one or two illustrations of a siniple k1:11d shoioing tlwt one form of energ1' nia~y be changed
into another f orm, "'

TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY.
The following examples are illustrative of the fact that one form of energy may be changed into
another form :-- ·
(1) The chemical energy in the food we eat is transformed by complex processes in our digestive
system into heat energy (so keeping us warm) or into muscular energy (so giving us power to do manual
work).
(2) The heat energy from the sun causes differences of atmospheric temperature and pressure
at different parts of the earth's surface, and these zones of different pressure cause air-currents (wind)
to flow. Heat is thus being transformed into the kinetic energy of moving masses of air, and this can
be utilised by cl windmill to drive an electric generator, converting the kinetic energy into electric
energy, which can then be re-converted into (say) heat, by means of a radiator, or into mechanical
energy by means of a motor.
(3) The chemical energy in coal is transformed in a colliery generating station into electric energy
in a generator, via heat, steam-pressure, and mechanical energy. The resulting electric energy disappears
in numberless ways, but the energy apparently dissipated reappears as kinetic energy (in a moving
set of tubs) or potential energy (in water raised to. the surface from underground) or light (in lamps)
or pressure (in an air-compressor) and so on. Eventually the whole of the original energy in the coal
is dissipated· into space as heat energy, and is then irrecoverable in so far as its effective utilisation
is concerned.
(4) When we throw a stone up into the air, muscular energy is converted into kinetic energy
in the moving stone. This is in turn converted into potential energy as the stone rises until the whole
of the energy is potential when the stone is at the top of its flight. During the descent of the stone,
the potential energy is gradually re-converted to kinetic energy,. and when the stone strikes the ground,
this energy is all changed into heat energy, so increasing the temperature of the stone and of the
ground. The heat energy is finally dissipated into the atmosphere.

10. Explain clearly what is meant by the terms conduction, connection and radiation of heat.

TRANSMISSION OF HEAT.
Conduction of heat is the: passage of heat through a body, or froi.~ one body to another in contact
therewith, due to the· increased molecular velocity being transferred from molecule to molecule. The
motion is not visible and the molecules do not change their relative positions. Most metals are good·
conductors of heat.

Convection of heat is the passage of heat through a fluid, by circulation of the heated molecules.
It is a process associated only with fluids (liquids and gases) in all of which the molecules, when heat~d
from below, are free to ascend, carrying with them their increased store of molecular energy. Colder
molecules then descend to be heated in their turn, the circulating currents thus set up being termed
convection currents. If is practically impossible to heat fluids from above, by conduction, because
they are very bad conductors of heat.

Radiation of heat is the passage of "heat " through space from one body, which radiates the
" heat," to another body which absorbs it. Actually, the heated molecules of the radiant body have
their atoms affected in such a way that electro-magnetic waves are sent out which travel through'»
space with the speed of light, viz., 186,000 miles per second. These waves, or rays as they are
commonly termed, represent energy which is re-converted into heat when they are arrested by ·a
material body. The intervening space is not heated, except in so far as the waves are arrested to
some slight degree by the air. An incandescent body emits visible light rays as well as invisible heat
rays, the only difference lying in their wave-length and frequency. Amongst hot bodies which are
not incandescent, those with rough black surfaces radiate their heat more quickly, than those with
smooth polished surfaces. Similarly, dull surfaces absorb radiated heat better than bri;ght surfaces,
for the latter reflect more waves back into space.
•
If a hot body is suspended in air, all three processes of heat transference come intc play simul-
tanec.usly. Some of the heat is transferred to the air by conduction and is carried away by convection ,
currents in the air. The rest of the heat is radiated into space until fi.nally the body reaches the
temperature of its surroundings. If the hot body were suspended in a vacuum, it would shed all its
heat by radiation only,· i.e., by radiating its energy in all directions, quite independently of i+s lack ""'
of contact with other material particles.

CARDIFF PRINTERS LTD.

--------~---------------~~_:::..,\1.:---·--f--·
 c,
'ti [':":.;,

FOUNO. . E'.o 1883.

,.-;· ·

.::,,,.. THE U.M.8.

' T. A. SOUT!fERN ~~·
COPYRl(JHT.
-o
PAPER
THIS
THE FIRST
WA.S

g-g~ ~~at~)~
IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRfSPONOENCE
MINING SCHOOL ~,Jwof, .:~ONDITION
IT IS
THAT
RESERVED
IN THE WORLD. EXCLUSIVELY FOR
llolOOAPOAATED 1 GSl. C~RDIFF (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN USE.

MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

Lesson MG/I.
SOME NOTES ON CHEMISTRY.

·\:e. It is the function of chemistry to determine the nature and properties of the various kinds of matter,
to analyse complex substances into their component parts, and to discover the ways in which one substance
reacts with another to produce new compounds.
In mining, some acquaintance with chemistry is required as a preliminary to the study of Mine
Gases, 'Explosions, Spontaneous Combustion, Explosives, the Constitution of Coal, and so on. We
will therefore consider a few elementary principles of chemistry which have a general bearing on all these
subjects.

MATTER AND I',l'S PROPERTIES.

First, then, what is rnatter P In everyday language, it is the "stuff'' of which tangible things
are made. More exactly, it is ''that which has mass and possesses inertia," or, "matter is anything
that has weight and requires force to move it."
And what do we mean by the properties of matter ? We can define the " properties " of matter
as those qualities or characteristics whereby one substance may be identified, or distinguished from
another. Such properties may be either physical or chemical. .,., .,
Physical properties are those which do not involve the composition of a substance, but only S...:.ch
qualities as its smell, colour, and taste ; its degree of hardness or softness ; its relative weight ; its melting
and boili~ points ; its electrical conductivity ; and so on. Thus the. physical properties of the gas
called oxygen are that it is colourless, odourless, and tasteless. It is slightly heavier than air, having
a specific gravity of 1·105. It is slightly soluble in water and can be condensed to a liquid at a tem-
perature of-184°C. and a pressure of one atmosphere.
Chemical properties are concerned with the composition of a substance, and with the way in
which it reacts chemically with other substances. Thus oxygen is an element consisting of nothing
but itself. It is an active supporter of combustion and combines freely with most other elements, causing

.:·. .
• them to become " oxidised."
.
The three physical· states of matter.
The simplest classification of matter is into its three " physical states," namely solid, liquid and
gaseous. A solid has a fixed volume and shape. A liquid has ·a fixed volume but no fixed shape. A
gas has neither fixed volume nor fixed shape.
- .~"' - ·~Rt .every substance! ho~ev~r, ~an be fit~ed ea~ily.into one of these classes: Thus. pitch, which,~~,
~ems ·qmte hard and. solid, will m time flow like a liquid and take the shape of its contamer. It thus '<

partakes of the properties of both a· solid and a liquid.

'll Some substances may be readily changed from one physical state to another, without any change
in composition. Thus, water may exist as either ice, water, or steam, depending mainly on its tern-
p1:1;.wature. Most metals can be liquefied . by the application of heat, and most gases can be liquefied by 1\.
being cooled to a sufficiently low temperature. ~,

Physical changes .
. Changes .ofsthe kind just mentioned, i.e. the melting of a solid, or the liquefaction ofa gas, are called
'~ phyaicalehanges," f9r they involve no change of chemical composition .. Such changes are usually?'
easily reversible,. and the original substance is recovered when the original conditions are restored.
. . 0
~:~!Jie'- exan_ip.lesof physical~~ha~g_einclude (a) the magnetisation of iro~, (b~ the heati~g of a metallic
\Y}rl.'.! ~ electricity, (c) the ~"lfpans1on of a metal by heat, and (d) the dissolving of sohds, e.g -. salt or
(fi E:-'i.igar, in water. In all these cases, the chemical composition remains unaffected by the change:

Chemical changes. •
-rhese are of a more deep-seated character. They always involve a change of chemical corn-
position an? the prod'bcti?n of new. kinds o( su~stances, and are usually .aci:;ompa~ied by \he e:rolution
1
~~@f heat or hgnt, or sometimes by violent . explosive effects. . Some chem1ca!: changes arc·. reversible~:~
C.·--r-\t-"'·d·"ialter~i?~~~,~::~~~---~.?~~i!~()~~~f_!~~--~~per~_rr:i~~h_·l)~t~1_lsu~!!I
..!~~-~_!J~~~~:c~~-!1'-~---~~!~r~_:_'!ersible, a,~d in
'· some cases it rs quite ~rrevers101e. A11 cases of comoustwn ana explosion are cnem>:c~t~£:anges: ----·c;
4802
 • \
-, ..•
i\1G/1

_____
2 __' . ,_
• . Some N 'otes. km Chemistry
i --~---
~-

Consider the burning of coal,· whereby a shining black solid is converted to invisible gases, with .,
a residue of "ash." The change of composition is complete and the products of combustion bear no
resemblance to the original coal. Nor can the coal ever be recovered. A chemical change. ha:
occurred, and of a most complex kind.
Consider also the rusting of iron. In this case, a bright, strong, metal is converted to a brown,
flaky, weak, substance, heavier than the original iron. The rust has been produced by the chemical
combination of the iron with the oxygen of the air in the presence of moisture. In short, the rusting
of iron is a chemical change and not merely a physical change.

Conservation of mass*.
The law of conservation of mass-e-sometimes known as the law of indestructibility of matter-
is one of the fundamental principles of chemistry. It states that matter can neither _be created .non;
destroyed. Its sum-total is a fixed and constant quantity. The utmost we can do is to change itg
form, or induce already existing. matter to enter into new combinations and form new substances, 0
In every quantitative chemical experiment, it is tacitly assumed that the law of conservation of mass
is obeyed.
When a chemical reaction takes place, it often happens that the new substances produced weigh
more, or it may be less, individually, than the· original substances, taken individually ; and this may
lead some students erroneously to suppose that there has been some gain, or loss, of matter in the process.
In every case, however, the. sum-total of the weights of the new products is exactly the same as that .
of all the original substances ·concerned in the reaction.

ELEMENTS.
The dictionary defines an " element," in general terms, as a " component part" of anything, or
as a " first principle." Among the ancients, everything in the world was supposed to be made up of
fire, air, earth and water, and these were called the "four elements." In chemistry, however, the
word " element " has a vastly different meaning, and it is only with this meaning that we are here con-
cerned, namely :-

An element is -a substance which cannot by any known cherrrical proces~

be split up into two or more simpler substances.

Altogether, there are· some ninety-two different elements, each one of which is a simple substance
that defies further decomposition by the ordinary processes of chemical analysis ; and although the vast
material fabric of Nature comprises multitudes of different substances-more than a miHiofz are known
to the chemist-these are all built up from this small number of simple elements, arranged in countless
different ways. <'
The following Table gives a list of a few of the commoner elements, with their symbols and
approximate atomic weights.
TABLE OF COMMON ELEMENTS.
For our present purpose, the first five
efernerrts in the Table are the most important,
ATOMIC I
namely Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxy-
ELEMENT SYMBOL WEIGHT
I
I!!

gen, . and Sulphur, . and. their symbols. and Hydrogen .. \ H 1

atomic weights should be memorised .. All the 2 C arb 0 n 1
C 12
. ·1
gases commonly met with in mines are formed 3 I Nitrogen . ·1 N 14
either by mixtures or by combinations of two 4 Oxygen I
0 16 .:J•
or more of these five. elements. The same 5 Sulphur ..
elements enter into the composition of coal
itself. 6 Argon ..
The sixth element, Argon, is a rare inert
~-i-~--f.--,--3-~;-·;-. ~ -·: )-~
,
gas, but is included because it forms part of 7 Sodium ..
the atmosphere, although only 0 · 94%>. 8 Aluminium ..
9 Potassium
The next twelve elements (7-18) are all .. Ca 40
10 Calcium
metals, arranged in the order. of their atomic .. Fe 55·8
11 Iron
weights. One of them, namely mercury, is .. Cu. 63·6
(
12 Copper
a liquid at ordinary temperatures. 13 Zinc .. Zn 65·4
~ 0
The last two elements (19 and 20) are 14 Silver .. Ag 107·9
both non-metals. Silicon is of interest 15 Tin 0 .. Sn 118·7.
because it furms nearly 28% by weight of the
rocks.. of the earth's· crust, . being combined
16
17
Gold
Mercury
..
..
Au
200·6 , I
. CJ 197::"'?;;:- ..

with. oxygen to form silica (quartz), or with 18 Lead .. 207·2

!
metallic oxides to form' silicates iflspar, ~
mica, etc.). 19
20
Silicon
Phosphorus
Si
p
28
31 . ·I
<. *r Note. This law holds good for all ordinary chemical reactions, within even refined limits "
c experimerzal error. The study of the disintegration of radioactive elements, however, has shown th:t')
· mass is a~tually convertible into energy, and this is now accepted as a truism in modern physics. This
'--·o
____ 3,.:J.>'~c::! _ _c>f_!hc;__ ~~l:>.i~<::!, h<2~C.Y~l'.L_i!;__ g1!it:e__b_~)'J)Qg~9ur __ presentscope .orneeds .•J-----~ _ ----~----- __ - - - ----~~o·---~
 The Universal Mi~;Yng School, ~rdifJ
I
t_..i
.... l\IG/1"'
3

COMPOUNDS.
{; It is evident that, if there are only 92 elements, and over a million known substances, by far the
greater number of substances must be of a more complex character. They are, in fact, chemical
compounds.
A compound is. a substance which contains two or more elements chemically
combined together in certain constant proportions by weight~

Consider water. It is known to consist of 8 parts by weight of oxygen chemically combined with
1 part by weight of· hydrogen. All ordinary water, from whatever source, is composed of oxygen and
hydrogen in these precise proportions. The combination of the oxygen and the hydrogen is brought
about by some· chemical process, e.g. combustion, and not, of course, by merely mixing the two gases.
\ This simple example of a compound serves well to show that, when two or more elements combine
"chemically, the elements concerned completely lose their identity in the compound and an
entirely new substance is forrned, Moreover, the properties of the compound are usually quite
different from those of the constituent elements. Thus hydrogen is an inflammable gas and oxygen
actively supports combustion ; and yet water is a liquid at ordinary temperatures and is the very substance
used to extinguish fire. A greater difference in properties could scarely be imagined.
Other ·examples of chemical compounds are the poisonous gas carbon monoxide (consisting of
carbon and oxygen); marsh gas or methane (carbon and hydrogen); iron pyrites (iron and sulphur);
chalk (calcium, carbon, and · oxygen) ; common salt (sodium· and chlorine}: and quartz or silica
(consisting of silicon and oxygen).

MIXTURES.
These form yet a third type of substance, or aggregation of substances, which we must consider.
A mixture (sometimes termed a " :mechanical mixture ") consists of two or more elements, or
of two or more compounds, or of both elements and compounds, that have become physically inter-
mingled, without combining in the chemical sense. A mixture of sand and sugar, or of peas and nuts,
is a simple example of· this.
In a mixture, each constituent preserves its own identity and the properties of the mixture are
more or less an average of those of its constituents. A mixture of sand and sugar would taste both gritty
and sweet.
· Moreover, unlike the case of a compound, the various substances in 'a mixture may exist in
any proportion by weight. A mixture of sand and sugar may be nearly all sand, or nearly all sugar, or
anewhere in between. ·
Further, when substances are merely mixed, the process is not normally accompanied by the evolution
of heat, and the constituents. can usually be separated again by physical methods. For example, we
can separate sand and sugar by dissolving the sugar. in water.
" Examples of mixtures are gunpowder, consisting of charcoal, sulphur, and potassium nitrate in
suitable proportions; granite, a mixture chiefly of three crystalline minerals, quartz, felspar, and mica;
brass, a mixture of copper and zinc, in various proportions ; bronze, a mixture of copper and . tin ;
.. coal, a complex mixture of various hydro-carbons with a certain variable amount of mineral matter (ash) ;
, solutions of solids in liquids; and gaseous mixtures such as air, blackdamp, and the afterdarnp
"II of an explosion. In the two latter cases (solutions and gaseous mixtures) it is obvious that the " mixture,"
whilst a~~ll a physical intermingling, is of a more intimate character than in the first three examples. The
mi:!ing, °'In fact, takes place between the "molecules'' of the substances concerned.

•THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER.

So far, we have been considering matter in bulk, i.e. in quantities which can be handled, or perceived
by the eye. We must now consider how elements and compounds are supposed to be built up.

Atoms.
According to Dalton's Atomic Theory, each of the elements can be split up, in the last resort>
into minute ~artic~les called atoms, meaning "indivisible" (from the Greek a = not, temno = I cut).
- The theory also postulates that : (1) the atoms are indestructible, and (2) all the atoms of a single element
are. identical, but they differ from those of other elements, As there are only ninety-two elements,
there t;;::.~or.4,y be ninety-two essentially different kinds of atom, and out of these, every known substance
. is made." The ordinary practical"definition of an atom is as follows :- o
II

An .atorn is the smallest part of an element whi9 can take part in a

•'"'·' chemical change. ·
•
Atoms are in effect tb.e units from which (Ilatter is built up, but they are very small units. It is _
~ ~\1fimatedthat it would take about 250 mflfion ~atoms, side by side, to stretch an inch, and that ther :/5'
.: , ' ~?E
if.!'e mor~ ato1?1s in a pint of wat~r than there are pi_n!_s ~~!e~ }!1: ~l_l_i:!!e oce~!l~-~ ~b.~ -~rl~~ _. Tlle mind, _
.,~ic-------c-.c'Vfi"''~ ~-~---~-~-\.~n--faet-,-1-s-q_tt1te--unable·-to-conceive- th~sma1tness of an atom. Needless to say, rt is quite mv1s1~le under
the most powerful microscope .
• •
 NiG/1

4
...... '

Some Notes
'I
(/fl
;...;
Chemistry
•

'-
Atoms are chemically very active particles (far more so than the substance taken as a whole)
and, normally, they link up with other atoms of the same kind, or of a different kind for which they have •
a ~reater " chemical affinity," forming larger particles called "molecules." In a general way, they only
exist as separate atoms momentarily whilst a chemical reaction is taking place. The exceptions are a
few rare elementary gases (of which argon is an example) the atoms of which are so unsociable that they
refuse to have anything to do with other atoms.
At one time an atom was pictured as a hard, impenetrable particle, somewhat like a minute billiard
ball. We now know, however, that it has quite a complicated structure of its own. Scientists now
picture it as a miniature solar system, in wh .1 particles of negative electricity, termed electrons,
infinitely smaller and lighter than even the atom itself, revolve in orbits around a minute kernel or nucleus
composed of positively charged protons and other electrically neutral particles known as neutrons.
Almost the whole mass or weight of the atom lies in the nucleus. The simplest atom is that of hydrogen,
which has one electron revolving around a single proton. Other atoms become increasingly more com-
plicated in structure with increasing atomic weight.
It will be seen .that the atom no longer remains "indivisible." As is now well known, the
nucleus of certain kinds of atom can be arranged to " split " with extreme explosive violence, the energy
locked up within the nucleus being released instantaneously by the disruption ; and the gradual release
of atomic energy for power purposes is in process of fulfilment. These actions, however, transcend
the realms of ordinary chemistry, the laws. of which remain unaltered. In chemical reactions, only
the outermost electrons are affected and, from our point of· view, nothing smaller than· the atom
itself need be considered.
Atomic weights.
All the atoms of any one element are essentially similar in structure and have the same weight, but
the atoms of different elements are different in structure and have different weights, as shown in the
Table on Page 2. For purposes of comparison,. it is convenient. to take the element Hydrogen as the
standard ( = 1) * and to relate the weights of all the other elements to this standard. Thus :-
The atorrric weight of an element ·is the number of times one atom. of the
eferrrent is heavier than one atom of hydrogen.
Symbols.
In che.nistry, each element is known by a symbol, consisting usually of the initial letter or letters
of its English or Latin name. Thus I-I is the symbol for hydrogen, 0 for oxygen, N for nitrogen, and
so on. Examples of double symbols are Fe for iron (Latin ferrum), Cu for copper (Latin cuprum) and
Ca for calcium. (Latin calx).
Strictly speaking, a symbol is not merely an .abbreviation. Each symbol standsfoxone atorn only
of the element. Further, although a symbol does not, of itself, indicate the atomic weight of the element
(i.e. its weight relat~ve t~ the hydrogen atom) each symbol c:orrespond.s, in fac.t, to ~ne defi_nite atomi<i
weight, as shown m a list of the elements. Hence, by making use of these weights m chemical formulae
and equations, we can calculate the relative weights of the elements contained in a compound, or con-
cerned in chemical reactions. Interpreted in this sense :--'-:-
H stands for 1 part by weight of Hydrogen.
C 12 parts Carbon.
N 14 Nitrogen.
0 16 Oxygen.
S 32 Sulphur.
Nevertheless, symbols are often used loosely as a convenient. shorthand to. represent any quantity
of the elements concerned, and this. may be regarded as legitimate provided that the stricter meaning
of a symbol is borne in mind. rC'
Molecules.
Matter in its normal condition does not exist as " atoms." The atoms unite or combine chemically
with others of the same kind(as in elements), or of a different kind (as in compounds), to form larger
particles called molecules (diminutive from the Latin moles = a little mass). A molecule is an assem-
blage of atoms, and it may be defined as follows :-'-
A molecule is the smallest quantity of a substance which can exist inde-
pendently and still retain all the normal characteristics of the substance
as a whole.
In short, the atom is the chemical unit of matter, and the molecule is the physical ud'it. A molecule
is much less chemically active than an atom.
An elementary molecule is the molecule of an element and necessarily contains only atoms of
a airrrilar kind. In the case of the common elementary gases, hydrogssi. -nitrogen, and ox~eic,•there
are two atoms in each molecule, and these elements are called diatomic elements. Ozone is a triatomic
element. and its molecule contains three· atoms of oxygen. Argon is an unsociable monatomic element,
and its molecule contains only one atom. 8The molecules of solids and liquids are usually more complex
than those of gases; and the number of atoms per molecule is variable according to the conditions.i,
To represent the molecule of an element, we write the atomic symbol followed by a small '>·
i&~,ex figure (written slightly below the symbol) to show ~,he number of atoms 2n the molecule. Thus
a molecule of. hydrogen is represented by H2 , . of nitrogen by N 2 , of oxygen by 02 , and of ozone by 03 ; \
If we wishc~d to refer to two molecules of each gas, we would write 2H2, 2N 2 , 202, and 203 .

·-·-·-·--·- -·· · -· -~ -~fiY(.)!~_'. A~!.l!'!!J.Y,jp.ternational atomic -weightsare ba~ed 011 a s!andard o~O~ygen = 16, th~ :\Veight · •
-0£ Hydrogen then being 1- 008~- ·-But" tliiS is. :i<fefi:iiemerif. which - need ncff affect "l:is.} --- -- ---- -· - -· · · · · - ~·-··- -

'
 .I "" .;
The Universal Miiiing School, c!rdiff
5

A compound molecule is the molecule of a· chemical compound and necessarily contains two or
more unlike atoms which have been attracted to one another by the force known as chemical affinity.
This force acts more powerfully between certain kinds of atom than between others. In fact, chemical
compounds can only exist because atoms commonly have a greater chemical affinity for atoms of a different
kind than for atoms of the same kind. For example, the hydrogen atom has a greater " chemical affinity "
for the oxygen atom than for another hydrogen atom or for the carbon atom. The number of atoms
in a compound molecule may range from two upwards. Thus a molecule of methane, CH4, contains
five atoms.
Formulae.
To represent the molecule of a . compound, we . write. the atomic symbols of the elements that
have combined to form the molecule, with small index figures to show the number of atoms of each kind
'tpresent. Such .a group .of symbols is called a chemical.formula. Thus CO is the formula for one
molecule of carbon monoxide ; H2 0 represents one molecule of water ; · CH4 a molecule of methane
.("fired.amp"); CaC03 a molecule of calcium carbonate; and so on.
If we wish to refer to two or more molecules of a given kind, we must write its formula, preceded
by the number of molecules. Thus· 2CH4 represents two molecules of CH4, and 6H2 0 represents six
molecules of H2 0 ; and so on.
It will now be dear that every chemical compound is a single substance of definite composition
which can be represented by a chemical formula. On the other hand, a mixture is a number of
different substances which may be present in any proportion and cannot be represented by a chemical
formula. Only the separate constituents can · be represented by their respective formulae.
Further, a chemical compound is a combination of unlike atoms within each molecule,
the characteristic properties of each kind of atom being apparently lost in those of· the molecule. On
the other hand, a mixture is an intermingling of unlike molecules· (or larger particles) each of which,
however unlike its neighbours, preserves its own individuality.
It will also be evident that the. molecule is the smallest possible part into which a compound
can be divided ; for if we were to split up the compound molecule· into its component atoms, the com-
pound would no longer exist and we would be left with the constituent elements themselves. It is there-
fore quite wrong to refer to one " atom " of methane, or of carbon dioxide, and so on.
Molecular weights.
We will now consider how the symbol of an element, or the formula of a compound, may be used
to calculate the molecular weights, vapour densities, and specific gravities of gases. First let us deal
with molecular weights.
The .m.olecular weight of an element or a compound is the number of times
one molecule of it is heavier. than one ATOM of hydrogen.
In other words, the molecular weight (m.w.) of any molecule (whether elementary or compound)
is simply the sum of the weights of the constituent a:toms. Thus the m.w. of oxygen 02 = 2 x 16
= 32; of N2 = 2 X 14 = 28, and so on. To find the molecular weight of a compound, consider
CH4 and C02.
Then 1 atom of C 12 Also 1· atom of C 1 X 12 12
Q 4 atoms of H = 4 2 atoms of 0 = 2 X 16 32
Molecular weight of CH4 = 16 Molecular weight of C02 44
Vapour Density.
This term is applicable only to gases and may be defined as follows :-
The vapour density of a gas is the number of times a. given volume of the
gas is heavier than the same volume of hydrogen at the same temperature
and pressure.
Now it is one of the laws of chemistry, termed Avogadro's Law, that equal volumes of all gases
at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules, and so the term " vapour
density" can equally ·be stated as the number of times one molecule of the gas is heavier than
one molecule of hydrogen. But the molecular weight of hydrogen is 2, and thus the vapour density
of a gas (relatively to hydrogen· = 1) is always equal. to half its molecular weight.
It follows from the foregoing that the vapour density of CH4 ·! 16 --:-- 2 . . 8, and of C02 = 44
--:-- 2 = 22. T'his=means rhat.a given volufile ofCIJ4 is8 times as heavy, and of C02, 22 times as heavy,
as the same 'Volume of. hydrogen, at the same temperature and pressure.
Specific gravity of a ·gas. . -. .
In trjs ..;,-ase,the weight of tlje gas is compared with that of air, and we say :-
The specific gravity of a gas is the number of times a given volume of the
gas is heavier than the same volume of air at the same temperature and
pressure. •
. It=is obvi~us that, if we know the vapour density of both air and the gas concerned, we can find the
rat~o of the weight of t?e ~as·to the weight of aiz. Now the vapour densityof the gas is half itsmolecular
~~lght, and that of air is 14·475. Hence \; ,
II Vapour density of the ga!:f . V~d:of-gas_
Specific gravity of a gas ==
The v.d. of air. 14·475
0

·j1.
"M:G/1

6
•Some Notes op Chemistry

The figure 14·475 is not "half the molecular weight of air," because there is no such thing as a
molecule of air. It nevertheless represents the number of times a given volume of dry air is heavier
than the same volume of hydrogen, and it is therefore properly described as the "vapour density."
It now follows that the specific gravity of CH4 .· 8-:- 14·475 = 0·553, and of C02 = 22-:- 14·475
= 1 ·520. Methane (CH4) is therefore about half as heavy as air, and carbon dioxide (C02) isl~ times
as heavy as air.
We may summarise the foregoing by saying that (a) the molecular weight of a gas is equal to the
sum of the weights of the constituent atoms ; (b) the vapour density is half the molecular weight ; and
(c) the specific gravity is equal to the vapour density divided by 14·475.

CHEMICAL_ EQUATIONS.
o
When two or more substances enter into chemical combination so as to produce a new compound
or compounds, the chemical reaction may be represented by symbols and formulae arranged in the form
of an equation.
The commonest, and the most important, equation with which the mining student must be familiar
is that relating to the complete combustion of methane in oxygen, namely :-

CH4 + 202 = C02 + -ZH 0

2 (1)-

The +
sign on the left may be interpreted to mean ''reacts with" or "combines with," whilst
that on the right simply means "and." The sign = may be read as "producing" and is sometimes
replaced by an arrow.
Such an equation is very informative, for it tells us :~
(1) The precise composition of the elements and compounds concerned in the reaction.
(2) The relative weights of the substances taking part in the change.
(3) The relative weights of the substances produced by the change.
(4) The relative volumes (in the case of gases) before and after the change.
Equation (1) may thus be interpreted as follows :-
( 1 molecule 2. molecules }
or 2.2 m. olecules1·

t
or 1 volume or 2 volumes or ~ :~;~~le} volumes
or 16 parts } reacts with { or 64 parts producing { or 44 · part.s . · and or 36iparts
by weight by weight by weight { by weight
of l of L of of
Methane Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water vapour
CH4 + 202 C02 + 2H20
Note carefully that the equation must be balanced, i.e. the number of each kind of atom on one
side of an equation must necessarily be identical in number with the number of atoms of the same kinds
on the opposite side. Atoms are uncreatable and indestructible chemically, and it is only their grouping
that is altered. Note also that the 'sum of the weights ( = 80 in this case) is ·the same on both sides of
·the equation and that, for complete combustion, methane requi.res double its own volume of
oxygen.

Actually, after combusion is completed, the water vapour quickly condenses to a liquid, and thus
three volumes of gases before the combustion yield only one volume after condensation of the wat~r
vapour has taken place. This neglects the nitrogen of the air which takes no part in the chemical re'actiofi.
If we wish to write an equation representing the complete combustion of the methane in air, in
which there is approximately four times as much nitrogen ·as oxygen, we can say :-

CH4 + 202 (+ 8N2) = C02 + 2H20 (+ 8N2) 12)

4•
~

Molecular· interspaces. ()
If matter is built up of separate molecules, it is permissible to think that there must be spaces between ff 0
them, and such is the conclusion of science. Not only so, but the molecules are in cqntinual motion.
In a solid, the molecules are packed together more densely than in a liquid or a gas, a~d they are
held together in more or less in fixed relative positions by a force known as cohesion which acts effect-
ively only at short distances. In some cases, the molecules are drawn up in regular. rows, a1i.dwe then
have a"crystalline 'substance such as quartz, rock-salt, or washing soda." In. other cases, the. m'&lecules
are jumbled together in disorderly array, and we then have an amorphous substance like glass, or glue.
In a liquid, the molecules are£';'.~etts slide over each other and the liquid is able to conform to the
shape of the vessel containing it. When we convert a solid to a liquid by . the application of hea], we
simply impart increased energy to the molecules and drive them further apart. The force of cohesion
is now less effective, having been partly overcome by the &uperior force of heats
o)
_ In a ~s, the. molec:ule~ ar~ widely s. eparated from one ano.ther and ca~.· ~oam freely !n all directio. ns, ~'
'the force o'i cohesion bemg entirely absent. A gas thus has power of unlimited expansion and can com-
ple,.tely . fill its container, however large.

~-
 MG/1
The Universal Miuing School, Cardiff 7
"
Many natural processes can be explained on the theory that molecules are separated by inter-spaces.
°For example, iron appears to expand when heated and contract when cooled but, actually, the action
of heat is merely to drive the molecules further apart, whilst cooling allows the force of cohesion to draw
them closer together. The molecules themselves do not grow larger when the iron expands. The mass
or weight remains constant. Only the interspaces have increased in size, and these weigh nothing at all.

The emission of gas from. apparently solid coal is further evidence of the existence of molecular
interspaces. The precise manner in which the gas is stored or " occluded " within coal is not fully
understood, but it is not all merely imprisoned in breaks and cavities. Some, at least,· of the gas appears
to be enclosed in a condensed form within the molecular interspaces of the coal substance, having been
stored there for millions of years since the coal was formed. Such occluded gas is only set free at the
, exposed face as the coal is worked, or whilst it is being undercut, or when it is broken up into smaller
,,. and smaller· pieces.

The solubility of gases in water, the solubility of solids in liquids, the absorption of gases and
liquids by solids, the compressibility of air and other gases ; all these. processes can be explained on the
theory that the molecules of matter are separated by interspaces. There is nothing actually solid, although
many things appear to be solid and are called solids. The structure of matter is molecular.

Density.
Before concluding this lesson, we would point out that the density of any substance, whether solid,
liquid, or gas, is its weight per unit volume at some specified temperature and pressure. It is thus
quite a different thing from "vapour density."

The density of ordinary air at N. T .P. is 0 · 0807 lb. per cubic foot, and this figure should be remem-
bered. The density of water is about 62· 5 lb. per cubic foot, and of coal in the solid about 80 lbs. per
cubic foot.

The letters N. T .P. mean " normal or standard temperature and pressure," and this is correctly
stated as 0°C and 760 m.m. of mercury, or 32°1' and 29·922 inches of mercury (commonly taken as
30 inches).

The specific gravity of a solid or a liquid is its relative weight compared with the weight of an
equal volume of distilled water at 4°C or 39°F. Thus the S.G. of ordinary coal averages about 1·25,
i.e, it is ab~ut 1! times as heavy as water. The S.G. of cast iron is about 7·1.

Many. students will no doubt be already familiar with some or all of the facts, theories, and ideas
discussed in this lesson and, to them, the following questions will form a useful revisionary exercise.
To others, much of the subject matter may be entirely new. Such students may not be able to
remember all the details after a first reading, but they can always return to the lesson from time to
time, when necessary, to look up some doubtful point.

TEST PAPER MG/1.

1.. What is meant by the term " element " in 7. The molecule of a certain gas· contains two atoms
Chemistry ? Name the five elements with of carbon and six atoms of hydrogen. Write
which. we are chiefly concerned in ·mining. .its formula and calculate its molecular weight,
I vapour density, and specific gravity.
2. Explain carefully
(a) compound,
what is meant by the terms
and (b) mixture. What are
·1
l 8. The formulae of a number of mine gases are

.
the main differences between the two ? Give CO, H2S, C02 and CH4. Calculate their
specific gravities and place them in order of
increasing weight,
. 3. Wha:;:::e:sential differencebetween a physical I
change and a chemical change ? What other 9. What are the three physical states of matter ?
differences are there ? Give examples of Give examples. of substances. which can be

'
each. induced to. change· their physical state without
• 4. What is an atg,m, and what is a molecule ? Dis-
tinguish between elementary and compound r
change of composition .

10. Give one or more examples of a simple kind to

molgcules. illustrate the great and surprising change in
properties that often occurs when two or more
5. Define the meaning of the terms " chemical elements enter into chemical combination.
,'iYITC)ol " and " chemical formula " · and
cexplain what information we can derive 11. What makes it possible for matter to expandswhen
from them. heated and contract when cooled ? If a
piece of steel weighing 12·6 lbs. at 60 degrees
6. Define clearly what .is meant by the terms (a) F. is heated to 300 degrees F. and again
molecular weight (b) vapour density, and weighed, would you expect its weight to be
(c) specific gravity of gases. greater or less ?
-~

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•
FbUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT
THE U.M.S.
T. SOUTHERN LTD ... -
THIS P.A,J'ER
WAS ·THE FIRSi IS SUPPLIED ON
C@RRESPONOENCE
MINING
IN THE
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WORLD
filKc G/1.UN~af ~ SJwJ; CONDITION
IT IS 'RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
THAT

YOUR OWN USE

CARDIFF (G'r. BRITAIN.)

MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

Lesson MG/3.
MINE AIR.

.. All the gases met with in mines, so far as they are certainly known, are enumerated and classified
in the Table below. This Table should be carefully studied; it will be useful for reference, not orilv
during your present Course of study, but at many periods of your future career.

The U .M.S. Table of Mine Gases : their Constituents and Properties.

Symbol Vapour Specific Relative

Name of or Molecular Density Gravity Rate of Remarks
Class \ Gas Formula Weight (Hydrogen (Air = 1) Diffusion
= 1) (Air= 1)
• 1---(-'-l_) ! _(2) ,_ (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Normal ... j\A.tmospheric \ (Mech. (Mech. 14·475 1 ·000 1 ·00 Standard of

I air \ m ix t.) mixt.) comparison: .
... , Aqueous , H20 18 9 0·622 Always pre-
I vapour sent in air.
________ ! ---------'----------

Gaseous I Hydrogen Hz 2 0·069 3·81 Seldom

elements found free
• I in mines.
J ,~itrogen Nz 28·- 14 0·967 1 ·02 Acts as dilu-
ent in air.
rxygen 02 32 16 1 ·105 0·95 Most active
gas.

•
Ga,seo141s
· cdtripounds
Argon

j•,,Jt1ethane
····iI A
CH4
39·5
16
19·75
8
1 ·364
0·553
0·85
1 ·34
Inert Gas .

Chief consti-
tuent of
:I
(Mine firedamp.
I
28 i 14 0·967 1 ·02
Gases) Ethylene
···l C2H4
i
Rarely found.

Ethane 30 i 15 1 ·036 0·98 Found in

I ···! CzH6
i small% m
L. $ulphuretted I firedamp.
1 ·1, Hydrogen ... H2S 34 I 17 1 · 175 0·93 Gob fires;
very poison-
.,JSarbon ous.
co
•
monoxide 28
I 14 0·967 1 ·02 Dangerous
constituent

r I
of afterdarnp:
I very poison- _
ii_·_
.. ·· .. ·'.'.·· .•

'f:'
1
"<,,f,arbon
II ous.
Important
I
dioxide C02 44 22 1 ·520 0·81 constituent o
blackdamp.
t I
:i Gaseous Nitric oxide ... NO 30 15 1 ·036 0·98 Intensely

• . • compounds
(Nitrous
fumes from
explosives)
1.
litrogen
Nit.rogen
peroxide ... N02 46
I
i 23 1 ·589
I
0·80
irritant to
air-passages
highly pois-
onous.
;

trioxide ... N203 76 38 2·625 0·61

"' .Nitrous oxide 1 N20 44 22 1 ·520
I 0·81

I . I
Atomic
Solid, as
• I Carbon I c
Weight
1~
I
I Constituents
1,lements I of some
Sulphur
···\ s 32 gaseous
I(!;
\, i;;:QrnI>OlJUdS. _
-. -

. ~" •• (501+)

•
 MG/3
-2- Mine Air

ATMOSPHERIC AIR.
This is the air we breathe. It is not a single gas, but a mechanical mixture of several gases.'
There is no molecule of air, but there are molecules of its constituent gases. The composition of pu;e
dry air may be stated as followsr-s-
By volume. Vl By weight.
Oxygen 20 ·93% 23 ·15%
Nitrogen 78·10·%} 75 ·51%}
Argon and other inert gases 0·94%
79 ·04%
1 ·30% 76 ·81%
Carbon dioxide 0·03% 0·04%

100·00 100·00

In addition to the foregoing gases, ordinary air contains varying quantities of aqueous vapour or
moisture, together with tr<;tcesof am.monia (N~ 3) and nitric and sulphuric acids (HNO 3 and H 2SO 4).
The inert gases grouped with argon include helium, krypton, neon, and xenon, but they occuronlv in
minute percentages, and are chiefly interesting because for a long time they remained undiscovered.
For most p~actical purposes, we can say that, i~ round numbers, pure dry air consists of 79% of --~~J.
nitrogen and 21 % of oxygen (by volume). The rare mert ·gases and the mtrogen are almost, identical
in their properties, and the CO 2 may be neglected altogether.

Oxygen, . 0 2•

This is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas, slightly soluble in water. It is a little heavier
than air, having a specific gravity,,.~~ 1 -~It is the most abundant element in nature, comprising
(by weight) about 23% of the atmo'Spfiere, 48% of the earth's crust, and 89% of the oceans and all
water. It is the really vital element in atmospheric air and we must breathe it in a free and uncombined
state or die. It is one of the most chemically active substances known, its " affinities " (i.e. its ability
to enter into chemical combination) extending to almost every other element. Substances which
burn in air, i.e. in diluted oxygen, burn more vividly.in pure, or undiluted oxygen.

Nitrogen, N 2•
Like oxygen, nitrogen is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, but it is somewhat less soluble in
water. It is a little lighter than air, having a specific gravity ?f 0 ·967. It is the most abundant
element existing as a gas in nature, comprising about four-fifths oltltF"almosphere. In sharp contrast
to oxygen, it is a comparatively inactive and inert gas, and is a non-supporter of animal life and of
combustion. It has no physiological effect on men or animals and, in the atmosphere, merely acts
as a diluent of the oxygen. But in combination with other elements, it is an· essential constituent /
of all animal and vegetable tissues. Most plants derive their nitrogen from the soil ; animals d~~1ve
their nitrogenous compounds from vegetable and animal substances taken as food. Compounds of
nitrogen are much used in the manufacture of explosives.

MINE AIR.
This differs from ordinary air chiefly in containing a smaller percentage of oxygen, a ·larger
percentage of carbon dioxide, and varying quantities of the other gaseous compounds given in the
•...
table on Page 1.

A typical analysis of the air in the main return or upcast shaft of a mine, expressed on a volume •
basis, may be somewhat as follows:-
Oxygen 20 ·28% In places where men work
Nitrogen 78 ·90% or pass, the percentage of
C02 0·36% oxygen must riot be allowed to
CH4 0·46% fall below 19% and the percen- ~
Other gases Traces tage of CO 2 must not exceed li%L< J

f In a mine, oxygen is abstracted from the air chiefly (a) by the gradual oxidation of coal and other .)
! carbonaceous materials; and to a smaller degree (b) by the breathing of men and .a.nimals ; and
.\f (c) by.· the ?urning of li~hts. Car~on dioxid~ is a~d~d by these sam~ three processe~ .and. also by the
Jct1ecomposihon of explosives and, in some mmes, it is given off bY5't'hecoal and adjacent strata.
Other noxious gases intrude themselves into the mine air by a variety of means. Chief among
these is the evolution of methane (the chief constituent of firedamp) from the coal and associated
strata, resulting in the displacement of a corresponding proportion of air and its contained oxygen,
and 'also giving rise under certain conditions to the danger of an explosion. Of somewhat less importance
(because on a smaller scale) is the productio~ of nitrous fumes fr?m explosives: whilst unde,r a1?normal
conditions, e.g. when spontaneous combustion takes place, or m the afterdamp of an explosion, the
two deadly poisonous gases, carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulphide (sulphuretted hydrogen) must
be reckoned with.
All these gases will be dealt with presently in greater detail. At this point, however, it' wi:Qi b e0

evident to every studenrhow essential it is constantly to circulate an adequate quantity of fresh air
0
' throughout the roadways of a mine so as to render them safe "for working and passing therein."
In a well ventilated mine, the composition of the air will approximate to that of normal atmospheric
air. In a badly . ventilatedmine, .or.In dead-ends, or.where the-~entilationis-intenupt€d-oF deranged,
the atmosphere may become so polluted as to b~ explosive or even irrespirable in character.
...
 MG/3
The Universal M'ining School, Cardiff -3-

, In speaking of noxious mine gases and atmospheres, the miner frequently refers to them as
(,various kinds of "damps," from the German word "dampj," meaning vapour, fog, or fume. The
Usual interpretations now given to these "damps" are briefly as follows:-
(a) Blackdamp-a mechanical mixture of the extinctive gases car!>,~!!.--~!()Ji!:i~e and excess nitrogen ;
sometimes referred to as chokedamp or stythe?"
(b) Firedamp-used either as (i) synonymous with metlli!-.~~.t, or (ii) referring to the mechanical
mixture of gases, chiefly inflammaDTe, given off naturally from coal and con-
s~stillg J()r the most part of methane, .,,,,,, .,. ·
(c) Whitedamp-synou'ymous with carbon .monoxide.
(d) Stinkdamp-synonymous with sulphuretted hydrogen (hydrogen sulphide).
(e) Afterdamp-The mechanical mixture of gases existing in a mine after . an explosion of fire-
'damp and coal-dust. I ts composit~?I1 is ~~t,re~~lX."'::3:.~~~~.l~ but usually includes
more or less carbon iirml"oxitte·;"'car'oon ·a:roxid'e;· and· possibly salphttrdted
~!~~"~gen. N~."~'~1i-s.-.Jv.J- o t---- ·

....
\,. ..CARBON DIOXIDE, CO 2•

•
. Although this gas is present in 'negligible quantities in pure air, it is a product of the important
processes of respiration (breathing), oxidation, and combustion, and it is present in all mines to a
greater or less degree.
Carbon dioxide, CO 2, also known as Carbonic Acid Gas, is colourless and odourless but has a
faintly acrid (sharp or bitter) taste. It is Jl1U.Cll l!~ayi~~. ~Ila~ atr, having a specificgravity,gf 1 :520.
It is very soluble in water, which can d.1Ssolve'its own volume of CO 2 at ordinary pressures and tem-
"" - peratures.
With the aid of sunlight, plants derive the carbon necessary for their growth from the CO 2, in the
atmosphere, splitting up the ,gas into its constituent atoms, absorbing the carbon and setting free the
oxygen. In this way, nature continually renews the oxygen content of the air, so keeping it almost
constant.
CO 2 is formed whenever carbon (or any carbonaceous material such as coal, timber, oil, etc.)
• is completely burned in air or oxygen, It is therefore an end-pr~~U.~t o~ ~~lll~l.~te C()Jll~B~!!Q.P, and
is not itself combustible, nor can it support ordinary cornbusttorr or respiration: · The processes by
which it is formed in mines have already been briefly mentioned and will presently be described more
fully under the headings of. respiration, oxidation, and blackdamp.

Where found in mines .

• The specific gravity of CO 2 being 1 ·520, the gas tends to be found in greater concentration in
the lower parts of the mine, in swamps, hollows, sumps, wells, and dip workings.
It should be noted, however, that CO 2, like all other gases, is subject to the process of diffusion
in opposition to the influence of gravity, and the gas may therefore sometimes be found uniformly
•mixed in the atmosphere of a place. At the .same time, its rate of diffusion is relatively low, and the
-· particular situations referred to are the most likely places in which to find CO 2, especially if constant
replenishment or evolution of the gas is taking place. Its presence should therefore always be suspected
at such points, and a pit sump or a well should not be entered until tested with a light. If CO 2 be
present the light will burn dimly or be extinguished .
•
REjPIRATION.
f. The quantity of air breathed by a man depends on the rapidity and depth of his breathing, and
... •this in turn depends on the degree of his. muscular exertion. Naturally, a man doing work or exercise
requires more air than when he is at rest and the quantity varies also with different individuals.
On the average, and in round numbers, a man at rest in bed inhales about 16 cub. ft. of air per
hour (= roughly 30 cub. ins. per breath and 15 or 16 breaths per minute). whilst when he is exerting
himself considerably, e.g. running, or walking up an incline, he may temporarlly require more than 200
~.· cub. ft. of air per hour ( = roughly 230 cub; ins. per breath and 25 breaths per minute).

-
In the lungs, some of the oxygen of the inhaled air passes through the delicate membranes of
the air-cells.joralveoll.as they are called, whereit comes jrrto intimate contact with the blood, entering
into loose . combination with the haemoglobin in the red blood corpuscules and forming an unstable
i compound called oxyhaemoglobin. Later, as the blood circulates around the body, the oxygen leaves
: the blood tcJililregenerate worn-out tissues and is replaced by carbon dioxide which is carried back by
(lithe blood to the lungs and is discharged during expiration. The volume of CO 2 given off is always
i slightly less than the volume of oxygen consumed, and the ra.tio of the CO 2 to the oxygen consumed,
i called the respiratory quotient, is usually about 0 ·8 to 0 ·9.
Of\ the average, the mixture exhaled by a man breathing deeply consists (by volume) of about·
16% oxygen, 80% nitrogen, and 4% carbon-dioxide. With quiet breathing, the percentage of CO 2
~ li.,Omewhatlower.
It. is of .interest.itc note . that .the rate of breathing .Ia.antomatteallv .. regulated in sueha manner
• that the carbon dioxide percentage in the air-cells of the lungs (i.e. in the alveolar air) is maintained
• ·s. • al~SQ!l~t3.!!.t.~t!i~;.ft%. If the production of CO 2 increases, as during muscular work, the breathing
at once increases sufficiently to counter-balance the increase of CO 2. So exact is the regulation that
an excess of only 0 ·2% of CO in the alveolar air doubles the rate of breathing.
 Jvfine Air

Eff.ect of breathing pure oxygen.

Contrary to statements that'lrnve frequently been made, the breathing of pure, or nearly purP:,
oxygen does not immediately produce harmful results. If it did,' the use of oxygen breathing apparatus,
or the administration of pure oxygen to resuscitate an unconscious man, would be attended with
grave risks. It is well known, however, that rescue men habitually wear breathing apparatus for
periods of two hours without experiencing any ill effects whatever. A man who is not physically flt
or in good training may, indeed, derive some temporary benefit and be able to do hard physical work
more easily whilst breathing pure oxygen, or an atmosphere enriched in oxygen; but one who is
already physically fit neither derives benefit nor experiences any noticeable effect whatever.
It is quite incorrect to suggest that pure oxygen makes one "live too fast," or "burns up the,
tissues," or has the effect of " neat " spirits, or causes excitement or violent outbursts of physical
energy, followed by depression and lassitude. At the same time, men and animals have become
acclimatised to _an atmosphere consisting (by volume) of about 21 % oxygen and 79% nitrogen and it
is natural to think that prolonged breathing of an atmosphere differing radically from this will be
harmful. Experiments on small animals show that severe lung inflammation, followed by death,
occurs when an atmosphere containing 95% of oxygen is breathed coniinuousiy for 2 to 4 days, but
that a similar atmosphere may be breathed for 16 hours each day during at least 50 consecutive clays
without obvious ill effects.
~- .······.··.1·
..'_._.•
.. ·_,·..·..,..
_.__,,,'

~
')

\ ~ff ect of breathing air deficient in oxygen.

iJ •· · If the only fault of the atmosphere (from the point of view of breathing) is its deficiency of oxygen,
i.e., if the oxygen present is diluted only by inert gases like nitrogen, methane, or hydrogen, which
have no physiological ~fleet of their own, a:__ ~-~:m can..1iX~~-9~i~~ \Ve..~t~J,ien tl}e proportion of oxygen .ls
only 1~%, and, providing he does not exert himself, he will rarely notice anything unusual even when
the··percentage is as low as 12%. At about 10%, however, the face is flushed and the respiration and
the pulse become abnormally rapid ; at 7%, the senses become very dull, and any further reduction
rapidly results in loss of consciousness and death. At 2%, loss of consciousness occurs in less than
one minute and without warning.
The.. e~f.e.~ts ()LO?C¥ge.~:~:llO!~l;,l>~e ~!'~ . Y~~y:.Jn.sldious, and the victim is usually quite unaware of the
serious'~nafirr'e '0fhiS'C'onditiOn,'t1ie 'senses befr1g dulled and the intellect confused.
In a mine, the most likely place for an atmosphere very deficient in oxygen to occur (without
there being gases present likely to give warning) is in a roof-cavity containing a high percentage· of
firedamp, and it is obviously dangerous to place one's head in such a position, for loss of consciousness
may occur rapidly and without warning.

Influence of pressure on the percentage of oxygen essential. ,,

The percentages re:i'erred to in the previous paragraph apply when the pressure of the atmosphere (

is normal. The normal pressure is about 14 ·7 lbs. per sq. inch or about 2, 120 lbs. ( = nearly I ton)
per sq. ft. At this pressure the mercurial barometer gives a reading of about 30 ins. The pressure
is due to the weight of the atmosphere that envelopes the earth, and this mantle of air is probably
some 200 miles thick. It is evident that the lower layers are more dense because they are pressed
down bv the weight of more layers above. A$ we go upward, say in a balloon or an aeroplane.jorby
climbing a mountain, the density gets less. Thus at the top of a mountain 900 ft. high, the barometer
will read about an inch less than it reads at the foot of the mountain. Conversely, at the bottom of a
shaft 900 feet deep, the barometer will read about an inch more than it reads at the surface.
;~ Now, in the case of a man (but not of a lamp flame) a l)er~e~!~g~. . ~.~-f~.ciell.~f ~f o~q1ge11i..p. the ·air
~lmay be_compensate~b~-~11 iJ.l~r~~se in the _ p_r~~~JlrJi.Q! . t.lu~.-~t(;;'Flthin cerfairi IimifS';·anC1 provided that
~\no gases are present which are physiologically harmful in themsleves. '
~' Thus, in a deep mine, if the depth be such that the pressure of the mine air is IA of the pressure
at the surface, the mine atmosphere with (say) .19% of oxygen will, from foe standpoint of health,
be as good as the surface atmosphere with its 21 % of oxygen. Such a mine would be about 900 yarsis
deep, and, of course, it is assumed that we have nothing else to reckon with except the oxygen de-
ficiency. In practice, this consideration of pressure is not very important because the mine is not
usually deep enough for the .increased pressure to fully compensate for the loss of oxygen, and in no
case whatever can it neutralise the effects of gases which are themselves actually dangerous.
Abnormally high pressures never occur under ordinary circumstances, but are sometimes employed
for special operations, e.g. in sinking shafts or driving tunnels through water-bearing strata by the
so-called " pneumatic caisson " or. compressed-air method. In this method, compressed air is used
within a closed chamber to keep back the water from the excavation, and it is foundthat .t*1.e maxlmujn
safe nressure for the workmen is about 3~ atmospheres (45 'lbs. 'per sq. lneh}, Even at pressures less
than .• this, the men are liable to suffer from " caisson sickness '' due to nitrogen accumulating in the
blood, the symptoms being pain and dizziness followed by vomiting. Precautions include (a) the
avoidance of too long exposure to high pressure, and (b) gradual decompression, the men, being
.subjected to a pressure which is diminished in stages. '
At high altitudes, a man suffers discomfort or distress because the pressure falls, although _th@
oxygen percentage is maintained approximately constant at all accessible heights. At 3l miles above
the level of the sea, for example, the atmospheric pressure is only one-half of that at sea-level, and
the density of the air is also only one-half. It follows that, although each lungful of air at such a height
will have the same volume as at sea-level, the weight of the air breathe~ ~ill be re~uc~d to ()l}e-}lalf.,
and only half the normal weight of oxygen-will be-inhaled per breath. The lungs· endeavour to counter-
balance the shortage of oxygen by increasing their rate of breathing, but the effect (at a height of
3! miles) is just the same as if the oxygen percentage had been reduced to about 10 or 11 per cent.
 MG/3
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
~

In mountainous districts, men become acclimatised to the rarefied air, and can live quite well at
tj.eights up to about 15,000 feet (about 3 miles). Much higher altitudes have, of course, been reached
in mountaineering expeditions. At 7 miles above sea-level, the atmospheric pressure is only about
one-quarter of the normal pressure, and the effect is the same as if the oxygen percentage had been
reduced to about 5 or 6%.
Effect of breathing pure nitrogen.
From the point of view of respiration, nitrogen is aphysiologically indifferent gas, performing
no vital function and playing the part of a mere diluent of the oxygen; and from this point of view,
(.· ... ~ ........ it might equally well be replaced by some other indifferent gas, e.g. hydrogen or methane.
ILnitrog:1~ is l:)r~a9-"l~cl alone, <:l~~~A. (J.lJ,icklyresults, not because the nitrogen is poisonous, but
simpit·t>·el~~u~~· ~}ie o~yg;en, is ~bs.~pt. An atmosphere of pure nitrogen would suffocate us, literally
'dttr?/h''l:EC}list as a man drowns under water, not because the water poisons him, but because it prevents
him from inhaling the necessary oxygen. Th~.J~!1Y~lQJQ.gical. effects, then, ofJ:n;eathing an atmosphere·
c.ol}t3:~!,1~11:g.exc:e.~sI1ifrogen ~r~ tne. same . asj):l()~e.<i-rii:;j11g . fl'()ffi.o~yg011 . . ¢te,g~iency.. Loss of consciousness
6c'cu'i-s' suddenly without' the vic't!ffi berng -aware that anything is wrong. '·"•
In mines, the atmosphere. is liable to contain excess nitrogen chiefly because of the withdrawal
of oxygen due to the oxidation of coal. Of course, a certain amount of CO 2 is added to the atmosphere
at the same time, and is usually in sufficient quantity to give warning symptoms of the existence of a
~fip.gerous atmosphere.
' ,jtfects of breathing carbon dioxide. ' '
·i....,,)Q . The first effect of breathing air containing more than the normal percentage (0 ·03%) of CO 2
is to increase the CO 2 concentration in the alveoli or air-cells of the lungs, and therefore to increase
also. the rate. of breathing. \VheP.?°fo . ()f~C)g}~pre~~il~ ill. tlie inlial~~ air.(~o. i1:C:J.'e~~in~Lslightly th~
percentage of co 2 in the alv'eolai' afr) ttie rate oloreathing' is doubled, even if the persO'n affected i~''i,
"' .- at rest.' If muscular work is· done, the rate of breathing is still further increased and fatigue results
When 6% of CO 2 is present, violent panting is caused, accompanied by headache and exhaustion.
With 10% there is very severe distress which cannot be endured for more than a few minutes', whils
when there is more than 10% present, the gas acts .as a narcotic, 15% causing partial loss of con ·.
sciousness, and 25% causing death afterseveral hours. All these results refer to cases where the carbon'
dioxide has replaced an equivalent percentage of. normal air and its contained oxygen, the oxygen'
percentage being therefore progressively reduced by about one-fifth of the percentage of CO~ present.
The distress in such a case is caused 'more by the CO 2 present than by the deficiency of oxygen ; for
even when there is 25% of CO 2 in the air, there still remains 15% of oxygen which, apart from the
CO ·2, is not a dangerous percentage.
If the CO 2 replaces oxygen only, as in the ordinary processes of combustion, the symptoms
mentioned occur with lower percentages of co 2, because of
the more rapid decrease of oxygen, and
death may occur with about 10% of CO 2, the oxygen percentage then being 10 or 11 %. With pure CO 2,
death may occur in a few minutes as a combined effect of the carbon dioxide and of oxygen deficiency.
. It will be seen that, although small percentages of CO 2 are not dangerous, and the gas cannot
therefore be regarded as a poisonous gas in the ordinary sense, yet large percentages cause great
distress and are almost as dangerous as an actual poison would be. The fact that CO') causes dis-s
ccomfort, however, is an advantage in that it usually gives ample warning to a person who -accidentally''•·
inhales the affected atmosphere, thus enabling him to retreat in time. In this respect, an atmosphere]
containing CO 2 is less insidiously dangerous than one which merely contains excess nitrogen or other.
,hysiologically indifferent ga.s., ·
XIDATION, COMBUSTION,. EXPLOSION, AND DETONATION.
In its broadest sense, the term oxidation refers to the chemical combination of substances with
oxy,,_'{e.n. In this sense, combustion, explosion, and detonation are all forms of oxidation. They all
represent a process of chemical combination of substances with oxygen, the chemical reaction in each
case being accompanied by the production of heat and the formation of new substances (compounds)
<having entirely different properties. or characteristics from those of t.h.e original substances. The only
difference-but it is an important one-lies in the df£,?:!.~".?i}~<;::/?,f.~i~J~. with which the chemical reaction
between the combining elements is effected. M" · · .. · · ·

In ordinary mining usage, the term oxidation. is given a restricted meaning and is generally
understood as representing tl1e ~!o\Ve~t fo~lll of chelilical. con1binati<>,!! ~!: •. ','.cqpibµ,~-H,911,''. where there
is a quiet combination of ' oxygen'"\vitlt''·ntl':rer·· 'sttri's'tances'''Without';,.t'J)~. production, of flame or light.
Examples in mines are the rusting of iron and the oxidation of coal, timber, and other carbonaceous
su bs.ti:H::c<~,~{?. - {~- ._ . ":'~"""""""""'"'"""1""'''"'''',..·"""''·"""·'''''''P'~·"'··,_··:: .•.•. , •. ,,.0 •. •'·'""' ···:···· .. ••• '. ·· · · · ... •· ••··•· · · · ·"··· .,.,.,
'>: •·• •• _·····

The same amount of heat is produced by such oxidation as by a more rapid chemical reaction,
but the pro\,SS is so slow .that the heat is dissipated and its production usually passes unnoticed.
cTlrns, if a piece of iron wire be burnt in oxygen, the combustion is complete in a few seconds and
light and flame are produced; but if the iron is allowed to rust, the process of rusting may occupy
many weeks, and light and flame are absent. Thetwo ch.~~iSt:i:Lrea,cti()Il.S a.re. identical except for
therate.a~ . ~!"1.i.c!"i.t.!i~Y take :plac~, ~1;1.~ . .•.~.~~·· s,am~ arfilSltftt'TJf.:'7i~PJis.§v.olVed .in both' cases alike. It some- ·
ltrffes''ftapperis;"nowever, that' o'xicl'atfon fakes place in confined spaces where the heat carinot escape,
~.g. in coal cargoes in ships, and in combustible matter in mine goaves, and then such a large store-
of beat may accumulate that spontaneous combustion occurs.
- Combust-ion usually refers· to-'a chemical combination which is proceeding more rapidly than
"oxidation,"as in a candle flame or an ordinary coal fire where millions of atoms are rapidly entering '
) into chemical combination with their affinities. Explosion is a still more rapid chemical combination,
a typical example being the explosion of gunpowder or of. firedamp. Detonation describes a process
where all the various atoms forming a large volume of matter effect chemical combination at almost
· the same instant of time, as in the detonation of the so-called c c high " explosives such as gelignite.
MG/3
-6-'' fvline Air

Oxygen is commonly referred to as "the great supporter of combustion." Thus a jet of coal-gas
(a mixture chiefly of hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide) or a jet of any other" combustiblc:"
gas, will burn in an atmosphere of air, and the oxygen of the air is said fo support the combustion,
the nitrogen taking no part. But it is evident that chemical combination, like any other sort of com-
bination, is of necessity a mutual affair; and a jet of ordinary air would burn "in an exactly similar
manner in an atmosphere of coal gas. The coal-gas might then be said, with equal justice, to be the i)'
'' supporter '' of the combustion. In either case, the flame and heat result from the mutual combination
of the oxygen atoms with the atomic constituents of the coal gas and, stri~!!Y.~.P.~~~!,!!g,_th.~.C?gll.'.lbl!§lJble
ga~ s.~J?p()r~~ the ~Pll.'.llJusti()Jl to exac,tly the sa,l!l.~ ex~enta,s. the ()X¥~e11-suppo!ts it. Of course, with the
existing constitution 'of' the earth's' atmosphere, it is legitimate 'enough,' iii:' ordinary usage, to call
the ever-present oxygen the "supporter" of combustion, and the other innumerable substances
that burn in air or oxygen "combustible" substances, but it is well that the realities of the matter
should be understood.
It is important to note that oxygen cannot usually enter into chemical combination with another
element, and so support life and ordinary combustion, unless it is in a free and uncombined state. In
the normal atmosphere, it is free and uncombined; the symbol of its molecule is 0 2, for each molecule
of free oxygen contains 2 atoms of oxygen and nothing else. In this state, it is free to enter into
combination with other elements such as· carbon or hydrogen. But in a compound gas (such as CO 2)
the oxygen is combined already with carbon and is not free to combine with anything else. Thus,
although the molecule of CO 2 contains as many oxygen atoms as a molecule of pure oxygen contains,
the CO 2 is of no use whatever as a supporter of combustion, because the contained oxygen is not
free=ii: is chemically fettered and bound to the atom of carbon.
FLAME AND COMBUSTION.
Flame may be defined as consisting of gases heated to incandescence by rapid chemical combination. = '"'
It is not therefore a phenomenon associated with slow oxidation, but is a usual accompaniment of
combustion and other more rapid chemical processes.
Flames vary greatly in their degree of brilliance or luminosity. Those of hydrogen and methane
are almost non-luminous, whilst those of a candle, oil, benzene, acetylene, etc., are relatively bright.
The luminosity appears to depend partly on the temperature of the burning gases, partly on their
"density, and partly on the presence of solid incandescent particles of carbon. An ordinary candle or
?~
oil fla~~'. e.g. the norIIlal flam~.9f a.safetylamp. cons,ist,s ~h:ee main port.ions t-c-
··--·-:;/(~)"An Inner blue (non-luminous) zone of non-combustion comprising combustible gases unmixed
with air.
(b) A yellow (luminous) zone of iDC()~J?l~t,e_ combustion, surrounding the inner zone. In the
luminouszone, thecombustible gases become mixed with a certain amount of air, but not sufficient
to produce complete combustion. Hence partial combustion takes place, with the separation of ~olid -r:
incandescent carbon particles.
(c) A t~in, traJl.sparent, ollter non-lumin~us ZOJ!~or envelope where the burning gases are in free
contact with'the atmosphereand·combustionis. completed.
The tern pera ture of the flame is well over 2, 000 °F ( 1, 100 °C).

Effect of oxygen deficiency ·on lights.

If the percentage of oxygen in an atmosphere be gradually reduced (by its consumption in the
process of burning or by the displacement of air due to the intrusion of some extinctive gas, e.g.
nitrogen or carbon dioxide) the first effect· on the flame of a candle or oil lamp is to cause a diminution
of the light. , _
/ . v
,/ Each 1 % reduction in the oxygen percentage results in about 30% less light, and. the light is ex-
tinguished altogether when the oxygen percentage falls to about 17 ·5%.- By pricking up the wickof
an oil lamp, however, the light may be made to persist until the oxygen is reduced to about 17%:"'
It is often said that such and such a percentage of this or that gas in the atmosphere will extinguish
lights. For instance, a certain author states that if 30% of firedamp be present in the atmosphere,

I
it " instantly puts out any flame that may be brought into it." Such a statement is a mis-description.
What really happens is that the intrusive gas displaces air (and therefore oxygen) and the lights go
out; not. because the intrusive gas· is present, but because the displaced oxygen is absent,
If firedamp (as just stated) forms 30% of the atmosphere, it is evident that air can only form the
remaining 70% ; and as the oxygen forms only 21 % of air, its proportion in the atmosphere can now
only be 21 % of 70% = 14 ·7%. The lights are extinguished,the~efore, because the ,Sxygen ~0F111s
only, 14·7% of the whole atmosphere, and not because firedamp forms 30%. The saMe conditions
would arise if another gas (e.g., CO 2) were substituted for the same volume of firedamp. It does'
not matter how the deficiency of oxygen is caused: as soon as the oxygen percentage is reduced to
about 17!% (or exceptionally 17%) ordinary lights will not burn. This only applies, of course, to.
candles or oil lamps. A.n acetylen.e flame does not become exti.·nguished until the percentage of 'Oxygeil_l
falls to less than about 12%, whilst a hydrogen flame will burn until the oxygen is reduced toabou'[
·7 ·5o/o. o :J,

Note carefully, that elf a candle or oil lamp continues to burn, the atmosphere is one in which
man (who can live quite well with 15% oxygen) is perfectly safe, provided that no poisonous gases such
.as CO or H 25 are present, and that carbon dioxide is present only in small p~rcentages. On the other
lrarrd,': an acetylene (or a hydrogen) flame wm----continue to burn when a man- would be in· imminent
danger of collapse.
 MG/3'·
The Universal _Mining School, Cardiff. --7
0
It need scarcely be said that, in most mines, the amount of ventilation required to dilute the
-noxious gases produced by breathing and by the burning of illuminants is altogether overshadowed
lzy the enormously greater quantity of air required to dilute and render harmless the noxious gases
given off by the strata, and those generated by the oxidation of coal and other carbonaceous materials.
f
fOLLUTION OF MINE AIR BY OXIDATION.
·~~>l . T!_l~L§lo.w . . oxid.;t.~~.~,~-. <>.f -~.o,~I _i~- !~r~~~Y r~~-:P~ll~!~le f<>,~ t~~ . depletio:tl 9.f t.A.~. Q){ygen and the Jncr.~ase
of carbon dioxide ill lni~e-~~i(~ij([J~ fner~f9re a matter ofgreatjmportance. Moreover, in some seams;
continued oxidation give~ rise tO' spontaneous combustion, both in the goaf and in the solid coal,
and this is a danger of a very serious nature.

" Oxidation '' of coal, with its associated phenomena, is a complicated process whose exact
mechanism is not fully understood. It is thought, however, that when coal or coal-dust is in contact
with air, the oxygen first enters into a state of occlusion, and is then absorbed into loose chemical
combination with the coal substance, finally reacting with the carbon and hydrogen. to form CO 2
and water, or sometimes carbon-monoxide. It is to this final reaction that the term oxidation strictly
applies although it may be loosely applied to the whole train of phenomena. Let us consider the three
stag:ys of occlusion, absorption, and oxidation a little more fully.
lj/

,,.dcclusion.
· ·~·" ~ . ga~ ..i~. ~-e~~ JQ,J?~.---~f.S!":!.~~c{ .(~gcl9~-~-d .. Px .. b.idden) ..in:.a-- ..solid.w4~n.j.t~~0.1~X~<th~.:por~s.,oJ; . the coal
but rt~M<f1ns. fre~ ~!)_~ l111C:?ll1P~I1~d... It is purely a ph¥s1cal pro~~ss, and n() che1111~~~ . ~~~<;!}()11 takes
-p-la:ee·so·-that·noheat Is produced. The gas, however; iS"fre'F:rfie"re1y iii a state of'rfi'e'el!anicaltrnprisonment
within the pores, for it has been found that coal can contain far more gas (many times its own volume)
.~~'"' than can be explained by any theory of simple imprisonment. It is supposed, therefore, tl13:t. w,li~n
a ,&as is '' occ,f¥4.e,ci,'' it either bec()IlJ.~st()Jld.tI12e¢i,as it werevin the .mclecular.jnterspaces of'!ne··solia,
~'filllD:$'"''\VrfafJ:TI.'ay be!~J!'J?Ilecl:'a'. SO.lid.SOll1tio:Q,, .._9[_j_f condenses on· the .surface? of capillary passages
in tP,:~ ~oliQ.,J}ie Pf%~.s,-~ then being .terrned .adsor\}tion. 'Yhel1 ()xyge.n becomes occluded in the coal
in either of~llese hv9 ways, it remains ~h~:nJ.icapyJree; butit.Iies extremely dose to the combustible
molecules and is therefore in a very favourable position to enter into chemical combinatior; in due
C6t1tSe. - ._
~·":;~f}''{"' ;
,,11 /A.bsorption.
This denotes not a physical but a ~J.l~mic:a1processin which the oxygen of Jhe air, or the (2:xygen
.?:1:_e~~:Y ()S~ll.:1¢1$.~ i11 the. coal, en.ters int?'l2'2!~J:;h~mi~SLL991IlPin(ltiof1. with the. molec~1lar constituents
-. o'f ttre coal. The products of this combmahon, however, are not CO 2 and water (as m ordinary com-
bustion) but u11stal:)lecompounds rich in oxygen and even more ipflammable than the original coal.
Incidentally, thiS explains why " weathered " coal-dust, i.e. old dust which has been in contact with
air for some time, is more inflammable (explosive) than fresh dust. The old" dust contains occluded
and absorbed oxygen which is .therefore ready to support instant combustion if a high temperature
sufficient to cause ignition is applied. .

~xidation.
This refers more particularly to th_~J~~~tre~ction in which some of the oxygen combines ehemleally
\~'ith, tp.~
C<;lrb9p_·pf tlle ~oa_lt() forrri .ca:rbon dioxide CO g1 c;u:1d some com pines with the hydrogen to
f()~~-.~a_t~r: In sonie cases, .small quantities .of *1§~oxide CO, giay.(Ol.1;>9 be .produced. These c:~:l:>()I1.
ar~- purely ~J.l~m!~~tre~c.tio11s.. They result in the production of heat which is normally dissipated
so that no rise in . the temperature of the coal is noticeable (although the temperature of the adjacent
air may be increased somewhat). If the heat is not dissipated (as in a place out of the path of the

~
normaluir-current) the temperature of the coal may rise considerably and the rate of oxidation will
then increase. Carbon monoxide, an extremely poisonous gas, may then be added in dangerous
quantities to the products of oxidation, and finally actual combustion may occur. It should be clearly
.:under~tood, however, that such self-heating as it is called, takes place(as a rule) only in certain seams
and that, in many mines, ordinary slow oxidation, without perceptible rise of temperature, is the
only.kind experienced .

t
.

BLACKDAMP.
, ..-+..... --•·',,.
·!',
-
This is also sometimes called chokedamp or stythe and is properly defined as a mechanical mixture
' of gases composed of carbon 'dloxide and nitrogen in excess of the usual percentages of these gases found
:l in pure atmospheric air. - · -· · ·
\
At one time, the term "blackdamp" was used as synonymous with ".carbon dioxide," but the
J?lackdamp or mines never consists solely of this latter gas, and to apply the name " blackdamp ..,
to CO 2 alone is incorrect.

Composition of blaekdamp, ·•
c
It is quite impossible to state definite figures for the composition of blackdamp because the
constituent gases CO 2 and N 2 vary greatly "in their relative proportions in various samples. Wide
vareations are found· in different mines; although the composition of the blackdamp in any particular
mine or district remains fairly constant, .except under abnormalconditioss (e.g. when self-heating
of coal is taking place). In round numbers, however, we can say that the percentage of CO 2 in black-
c damp ranges from a ne~ligible quantity up to_ ab?ut 20%, whilst the percentag~ of. nitrogen ranges
from about 80% upwar~i's to nearly 100%. Analysis of a large number of samples indicates anaverage
(~· YC>·· ~.::
C(l.lilJ>Osition of al)9yJ.J1%~!£>,!~3.%, of CO_-~-:2·~·,.~;-.vand-- 87% to 89% otnitrogen.
' .~ -,... :·: .. · •. •. ' ·' . - ' •. , .. , - :· :· -_ -. ·.: ,. ·:. , . ·.
,-~ .. ~, .....
-· - . - , • . -. ._ • ·-- : ... , .• ,;:., •. , __ .. ;w_i_llol;'O•."!',,I~----··i:.:.~~'1'!-'-~~;
... "°''~-'-':<;,.~'-'<''•}';.-:.-.; .... ;""· •.. , .,._l'>t•;::'t:>e::o:'"..:;:,?;.v.;-?-J:<l'il;,!!',~."':~~-
...-'l:t'l"l.'l'~'-'l'>~tl,..._.,,.,.3,_,,""'·".''4~.';",;:><,'·"
 e Tul_~l~ Mine Air
8
•
The manner of determining the percentage composition of the blackdamp in a given sample of
• air will be clear from the following example. Suppose that the results of an air analysis are :-
CO 2 0 ·70 per cent. CH 4 l ·62 per cent. •
• .. "''

02 19 ·54 per cent. N 2 78 ·14 per cent.

79·04
Now, in normal air, the ratio of nitrogen to oxygen is
20·93
3 ·776. '
0·03
And, in normal air, the ratio of CO 2 is
20·93 698

Thus, in the sample given, the fresh-air equivalent of the oxygen present ·has the following
composition:-
Oxygen 19 ·54%
Nitrogen 19 ·54 x 3 ·776 73 ·78%
C02 19·54 698 0·03%

Total air 93 :35%

Hence the excess nitrogen 78 ·14 -· 73 ·78 4·36%

and the excess. CO 2 ff ·70 0 ·03 0·67%

Total blackdamp = 5 ·03%

The example thus contains 93 '.35% of ordinary air, 1 ·62% of CH4 and 5 ·03% of blackdamp making a •..
total of 100~,'6. ·

The percentage composition of the blackdamp is :-:-

4 ·36
Nitrogen = X 100 = 86 ·7% )
5·03
.\ 100%)
0·67
x 100
5·03

/Formation of blackdamp.
I
' Although a certain amount of blackdamp is sometirnesvgiven off from the strata, most of the
blackdamp found in the mine has been formed by various processes since the opening of the· pit.
Carbon dioxide (as already explained) is formed chiefly by the slow oxidation of coal, timber ands
other carbonaceous substances, and such oxidation may go on for years without the mass actually
bursting into flame. In a smaller degree, CO 2 is generated by the ·respiration of men and animals,
the burning of lights, and the firing of explosives, whilst in certain cases, the action of acid pit water
on the carbonates of calcium and iron (CaCO 3 and FeCO 3) may generate considerable quantities of
CO 2• In the case of coal, the volume pf CO 2 produced by oxidation is always very much less than
that of the oxygeh consumed in the process. On the other hand, the oxidation of timber, the breathing
of men and animals, and the burning of lights, result in the production of approximately the $.fme
volume of CO 2 as that of the oxygen used up.
Excess nit~gen arises chiefly from the. withdrawal of oxygen from the air by the processes of
oxidation just referred to, and especially the oxidation of coal. •
It is estimated that, if the blackdarnp results solely from the oxidation of coal, it is likely to
contain about 5% CO 2 and 95% nitrogen, (with possible traces of carbon monoxide) ; .if -it results
solely from rotting timber, it is likely to contain as much as 20% CO 2 and only 80% nitrogen ; and
if it .results from the action of acid waters on carbonates, it is likely to contain about 12% CO 2 and
88°/ci nitrogen. Usually, of course, all the various processes act in conjunction and an infinite variety
of blackdamps is the inevitable outcome.

Properties of blackdamp,
Q

.•
~
•

_Like its constituent gases,_ blackdampjs without.colour or smell al-though -the pre9sence of CO.,
may give it a sligl:itly acrid ta~t~. I~ ~oe~ not 5;Upport life or combus~i?n, but_ it is not poisonous."
Because of its variable cornposit.ion , it is impossible to define the specific gravity of blackdamp as
this may vary between that of pure nitrogen (0 ·967) on the one hand, and that of pure carbon dioxide . •
(1 ·520) on the other ha1:d. Black~amp containing ·ab?ut 5_% of <;O? has the san:-e den~ity. as air.
If less than 5% of CO 2 is present· in the blackdamp, ttre mixture is 1tghter than air, whilst if more
than 5% of CO 2 is present, the mixture is he_avier than air. •
To remove blackdamp of any sort requires ventilation, but the greater the proportion of CO 2 in •
the mixture, the more brisk is the ventilation required to remove it ; for, in the effort to remove any
gaseous mixture heavier than air, the air-current (to be effective) must have its inferior specific gravity c
compensated by its superior volume and velocity,

•
 C)

•
• •
MG/3
Tlz.e Universal NI ining School, C ard~fj.
~
t
.,fhe effect of breathing air 'contalning blackdamp,

o If the blaekdamp contains little or no CO 2, i.e. if it consists almost entirely -of excess nitrogen,
the physiological effects will be similar to those caused by deficiency of oxygen, i.e. no danger up to
25% blackdamp (corresponding to 75% air containing 15% oxygen) ; rapid respiration and pulse with
50% blackdamp (50% air containing 10% oxygen) ; and loss of consciousness without warning with
' 65% or more of blackdamp (35% air and 7% oxygen).
If the blackdamp is of average composition (say 12% CO 2 and 88% N 2) the distressing effects of
CO 2 will be superimposed on the effects of oxygen deficiency, more or less as follows :-
25°/c-> blackdamp (75% air, 15% oxygen, 3% CO 2) Rate of breathing doubled.
40% blackdamp (60% air, 12% oxygen, 5% CO 2) More frequent and deeper breathing.
50% blackdamp (50% air, 10% oxygen, 6% CO 2) ·Violent panting, marked headache and
distress, face turning blue.
60% blackdamp (40% air, 8% oxygen, 7% CO 2) Imminent danger of collapse and death
(or more) due to lack of oxygen.

It will be seen from. the foregoing t hat the heavier blaekdamps containing carbon dioxide cause
gradually increasing distress and give. due warning of impending danger. A victim thus has plenty·
of time to retreat to safety before it is too late. On the. other hand, the. lighter blackdamps give no
such warning and are therefore more insidiously dangerous. Fortunately, in mines, a proportion of
CO 2 is almost invariably present in blackdamp.

On breathing fresh air again, a victim of blackdamp usually recovers fairly rapidly and no lasting
ill effects normally ensue.

Detection of blaekdamp,

The presence of blackdamp makes itself evident by its effect on the flame -of an oil safety lamp,
the light being dimmed to an extent which depends on the percentage of oxygen deficiency. For
every 5% of blackdamp present and resulting 1 % reduction in the percentage of oxygen, the luminosity
is decreased by about 30%, and the light is extinguished altogether wherr-the oxygen is reduced ~o
17 or 17~%>, corresponding to about 15% blackdamp.

An alternative method, permissable only in naked light mines, involves the use of a tube known
as. Haldane's Tube. This is a stout glass tube,' 7 ins. long, 0 ·75 inch internal diameter, and open at
both ends. The tube is held vertically and a lighted taper is placed inside it. This creates an upward
d14fiughtwhich tends to blow out the flame.. The lower the taper is placed in the tube, the greater '
is the draught and the greater the tendency for the flame to be extinguished. In pure air, the taper
will continue to burn in any position }, but if there is only 18 ·7% of oxygen in the air (corresponding
to 10 ·5% of black.damp) the flame will be extinguished even if the taper be raised to the top of the •
tube. Intermediate percentages of blackdamp permit the flame to burn in intermediate positions and
• the tube may thus be graduated to read between 20 ·93% and 18 ·7% of-oxygen, and also between
0% ;m<l 10 ·5% of blackdamp, although the graduations are not evenly spaced.

Outbursts of .blaekdamp,

It may be of interest to note here in conclusion that violent outbursts of blackdamp have occurred
in some French collieries. In most instances, it has been found that the blackdamp thus ejected from
th• strata is composed principally, if not entirely, of CO 2 •

• TEST PAPER MG/3.

. 1. Describe the physical· and chemical

(a) oxygen and (b) nitrogen,
take in na.ture.
properties
and the place they
of 6. Why does an a.trnosphere of PURE C02 (which
itself contains so much oxygen) fail to support the
burning of lights ?
7. Explain why the percentage of oxygen in the mine
2. Give a contis~ account of the compositiori of
at1n6sph-eftc-air,··statingthe-Ferc~ntages-\byvotumel .~i1::~l!rrn11.:t:,is_<'\.:lways_J~ss in th~ JJPC<:tst.shafLthan
m the dowri-cas t shaft.
of the most important constituents.
8 . v/hy is the air at great heights not so good for
3. How muc}l air at normal pressure does a man respiration as that at lower altitudes, although the
inhale into his lungs, and in what way is its air is pure and contains the normal percen~.ge of
composition changed when exhaled ? oxygen ?
9. Give a concise account of the (a) physical, (b)
4. In what respect are "combustion," "explosion" chemical, and (c) physiological properties of carbon
ancf" detonation" simila.r ? And in what respect dioxide.
do they differ ?
10. Describe the physiological effects of the deficiency
of oxygen arising from the gradual intrusion of some
5~(a) \i\,Thyis it that a11 oil lamp wi ll not bur11in an
atmosphere containing 20'~·~, of C02, the rerriai~ing
80% being ordinary air ? (b) Can you imagine any
physiologically irrdiffrjrent; gas such as· nitrogen.
11. (a) What do you. understand by the,term "black:-
..
circumstances under which an atmosphere con- damp" ? (b) How may its composition vary? and
taining 30% of co 2 could support the combustion (i;) how do you account for its formation in old
of an oil lamp ? irn'ventilated workings ?

Cardiff Printers Ltd. ~

 FOUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT'
• THE U.M.S.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD .•-
THIS PA"'Pl!ft
WAS ·THE FIRST
16 S\JPPLIE~ Oft
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING

8 IN THE
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IT IS
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l'°'eCRPORATt P 1 931. CARDIFF (G,.r. BRrrAIN.) YOUR .OWN USE

MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS

H
f
I
I
Answers MG/3.
"'•'
MINE AIR

I. Describe the ph_>1s£cal and chemical properties of (a) oxygen and (b) nitrogen, and the place they
take in nature,

. _,,.. . OXYGEN AND NITROGEN •

(a) Oxygen.
Physically, oxygen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas, slightly soluble in water. Its
atomic weight and vapour density are 16 (hydrogen = 1) and its specific gravity is 1 ·105 (air = 1).
It may be condensed to a liquid at - 184°C. under atmospheric pressure.
Chemically, oxygen is the most active element in nature, forming compounds (oxides, carbonates,
and silicates) with almost every other known element. It forms (by weight) about 23% of the atmosv
phere, 48% of the solid earth, and 89% of, all pure water. It is absolutely necessary for respiration
and life and the active supporter of all forms of combustion;
Pure oxygen may be breathed for hours without ill effects. Loss of consciousness occurs almost
at once in an atmosphere· devoid of oxygen. Ordinary lights are extinguished -in any atmosphere
conzaining less than about 17% of oxygen, although some flames (e.g. those of acetylene and hydrogen)
will survive in an atmosphere containing much Jess than 17%. •
Oxidation (the quiet combination, of oxygen with other substances) is the primary cause of
go.b-frres .in·. · mines, spontane~,
. · c·.o· · .· mbustion of coal ca.rgoes in ships, the ignition of rubbish heaps
.about the pit-bank, and many, Jher occurrences of a similar kind.

(b) Nitrogen. · .,, · .

Physically, nitrogen is colourless, odourless and tasteless, and somewhat less soluble in water
than oxygen. Its atomic weight and vapour density are 14, and its specific gravity 0 ·967. It may
~ be condensed to a liquid at - 196 °C. under atmospheric pressure.

0Chemically, nitrogen is an inactive and inert gas, acting merely as a diluent of the .oxygen in the
• air. It is non-combustible and a non-supporter of life or. combustion, being also a physiologically
indifferent gas. On the other hand; it is an essential constituent· of animal and vegetable tissues and,

r. . •
=in the form of nitrates, plays an important part 1.n the manufacture and action of explosives.

,_• ••
•

.. ATMOSPHERIC
2. Give a concise account of the com-position of atmospheric air, stating the percentages (by volume)
.
of the most important constituents .
AIR •

The composition of pure dry air by volume is : oxygen 20 ·93%, nitrogen and other inert gases
79 ·04%, ail"i carbon dioxide 0 ·03%. The inert gases consist chiefly of argon (about O ·94%) with
.-traces of helium, krypton, neon, and xenon. Ordinary air also contains varying proportions of ~ater
vapour, with traces of ammonia, and nitric and sulphuric acids. .
• Fpr most practical purposes, however, it is sufficient to describe air as consisting of 21% oxygen
and 79% nitrogen, or even one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen. The properties of these two
.gases have already been described. •
,.,
• (5012)
•
•
•
MG/3
A/2
Mine Air

3. How much air at normal pressure does a man inhale into his lungs, and in what way is its
composition changed when exhaled?

AIR REQUIRED FOR RESPIRATION.

The quantity of air required for respiration varies greatly with different individuals and with J
the degree of muscular activity; but, using ordinary every-day figures, the minimum is about 16
cubic feet per hour when at rest, whilst more than ten times this quantity may be breathed during
hard exercise or heavy work.

The rate of breathing is automatically regulated by the percentage of carbon dioxide in the alveolar
air-cells in the lungs, this percentage being maintained constant at about S ·6%.
-
In the lungs, an exchange of some of the oxygen with carbon dioxide takes place, and the average
composition of exhaled air is about 16% oxygen, 80% nitrogen, and 4% carbon dioxide •.

4. In what res'pect are " combustion," " explosion " and t t detonation " similar ? And in tuhai
respect do they dif].er ?

COMBUSTION,-EXPLOSION, AND DETONATION.

These are similar phenomena in that all of them are processes of chemical combination whereby
oxygen unites chemically with other elements, usually with Jhe production of heat, Iight, and flame ...

They differ only in the rate at which the chemical combination is effected, combustion being rapid,
explosion very rapid, and detonation almost instantaneous.

J. (a) Why is it. that an oil lamp will not burn in a,n atmosphere containing 20% of CO 2, the
remaining 80% being ordinary air? (b) Can you imagine any circumstances under which an
atmosphere containing 30% of C 0 2 could s1.,,,pport the combustion of an oil lamp ?

WHY LIGHTS ARE EXTINGUISHED.

'}

(a): Atmosphere containing 20% CO 2•

An oil lamp will not burn because the percentage of oxygen present in the atmosphere is only
21
x 80 = 16 ·8%, whereas ordinary lights require a minimum of about 17%. In short, the light
100
is extinguished owing to deficiency of oxygen.

(b) Atmosphere containing 30% CO 2•

This atmosphere would support an oil lamp if the CO 2 were to displace nitrogen only, leaving
the oxygen percentage materially unaltered. Such an atmosphere might be 30% CO 2, 18 to 2.7,,% '.)

oxygen, and 49 to 52% nitrogen. It would, of course, be an artifical atmosphere and could not occur
by natural means. . _
[Note. (1) Experiment has shown that a candle will burn quite well in an artificial atmosphere
composed of 75% CO 2 and 25% oxygen.
(2) If the CO 2 were to replace oxygen, instead of air (as in the processes of combustion of carbonj ,
an oil flame would be extinguished with only 4% CO 2, the remainder being 17% oxygen and 79%
nitrogen.
In each case,. the deciding factor is the percentage of oxygen present.]

--- 6, --Why-does--an~atm-osphereof P-UR-E-eo-2·(w1ifrh~-itse?[conta2ns-.so--1niiclioxygen) . /ai_t_To-· support

the burning oflights ]

WHY CO 2 FAILS TO SUPPORT COMBUSTION. .

Pure CO 2 fails to support the burning of lights, in spite of the fact that it contains so much oxygen.
in its composition (72 ·7% by weight), because the Oxygen in CO 2 is not free. The oxygen is bound
and fettered chemically to ·~he carbon and the heat ofa flame is insufficient to release the bonds between
them. CO 2 i? itself an end-product of complete combustion.
 •
- ..

-----··-----·-- .. ·-·-·--- ..------·-- --- ..

The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. . 1V~l3
·--------··-·---·----.-----------------·----··---·-·----------·---------·-------·------------------

!f,.,,,,.,
Explain why the precentage of oxygen in the mine air-current is always less in the itpcast shaft
than in the downcast shaft.

REDUCTION OF OXYGEN PERCENTAGE IN RETURN AIR.

There are two main reasons why the percentage of oxygen is less in the upcast 'shaft r->-
(1) Some of the oxygen bas been abstracted by chemical processes in the mine.
(2) The air has been diluted by mine gases given off from the· coal and adjacent strata.
The oxidation of coal and other carbonaceous material is chiefly responsible for the abstraction
of oxygen from the mine air. Other assisting causes are the decay of timber, the burning of flame
lamps, and the respiration of men and animals. In addition, a certain amount of oxygen is occluded
or adsorbed by the solid matter in the mine without entering into actual chemical combination.
But even if we i'eave the foregoing out of account, the percentage of oxygen in the upcast shaft
will be less than in the downcast because the air-current has been diluting gases given off from the
coal and adjacent strata.
The net result is that, in normal cases, the air in the upcast shaft contains about 0 ·5% to 1 %
less u%)Tgenthan that in the downcast. ,\\ \ \(r •
8. Why is the air at great heights not so good for respiration as that at lower altitudes, although the
air is pure and contains the normal percentage of oxygen? ·

,• .-,-BREATHING AT HIGH ALTITUDES.

Man suffers increasing discomfort and distress at increasing altitudes because. the air is less dense
and the weight of oxygen inhaled per breath is reduced.
As we ascend to great heights; the atmospheric pressure falls and a given weight of air occupies
a larger volume. Thus, at a height of 3! miles (18,480 feet) the pressure is only one-half the normal
atmospheric pressure at sea-level. At the normal rate of breathing, therefore, a man does not get
enough oxygen to supply his bodily needs. Nature attempts to restore the balance by making him·
breathe more deeply, i.e. he gasps for breath; but the difficulty ofobtaining sufficient oxygen increases
as the altitude increases until eventually life becomes impossible.':
It is possible to become " acclimatised " to the conditions obtaining at high altitudes, within
limits, but the use of oxygen apparatus is essential at excessive heights.

Give a concise account ofthe (a) physical, (b) chemical and (c) physiological properties of carbon
dioxide .
•
CARBf>N DIOXIDE.
·-- (a) Physical properties.
Carbon dioxide is a colourless and odourless gas, but has a slightly sharp or bitter taste. It is
very soluble in water. It has a vapour density of 22 (hydrogen = 1) and a specific gravity of 1 ·520
,. (air = 1). It may be converted to a liquid at 31 °C. under a pressure of 72 atmospheres and at
-SO~C. under a pressure of one atmosphere, whilst if the liquid be rapidly evaporated, so much heat
• is absorbed that a portion is converted to a snow-like solid.

•
.• (;tJ) Chemicai properties .
Carbon dioxide is incombustible and does not support ordinary combustion. It is formed during

.. J"OCesses of respiration and other changes (metabolism) in the body, and whenever carbonaceous
materials .are completely burned in air or oxygen. The carbon dioxide so formed, however, is largely
absorbed by the gr¢eh colouring matter (chlorophyll) of plants which, under the influence of sunlight,
assimilate the carbon and set the oxygen free. In this way, the percentage of oxygen in the atmos-
phere is kept almost constant. Carbon dioxide readily combines with bases (oxides of metals) to form
salts (Gar bonates such as. limestone and chalk} .
• •• (c) Physiological properties. .·
• The effecr of carbon dioxide on a man i~ first to stimulate the breathing and then to cause gradually
increasing distress until unconsciousness occurs. . ..

- At 3% 'carbon dioxide in the air, the rate of breathing is doubled ; at 6%, there is marked panting
and incgeased frequency of pulse, with a palpitation of the. heart accompanied by throbbing head and
flushed face; at 10% or more, the gas has a narcotic effect and loss of consciousness occurs. Finally,
as the percentage increases to 25%, death is liable to occur after sufficiently long exposure. If· the
presence of the CO 2 is accompanied by marked deficiency of oxygen, unconsciousness and death may
occur at an earlier stage. Normally, however, the victim has retreated to=a safe atmosphere long
• before he is in danger of collapse.
·+.-- •
• •
 . .
Mine A1:r •

10. Describe the physiological effects of the deficiency of oxygen arising from the gradual intrusion
of some physiologically indifferent gas such as nitrogen.
PHYSIOLOGICALEFFECT OF DEFICIENCY OF OXYGEN.
If the percentage of oxygen be gradually reduced by the intrusion of nitrogen, a man can live
quite well down to 15% oxygen and no unusual symptoms are likely to occur until there is less than
·about 12% oxygen present unless the person concerned is exerting himself unduly. Further reduction
results in quicker breathing, faster pulse, and flushed face.
At about 7% oxygen, there is usually distinct panting with palpitations, and the face assumes a
leaden blue colour. The mind becomes confused and the senses dulled, although the victim may be
quite unaware of the fact.
In air containing little or no oxygen, loss of consciousness may occur in less than one minute,
without warning symptoms, and death quickly follows.
If the percentage of oxygen is reduced by excess of firedamp, instead of nitrogen, similar effects
are caused.

(a) What do you understand by the term " blackdamp " ? (b) flow may its _composition vary?
.i: '/.· fl.
t ..
and (c) how do you account for its formation in old unventilated workings? I
1
1

BLACKDAMP.
. (a) By blackdamp, I understand a mixtureof carbondioxide andnitrogenin excess of the quantifies ....,.,...) ··-~
of these gases present in ordinary air. In practice, any atmosphere which is apparently not.explosive,
but extinguishes lights or causes them to burn dimly, is considered to be charged with "blackdamp."
(b) The precise proportions of CO 2 and N 2 vary in almost every case, depending on the origin of
the blackdamp, but the CO 2 may form anything up to about 20% of the mixture, the remainder
being nitrogen. An average composition is 11 to 13% CO 2 and 87 to 89% nitrogen. The return air of
deep mines frequently contains harmless traces of carbon monoxide and this may be regarded as
part of the " blackdamp " formed in such mines.
(c) In old unventilatedworkings, the formation of blackdamp is due chiefly to the oxidation of
carbonaceoussolids and the adsorption of oxygen on their molecular surfaces ; and also to the action
of. acid waters on the carbonates of calcium and iron.
In some mines (chiefly outside Great Britain) CO 2 is given off more or less copiously from, the
coal and adjacent strata, and in nearly all mines where firedamp is given off, CO 2 is found as an
ingredient of the mixture.
During oxidation of coal, the volume of CO 2 given off is less than the volume of oxygen consumed,
the result being that the atmosphere contains excess nitrogen. The adsorption of oxygen also has
the effect of increasing the percentage of nitrog~n i11 the residual air.
_ Finally,. the absence of ventilation allows the blackdamp gradually to accumulate until the
atmosphere may consist almost wholly of blackdamp, or partly ofblackdamp and partly of firedamp,
the percentage of oxygen being correspondingly reduced, or even negligible.

CARDIFF PRINTERS LTD.

•
 .,, COPYRIGHT'
FOUNDED 1882
THE .U.M.S.
T. A •. SOUTHERN LTD.~- THIS PAPEft

"llwv~af ~
WAS ·THE FIRST IS SUPPLIED O~
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING
IN THE
SCHOOL
WORL.0.
fil'ge ~,cfwof; CONOITIO'N THAT
IT IS RESERVE.&
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
l'NOORPORATE; 0 1 931. CARDIFF (arr. BRrrAIN.) YOUR OWN USE

MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

Lesson MG/4.
NOXIOUS AND INFLAMMABLE GASES.
The student is now familiar with the composition of atmospheric air and with the important
part 'played by o:xygen .in such pher:orr:iena as respiration and oxidati<?n. H~ is also ac:quaint~d with
the various ways m which carbon dioxide and blackdamp are formed ma mme, and with their effect
on anyone who may breathe them. Attention must now be given to various other· dangerous· gases
and " damps " with which the miner has to contend. . ·

FIREDAMP. . .
• ~~re~alllJ) i.~ . the nC:lm~ ;,:i.µplied .to a IIlecJ:ia~ic(ll. m~tµrn pf gases which, exuding from the coal •
and sfrata~··intrudes itselfinto the mine gtrp.ospl'iere andrenders . this-mere-orIcss-inflammable. Minerst,
:frequently refer to it simply as ""gas."
As a general rule, firedamp· consists chiefly of methane, CH 4, and often this is the only combustible
.,llifl'~ "'gas present. For this reason, some authorities use the terms "firedamp" and "methane" to mean
one and the same thing. This is perfectly justifiable, of course, so long as the writer's intention is
made clear, but for our present purpose it is preferable to use the term methane for.the single gaseous
compound. CH 4 and ttredamp for the somewhat variable mixture of gases given off naturally from the
coal. ·The mixture formed when firedamp is mixed with air is not called firedamp, but is properly
referred to as a firedamp-air mixture.
•
,Jomposition of Firedamp.
' As already mentioned, the chief inflammable constituent of firedamp in British mines is methane,
CH 4, this gas forming up to as much as,'~8% of the natural gas-mixture given off. In some cases,
trCl.c~~ g~ ~.tbane, C:,gJ:-!t;/ have been d~t~q.t,~d (usually less than 2% but occasionally up to 8 or 9%)
whilst .(C!oubtful) 'millute "traces of ethylene, C 2H 4, have also been recorded. Free hydrogen, H·2,
has never been definitely identified in firedamp. The inflammable constituents referred to however,
are nearly always accompanied by small and varying percentages of the extinctive gases .. :!!!!rqgen,
N 2, 3:11<i. carbon diox,id.e, CO 2, whilst :oxyg;ell., Q 2, is als() ()ft~I1 present. · T~~~~. three ga_sestogether
torrnfrom 2%upwarcis to as much as:20% oftheriatural " firedamp." Some observers have recorded .,
tr~~~s. ()f carbon monoxide (fractions of 1 %) in the firedamp obtained from boreholes, but it .cannot '
be iegarded as a normal constituent-of firedamp. •
•
..From the physiological point of view, firedamp and methane may be. regarded as having slmllar
effects : whilst from the point of view of initiating and propagating an explosion, the inflammable
constituents of firedamp, taken as a whole, behave almost precisely like pure methane. This is
important because such gases as ethane, ethylene, and hydrogen, taken by themselves, are in many
respects more inflammable than methane. In firedamp, however, they occur in such small percentages
that their effect is scarcely measurable and can be entirely ignored for practical purposes. When
we0say, therefore, that certain dangers are attached to the presence of a given percentage of methane
in air, we can confidently assume that the same dangers result from a similar percentage of natural
firedamp.
Origin of methane, CH 4•
• ~ This gas is also known as Carburetted Hydrogen, Methyl Hydride, and Marsh Gas. It is a product
of the decay of cellulose (C 6H 100 5)n, and is formed whenever vegetable matter decomposes under
• water and out of contact with air, as in marshes. Its presence in mines is due to the bacterial and
chemical decomposition of the original vegetable matter from which the coal seams have been formed.
In short, the same processes which converted the vegetable matter into coal, by the progressive
eliminationof oxygen and hydrogen, also gave rise to the gases (chiefly firedamp) now enclosed within
thecoat·suosta:nce, Themostimportanf constimen:tofthe-:firedamp ·being metliane.
Manner in which firedamp is held in coal.
·.(;~~

.~ The precise manner in which firedamp is contained in the so-called "solid,; coal is not, fully
understood, but it is generally regarded as being (a) partly in a state of mechanical imprisonment in
small cavities, breaks and fissures, and (b) partly in a state of occlusion. ·
The gas that is merely imprisoned in small cavities and fissures is freely· given off through com-
muni~ating channels as the coal face is worked or whenever the breaks are exposed. Such gas may
• even migrate from the seam to the adjacent strata, and be given off from the roof and floor when
fr?.ctures occur. Sandstones, for example, are capable of taking in gas freely, storing it in large quantities,
If>
and giving it up freely. Shale is. less permeable to gas and will therefore ~imit its movement.
-(5111)
 ~-<?J~ N o xious and I nfl ammabie Gases.
2

. But no theory of simple imprisonment will account for the . vast quantities of firedamp that are
given off from many coal seams. . The volume of gas liberated from broken coal may be as much as
100 times the volume of the coal itself. The pre~sure exerted by the gas is often considerable, and
pressures up to460 lbs. per sq. inch have been recorded. " ·
In one Yorkshire colliery, over a period of some years, the quantity of firedamp given off from
the coal ranged between 850 cub. ft. and 2000 cub. ft. per ton of coal (equivalent to 38 lb. to 90 lb.
per ton of coal). The maximum rate of emission was 1 ·5 cub. ft. of gas per minute per square yard
of coal face exposed. As much as 5 million cubic feet of gas was discharged from the upcast shaft
in 24 hours. Some mines abroad are known to discharge as much as 5,000 to 8,000 cub. ft. per ton
of production, although this must be regarded as very exceptional.
To account for the presence of such large quantities of gas, it is supposed that the gas is mostly
held in a state of occlusion, the gas being either in so-called solid solutlon-c-i.e. condensed, possibly
in the liquid form, in the molecular interspaces,-or adsorbed on the surfaces of capillary passages
within the solid substance. Such occluded gas is firmly held within the coal and is only given off
gradually (as a rule) when the coal is exposed and broken up in working. The more the coal is crushed,
the more it will set free the gas occluded within it.
Other organic substances, besides coal, are capable of adsorbing a very large mass of gas. Ordinary
charcoal, for example, will adsorb up to 9 times its own volume of methane, oxygen, or carbon dioxide.
Granulated coconut charcoal, as used in military gas masks, will, it is stated, fix or hold some hundreds
or even thousands of times its own volume of gas. \
3 Faults are frequently associated with large quantities, of gas, probably because of the existence
/of soft and disintegrated c?al in their neighbourhood and because they may communicate with several
sseams.
41
As a rule, firedamp is more prevalent in deep mines than in shallow mines (although notinvariably .. ,
so) and in some mines (generally shallow) the presence of firedamp is unknown. It is supposed that, -
in such cases, the gas has escaped to the surface through fissures extending upwards, this being obviously
more Iikelv to occur in a shallow mine than in a deep one.
i
JEMISSION OF FIREDAMP IN UNDERGROUND WORKINGS. _ ·
In a mine, gas is given off in three_principal ways, (a) by grad11al_ex\lg~tio11.or '' bleeding ''from
the coal itself, assisted by a more or less steady supply from -the r'oof arid floor ; (b) in the form of
blowers ; and (c) in the form of outbursts.
Gradual exudation.
The gas is discharged in countless little streams issuing from all joints and pores in the newly
worked coal face. If the seam is wet, the issuing gas makes a hissing or cracking sound. Issues of
gas also proceed from cracks in the roof and floor. Usually, the gas is diluted by the ventilation- at
the points of issue, and any particular point of issue cannot be located by a safety lamp. At the same
time, the quantity of gas given off may be very large. The quantity naturally varies .in different
mines and at different times, depending chiefly on the quantity of gas originally present, the· length
of face exposed, the extent of fractures in the coal and strata, and the output of coal being obtained ;
but, as already stated, as much as 2,000 cub. ft. of firedamp per ton of coal raised has been observed'
in British mines, whilst very much greater quantities have been recorded in some mines abroad.
Some of the gas accumulates in the goaf or old workings where it is a constant source of potential
danger owing to the possibility of its being forced out suddenly into the mine roadways by falls of
roof or by a sudden decrease in atmospheric pressure. A gassy seam is usually more easily worked
• than one containing little, gas and it is well known that the coal is liable to become '' winded '' or •
" wooden '• (tough) in nature after most of the gas has escaped.

Blowers.
When the_ &as is discharged continl.l()~~!Y . ~o.~. ~~-,.J:?<:;tig.51"£1-~.8:·1:1 ~- ge.(1nite point of .issue (either from.
the coal or front the adjacent strata) .i~. i,~. . xf!.,ll~g a b!o,V\Ter. Such blowers are often Cl.SS.?I11Panied by a
hi~sing; ~l.lrg}ing, orr()aEing noise, ipd:i~·a~t1.nii "tnat the .gC1~ _i~. H11£er}~opsideral,Jle pres'siire: They ma;r
'-:ontiii'Ue l6-give off large volumes of gas for many years without apparent decrease. The gas from a
blower in a South Wales colliery has provided a ready supply of firedamp (95 ·8°/) CH 4) for research
purposes. At some mines, it has been found possible to lead the gas from a blower in pipes to the
surface and use it for lighting,. heating, and power purposes.

OUTBURSTS.
The~!(,.~a;ce,.$,U~lg_l~,U,..,,JCiQl~!,!t . (JJ,$.clJ,;.iJ;g.~s_ ot ga~,_ ll~µaijy- -~c.co111p~pi~d. J:>y. tb,g_ . dJ$p~~,~,S7.:Ql~f1t_ pf large
gu~ntiti~s-._~-~-,_.di~i.1:J:~~~E~~-~<t,.~,Q~L.~.n.q,,_.,~J>.~!.,9H~!.,_._J:.'.~QI!@_C1t~ly,J?.rge QJltbu:i-sts,_~_ausingfoss_-_-;JfJifo, __ are.of _
C':c5ffi¥~rit1~~1Y-rare ·oc~ciirrence. In Great Britain, small outbursts have occurred in Durham, Lancashire
and Yorkshire, but the area chiefly subject to the danger is the Western portion (the anthracite region)
of the South Wales Coalfield where more than one hundred outbursts, of varying magnitude, have
been recorded. In one case, at Ponthenry Colliery, there was an outburst of 300 tons of coal and fire-
damp which forced its way 500 yards outbye against .the intake air. In Belgium, a case is on record
where no less than 12 million cub. ft. of firedamp was suddenly discharged, causing 121 deaths and
ejecting more than 500 tons of coal. The gas burned for two hours at the mouth of the shaft wi+h a
flame 130 ft. high. ,

~;!eatures commonly. asso~iated with o~tbu~sts ~nclude :-

-1 (1) They occur mamly m narrow places m highly stressed or disturbed· ground where severe
crush is liable to take place. •
 t
•.
~f;, p -;-e.µv.d- Or 1Ci_5 (Ln_k f:cn_<;,~..;;Jft
(}. > dsa.t.v<-<L' ~. V.J~ f~ *!itOcJ..

The Universal M'ining School, Cardiff. · N!Q/4

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3~··
" (2) There is present, locally, an area of soft dry coal which may not contain more than the normal
t:iuantity of gas, but is loose enough to move under a sudden relief of pressure and so set the greater
part of the adsorbed gas almost instantly free.
, (3) An impermeable rib '-Surrounds the loose coal and prevents the previous quiet drainage of
the gas.
(4) In some cases, the outburst occurs from the floor, the gas being given off from a seam some
little distance below.
(5) Little or no previous warning is given of an impending outburst.
It would seem, although one cannot be dogmatic about it, that the prime cause of an outburst
is probably the sudden release of strain energy from the strata whereby the disintegrated coal and its
adsorbed gas are suddenly ejected into the mine roadway. In otherwords, the gas is the accompaniment
of the outburst and not its cause. Nevertheless, it is possible that gas pressure may also be built up and
be a contributory factor in some cases. It should also be understood that high strata stresses and areas
of soft coal exist in many seams where outbursts are unknown.
High stress in the strata may· be due primarily to geological factors which have caused folding,
faulting and intense lateral thrust. Alternatively, it may be induced by mining operations. Many
·"· outbursts have occurred in narrow development places or in leading ends of faces near the intense
~ ~ abutment-pressure zones caused by the workings themselves. Others have occurred when narrow
places have passed through faulted and troubled ground. Where outbursts have occurred on wide
:..J J faces, it. has usually been found that the waste has been inadequately packed and high stresses have
been ~uilt up in a strong roof or floor bed. . .
he following precautions may be .adopted in seams known to be liable to outbursts:--
(1) Where possible, work by ad;~.:J1:C~I18 l()[l~c;tll and maintain a straight extracg()n line in order
, · .P1:":9mg:t.e,,,q:uie:t.dp:t.in&1;g.~,,<:rLJ~,.g;tr.'§: "·-·' . , "· ,. · · ·· ·- · · · . · "'
I •""""" .(2) A void.tV\7? ~?I1Si\V.~I! . K<'!cR~~ .??I}Y~1:9~1/:P>on each other.
·r·" ... · ·
(3) kw'0id'atule car1gTes 'iii'l~~:)Y:g,J:E~ngs ·and .VI?-~9Ek.~8 .c:9a) and do I1?t.1.~ave_9dd.piUcirs.,of coal.
\ (4) l'.~el{'';'t:he·•goaf·as•solH:Iiy' as possib~e Jq.red.µce the.c9iivergence r·atefo a minimum and secure
l
effecti ve. "'foof''c6fitfof:·"''i:• • ·•'•""''f'·'"'"''"'"''''''' "' '''' ' .•. ,,., ;',;.-' •"· ' ' '
(5) Ayoit;f·p~rrow.$±1:Jy<l.~~~.<?F,}fthis is not possible, make them 15 yards wide or more,_ Cl.?:~ql.J.a~~ly
supp?r!>t~eri~~ and ad_vci.hs.~ . ·.~1:1,~m:Cl.t,,.~_ . sJP\V{ate. . . · . · ·
''M' · · (6) .. W'l'fere. n<l.r:row eScplorat~on. ?:riy~g~s are necessary in troubled ground,. or $1:?.s.~~.measure drifts
are driven to wiif a·seam subject to oµtbup;ts, bore severaUong bore-holes in advanct~· in an attempt
to-eeleaee the gas: ·
A method which has been adopted on the continent and also at one time, by special permission,
in South Wales, is to win the coal in narrow places by heavily charging a number of shot-holes and then
fire them simultaneously from the surface, or from a safety chamber underground. This method,, known
as~~ ....Y?l!eY:~i,r~n.g;?,,'' aims at inducing an outburst (if it is liable to occur j.tt all :near that point) but any
resuTfirig"'O'iifbur.sl then takes place under conditions relatively safe to life. It is only under e~~-I.?.1!2!19'J
c..z11~~°:ns, however, t~at such a method w~uld be considered although it has possibilit~es ill reducing
or limiting the danger m development headmgs where these have to pass through possibly dangerous
areas. -

~ROPERTIES OF METHANE.
\ ..i' (a) Physically, pure methane has l~eit~~~·~?~?~t~ t~~~~~ nor, but the firedamp of which itsw~P?
forms the principal member sometimes""l'.!'5ntains··1mpurities (e.g. traces of H 2S) which may enable the
miner to detect " firedamp " by the sense of smell. '
}:r
Methane is li!?,"~t~.!: t.hf.!,~, •. ~.i!, ving a sp~.Qifi.Q, g:s.;~.yity }'!-R ·;~53 (eir - 1). 'It is therefore most liable
to be found in ~eater concentrati'on in rise workings or in cavitieg near the roof. At the same time,
likg ·all other gases;•·"it•·•·wifl'ngra:duaUy>:Cliftttse''into a:hd 'mix Uriiformty·witn ·the air and, once having
mixed, it will not separate spontaneously. ·
«< The reason why an accumulation of firedamp is often found at a ripping lip, or in a roof cavity,
is not only because it tends to rise and accumulate there due to its light weight, but also because
~he. gas that has diffused downwards into the air is constantly being replaced by. fresh gas given off
. from the strata. It is this constant accession of new gas that maintains the accumulation in spite
of the diffusion that is. always taking place. Under such 'circumstances, the only way to "clear "
the gas is to direct a stronger current of air into it (e.g. by the erection of a hurdle cloth) so assisting
the process of natural diffusion by mechancial displacement, and diluting the gas at its point of issue.
(b) Cht!mically,methane, CH4,js.a compound ofcarboriand hydrogell.' It is therefore called a
hydrocarbon. and it belongs to a class of hydrocarbons known as the" paraffin "series. Other members
of this serie~ are ethane C 2H 6, propane C 3H8, butane C 4H 10, and pentane C 5H 1 2•
* '· Methari~ J~ ~. .
, ??~~H~tiJ:>l~,.,g~-~ . and, whel/; S1.l~t.<t!?.1:Y . i.~{~~!f:'.Sl{.)t will burn in air or oxygen "Y.,ith a
pal~ .l;>l~lMtI19~;l~l'I),1,l}?l1,S, .~~m~.·".,Moreover, when methane is mixed in certain ·proportions with atmos-
pl'feriC air; Hie'·resultanf firedamp-air mixture is inflammable or explosive, i.e. flame can be propagated
throu~hout the rnixtu~e away from, and independent of the source of ignition.
In round numbers, the lowest percentag~ of methane in air that is required to form an inflammable
.mixture is about 5%, whilst the highest percentage is about 15%. The most highly explosive mixture
is one containing about 10% of methane, i.e., rather more than that.theoretically required for complete
combustion. ' · o

• ·-J,._ Effect· of breathing methane •

Like nitrogen, methane is a :Q!J:Y*1(),!pg;J~~ll¥.JP.~j~fe:t:.~At . ~~~· ,J,t .. ,Js. nPt.:P,91~9:1].()Us and it may be
breathed with perfect impunity, so' long as there is sufficient oxygen in the atmosphere to support
 MG/4
4
Noxious and I nfiammable Gases

respiration. But if a large percentage of methane is present, an equivalent percentage of air with its
tontained oxygen is displaced, and a person breathing such a mixture would suffer from the deficiency
of oxygen. Thus, if .there be 25% of CH 4 in the atmosphere, the remaining 75% would be air and·
about one-fifth of this (namely 15% of the whole) would be oxygen. Such an atmosphere would not
be dangerous from the point of view of respiration. But if there be 60% of CH 4, there would only
be 40% of air containing about 8% of oxygen and this atmosphere would be extremely dangerous.
Loss of consciousness would occur suddenly and without any warning symptoms if a person breathed such
an atmosphere, e.g. by placing his head in a roof cavity containing an accumulation of firedamp, or
by walking inadvertently into an old unventilated roadway.
Before dealing further with methane, a brief account will be given of the two other gaseous hydro-
carbons mentioned as occasionally present in the natural firedamp.

Ethane, C 2H 6 and Ethylene C 2H 4•

Ethane or Ethyl Hydride is a member of the paraffin series of hydrocarbons. As seen from its
formula, its molecular weight is 24 + 6 = 30, its vapour density is 30 --:--- 2 = 15, and its specific gravity
is 15 ---;- ~4 ·475 = l ·0~16 (air = 1), 'Without colour, taste or smell, it bums with a luminous flame,
and for this reason it has sometimes been called " silver" gas. Compared with methane, ethane may
,, be ignited at a lower temperature.
Ethylene is also known as oleriant gas or heavy carburetted hydrogen' and it forms the first member \
of the so-called olerine series of hydrocarbons. Its molecular weight is 28, its vapour density 14, and
its specific gravity 0 ·967 (air.= 1). Its other properties are somewhat similar to those of ethane.

COMBUSTION OF METHANE.
The combustion of methane may be either complete or incomplete. If sufficient oxygen is present
for complete combustion, the products of combustion are carbon dioxide and water; but if the oxygen
supply is insufficient, the combustion is incomplete, and carbon monoxide is included among the products
of combustion. This may be explained in the following way.
When methane is ignited in air, the effect of the heat from the source of ignition is to set free
the atoms of the constituent elements (carbon and hydrogen) so that they can combine with oxygen,
the nitrogen of the air taking no part in the chemical reaction. The new combination into which any
particular atom will enter is dictated by the greatest attraction or " chemical affinity " it finds in
its environment. The atoms liberated from CH 4 ·will instantaneously combine with oxygen (rather
than re-combine as CH 4) simply because their " affinity" (so-called) is greater for oxygen than for
each other. If, at the moment of separation, the nascent (i.e. free) oxygen present is sufficient, or
more than sufficient, to satisfy the affinities of the nascent carbon and hydrogen, the result will be
complete combustion, i.e .. each atom of carbon will unite with 2 atoms ·of oxygen to form carbon
dioxide CO 2, and the hydrogen will unite with oxygen to form water vapour H 20.
But if the atoms of the respective elements are not exactly balanced in this way, i.e. if there is
not sufficient oxygen to go round, we then get incomplete combustion. Hence we find carbon monoxide,
CO, as one of the products of combustion, or even free hydrogenwhich has failed to secure any oxygen
at all.
Chemical equations.
In all literature dealing with the combustion of methane, it is customary to express the chemical
reaction between the o-xygen and the atoms of the methane, when complete combustion takes place,
in the form of an equation, * as follows:-
CH 4 +20 2 CO 2 +
2H 20.
(Methane and Oxygen yield Carbon Dioxide and Water).
Such an equation is very suggestive. It means first that, if the molecules on the left be broken
up, their atoms will then form the new combinations shown on the right. The atoms contained on the
.one side of the equation must necessarily be equal in number to those shown on the other side. In
this case, there are 1 atom of carbon, 4 atoms of hydrogen and 4 atoms of oxygen on each side.
Secondly the equation shows that :-
1 molecule or 2 molecules or 1 molecule or 2 molecules or
1 volume of + 2 volumes of form 1 volume of + 2 volumes of
Methane Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water vapour
CH4 202 C02 2!120
In other words, for complete combustion, the volume cf oxygen 'present in the original mixture
must be at least double that of the methane. Now oxygen normally forms 21 volumes in each 100
volumes .of..air.. ., Thus, to ensure complete. combustion, we nn1$t Elcld 110J more th<!n '.21 <?~ )~ = _ .1 O~
volurhes of CH 4 to these 100 volumes. But the total number of volumes will now be 100 +
10~ =-)

. lOi-
110!, and the precentage of CH4 in this mixture will be -- X 100 or practically 9t per cent ·cH4•
1101 0 -
*[Note. The sign of equality (=) is often replaced by. an arrow (->L indicating that ,the
_reaction proceeds from leit to right. A reversed arrow would then indicate a reaction from right to
left, and the use of both arrows would indicate a reversible reaction; Chemical equations, of course,
only represent observed reactions: ·the mere fact that an equation can be constructed algebraically by
manipulating the various symbols is no indrcation that the reaction represented can take place unless
actual experiment shows it to be possible.)
 MG/4
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. ·5··-
-------------- -- ------- ---
I
----------------- -------------------
o If the percentage of methane exceeds 9! per cent. the quantity of oxygen will be deficient, and
get incomplete combustion. There is no one equation that will represent incomplete combustion·
\Cle.
because there are any number of degrees of oxygen deficiency. Let us suppose that, instead of there
being twice asmuch oxygen.as CH4, there is only I! times as much; then the equation will read:-
2CH4 + 302 2CO + 4Hp.
In another case, both hydrogen and carbon monoxide may be produced as shown by the equation:
CH,. + 02 CO + H2 + Hp.
The foregoing examples relate only to those substances which enter into actual combustion. The
final,. like the original atmosphere, would contain also a large quantity of unchanged nitrogen. To
describe fully the compositions of both atmospheres, we must add the nitrogen to both sides of any
of the equations given ; but the less cumbersome equation, showing only the actual reactions, is
sufficient for all practical purposes.

·RBON MONOXIDE, CO.

This is sometimes called carbonic oxide or whitedamp and is ~r?~~~.~~.. ~9-en~V'~F ~ar~on .i~ ~.U:rnt
wi~h ;J,~i~sµtJlcient supply ofoxygen. The name" whitedarnp " proba1>lyorigiitate's frorii the association
·of CU with steam and light-coloured smoke in fumes from mine fires; but as CO may occur in dangerous
quantities where there is neither steam nor visible fumes, the term is misleading.

Carbon monoxide is a co~Ol1X!£§2 and oci<:>ur:I~s? ,g;;:i,s with a "n:i,~~a.llic" ta§~!:!- . It is somewhat
li~~ter: than. air, its '.sp~ci~~~ )~l·~vftl' b~ing: g:~~RJ (air = l). It doe's not support combustion but is
its-elf a_· combustible gas; . Mixtti:res of air. arid. carbon monoxide are explosive within the limits of
. ...,.,..~•'"'12 ·5% and 74 ;2%1 'of CO in the mixture. Such large percentages of CO are never found, of course,
· i:n'·lllirtes·~· '·'·'···~,, ..,.•,.•.-. . . ". . ,, ..
w.cc·.

~tVhe .chlet sources of the . gas in mines are :-

1~).l} Oxidation of coal. (3) Spontaneous combustion. '(S') Air compressors.
(2) Use of explosives. .(4) Explosions of firedamp or coal-dust. (6) Diesel locomotives.
'(I) Oxidation of coal produces small percentages of carbon monoxide which contaminates the return
air of nearly all deep mines exceeding about 1,500 ft. deep. This is quite a normal condition and does
not imply the existence of self-heating. The percentage present· is usually less than 0 ·001% and is
quite harmless.
(2) Ex-plosives theoretically contain sufficient "6xygen for complete combustion, but combustion
is seldom perfect and CO is liable to be present in the blasting fumes. Men should not be allowed to
return to the place until the fumes have been cleared by the ventilation.
0
(3) Spontaneous combustlon invariably gives rise to possibly dangerous percentages of CO. Great
care is necessary in the neighbourhood of a heating, or in the return air from a gob fire, or when sealing
off a district. It may be necessary for men engaged to wear self-contained breathing apparatus. Carbon
monoxide is also produced by an open underground fire, even if this occurs in an intake airway.
•.• (4) Explosions of firedamp and coal-dust invariably produce dangerous percentages of CO in the
resulting afterdamp and it is this gas which is responsible for most of the deaths of victims who have
escaped the violence of the explosion.
(5) Alr-compressors may produce dangerous quantities of CO owing to the slow combustion of
carbonaceous deposits, and the CO may then be circulated through the transmission system, possibly
with fatal results. Such slow combustion arises from overheating, especially if an unsuitable lubrfeating
oilis used. Overheating may occur if the cooling system breaks down, or if the valves are covered with
0 carbonised deposits, or parts of the engine are not properly lubricated. It is even possible that vapour
from a mineral oil of low flash point may be ignited and so cause an explosion in air-compressorcylinders
and receivers. 'The,~~~:~·~i~~ . ~nS!Jts:!~ (a) use a high-gradelubricant having a flash-point of not less than
•·soo°F. ; (b) fift'.'~f'"fI1e'· inlet air to exclude coal dust; (c) ~Jean out the cylinders and air-passages
.periodically ; (d) stop the compressor at once if any abnormality in running is evident.
-·~~' (6) Diesel locomotives normally produce little CO (less than 0 ·02% in the exhaust) but danger
from this gas may arise if the engine is not properly worked and efficiently maintained, or if the engine
is worked in a place or road where there is not an adequate ventilating current flowing. The· general
air in a road must normally con~ain less than 0 ·Qg§_,%,~<?!,~Q,.and the. use of locomotives must be dis-
continued if~ the 'percentage oFCff'exceects'U'':nT~.~: · · ····· . ·. · · · ·
- Further points of Triterest 'relating to carbon monoxide- iiicfode-:-
(a) .Carbon monoxide forms from 5% to 15% of ordinary coal gas, as supplied in pipes to houses
for domestioelighting and heating, the remainder being hydrogen and methane. Such gas is produced
0by carbonisation of coal, i.e, heating it out of contact with air.
(b) When steam is passed over red-hot coke, the hydrogen and oxygen in the steam are set free
and the oxygen combines with the carbon in the coke. The result is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide known as water gas. A similar action may occur underground in the case of a deep-seated
fire in a mass of coal if water is used in anv attempt to extinguish the fire. An explosion may take .
"place if the hydrogen and carbon monoxide become suitably- admixed with air.
0 -fi101ogical effectsof· co. •
. · . Carbon monoxide is a ~3SJ~"'J),,9~·QJ,l9,P,s.gas because its chemical affinity for the haemoglobin
0
of the 'blood is . about 300 times· as strong. as . that of oxygen. Normally, oxygen combines with. the
haemoglobin· to form an unstable compound called oxyhabmoglobln, This passes to the tissues where
the oxygen is abstracted for use in vital processes. If the smallest quantity of CO enters the lungs,
0
however, the oxygen is out-paced, as it were. and the COimmediatelv combines with the haemor-lobir-.
 Noxious and I nfllammable Gases
• . t
to form a. more stable compound called carboxyhaemoglobin. If this goes on, breath after breath,
.Lhe blood is no longer capable of taking up the lifegiving oxygen and the blood becomes more or less
"saturated " with carbon monoxide, Ultimately, death may occur for want of oxygen, but even if
death does not occur, the lung cells are liable to be permanently damaged. '
The symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning depend on the degree to which the blood has become
saturated with CO, and the time required for a given percentage saturation to occur depends on the
quantity of CO in the inhaled air, the degree of muscular exertion, and the state of mental excitement
of the person concerned. Briefly, the symptoms are as follows :-
Below 20% saturation Little or no effect.
20% to 30% Tendency to dizziness and headaches.
30% to 40% Severe headache, vomiting, and possible collapse.
-40?/0 to 50% Loss of power in limbs, mental confusion and greater
possibility of collapse.
50% to 60% Coma with intermittent convulsions.
60% to 70% As above, possibly resulting in death.
70% to 80% Respiratory failure and death.
With low concentrations of CO, the symptoms occur v:ery gradually and insidiously and a man mav
reach the verge of collapse before realising the seriousness of the situation Different men are also
affected in different ways, and it is quite possible for some men, to be. dead whilst othersare still
conscious, even though all have. been breathing the same atmosphere.
The effects corresponding to different percentages of CO, and the time required for. them to take
place cannot be stated with exactness, but are approximately as follows according to the most recent
determinations:-

Time Required. \
Maximum
% of CO saturation. At rest Working \ Result

0·02
0·04
20%
33%
4 hours
2 hours __ I ;sh~%~ T~~i~~~~:~~~~~~a-:~: pos-
sible collapse.
0 ·12 30 mins. I 20 mins. Palpitation and Giddiness
2 hours 1 40 mins. Leg weariness, nausea.
60% 3 hours 1 hour Complete collapse.
0·20 65% 1 hour 10 mins. Unconsciousness.
0·30 70% 45 mins. ~. 5 rnins.
1 ·00 75% t~w~·80%. ·-~-3_0_m_i_n_s_. l_m_in_. _ ,..I

·~· It will .be seen that anything over 0 ·02% of CO may cause discomfort and distress; 0 ·12%
rapidly causes dangerous symptoms with possibly fatal consequences if exposure is prolonged; anything
··1(
. over O ·2% is extremely dangerous; whilst 1 % of CO may be regarded as a very ''high " pereentage ,
it· in which death may very quickly ensue.
Carbon Illono~i~e il1:):.:e~rt~ .~
pibk: tin&'e ~?. Jhe, ?I?9d ·and a man thus poisoned presents in death
for s6mt;"t:i:me· a ·most life-like appearance, as distinguished from the leaden pallor of death seen on
the face of one who has been drowned in water or suffocated by CO 2 or by any gas which merely
displaces oxygen. ·
The after-effects of CO poisoning range from nothing, to headaches, muscular pains, loss of streng-th,
mental derangement, and paralysis, whilst the heart may also be permanently injured. Much depends
OI) the constitution of the victim and on the length of time during which he has been exposed to the CO.

l!)etection
:;~.~.r· .
of carbon monoxide.
In mines, the normal method of testing for CO is by means of a small warm-blooded creature such
as a canary, linnet, or mouse. These creatures are much more quickly affected by CO than man anc7';::
thus give warning symptoms before a man is in danger. A bird is preferable to a mouse because it is
more sensitive arid gives a clearer indication of distress. It is stated that, with 0·15% of CO present
in the air, a bird shows distress in 3 minutes and falls off its perch in 18 mins. With 0 ·3% CO, the
bird shows almost immediate distress and falls off its perch in 2t minutes.
Guiding principles when using birds to test for carbon . monoxide.
(1) Use two or more birds, if possible, because they vary in their sensitivity.
t,2) Use fresh birds for --each~ d~termiJ?.ation-because, like men, they may develop a 1ol-erance for '.I>
small percentages of CO and exhibit no signs.
(3) WJthdraw to the fresh-air base when a bird shows the first sign of distress or the bird may be
lost.
"' than
( 4) Btrds do not test for deficiency of oxygen as they .can live in a lower percentage of oxygen
is required by a man. A flame safety lamp should be used to test for oxygen deficiency.
(5) Do not take blrds into an atmosphere k:nown to be Irresplrable because of carbon monoxide.
Afteran explosion, a rescue team wearing breathing apparatus should first establish a fresh air
base as far inbye as possible, at a point proved by birds and safety lamps to be safe. When exploring
in irrespirable air beyond the base; the rescue teams do not require to carry birds for their safety.
The birds should be kept at the base for the protection of those standing by until it is thought that
 MG/4
., The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. -;----y--

an area beyond has been cleared of gas. A rescue team may then advance cautiously, with birds and
~afety lamps, testing the atmosphere as they go, in order to ascertain whether the base can be safely
ntoved forward. At the same time samples of the atmosphere should be taken for analysis. Finally,
in due course, all working places in the affected district must be examined in a similar manner.
Chemical tests for small percentages oi carbon monoxide.
Various types of portable apparatus are available in which air is drawn or pumped through a
small glass tube containing a chemical which changes colour in the presence of carbon monoxide.
These include :----
( 1) A tube containing silico-molybdates which is yellow in colour and is reduced by CO in "the
presence of palladium sulphate to the blue oxide of molybdenum. During the process, there is a colour
change from yellow through greenish-yellow to blue, according to the percentage of CO present. The
perce~age may be estimated from a standard colour chart. .
\,)(t2) A tube containing potassium palladium sulphite which is yellow in ·colour and is reduced by
CO t'b palladium metal which is purple. The reaction of the yellow and purple produces a brown stain
1···· tli.e ~ngth of . which from the inlet end of the tube is proportional to the percentage of CO present.
W" , V(3) A tube containing pumice impregnated with " hcolarmte.:" a mixture of iodine pentoxide and
r..:~"sulphuric acid. The hoolamite changes from greyish white. to some shade of green in the presence of

L 'I CO due to the iodine released. The percentage of CO present may be estimated from a colour chart.
The foregoing types of apparatus are simple to operate but should only be used by men wearing
breathing apparatus in any atmosphere where a dangerous quantity of CO may be present or the
observer may be overcome whilst making the test. . · ·
Needless to say, a flame safety lamp is quite useless for testing for carbon monoxide : nor can the ·
''-~' ,,-?e~)eJ>t~~Wel}a~~~~?~~l ~n~ln~17a&.01l.L~~ed/f~c;.~e j.~J~g~~~tz-s, k_. f?~~~ ..
Chemical analysis of mine air samples for carbon monoxide. t~
, .w;~a~~r-·~~
t.l~ -~ p
::s::;:-f.
The accurate estimation of very small percentages of carbon monoxide by chemical analysis may
be carried out by the iodine pentoxide method, using· Graham's apparatus. In this method, the sample
of gas to be analysed is passed over iodine pentoxide I 20 5, heated to a temperature of 90° to 130°C,
after the removal of all gases which interfere· with the reaction. The carbon monoxide, CO, if any,
in the sample, is thereby oxidised to carbon dioxide, co 2> and iodine is set free in a quantity depending
on the percentage of carbon monoxide present. This iodine is then dissolved in a solution of potassium
iodide, KI ; a few drops of starch solution are added which, owing to the iodine present, cause the
mixture to become a characteristic bluish-violet colour; and a standard sodium thiosulphate solution
is introduced, drop by drop, until the blue coloration disappears. The quantity of thiosulphate solution
required to produce this effect is an accurate measure of the percentage of carbon monoxide in the
ori~nal sample. It is claimed that an accuracy of 0 ·005 per cent. or less can be obtained.
l,

SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN, H 2S.

This gas is als.o known as Hydrogen Sulphide or Stinkdamp, the latter name being due to its
smell, resembling that of rotten eggs. It is given off when coal (which usually contains more or less
<sulphur in the form of iron pyrites, FeS 2) is heated out of contact with air to a temperature of about
830°}<. It is therefore frequently found in the gases resulting from gob-fires. H 2S is also produced
by the combustion of gunpowder and by the putrefaction of animal tissue.
Sulphuretted hydrogen is colourless, but (as already stated) has the repulsive smell of rotten eggs.
It has a specific gravity of 1. ·175 and is therefore somewhat heavier than air. It is readily soluble
in water and when the water is subsequently disturbed, the gas escapes into the air. Many lives have
been lost in sewers and similar places from this· cause. In mines, H 2S may be found in solutiontin
stagnant water in old workings and these must therefore be approached with great circumspection.
Sulphuretted hydrogen is at least as poisonous as carbon monoxide. From O ·05% to O · 1 % causes
,,serious symptoms in a few minutes, while higher percentages cause death very rapidly. Even as little
as 0 ·005% acts as a poison and causes discomfort. The early symptoms of H 2S poisoning include
headache, dizziness and fatigue ; then follows pain in the chest and bronchitis; later, depression and
~tupor ensue, and finally unconsciousness and death. Fortunately, H 2S occurs only in very small
c percentages in mines, as a rule.
As with carbon monoxide, a flame safety lamp is quite useles~ for detecting H 2S because, although
the. gas will burn, with a pale blue flame on. the lamp, no such flame is visible until the atmosphere is
c1ui~e irrespfa:able. Milrnte traces of H 2S may be detected by the sense of smell, and thus the gas is
o not so· fre-achetous·-as carborrmonoxide ; but dangerous percentages- soon destroy the- sense of smell. .
A man may thus cease to smell the gas and yet be in imminent danger. A convenient chemical test
eonststs in the use of white blotting paper which has been wetted with a solution of lead acetate (sugar
.:-0f lead]. This turns brown or black when in the presence of H 2S. Silver coins are also discoloured by
H 2S owing to the production, on the surface, of black sulphide. -~ v
~;:' .. • NITRQUS :.'UMES, NO, NO 2, etc.
These are oxides of nitrogen, chiefly nitrogen peroxide NO 2, Jn.d are produced by certain high
-exploslves of the nitro-glycerine type, especially when the explosive (or part of it) simply .. , fizzles
,aw:d.y" owing to failure, or partial failure of complete detonation. Nitrous fumes are reddish brown
c in colour and have an irritating smell.
,These fumes have an extremely irritant action on the lungs and are highly poisonous. In the
early stages of exposure to the fames a man feels HI and coughs violently .. He may then apparently
recover. Several hours later, however, if the exposure nas been sufficiently long, the more serious
c: MG/4
Noxious and Inflammable Gases
8
--------\~-----·---~- .. -··-·-·-~-------~-·~-~-------

symptoms of bronchitis and pneumonia may develop, and ultimately death may ensue. Air containing
sufficient nitrous fumes to cause appreciable irritation of the air-passages should be regarded as dangerouss
To deal with the. danger, the precautions are first, to make sure of complete detonation by the
use of a sufficiently powerful detonator and by correct charging of the shot-hole with explosive in
good condition; and secondly to provide a brisk ventilation to clear away the fumes rapidly. Under
no circumstances should a man be permitted to return to the 'place where a shot has been fired until·
sufficient time has elapsed-to enable the air-current to deal with the fumes. When available, a water-
spray may be used to dissolve the fumes after blasting, nitrous fumes being very soluble in water.

FUMES FROM GOB FIRES.

Self-heating of coal, resulting in a gob fire, is caused by the undue oxidation of carbonaceous
material under conditions which favour the retention of heat until finally ignition occurs. During
the process, which is progressive in character and in which combustion is likely to be incomplete, the
gases given off are certain to include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and water vapour. If iron pyrites
is present in the heated mass, hydrogen sulphide will also be evolved. Further, as the heating develops,
smoke and tarry vapours are produced. The whole mixture of gases, known as " gob-stink,'' is therefore
highly poisonous and calls for the exercise of the greatest caution, especially on the return side of a
heating .

.AFTERDAMP.
•
This is a mechanical mixture of gases found in a mine after an explosion and its composition varies
greatly with the conditions obtaining before the explosion.
"·" Complete combustion yields carbon dioxide C02 (up to about 18%) and water vapour, H 20,
but in an explosion the combustion is seldom or never complete and so the afterdamp usually includes=~'-
more or less carbon monoxide, CO (from about 2% up to as much as 8%)-a typical product of incom-
plete combustion. In some instances, indeed, the combustion has been so very incomplete that free
hydrogen (up to about5%)-- in spite of its great affinity for oxygen-has been found in the afterdamp.
The bulk of the mixture, of course, comprises residual nitrogen (80% or thereabouts) which takes
no part whatever in the chemical. reactions. Varying quantities of oxygen may also be present as a
result of local partial combustion or of the subsequent .admixture with air containing unconsumed •
oxygen: whilst methane (either unconsumed or distilled from coal-dust) and other inflammable gases,
e.g. ethane and ethylene are sometimes found (totalling about 4%). The percentages mentioned, of
course, refer to undiluted afterdamp and are only given as rough guides, but they indicate that after-
damp may contain varying percentages of nearly all the gases found in a mine. It is unlikely, of course,
that all the gases. referred to will be found in any one sample· of afterdamp.
The important point to notice is the essentially poisonous character of afterdamp due to the presence
of carbon monoxide. Even if only 1 % or 2% of this gas is present, the atmosphere is quickly fatal,
and by far the greater proportion of deaths in colliery explosions are due to the effects of this gas.
This applies more particularly to cases in which coal-dust has taken part in the explosion, for the
combustion is then much more likely to be incomplete than in an explosion in which firedamp only
9
has played a part.

TREA 'l'MENT IN CASES OF GASSING.

If a person is rendered unconscious by deficiency of oxygen, due to displacement of air by firedamp,
or the withdrawal of oxygen by slow oxidation or other means resulting in excess nitrogen, death
rapidly ensues. The period gf unconsciousness preceding death is very short (owing to lack of oxygen)
and treatment, to be successful, must not be long delayed. o
If a person· is rendered unconscious by the action of carbon dioxide, a period of several hours
may elapse before death occurs (assuming the oxygen' percentage to be not unduly diminished at the.
same time). A person therefore has a greater chance of being rescued from such an atmosphere, and
moreover, he is likely to recover quickly and completely when artificial respiration is carried out.
If a person is rendered unconscious by the poisonous 'effect of carbon monoxide the chances o'f
recovery depend. largely on the degree to which the blood has been saturated with the gas; but, in
any case, careful and prolonged treatment is usually required; .and death may occur some time after
the victim has regained consciousness. Somewhat similar remarks apply to poisoning by sulphuretted
hydrogen, altough cases of collapse due solely to this gas are rare. ·
--
In all cases, the administration of earbogen to the victim (or alternatively of pure oxygen if carbogen
is not available) will greatly increase the probability and speed of recovery.
'' Oarbogen "}s Cl,_ J.Qi}CtU!'~ gf 5% Jo 1% or carbon dioxide 8;nd 93% to 95% of oxygen, and i8e
mucii more 'effective than pure oxygen in restoring normal respiration. The effect of the CO 2 is to
increase the rate and depth of breathing at a time when, even with artificial respiration, the breathing
is likely to be feeble.
It will be remembered that, under normal conditions, the rate of breathing is governed
0 by
percentage of co 2 in the lungs, and that the presence of co 2 in the inhaled air always gives rise to..
quickened breathing. It is evident, therefore, that the deliberate administration of CO 2, together
the -
with pure oxygen, will ~rcelerate breathing, render more certain the expulsion of gases from the 4.l
blood-stream, and so promote more rapid recovery. This applies no matter whether the victim is
suffering from CO poisoning, or from partial asphyxiation due to CO 2, or blackdamp, or oxygen
deficiency.

•
 MG/4 ~
The . Universal Mining School, Cardiff. 9

The procedure to be followed when a person is found unconscious in an ilrrespirable atmosphere

'may be summarised as follows:-
(1) Loosen all tight clothing and remove any foreign body (tobacco, false teeth, etc.) from the
mouth.
(2) Remove the Victim to fresh air' as soon as possible, keeping him lying on his right side.
(3) Apply artificial respiration by -the Schafer method, if breathing has stopped, or is weak ·and
intermittent. The victim should be laid face downwards with his head on one side, and treatment
should be continued persistently until breathing is resumed, or the heart has stopped, or until the
arrival of a doctor. D
l*'~ O'V"""
(4) Administer -eareegen in conjunction with the Schafer method, assuming approved reviving
apparatus to be available.
(5) -Promote blood circulation by rubbing the limbs and. keeping the body warm with water-
bottles, blankets, etc.
(6) When the patient is fully conscious, give him a stimulant in the form of hot tea or coffee
(never alcohol except under medical advice).
(7) Keep the patient at rest and prevent him from becoming excited. Keep him warm and remove
him to the surface on a stretcher.
If a man has been poisoned by nitrous fumes, he may be given an emetic, e.g. common salt dis-
solved in water. An emetic should not be given when the patient is affected by Other gases.
If the victim is suffering from severe haemorrhage due to some injury, this must be attended to,
first of all, before the man is removed to fresh air.

TEST PAPER MG/4.

1. Name any four gases met with in mines, but not 6. Under what circumstances would you expect to find
contained in ordinary atmospheric air. State their (a) carbon monoxide, and (b) sulphuretted hydrogen
chemical formulae, molecular weights, vapour in a mine?
densities, and specific gravities. Put your answer in
the form of a Table.
7. Give a concise account of the physiological actions
2. (a) What; do you understand by the. term firedamp ?
(b) What is its _ composition ? (c) What are the
?f (a) ~redamp, (b) blackdamp, and (c) atterdamp,
r.e, their effect on a man when they are inhaled.
physical and chemical properties of the chief com-
bustible gas contained therein ?

3. (aj, H you suspected methane or carbon dioxide in a 8. In what way, excluding air analysis, may the presence
working place; at what particular points would you of the following gases respectively be ascertained in
look for them ? (b) What bearing has diffusion on a mine ; (a) blackdamp, (b) whitedamp, and (c)
the matter? stinkdamp ? ·

4. Explain what is - meant by the term '' occlusion of

gases." Give examples. 9. (a) What alteration would you expect to find in the
composition of the air in the workings of a mine
5. {a:) Describe the occurrence known as '<an outburst after a~ e;xplosion ?- (?) What tests would you make
of gas." (b) To what causes may it be due ? (c) What of the air m such workmgs before permitting ordinary
if any, means can be taken to avoid it in seams workmen to enter ? .
Hable to such occurrences ?

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FOUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT
THE u.M.s.
'T. r~. SOUTHERN J_...TD ...
THIS PAPER
WAS -THE FIRST IS SUPPL l~D O~
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING SCHOOL
IN THE WORLD.
tT~e ~~a£ ~.~~wof; CONDITION
IT IS
THAT
RESERVED
EXCLUSIV.ELY FOR
YOUR OWN USE
i,.OORPORATliP 1981. CARDIFF (G'".r. BRl'l"AIN.)

MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

Answers MG/4.
NOXIOUS AND INFLAMMABLE GASES
'Name any four gases met with in mines, but not contained in ordinary atmospheric air. State
their chemical formulae, molecular weights, vapour densities, and specific graoities. Put your
answer in the form of a Table.
FORMULAE AND RELATIVE WEIGHTS OF FOUR MINE GASES.

I Methane
Carbon . Monoxide
Name Formula
Molecular
Weight

16
28
Vapour Density
{Hydrogen = 1)

8
14
Specific
Gravity
(air = 1)

0·553
0·967
Sulphuretted Hydrogen 34 17 1 ·175
Ethane ···\ 30 15 1 ·036

2. (a) What do you understand by the term firedamp ? (b) What is its composition ? (c) What are the
physical and chemical properties of the chief combustible gas contained therein ?

COMPOSITION
~ AND PROPERTIES OF FIREDAMP.
(a) By the term firedamp, used without qualification, I understand the natural mixture of gases
which exudes from the coal and renders the atmosphere more or less inflammable. For all practical
purposes, however, the properties of the inflammable constituents of firedamp, taken as a whole, are
, identical with those of methane, CH 4, and the words firedamp and methane are frequently taken to
, be synonymous.·
(b) The composition of " firedamp '' varies somewhat in different mines, but the predominating
constituent is always methane. Very frequently, it is the only combustible gas present. Some firedamps
contain appreciable amounts of ethane C 2H 6 (usually less than 2%, but occasionally up to as much
as 8 or 9%). Doubtful traces of ethylene, C 2H 4, have been recorded, but not hydrogen. The remainder
of the mixture is composed of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and oxygen in varying small percentages,
(:,. (c) Physically, pure methane has neither colour, taste, nor smell, and is only slightly soluble in
water. It is lighter than air, its molecular weight being 16, vapour density 8, and specific gravity 0 ·553.
Chemically, methane is a combustible gas, i.e. it burns in air or oxygen with a pale blue non-
'luminous flame. Within certain limits (ordinarily about 5% to 15% of methane in air) it forms an
explosive mixture in which flame may be propagated with varying degrees of violence, independent
~f the source of ignition. A mixture containing about 10% of methane is the most explosive.

(a) If you suspected methane or carbon dioxide in a working place, at what particular points
wou_ld you look for them? (b) What bearing has diffusion on the matter?

POSITION OF CH 4 AND CO 2 IN WORKING PLACE.

, . (a) If l suspected methane, CH 4, in a working place, I would expect to find. it in greater concen-
"tration next the roof, or in a roof cavity or a ripping lip, because methane is lighter than air and tends
to accumulate in the higher places.·
Conversely, if I suspected carbon dioxide, CO _2, I would expect to find it in greater concentration
in low'!.lying places, next the floor, because carbon dioxide is 1! times as heavy as air.
The foregoing represent the positions that the two gases would take up, by virtue of their specific
gravities, when un.diffused.
(5111)
 MG/4
Noxious and Lnfiammable Gases
·--~/~ __,.

(b) D!ffusion is a natural process whereby two adjacent bodies of gas will gradually intermingle,
!he one with the other, by virtue of molecular movement and even if the air is otherwise stationary:
By diffusion, an accumulation of methane next the roof will gradually descend (in spite of it~
lightness) and mix with the air below until finally, after a sufficiently long interval, it will be uniformly
distributed in the general body of the air. Similarly, carbon dioxide (in spite of its heaviness) will
ascend and diffuse with the air until, eventually, the accumulation ceases to exist. The methane,
being light, will diffuse more rapidly than the heavier carbon dioxide.
When once uniform diffusion has taken place, the gases concerned will not again separate into
layers according to their specific gravities, but will remain as a uniform mechanical mixture whose
average specific gravity will be more or less than that of air according as the predominant gas is heavy
or light.
If a current of air is flowing along the roadway, the process of diffusion will naturally be aided
and accelerated; especially if the flow be eddying or turbulent; and the combined effect of diffusion
and mechanical movement will, or may, clear away the accumulation altogether, or even effectively ...,. ..
dilute the gas at the 'points of issue.

(
Whenever a continuing accumulation of' CH 4 is found next the roof, or of CO 2 near the floor,
it may be taken that fresh gas is still issuing from the strata (or being evolved by oxidation, in the
case of CO 2) at or near that point. It is the constant accession of fresh gas that maintains an accumu-
lation, by replacing the gas previously diffused. If there is no feeder of gas, or if there has been a
feeder and it ceases, a condition of uniform diffusion may be expected to mature.

4. Explain what is meant by the term "occlusion of gases." Give examples.

OCCLUSION OF GASES.
Certain organic materials, of which coal is an example, are capable of storing within themselves
a much larger volume of gas than would seem to be possible by any theory that the gas is merely
imprisoned in open cavities or breaks in the coal.
To account for the enormous volumes of firedamp contained within the coal and eventually given
np (although never entirely so) as the coal is worked, the theory is held that the gas is in a state of •
" oeelustou." It is supposed that some of the gas is condensed in the molecular interspaces, and some
is condensed on the surfaces of capillary passages. To the former is given the term "solid solution, n
and to the latter " adsorption.'' In both cases, the action is purely physical, and no chemical com-
bination takes place.
Occlusion, and, in particular, adsorption of oxygen by coal, is also supposed to take place in the
early stages of oxidation_ of coal, as a preliminary to the chemical combination which is the ultimate
result.
Ordinary gas masks which filter noxious gases out of the air utilise a similar principle, one of the
components being a special form of granulated charcoal with highly adsorptive properties.

I -
5Jt (a) Describe the occurrence known as .: an outburst of gas?' (b) To what causes may it be due ?
\..../~ (c) What, if any, means can be taken to avoid it in seams liable to such occurrences?

OUTBURSTS OF GAS.
(a) An outburst of gas is a sudden; violent, discharge of gas from coal or adjacent strata accom-
panied by the equally violent displacement of a quantity of disintegrated coal or coal dust. Outbursts
are of relatively rare occurrence, being confined to certain mines' or seams, or even to certain areas in
a seam. They are also variable in magnitude, some being small and ejecting only a few tons of coal.;
others being disastrous in effect and fouling a whole roadway or district. In Great Britain, the gas
discharged consists almost wholly of firedamp, In mines abroad, erruptions of carbon dioxide, generated
by the action of acid waters on limestone, have frequently occurred.
(b) The cause of outbursts is not fully understood but they usually occur in narrow places in
highly stressed or disturbed ground where the coal, locally, is of an abnormal character, being dry,
soft, perhaps variable in thickness, and loose enough to set the gas instantly free at the moment of
the outburst. It is thought that, primarily, an outburst is due to the sudden release of forces pent up
in the strata by folding, faulting and lateral stresses, or by mining operations, but that the gas pressure
may itself be a contributory factor in some cases. ..
(c) _The steps to be taken to avoid outbursts in seams liable to them include :-
{ t) \\Tork by advancing longwall to promote quiet drainage of the gas, and adequately pack thei'
goaf.
(2) Avoid any layout, or method of mining, ~here intense abutment-pressures may be developed,
as in narrow advance headings, or converging faces, or .stepped faces, or faces inadequately packed
and supported.
(3) Bore holes in advance of narrow exploration headings or drifts such as may be necessary- in
faulted or troubled ground.
(4) Consider "volley ~!:~!!&'_~' ~~2_l c!~-~~i~fr_,9:evelopment headings through possibly dangerous
areas.
 ..
MG/4
The Universal Mining School? Cardiff.
!A/3
,
-·------·"-----------·-------------------------·-··-------·-------------·------------------

6. Under what circumstances tuould you expect to find (a) carbon monoxide, and (b) sulphuretted
hydrogen in a . mine ?

CARBON MONOXIDE AND SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN_.:.WHERE FOUND.

(a) Carbon monoxide, CO.
Carbon monoxide is essentially a product of incomplete combustion, and is therefore liable to be
found wherever carbon is burnt in a limited supply of oxygen. I would therefore expect to find CO:-
(i) In the afterdamp of an explosion, whether of firedamp or coal dust, or both.
(ii) In the fumes from an underground fire, no matter whether it is an open fire in an airway,
or a gob fire due to spontaneous combustion. In either case, incomplete combustion is almost certain
to occur.
(iii) In the fumes from explosives, especially when high explosives are incompletely detonated,
and more particularly in an advance heading after a heavy round of blasting.
Small harmless traces of carbon monoxide are also often found in the ·ordinary return air of deep
mines as a normal product of slow oxidation; whilst, occasionally, dangerous amounts of this gas
have been circulated through compressed air pipes as a result of the slow combustion of carbonaceous
"\
deposits in air-compressors. Carbon monoxide is also given off' in the exhaust gases from diesel
locomotives but only in small percentages which are normally effectively diluted by the ventilation.
(b) Sulphuretted hydrogen, H 2S.
This gas is given off when coal containing iron pyrites is heated out of contact with air and is
therefore often found in ·the fumes from gob fires. It is present in the fumes from certain explosives,
e.g. gunpowder; and it is a product of the bacterial decay of animal and vegetable matter containing
sulphur. It is often found dissolved in stagnant water, or in the water from old workings. Minute traces
may occur in firedamp.

( (] ... - )?ive a ~onc£se account of thephysiologica.l actions of (a) firedamp, (b) blackdamp, and (c) afterdamp ,
\._--'(~_./ i,e. their effect on a man when they are inhaled .
•
PHYS~OLOGICAL EFFECTS OF MI:NE GASES.
(a) Firedamp.
Physiologically, the effect of firedamp is the same as that of methane, its principal constituent.
Methane is not poisonous and its effect on the human body is purely negative, except in so far as its
presence necessarily reduces the oxygen content of the atmosphere. So long as sufficient oxygen is
present to support life, it is quite immaterial how much methane there may be present at the same
tim~. Men can live quite well in 15% oxygen, i.e. in an atmosphere containing about 25% methane·
and 75% air, but any further great decrease in the percentage of oxygen, due to the intrusion of more
methane.. leads to loss of consciousness and ultimately death due to deficiency .ot oxygen. The effects
of oxygen shortage are very insidious and little warning is given of impending danger.
'(b1 Blaekdamp.
The effect of blackdamp depends on its composition. _If it consists almost entirely of excess
nitrogen, ill-effects are caused solely by lack of oxygen, as in the case of firedamp. If, however, it is
an average blackdamp also containing carbon dloxlde, the latter gas causes progressive discomfort
and distress which is superimposed on the effects arising out of oxygen deficiency and gives due warning
of danger. At 3% CO 2 (about 25% blackdamp) the rate of breathing is doubled: at 6% CO 2 (50%
blackdamp) there is violent panting and great distress; and at 7% CO 2 (about 60% blackdamp)
the:?e is imminent danger of collapse and death, the percentage of oxygen then being only about 8%.
c~c) Afterdamp.
This is a mixture of very variable composition, and the effects may include the distressing and
narcotic effects of carbon dioxide, the insidious dangers of deficiency of oxygen, and the poisonous effects
of carbon monoxtde, or a combination of all three together. In practice, most deaths occur from carbon
monoxide.
Carbon monoxide is· an intensely poisonous gas, having an affinity for the blood about 300 times
as great as that of oxygen. Its action is insidious and cumulative, and little warning is given that
anything issamiss, Thej>hys~ological effect depends on the p~rcentage of CO present, the time of
exposure, the degree of ·exertion; 'arid thcf state ofmental exeltement;
In round numbers, as little as 0 ·02% of CO may cause distress; 0 ·2% may bring about uncon-
sciousness in 10 mins. during exertion, followed by death if exposure is continued ; and 1% may cause
'death in a few minutes. In the case of persons who have been rescued alive, but unconscious, after Jong
exposure to sma~l percentages of CO, death may occur later because of damage caused to the lung tissues.

8.• In what way, excluding- air analysis, may the presence of the following gases respectively be
ascertained in a mine: (a) blackdamfs, (b) whitedamp, and (c) stinkdamp?

DE'.rECTION OF GASES.
(a) , Blackdamp.
The - normal method of testing for blackdamp is by observing its dimming effect on the flame
of an oil safety lamp. The effect, of course, is produced, not by the blackdamp itself, but by the
reduction in the percentage of oxygen present. Each 1 % of oxygen deficiency (roughly equivalent
MG/4
Noxious and Inflammable Gases
=« •
to 5% blackdamp) results in about 30% diminution in the light, and the lamp flame is exttnguished,
altogeth~r at 17 or 1~t% oxygen (equivalent to JS% b~ackdamp). There is no danger. t<? life so Ions
as the ml-flame contrnues to burn. In naked light mrnes, a candle -flame serves a similar purpose,
or a Haldane tube and taper may be used. An acetylene flame is useless because it will burn in 12%
oxygen at· which danger to a man is becoming imminent.
(b) Whitedamp.
This term is synonymous with carbon monoxide, CO, a gas having a slightly " metallic " taste
but without colour or smell, and having no effect on the flame of a lamp except when present in highly
dangerous percentages. The recognised practical test is to observe the effect of the mine atmosphere
on a small warm-blooded creature, preferably a canary or a linnet, carried in a cage. The bird is much
more quickly affected by carbon monoxide than is a man, and danger is indicated when the bird falls
from its perch, or shows signs of distress. Certain portable testing devices are also available in which
the presence of small percentages of CO is indicated by the change in colour of a chemical in a small
glass tube.
(c) Stinkdamp.
This term is synonymous with sulphuretted hydrogen, H 2S; a gas even more poisonous than
carbon monoxide, but .easlly recognised in minute percentages by its strong, pungent smell, resembling
that of rotten eggs. As an additional safeguard against the possibility of the sense of smell being
destroyed in dangerous percentages of H 2S, it may be detected by moistened lead acetate paper, or by
silver coins, which turn black in the presence of the gas.

(a) What alteration would you expect to find in the composition o_f the air in the workings of a
mine after an explosion] (b) What tests teould you make of the air in such workings before per-,,, ., ,.
mitting ordinary workmen to enter ?

COMPOSITION AND TESTS OF AIR AFTER AN EXPLOSION.

The alteration I would expect to find in the composition of the air in the mine workings would
depend on the exte11t ?.f th~ explosion, the degree to which the ventilation has been deranged, the
length of time thatfors-efapsed since the explosion occurred, arid the part of the mine I was detailed •
to examine.
In the district (or districts) actually traversed by the explosion, and in the district return, an early
examination of the atmosphere would show it to contain all, or most, of the gases typically present
in afterdamp. These include carbon dioxide (possibly_ 6% to 12%), carbon monoxide (2% to 4%)
and even a .small percentage of free hydrogen. The nitrogen of the air would remain unaffected at
'around its normal percentage. In addition, varying quantities of residual oxygen may be present
as the result of partial local combustion, whilst there may also be some methane which has been un-
consumed or newly given off. -
In the main return airway and upcast shaft, some dilution with fresh air from the intakes, or
with the return air from unaffected districts, will have taken place, and the afterdamp is likely to be »
less concentrated. Nevertheless, the atmosphere will. be dangerously contaminated with afterdanip
and poisonous because of carbon monoxide.
Some districts may, be entirely unaffected, whilst others may be rendered dangerous by afterdamp
carried to them in a diluted condition by the normal, or by the deranged, ventilation. In consequence,
a thorough examination of the whole mine must be made before ordinary workmen are permitted to
re-enter,
Tests to be carried out. •
(1) For carbon monoxide, by means of birds which would be affected more quickly than men
by this gas. · ~
(2) For deficiency of oxygen, and for excess nitrogen and carbon dioxide, by means of a flame
safety lamp which would be extinguished in an atmosphere dangerous from these causes.
(3) For firedamp, by means of a flame safety lamp.
The explorers would carry electric lamps to provide light in the event of the flame lamps becoming
extinguished, and they would wear breathing apparatus which would be coupled up betore a possibly
dangerous area is reached. The safe maxim is not to enter a suspected atmosphere until the examiner
bas proved it, by actual test, to be safe.
Meanwhile, samples - of the atmosphere would be collected by the advancing rescue teams, _ and,
also 'rrom the return airway of the, affected district, and these would be analysed as quickly as possible
by a competent chemist.
Ordinary workmen would only be allowed to enter an area which has been proved to he safe
in all respects, and where the ventilation, in sufficient quantity, is taking its proper course. In places
where afterdamp is found, or suspected to be present, all rescue work and urgent recovery operations.
must be carried out by rescue teams equipped with breathing apparatus.
-"·--··--··-·-------------··--·------------ -··----------·---···--··----- -··-··-------··---- - - - - - ·-·· --
----~-
· ·-·--··------·- -----------------
CAR DIFF PRINTERS LTD0
 •
. •
•
•

FOUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT•

T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.,
.• THE U.M.S• THIS j'APER
• WAS THE FIRST IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE
/llNING SCHOOL
IN THE WORLD
g~e~~af ~~kJ. CONDITION THAT
IT IS RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR.
•
•INCORPORATED1931 CARDIFF (CT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USE

MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

• Lesson MG/5.

t
I
41-
• TESTING FOR FIREDAMP .
•
As firedamp is explosive when present in - the air within the limits of about 5% to 15% (under
ordinary conditions) it is essential that means should be adopted to detect this gas, or mixture of
... • '~ases, in percentages well below the lower limit of inflammability.
Although it is laid down by law that every mine must be adequately ventilated so as to dilute
and render harmless all noxious and inflammable gases, occasions nevertheless arise when dangerous
percentages of firedamp may befound, not only in breaks and cavities out of the path of the air-
current, but also in the gen~ra1 body of the air itself. It is only by careful testing and by unremitting
. vigilance that danger from this cause ,,may be avoided. .
Special careis needed where shot-firing is being carried out, and where electric motors are working
· underground, for these bring added dangers in their train ;· but at all times regular testing for firedamp
and, where necessary, the withdrawal of workmen, form part of the duty of those responsible for the
safety ·of the men under their charge.
Various methods of testing for :firedamp have been devised. and in this lesson We will consider
the following •-
·~
• ,,/(l) Testing by means of the flame safety lamp. \~...,~.4~'"/The '.McLuckiedetector.
'·"~z) The Ringrose detector. ~. ( 5) ,;Ffie Ceag Methanometer.
V (3) The Spiralarm detector. ~~"'The M.S.A. Methanometer.

"TESTING-BY MEANS OF SAFETY LAMP.

The safety lamp affords the - readiest and simplest means for the detection of firedamp in the air
and for estimating the percentage present.
The first essential of course, is to examine the lamp and make sure that it is properly assembled
and safe in all respects. The observer should also .be familiar with the appearance of the flame when

.. burning -in· pure_ air.

•There are two ways of examining for gas with a safety lamp, namely (1) the A<?c~m1J!?::~ior1.Jest,
using a nearly normal wick flame, and (2) the P~~~~I1~<l9~, :r~st~ using the lowered''Testing flame."· 01
these, the second is the more important, butlliFnrsftesffi'as its'practical uses and will be first described.
• In general, when carrying out an inspection, a fireman or deputy should have with him both a
•flame safety lamp (for gas-testing) and an electric safety lamp (for illumination), or one safety lamp
• ~mbining the two. _
• Any type of flame safety lamp can be used for gas-testing, but one of the most-favoured types
is a Marsa,,l].,~,Jenm with round \,Viel<, ?1:1rni11g ~ lig~t)2~~r<?l~l11I},~Piri( (naphtha). The lamp may
and
additiona1Iy'"'be fi.tted witlrmI'"''iiite·rn:ati·eTlgnEiig .device;· it may also be adjlJ.stable by the user
to admit air.at the top of the lamp only. The latter arrangement is specially desirable to enable the
observer to·· test - for gas near the. root

The - aeeumulatton test .

• The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of an accumulation of gas (but not the" ~act
percentage) in .any such likely places as a hole in the roof ; a gate-lip (i.e. the end or face of the ripping
in a gate-road) ; the edge of the goaf ; the face of a rise heading ; any blind end, fast end; or unventilated
place ;•and also at any break, crevice, or hole in the roof or sides ; and at any fault-slip.
In alt such places, whilst there may be only a small percentage of gas at the edge of the accumu-
lation, the percentage may rapidly increase until there may be almost pure firedamp at the top or
bac'k of the hole or cavity or rise heading containing the accumulation. *,No useful purpose would
_be served by trying to ascertain the percentage of gas present in such a case.
•
(5309)
•
 Testing for Firedamp.

At this point, we should make it clear that arsafety lamp is less likely to pass flame with a normal
wick-flame than with a reduced testing flame and is therefore safer in the presence of gas. The reason
for this is that, with the normal wick flame, the gauzes are filled with the extinctive products of com-
bustion, whereas, with a reduced flame, they are only partly filled. This furnishes a good reason why,
when an accumulation of gas is suspected, the accumulation test should first be used. The risk of
Iosing the light is also reduced.
To carry out the accumulation test, the observer should raise the lamp cautiously, with a flame
of normal size, or only slightly reduced, and note the behaviour of the flame. If the flame becomes
elongated, i.e. if it " spires " or " jumps," it may be taken that 3% (or more) of gas is present and
the lamp must be immediately withdrawn, steadily and without jerking. No attempt should be made
to raise the lamp any higher than is necessary to detect the presence of an accumulation of firedamp.
The only result would be to place the lamp in a still richer gas-mixture, with the result that the light
would be extinguished although the firedamp may continue to burn inside the gauzes.
If, however, the accumulation test shows that no accumulation of gas exists, i.e. if the lamp flame
behaves in a normal way, then the more sensitive percentage test may be safely applied.

The percentage test.

The purpose of this more sensitive test is to ascertain, within the limits of about 1 % to 5%, what
detectable percentage of gas, if any, is mixed with the air, either in the general body of the air, or in
places where a previous accumulation test has shown that no accumulation of 'gas exists.
The percentage test is obviously the one to apply in all ventilated places-in the main and branch.
airways, haulage and travelling roads, longwall faces and other working places=-where men have to
. {
work or pass and where the quality of the ventilation must reach a. certain specified standard.. It
must also be applied before shot-firing, in order to ensure that the place where the shot has to be
fired and all contiguous accessible places within a radius of 20 yards, are free from. any detectable ..
quantity of gas.
Testing for gas by the percentage method depends on the fact that, if the lamp-flame is lowered
in an atmosphere containing up to about 5% of firedamp so that all glaring white light disappears, a
pale blue aureole or gas-cap can be seen above the flame. The height, shape and general appearance
of this" cap" form, to an experienced observer, a fair index of the percentage of gas present. Actually,
these small percentages also form a gas-cap above the normal foll wick-flame, but the cap is so nearly
non-luminous that it is obscured by the greater brilliance Of the wick-flame, just as a match-flame is
dimmed or obscured by bright sunlight.
When the percentage of\gas exceeds about 5% or 5-!%, there is enough gas to cause the flame
to spread throughout the gas-agid-air mixture inside the lamp. In other words, at this percentage,
the atmosphere is just bordering on the lower limit of inflammability, i.e. it will propagate a flame
away from and independently of the source of ignition. Above this percentage, a minor explo~ion
takes place within the lamp and the wick-flame is extinguished, although the firedamp may contrnue
to burri. Below this percentage, combustion of the gas takes place only at the wick-flame where
sufficient heat is generated to cause the firedamp to burn. It is then possible to observe the process
in the form of a " cap," or " aureole," or additional non-luminous .flame, extending upwards above
the lowered wick-flame.

The standard testing flame.

Reasonable accuracy in the estimation of small percentages of firedamp with a given lamp can
only be obtained if a standard testing flame (see fig. 1) is always employed.' for the size of the flame
determines, to some extent, the size of the gas-cap produced.
A standard flame is obtained by drawing down the wick until there is a continuous blue line across
thetop of the flame j:ust above a speck of white light. The ideal to aim at is the complete absence of
white light, but this cannot be achieved in practice. The standard flame must be set in the actual
gas-mixture about to be tested. It cannot be set in pure air and the lamp then introduced into the
mixture, for the presence of firedamp has the effect of increasing the size of the flame.
The height of the standard flame depends on the nature of the fuel, and is about 0 ·1 inch when ..
the fuel burned is mineral colza, or paraffin, or a mixture of the two, and 0·15 to 0·175 inch when
naphtha is used as a fuel. The flame has its origin just above the wick-tube, the upper edge of which
usually coincides with the top of the wick when this is flat and paraffin (or similar fuel) is used. The
top of the wick is usually well below the upper edge of the wick-tube when naphtha is used as a fuel.

. Factors affecting size and shape of gas caps.

Even when a standard testing flame is used, the size and shape of the gas caps vary with (a) the
size and shape of the wick; (b) the kind of fuel burned in the lamp; and (c) the experience and
eyec.ght of the observer.
On the other hand, the type of lamp used, whether Marsaut, Mueseler, or Combustion-tube, has
little effect on the caps produced with a given wick and fuel; nor does the presence of blackdamp or
the pressure of the atmosphere materially affect the size and shape of cap.
f)
Size and . shape of wick.
Wicks may be either-flat or round. Flat wicks are usually 176 inch wide, but occasionally i inch.
Narrower flat wicks are unsuitable for gas-testing purposes, the testing flame being too readily ex-
tinguished. Round wicks are usually i inch diameter, larger round wicks giving caps that are too
variable in size and shape.
 •

MGf5
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. -3-

Types of fuel. •
"" Various types of fuef~·~re used in lamps, sorne being more volatile (i.e. lighter and more easily
vgporised) than others. The hi:;(:Lyie,§t.an,d.least volatile fuelis vegetable colza (rape-seed oil) and this ..
was at one time almost'universal1y used. Nowadays, however, some form of mineral oil is generally
preferred, and this may be either mineral eolza, paraffin, or naphtha. The latter is also known as
colzaline, benzoline, or simply as " spirit " and is the lightest and most volatile of all.
In lamps fitted with· flat wicks, the fuel burned is usually a mixture of mineral colza and paraffin,
but naphtha is quite a suitable fuel, especially if the lamp is fitted with an internal relighter. When
round wicks ·are used, the -fuel is invariably naphtha, the heavier fuels being unsuitable.

The fuel cap.

If the reduced testing flame is examined in fresh air, it is usually possible to detect, above the
blue boundary line, a faint halo, of paler colour and more transparent character than the actual testing
flame. This is ·_known as the " fuel cap ",;and is shown dotted just above the testing flame in fig. 1.
The· fuel cap is due to the combustion of oily vapour in the air around the wick-flame and its size
and distinctiveness depend on the kind of oil burned. It is evident that the more easily an oil vaporises,
the higher the fuel cap is likely to be. Thus mineral colza and similar heavy oils give a fuel cap only
about 0·03 inch high, whereas a higher cap, about O·l inch, is given by a highly volatile fuel such as ..
naphtha or "spirit." Moreover, when naphtha is the fuel, the height of the fuel cap increases when
the temperature of the lamp and of the surrounding atmosphere increases. This lack_ of uniformity
• r ende r S na ph. . th Cl.. Somewh (l t unsui
S • t a bl e for gas- t est mg
• • h ot mines.
purposes in • .~r~ ....,..~.·~(·.wr.i"'·H .. f,,

it is, of course, essential that anyone testing for firedamp should be able to recognise the fuel·
cap for what it is and not make the mistake of confusing it with a firedamp cap. The two caps are
, quite different things and can be quite readily distinguished. The important point is that the observer
• ·"!hould ma:!f e himself thoroughly familiar with the appearance of the testing flame, including its fuel
cap, in a place known to be free from firedamp. - -

FIREDAMP CAPS.
We will now describe the gas caps given in the following cases :-
• (a) Flat wicks, fe inch wide, burning a mixture of mineral colza and paraffin.
(b) Flat wicks, 11tr inch wide, burning naphtha.
(c) Round wicks, i inch diameter, burning naphtha.

· ,/> Flat wick, burning mineral colza and paraffin.

\"""' - Fig. 1 illustrates the approximate heights and shapes of the gas caps seen on any of the common
types of lamp having a fiat wick -=l-6 inch wide and burning mineral colza, or. paraffin, or a mixture
of the two. The caps may also be described somewhat as shown in Table I.

• ,.-TESTING 1·5°k 2 o/• 2· 5 °lo ~:5% 4%

~ FLAME o-rs" 0·2.511 0·30", 0·60" 1·1011
-,il!I

Fig.1. Gas Caps with Mineral Cob:a and Paraffin.

Table 1. Milleral Colza and Paraffin.

l
(Heights of caps measured from the top ofblue testing flame).
i "
!)_
11 Percentage of Height Appearance.
l Fir~a:mp. (inches)
\\ --· ---- --------------1
i
0·10 Just appearing at sides of flame.
0·15 Cap incomplete, with ragged top.
0·25 Cap incomplete, with tip missing or very indistinct:
0·30 Top of cap complete, but rounded.
0·45 Sharp-pointed conical cap. ~
• 0·60
1·10
 MG/5
4
Tes ting for Firedamp.

It rn:ay be noted that I% is about the smallest percentage that can be detected with certainty.
The 2% cap has· the tip missing although some keen-sighted observers claim that the tip is " very
faintly visible." The 2·5% cap is complete with rounded top, the cap then having roughly the shape
Of an equilateral triangle. With 3%, the height is approximately IJ times the base, and with 4%
it is about three times the base. At higher percentages, the cap reaches the top of the glass and even-
tually begins to spire up into the gauze. AU the caps are rather smaller if the testing flame does not
extend across the full width of the wick. ·

(b) Flat wick, burning naphtha.

Table 2 gives the corresponding heights and shapes of caps when naphtha is used as a fuel with
a fiat wick f-6 inch wide.
The caps are somewhat clearer and higher (about O·l inch) than those given by heavier fuels,
and naphtha is therefore to be preferred unless wide fluctuations· in the mine temperature are to be
anticipated. It is unsuitable, however, where wide temperature variation is liable to occur, with
consequent variation in the size of the fuel cap and of the gas caps, Moreover, precautions must be
taken to prevent abnormal evaporation of the fuel (e.g. due to a leaky valve on the oil-vessel) for
this will cause the fuel cap to be excessively large.

Table 2. Naphtha, flat wick.

(Heights of cap measured from top of blue testing flame).

Percentage of Height Appearance.

Firedamp. (inches)
0~5 to 0·75
---~--\. Just appearing at sides of flame.
1·0% 0·20 Cap incomplete with ragged top.
1·5% • 0·25 Top of cap complete, but ~ounded.
2·0% 0·35 ', ,' "
2·5% 0·40 Sharp-pointed conical top.
3·0% 0·55
3·5% 0·70
4·0% 1 ·20

It should be noted that, in this case, with naphtha as fuel, as little as 0·5% of methane can be
detected, and a blunt cone is formed with only 1 ·5%.> of gas. At the sa:tne time, the cap remains blunt
until 'the percentage of gas reaches 2·5% and a blunt conical cap should therefore be taken, in practice,
to represent 2·5% rather than some lower percentage. It is always wise to err on the safe side.

(ct Round wick, burning naphtha.

V' Table 3 shows the gas caps given with a round wick, i inch diameter.
It may be noted that, in this case, a complete cap-with rounded top is first formed with 2% of
firedamp, and it remains blunt ·until the percentage of gas considerably exceeds 2 ·5%. As in the
previous case, the heights of cap are subject to considerable changes with temperature variations.
The testing flame is· also fairly easily extinguished and the lamp must be carefully handled. Never-
theless, the caps are very clear and this type of wick and fuel is much favoured.

Table 3. Naphtha; round wick, l inch diam.

(Heights of cap measuredfrom top of the testing flame).

Percentage of Height Appearance.

Firedamp (inches)
1·0% 0·20 Just appearing at sides of testing flame.
1·5% 0·22 Cap incomplete with ragged top.
2·0% .0·25 Top of cap complete but rounded .
2·5% 0·35 '' '' . "
3·0% 0·40 Sharp-pointed conical cap.
3·5% 0·55
4.-0% -0·75

Effect of extinctive gases on gas caps.

Careful experiments have shown that the presence of extinctive gases, such as nitrogen and CO 2,
in an atmosphere containing :firedarn:phas little if any effect on the height and appearance of gas caps
so long as the percentage of oxygen, in the atmosphere is sufficient to enable the lamp to burn.

[Nate. The heights and descriptions of gas caps given in this Lesson are. based on the Official
Report of the Miners' Lamps Cornmittee.] ,
 MG/5
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. -5-
.
- Withdrawal of workmen.
The percentages of gas at which men must be withdrawn from a working place, except for the
purpose of enquiring into the danger or of removing it, or for exploration, are laid down in regulations,
and students should at this stage make a point of looking them up. We would here merely suggest
two safe practical rules :-
(1) In a mine worked by naked lights, men should be withdrawn from any place where any gas
cap at all can be detected.
(2) In a mine worked by safety lamps, men should be withdrawn from any place where the
lowered testing flame shows a complete conical cap, even if the tip is rounded and not sharp.

!\ Methods of . increasing the visibility of gas caps.

\1,,.,/
The easiest method of achieving this is to darken the glass behind the testing flame, or to use a
shield or dome to obscure the flame.
Alternatively an additional substance may be added to the fuel to colour the caps. Thus, int
the Briggs' method, carbon tetrachloride added to the fuel gives a greenish-blue colour to the caps, l
whilst in the Cunynghame-Cadman device, a slip of asbestos impregnated with a solution of sodium
carbonate or sodium chloride and hydrochloric acid can be caused to touch the testing flame, the caps
then being tinged an orange-yellow colour.
Other experimenters have suggested using alcohol or hydrogen as a fuel and have designed special
attachments to a safety lamp for the purpose, as in the Stokes alcohol lamp, and the Clowes hydrogen
lamp. These fuels give very hot, non-luminous flames and render the gas caps larger and more readily
<-visible .. Needless to say, a special gas-~ap scale must be used. None of these devices, however, has
come into general use and they need not be further considered.

.
A<JTOMATIC
,f
FIREDAMP DETECTORS •
L/ ·
An automic detector is one which, having once been set to, indicate a pre-determined percentage
Ii% or 2t%, will automatically give visibl' warning, e.g. by lighting a red lamp,
of gas, usually either
when the percentage of gas in the place concerned reaches or expeeds the pre-determined figure; Two
approved types are (1) the Ringrose Firedamp Alarm, and (2) the Spiralarm Type M.

( 1) The Ringrose Detector.

Cf The essential parts of this apparatus include :-
(a) Combustion chamber, formed by. a cylindrical porous
pot, P, with a.luminium base and cover and containing a filament,
F, which is heated by an, electric current from a 2-volt accumu-
lator. The filament is visible from outside through a glass
window,
(b) Collapsible diaphragm, D, communicating with the com-

D~:r i
bustion chamber and controlling the switch contacts S.
. (c) Two-volt accumulator, supplying current to the filament
· F and also to the parallel 'circuit formed by the white lamp W
and, the red lamp R which are connected in series. Normally,
thecwhite lamp is. lit and the red lamp dark.
The various parts of the apparatus are all enclosed within ]_~CONTACTS
ca casing and glass lantern resembling an ordinary electric safety
lamp so as to render it strong for pit use and safe in an explosive r. ===-'" ==---.-.:_:__--- -- ~ = z: z: ==---=
<,,,,\tmosphere. :: Ft LAMENT F
,,11 I--"---"""" ~ .-----·
Principle . of action. q . POROUS POT P
The surrounding air obtains access to the . interior of the
= =
I.: - .::::. -=---- -- ---= .= _-..:-:..-=·::-=. -:.-:. ·:.::_ --- ~
outer casing through ventihtt~(:)JJ,,:hgJ~8 protected by two brass i+----- 2. VOLT---- ....
gauzes betw"eenwhich.iS"a1'ayei'of ·a.~~~·~~es~oolto excludedust .. "'i- AC.C UMULATOR

<. ..
c, The air then· diffuses through the poro'ii'S. pot· and thus any fire-
damp it may contain is taken into the· chamber P where it 'is Fig. 2.
burned by the heated filament F. This goes on continuously so Ringrose Firedamp Alarm.
clong as any firedamp is present, in accordance with the equation.

CH, + 202 C02 + 2H20

(1 volume) (2 volumes) (1 volume) 1 (condensed)

,_ It thus follows that a reduction of pressure occurs inside the porous pot and, if the percentage
of firedamp exceeds the fixed minimum limit, the diaphragm D is suffickmtly deflected to close the
switch S so short circuiting the white lamp and causing the red lamp R to be lit up. The time required:'
for the red lamp to light, under these conditions, is less than one and the lamp remains lit
until purposely extinguished by the operator.
MG[S
-6- Testing for Firedamp.

The foregoing account explains the main principle, but further details are as follows i->-
The current from the accumulator normally passes through the 4-volt white lamp W, rated at'
0·3 amp, and the 2-volt red lamp R, rated at 0·7 amp, the two lamps being connected in series. Th2
lamp bulbs are so designed that, under these conditions (no firedamp being present) the white lamp
is lit and the red lamp remains dark. If either bulb is faulty, the white lamp is extinguished, so warning
the operator of the defect.
The filament takes a current of 1 amp at 2 volts and remains incandescent so long as the apparatus
is in the "on" position. If gas is present, so causing the contacts S to close, the effect is to short-
circuit the white lamp W and to pass more current through the red lamp R which then lights up ..
At the same time, the relay coil C, which is in parallel with the red lamp, becomes energised and
attracts the armature A, so completing a permanent circuit through the press-button B and applying
almost the full pressure of 2 volts to the coil and to the red lamp R. The red light thus remains " on ''
permanently.vonce it has been operated by gas, until the press-button & is used to- break the circuit.
If the apparatus operates by gas underground, merely pressing button B. will not extinguish the
red lamp should gas still be present and the filament still intact, for the contacts S will still be closed.
But if gas has been present and is gone, pressing button ~extinguishes the red lamp.
Other points of interest are :-
(1) The filament requires to be replaced every shift.
(2) The apparatus is totally unaffected by the presence of non-inflammable gases such as CO 2•
(3) It is impossible to choke the porous pot with coal dust.
(4) The apparatus may be tested at any time by turning it (in pure air) to the "on " position. After
an interval of about 30 to 40 seconds, it is turned from the " on " to the " off " position, and is
then immediately turned ·back to the "on" position again. The red bulb should then wink or~'C, .-
flash on temporarily, showing the device to be in correct working order.
Another form of the device, known as the Ringrose Miners' Lamp, Type CH 4 combines an
ordinarly electric safety lamp with the automatic firedamp alarm and serves to give full illumination
throughout the shift, as well as serving as a firedamp detector.

('.2) The Spiralarm Type IVI.

This device is a specially modified flame safety lamp
so arranged that, when gas is present at 1 !% or 2!%
(according to the setting) a red electric bulb is lit in the
base of the lamp by the automatic closing of two contacts.
The essential parts incl?de :- . .,!.'

(a) A bi-metallic spiral mounted above the lamp

flame and .carrying a contact pin.
(b) A pointer which is merely a flame-height setting
gauge.
(c) A slotted contact tube containing two contact strips
leading to
· (d) A dry battery and a small electric bulb in the base
of the lamp.
Under normal conditions, as in Fig. 3a, the lamp flame
burns steadily at the height of the pointer and the bi-
metallic spiral unwinds under the prevailing temperature B\JLS
so that the contact pin is within 1\- inch of the contact tube. (a.) NORMAL POSITION (b) ALARM POSlTIOri
When gas is present, the flame increases in size, more CONTACTS OPEN coNTAC.T5 c.L.OsED
heat is generated, and the spiral unwinds to such an extent
that the contact pin enters the slot provided in the contact Fig. 3. The Sptfalal)m Type M.
tube and presses together the two internal contacts, as
shown in fig. 3(b). This closes the battery circuit and lights
up the red bulb which remains lit so long as dangerous conditions exist. The battery must be replaced
at least once a month.
...
NON-AUTOMATIC FIREDAMP DETECTORS.
As their name implies, these require to be operated by the observer. Their purpose is to.measure..
with }~ccuracy, smallpercentages of firedamp in-air, up to about 3 per cent. The results compare
favourably with those obtained by ordinary chemical analysis, with the added advantage that they
are available immediately and on the spot. Four well-known types are (1) the McLuckie Detector,
(2) 'the Ceag Methanometer, ~3) the M.S.A. Methanometer, and (4) the Ringrose Methanometer. •

(1 )· The IVIcLuckie Detector.

The principle of action of this. apparatus is similar to that of the Ringrose detector as set out in the.
~hemical equation previously given, namely CH4 + 20 2 =CO 2 + 2H 20. In other words, when methane
is burned in air, carbon dioxide and steam are produced. The steam then condenses, causing a reduction
in pressure, the reduction being proportional-to the amount of methane burned. ·-
 •

.. • •
•
. .
•
MG/5•
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff -7-

The apparatus, fig. 4, comprises a copper vessel'divided

COMPCN!.ATIN~
QY a horizontal partition into two parts, the lower being a C.l'IAMBER
combustion chamber and the upper a compensating chamber.
• The combustion chamber contains a spiral of platinum
wire which can be heated by an electric current from a 2-volt
accumulator. The purpos:.of,,th~ ~9llill~D~.3tl:g,g, ~J:i,~m,ber
is to eliminate ~~~~~::~~~~-~f§·:~.~rBP~!:§l!11re . ):1gg, p~es~mre.
The two cnambers are co~nected respectively to the
limbs of a U-tube gauge containing a coloured liquid and
having a scale graduated to read directly in percentages of SCALE_
firedamp. The scale is calibrated in tenths of one per cent.
A series of cocks are· provided which make it possible
either (1) to connect both combustion and compensating ACCUMULATOR
chamber to the mine atmosphere so· as to enable the sample

.,
to be tested to be introduced into the chambers by means
of a rubber bulb or pump ; or (2) to seal both chambers
•• while combustion of the firedamp is effected ; or (3) to
~ ..
· ....• · .. ·.··.•
•.•... •.
connect both chambers to the respective legs of the U-tube
in order to enable the percentages of gas present in the
"' . sample to be indicated. Iri the actual apparatus, a multiple-
way cock, controlled by a single handle, is fitted in place of
Fig. 4. The McLuckie Detector.
the several cocks illustrated.
Between the pump and the control cock is placed a small brass cylinder (not shown in the sketch)
known as a humidifier. This contains packing material (e.g. coke in granular form) which is kept
,. moistened with water in order to humidify the air sample before it enters the combustion and com-
"""pensating chambers. Variations in the humidity of the sample, with consequent variations of vapour
pressure inside the chambers, are thus avoided and the instrument gives more accurate and more
consistent readings.
The whole apparatus is enclosed within a flameproof cast aluminium case, 14 ins. high x 4t ins.
wide x 4 ins. deep, weighing 8! lbs., and is therefore readily portable.
To make a test.
A complete test occupies about ten minutes and may be described as follows :---
(1) Transfer a sample of the mine air to the chambers by squeezing the rubber bulb ten or twelve
ttr;p,e.s, the air first passing through the filter to remove dust, and afterwards through the humidifier.
(2) Close all passages and allow an interval of t.'\Y() minutes to elapse to ensure that the air in both
chambers is at the same temperature.
(3) •Open all passages to the atmosphere for a few seconds to allow the air .in the two chambers to
balance at atmospheric pressure.
(4) Close all passages and switch on the electric current fort\'\-'? 1Ilin11tes., during which time the •
ts:

methane in the combustion chamber is burnt by the heated platinum spiral. The latter can be
seen glowing through the inspection window provided.
(5) Switch off the current and allow a further ~'Y'? 1:1:i.1:.11testo elapse to permit the steam to condense
and to ensure that the two chambers reacn'-tile~. sanie- final temperature.
(6) Connect the two chambers to the U-tube gauge and note the reading. If the liquid rises towards
the combustion chamber, this will show that a certain percentage of inflammable gas, corres-
ponding to the reading on the scale, was present in the sample tested.
It is claimed that percentages of gas from,,Q:OS%to 3·?0% CS%g..,£.~'"~~.~<!-'Y'~th .accuracy. Any number
of t{;sts may be taken and there is no cost of upkeep beyond the re-charging of the accumulator which
is sufficient for 60 tests.
'"""-~Th~ McLucki~··~pparatus is particularly suited to the regular and systematic measurement of the
•firedamp content of the air at strategic points in each ventilating district of a mine so as to give a
true picture of the conditions and enable the state of the district to be watched. If the normal firedamp
• ('iJPntentof the general body of the air exceeds an assigned figure, steps can be taken to effect the
necessary improvements in the system of ventilation, without the delays incidental to chemical
analysis in a laboratory.
(2) The Ceag M~thanometer. *
This inS'trnm~nt, Jike the McLuckie detector, is designed to indicate, with laboratory accuracy,
• small percentages of firedamp in air (ap to 3%) but it
works on quite a different principle and gives results PUMP
far more quickly, under one minute.
l) . . ,
The Ceag Methanometer, a general arrangement
of which .is shown in fig. 5, is combined with a 4-volt INSPECTION
LIGHT
• officials' inspection lamp capable of giving full illumi-
nation" throughout a shift. The sample of air to be
tested is introduced to the apparatus by means of a
"small rubber pump and length of tubing and the per- 4 VOLT
cerftage . of firedamp . is read off directly on an LEAD ACID
illuminated milliammeter scale. BATTERY
Fig. 5. Ceag Methanometer. '·"'
·~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-'----'-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
*Not an officially approved detector for use in Britssh mines, but described here because of the
,. gene:al ·principle involved.
 0
.•
MG/S Testing for Firedamp.
--8-
•
•
Principle of action.
The Ceag Methanometer is similar in principle to the Leon Montlucon detector, originally devei-
" oped in France, and consists essentially of a network of four identical platinum-irldlum spiral wires.or
filaments arranged in the form known as a Wheatstone Bridge.

One pair of spirals, diametrically opposite to each other in

the network, is contained in a small cylindrical aluminium
chamber which contains. pure dry air and is hermetically sealed.
The other pair of spirals is contained in a second . chamber
which can be filled with the mine air sample to be tested.
A milli-ammeter is connected diagonally in circuit between
points X and Y and is graduated in percentages of methane,
reading from 0·0% to 4·0% in divisions of 0·1 %- Readings can be
estimated to 0·02%. ·

Gas cleaner. •
To eliminate errors due to impurities in the air sample, a brass
cartridge containing chemicals is inserted in the tu bing between
the bulb and sample chamber. This cartridge contains soda lime
to remove CO 2 and anhydrous calcium chloride to remove
moisture, together with wads of glass wool to prevent dust from + •
entering the sample chamber. The chemicals must be renewed Fig. 6. Wheatstone Bridge Circuit.
periodically whenever the calcium chloride becomes moist (As arranged in Ceag Methanometer). ·
(normally after some 300 tests).
:> •._

Procedure in testing.
When a sample is to be tested, the main lamp-bulb is switched off by rotating the bezel of the
bull's eye fitting, the instrument then being illuminated by an auxiliary bulb to enable the ammeter
to be re~d easily. The rubber bulb. and tube are attac~ed to the d~tect?r and the bulb is squeezed
5 or 6 times so as to fill the samplmg chamber. A push-button switch Is then pressed quickly and
-kept closed for 2 seconds so as to put the network of spiral wires in circuit with the battery. The
resulting current raises the wires to incandescence.
If no methane is present, all the four spirals have the same electrical resistance and no out-of-
( balance current flows through the milli-ammeter which thus registers zero, or its zero error.
l .,p
If methane is present, .its combustion raises the temperature and resistance of the two spirals in
j
the sample chamber and the Wheatstone Bridge becomes electrically unbalanced. Current then :;'lows
across the diagonal connection through the milli-ammeter and this is deflected· by an amount directly
fl
' proportional to the percentage of methane.
The reading to be taken is that given by the maximum position reached by the pointer after the
s push-bu!_:ton switch is pressed. This reading is momentary only and must be carefully observed .
.>"l/
14 (3}i l\{:s.A. ·Methanometer, Type W.8.*
,>/,,/'/,.,

0 Irike the Ceag Methanometer, the M.S.A. detector consists essentially of a Wheatstone Bridge
circuit .and a galvanometer calibrated to read percentages of firedamp, but it differs from the Ceag in •
its constructional features.
b IN DIC.AT I MG
n As shown in fig. 7, the ain.sample to be tested is drawn METER
S4 through the apparatus by an aspirator bulb fitted with a ~..r,:==3=~
non-return valve. The sample enters the apparatus through Wt/I
h ah inlet orifice A connected to a rubber tube leading to the • •
tl place from which the sample is to be taken and fitted with
a flash-back arrestor consisting of a ti&h,t!Y... I9HYc;I GYEp.ger
. ,
trr
sl of c~q~i1J:t1).;:p);~J~;Q. <;,9pper'Yi.r~ ~a_u~e:"'"A similar orifice and
u "i:ffresfor. B are provided on the. outgoing side.
a1 In the body of the apparatus are two chambers con- (
-----~n
Ni
taining electrically heated· and interconnected platinum
filaments, each wound in the form of a small helix. Both
filaments are in the gas-flow circuit and are subjected to the
BATTERY
COMPEN5ATIN6
FILAMENT
~;:::;:::::;-;::..1 . .,.
same gas .mix ture.. One,----called-the.detector.- . . filam.ent,-·is·•- ····· - · ······· · - ··
w " activate
· d ,, by a patent process so as t o cause com bus 'tiIon fig. 7. lVI.S.A. M:ethanometer.
d D.
')

fa! of any methane present in the sample. The other, called the 5. 1.
( imp ifie i agrarns .
an
~2
compensating filament, is de-activated so that the methane is not burned. The purpose of this filament
is to compensate or. stabilise the galvanometer reading against changes in atmospheric pressure,
'
temperature a!ld)~l1??-!41~:}7:" ·- -.· . ·
'.I· The burning of the methane by the detector filament increases its temperature and resistance,
thus upsetting the balance of the Wheatstone bridge. The out-of-balance is shown on the galvanometer
:h and its amount is directly proportional to the percentage of methane present.
s
Ill
*The M.S.A. Methanometer is officially approved for use in British Mines.
 .
•
The· Universal Mining School, Cardiff

The instrument is enclosed in a rust-proof meta'i case and weighs about 6 lbs. It is integral with,
and derives its current supply from, an Edison Miners' Electric Cap Lamp batt~ry. The g<:lvanometer
is calibrated in two scale ranges. The high range reads up to 5% methane with the sect_10n between
2'% and 5% graduated in O · l % divisions. The lower range reads up to 2% methane a~d is graduated
in 0·05% divisions. The operator can change from one to the other by means of a switch.
Another model of the M.S.A. Methanometer (C.R.E. Type H.C.) is designed for use m methane
drainage schemes and is graduated to cover the range 15%-100% methane.

Ringrose Pocket Methanometer.

... This approved type of methanometer works on the same general principle as the Ringrose
Automatic Firedamp Alarm but the reduced pressure which occurs in the porous pot when firedamp
is burned by an electrically heated filament is applied to an unspillable liquid gauge which indicates,
with laboratory accuracy, the percentage of firedamp present. The instrument is used in conjunction
with a miner's cap lamp which supplies the necessary current; The sample to be tested is introduced
into the apparatus by means of a rubber pump or aspirator.
•
Ringrose Methane Recorder.
This approved instrument is designed to give an automatic registration of the percentages of
• firedamp present every six minutes over a period of twenty-four hours. In this apparatus, which is
self-contained and has its own 2-volt battery, the reduction of pressure in the porous pot causes the
diaphragm to move and in turn to actuate a pen arm across a revolving chart calibrated in percentages
of firedamp. Every six minutes, by means of timed electric contacts in the dock mechanism, a dot is
made on the chart, indicating the percentage of firedamp present. The apparatus is intended for
installation in the ventilating current, e.g. in a mine return airway, and is enclosed in a specially
~" '=ventilated and locked box to avoid unauthorised interference.
.. ·

COLLECTION OF MINE AIR SAMPLES.

When it is desired to check the results as to firedamp content obtained by one of the instruments
described, or when a full chemical analysis of the mine air is required to be known, samples of the mine
air must be collected in a suitable vessel for transmission to· the laboratory .. The actual analysis, of
course, is the duty of a trained chemist, and not the function of a colliery manager or of his underground
officials ; but the latter may at any time be called upon to collect the samples.
Mine air samples may be required for analysis for the .purpose of ascertaining the content of

to determine the condition of the air near an underground fire, or behind the
stop.pings in a sealed-off district, or ssfter an explosion. It is, of course, essential
-
carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air, as distinct from the firedamp content. They are also necessary
HUB BER

that great care shall be taken to ensure that each sa:rfipleis truly representa-
tive of the atmosphere at the point 'where it· is collected, and that it is not
diluted or contaminated in any way. Various methods of collection are as
follows :---
l
. / \ THIMBLE

< :

Vacuum sampling bulb.

This is a glass bulb of about 30 c.c. capacity and terminating at one end
in a narrow tube which is sealed. It is supplied evacuated of all air. To
take a sample, the operator faces the air-current at the point where the sample
is to be taken and holds out the bulb at arm's length. He now breaks off the
sealed end with a wooden lever or pliers, whereupon the 'bulb fills instantly.
The 'bulb is then closed by a rubber plug or thimble. Fig. 8.
Vacuum Sampling Bulb.

Stoppered bottle._1(:fU,. _in.th<-~

This is a twe-Gun.Gebottle (60 c.c.) fitted with an

accurately ground glass stopper held in position by a rubber
band. The bottle must be clean and dry. To take a sample,
the operator holds out the bottle as in the previous case,
removes the stopper and inserts a piece of rubber tubing.
He now holds the other end of the tubing in his mouth and
sucks out the air inside the bottle, the mine air taking its
place. Whilst still inhaling, he removes the tube from the
bottle and at once replaces the stopper. Alternatively, the
air may be withdrawn from the bottle by a small air-pump
or aspirator (a form of bellows), or the desired sample may ·
be blown-into the bottle by the pump.
e
Displacement. method.
Fig. 9. Sampling Bottle.
c "In this case, a glass bottle, or a tube of glass, copper, or
brass with a cock or tap at each end, or with a rubber tube
• on each end sealed by clips, ~s c~rried into the mir_ie f_ull of water or mercury. To take an air sample,
the operator J?8Urs out the Iiquid, or allows the liquid to run out, with the result that the mine air
sample takes its place. Mercury is the betterliquid to use; but is heavy and costly.
• MG/S
---w-- Testing for Firedamp.

Taking samples from behind . stopplngs.

When a district is sealed off because of a fire or other cause, it is usual to leave a pipe through
·~the stopping to enable samples of the atmosphere behind the stopping to be obtained when desired.
To :.:b+ai· accurate results in such a case, it is essential to take the sample when the pressure in the
seareu-ot, area is positive, as indicated by a water gauge connected to the sampling pipe. Such a
positive pressure is most Iikely to exist when firedamp is being evolved in the sealed-off area, when
the temperature in the sealed-off area is rising, and when the barometer is steady or falling.
To take a sample, the operator first opens the valve on the sampling pipe to allow some of the
gas-mixture behind the stopping to blow out. He then connects the sampling bottle or tube to the
pipe by rubber tubing and allows the gas-mixture to displace the mercury or water, or to blow through
the tube for two or three minutes. The tube is then sealed and finally removed from the sampling
pipe.
It is possible to obtain a sample when the pressure is negative, by using an air-pump to withdraw
the gases from the sampling pipe, but the results are not likely to be so reliable.
The date and time of taking the sample, its number, the height of the barometer, the watergauge CJ

reading, the site of the stopping, and the name of the person taking the sample, should all be recorded
for reference purposes.

TEST PAPER MG/5.

1. Give a careful description of the normal full flame
of a safety lamp, and of the zones into which it may
be divided. State which zone is the coldest, which
zone gives the most light, and which generates great
heat with little light. Illustrate your answer· by a
sketch (broad-side view) of the flame, about twice
the natural size, assuming a 7 /16 inch fiat wick. Why
is the flame lowered for determining the percentage
of firedamp in the air ?
2. Explain why a gas cap or aureole is produced on the
lpwered flame of a safety lamp when the air in which
it is burning contains less firedamp than is sufficient
to render it explosive.
4. Make a neat sketch of the gas caps corresponding to
1, 2, 2i-, 3, and 4 per cent. of firedamp, as shown on
the type of safety lamp with which you are most
familiar. Specify the width of wick and the kind or''"
fuel used. Give the approximate heights of the caps
and describe their general appearance.
5. Sketchand describe some form of automatic fire-
damp detector, preferably one with which you have
had experience;
6. Carefully summarise the regulations laid down in the
Explosives Order re testing for firedamp with a flame
safety lamp prior to shotfiring.

3. (a) What tests would you apply to your flame safety

lamp before proceeding underground, and (b~ what
special precautions would you take when testmg for
gas?
-Cl-
Cardiff Printers Ltd.
 .. FOUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT
THE U.M.S.
T. A. SOlYI'HERN LTD.,
THIS PAPER
WAS THE Fl RST IS SUP~LIED ON
, CORRESPONDENCE
MINING SCHOOL
IN THE WORLD
g-f.e~~af ~~kJ, CONDITION THAT
IT IS RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
INCORPORATED 19SI CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USE
t)

MINE G·ASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

Answers MG/5.
j_
I TESTING FOR FIREDAMP.

·. l Give a careful description of the normal full flame of a safety lamp, and ~f the zones into which it
.. . .
J may be divided. State which zone is the coldest, which zone gives the most light, and which generates
great heat with little light. Illustrate your answer by a sketch (broad-side view) of the flame, CI;b~ut
twice the natural size, assuming a 11a inch flat wick. Why is the flame lowered for determining
the percentage of firedamp in the air ?
CONSTITUTION OF NORMAL FLAME OF LAMP.
When the normal oil-flame of a lamp is examined, it is found to consist of three principal and
fairly well defined zones, although these merge gradually one into another. The zones are:-
(a) Inner zone of non-combustion, blue in colour and consisting of
unburnt vapour given off by the fuel and. unmixed with air. This is the
coldest zone and is· non-luminous.
(b) Intermediate 'zone of incomplete combustion, white or yellow in
colour and consisting of partially burnt vapour and ·solid incandescent
(white hot) particles of carbon. This is the zone that gives the most light
andsis also very hot, especially near the apex, above b in the sketch.
(c) Outer zone -of complete combustion, forming a transparent fringe
or mantle surrounding the flame and consisting of burning carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, and carbon particles which have passed out of the yellow zone
into the outer zone. Here combustion is completed and carbon dioxide and
water vapour are formed. The mantle generates great heat but gives little Safety Lamp Flame.
light, being almost non-luminous.
The flame must be lowered when estimating the percentage of firedamp present because firedamp
caps are almost non-luminous and cannot easily be seen in the bright light afforded by zone b, And a
standard testing flame must be used because the size of flame governs the size of cap and standard
_ sizes and shapes of cap can only be obtained under defined standard conditions.

l-
2. Explain why a gas cap or aureole is produced on the lowered flame of a safety lamp when the air
in which it is burning contains less firedamp than is sufficient to render it explosive.
REASON FOR GAS ~AP BEING FORMED.
Agas cap is produced, when the percentage of firedamp is below the lower limit of inflammability,
because it is onlg, the gas in close proximity to the wick-flame which receives sufficient heat to cause
the gas to bun. The non-luminous flame produced by this burning gas is then visible as a gas-cap
above the testing flame.
- With small percentages of gas, the heat given by the wick-flame, plus the heat evolved by the
J;mrning firedamp, is just sufficient to ignite the gas immediately contiguous to the flame and only a
small " cap." is produced. ~· '"")
As the percentage of gas increases, more heat is evolved by the burning firedamp (the molecules
of CH~ be.ing closer together) and a bigger volume is thereby ignited, resulting in a larger cap.
0 Finally, when the percentage of firedamp reaches the lower limit of inflammability (about 5·4%)
su~cient heat is generated by each succeeding layer of burning firedamp to propagate flame to the
next layer independently of the oil-flame, and so on throughout the firedamp-air mixture.

(5309) ~
 MG/5
I A/2 .£'
Answers on Testing for Firedamp.

(a) What tests would you apply to your flame safety lamp before proceeding underground, and
(b) what special precautions would you take when testing for gas ?

SAFETY LAMP TESTS AND PRECAUTIONS.

(a) Before proceeding underground, and although the lamp will have been examined by the lamproom
staff, I should personally examine my own lamp to ensure :- ·
(1) That the lamp has been properly cleaned and assembled and is securely locked.
(2) That the lamp is burning brightly, with the wick properly trimmed and the pricker or other
adjusting device in good order.
(3) That the glass is not slack, chipped or cracked in any way and the asbestos washers at top
and bottom are tight and secure. '
(4) That any defect previously reported had been attended to.

(b) Precautions when gas-testing.

Danger when testing for gas is most likely to arise when there is an accumulation of gas in a cavity,
or in a rise heading. In such a case, the person examining may easily lose his light, or cause gas to
become ignited inside the gauzes and continue to burn.
When testing for an accumulation, the examiner shoulduse the normal flame, or a flame only
slightly reduced, and should cautiously raise his lamp into the suspected place, watching carefully
for any elongation or " spiring " of the flame. If this occurs, it will indicate the presence of some
3% or more of gas, and the lamp must be steadily drawn back into purer air. No attempt should
be made to make a percentage test when~ an accumulation of gas is known to be present.
Even when making a percentage test, however, e.g. in the general body of the air, or when no.
accumulation is suspected, the g_as-cap may unexpectedly approach the top of the glass and should"
then be immediately withdrawn. Otherwise, a further slight increase in the proportion of firedamp
may cause the mixture within the lamp to explode and put out the testing flame. ·
If by mischance, firedamp begins to burn in the gauze, it should in no circumstances be allowed
to continue to burn. The examiner should shelter his lamp from the air-current, hold it near the floor,
and retreat carefully to fresh air. If this is not possible, he should smother out the flame, e.g. by
covering the air-inlet holes with a cloth cap or a coat.
Other precautions, applicable to the percentage test, have as their object the accurate estimation
of the percentage of gas present. They include :-
( 1) The use of a standard testing flame in which there is a continuous blue line across the top
of the flame just above a speck of white light. .
(2) Avoid confusing the fuel cap with a firedamp cap, especially with lamps burning a volatile
spirit such as naphtha.
(3) Extinguish or shield other lights in the vicinity so that the gas caps can be clearly seen.
(4) Base the estimation of the percentage on the shape and general appearance of the caps (having
regard to the kind of wick and fuel used) as well as on the .. actual heights. ·

4. Make a neat sketch of the gas caps corresponding to 1, 2, 2!, 3, and 4 per cent. of firedamp, as
shown on the type of safety lamp with which you are most familiar. Specify the width of wick and
the 'kind of fuel used. Give the approximate heights of the caps and describe their general appearance.

HEIGHTS AND SHAPES OF GAS CAPS.

The adjoining sketch shows the approximate
shapes of the gas caps. produced on the reduced •
testing flame of a Marsaut safety lamp fitted with
a round wick, ± inch diameter, burning spirit
ft!\
(naphtha or colzaline). ;,{\
The actual heights of the gas caps vary ~ ~
somewhat "with the ·size of the testing flame
(shown with its shadowy fuel cap on the left) but
are approximately as stated below. The heights, TESTING 2:0%
n n r 3·0% 4·0°!.
however, should be read in conjunction with the Gas Caps shown on Lamp with Wick
descriptions and the two together give a fairidea i- in. diam. burning Spirit.
of the caps to be seen. T-he heights in each case
are measured from the top of the testing flame.
1\ 1 % cap. Just appearing faintly at sides of testing flame and about 0·2 inch high.
2% cap. Complete cap with rounded tip and abou! 0·25 inch high.
2·5% cap. Complete cap with rounded tip and about 0·35 inch high.
3% cap. Sharp-pointed conical cap about 0·4 inch high.
4% cap. Sharp-pointed conical cap about 0·75 inch high.
 •

..
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.

5. Sketch and describe some form of automatic firedamp detector, preferably one with which you,,
have had experience.
RINGROSE LAMP AND AUTOMATIC FIREDAMP ALARM.
This lamp is . a combined electric safety lamp and fire-
damp alarm and has a lighting power equivalent to a
standard 4-volt lead-acid type of lamp. BULB
Current is supplied at 4-volts to the bulb L of 0·75 amp
capacity from a 20 amp-hour cell in series with one of
10 amp-hours.
coNTAc.-r.> _..-"'. ~c R_J~
At the same time, current is supplied at 2 volts from
the 20 amp-hour cell to the filament F inside the porous
pot P.
Fl LAME.NT
If firedamp is present, combustion of the gas takes
place on the heated filament in accordance with the equation
CH4 +
202 = C02 +
2H20 (condensed) with the result
that a reduction of pressure occurs within the porous pot.
This deflects the collapsible diaphragm Din such a way as to
open the contacts at C, thereby breaking the main circuit

'
through the bulb L. Tlie current then passes through
• the resistance R prior to reaching the bulb L which is
IOAMP-HRS W AMP- HOUl~S
therefore dimmed. The dimming of the light is an automatic
indication of the presence of firedamp in the place con-
cerned.
Ringrose Lamp and Automatic
To enable full light to be obtained in case of need, F' d Al
'"or to test whether the bulb L is in order, a press button B ire amp arm.
is provided which short-circuits the resistance R and brings
full voltage and therefore full illumination on the bulb L, but only whilst button B is held down. It
is therefore not possible for a miner to work with a good light in the presence of gas.
The percentage at which a signal of gas is to be given can be varied by altering the contacts at C.

6. Carefully summarise the regulations laid down in the Explosives Order re testing for firedamp
with aflame safety lamp prior to shotfiring.
TESTING FOR FIREDAMP PRIOR TO SHOTFIRING.
<.;;The regulations may be summarised as follows:-
[Note. A round of shots means an umber of shots fired simultaneously, or by means of delay detonators.
A group of shots refers to shots fired singly on a longwall face but arranged in groups of not more than ""
six which must be fired without interruption by other duties.]
(a) Shots fired in one or more Rounds or Groups.
(1) Before shot-firing is begun, the shot-firer must examine for general safety (including tests for
gas) over the area concerned and the approaches thereto. ·
:· ... ,··:_ .. '_.,,
...
(2) Immediately before charging the first hole, the shot-firer shall test for gas :-

-
-,
(a) Between the face and the waste and between the extreme shot-holes of the round or group.
(b) In every accessible place within 10 yards of either of those extreme shot-holes.
c (c) At the mouth of each shot-hole.
(3) Immediately before firing any round, or any shot in a group, test for gas in the vicinity of each
shot-hole and at the edge of any waste opposite.
c(b) Shots fired otherwise than in Rounds or Groups.

'·l ~- ()
e (1) Immediately before charging the shot-hole, the shot-firer must test for gas at the mouth of the
shot-hole and examine for general safety (including tests for gas) :_::_
(a) At the place where the shot is to be fired.
(b) In all accessible places within 10 yards of the hole (if in a longwall face but not within
~ . ,20 yards of the end of it) and in all other cases within 20 yards of the hole.
(2) Immediately before firing the shot, test for gas in the vicinity of the hole and at the edge of any
waste opposite.
(c) ·No shot may be fired, or shot-hole charged, on the return side of a place where the deputy finds
fiie firedamp content to exceed 1 !% or any gas cap can be seen on the lowered flame of a safety la'Inp,
or in any place where the shot-firer similarly finds gas to be present during any test made by him before
firing. Further points include :-
(d) Brgaks. No shot-hole in coal, or in a ripping, shall be charged if it contains a break running along
9r across it which exceeds one-eighth of an inch in width.
(e) il{o shot may be fired in any ventilation district unless the firedamp content is being regularly
determined in that district, or on the return side of a place where the firedamp content is found to ~
exceed 1!%·
...
a Cardiff Printers Ltd.
 - 6\!

tf'

L
x,y,z

•
, ..
 •• •
FOUNDED 1883 • COPYRIGHT
THE U,M.S.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD ... · •
THIS PAPE!.Pt
WAS ·THE FIRST
IS SUPPLl!OO ON
•
•
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING
IN THE
SCHOOi.
WORLD.
g~e ~eual ~ £,Jwof; CONDITIO~
IT IS
EXCLUSIVELY
THAT
RESERVED
FOl't
• l~CORPORATEP 1931. CARDIFF (G•r. BRl'l"'AIN.) YOUR OWN° USE
•
•·

MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

Lesson MG/6.
-· FIREDAMP EXPLOSIONS.
The history of mining in Great Britain has been marred by many explosions, some of them being
attended by 'heavy loss of life. Such explosions may be due either to (a) firedamp alone, or (b) coal
dust alone, or (c) a firedamp explosion extended by coal dust.
In this lesson, we will confine ourselves chiefly to firedamp explosions, which are of more frequent
• occurrence than coal dust explosions and may be the initiating cause of the more devastating coal
dust explosions.
At this point, we would remind the student that the term " firedamp " refers to the natural
gas-mixture given off from the coal in mines and consisting chiefly of methane, CH 4, which is often •
• the only combustible gas present. Other combustible constituents may include ethane, C 2 H 6, and
• (doubtful) traces of ethylene, C 2H 4. Variable percentages of the extinctive gases nitrogen, N 2, and
carbon dioxide, CO 2, may also be present. For most practical purposes, however, we may regard
.'' firedamp " as being synonymous with "methane." A mixture of firedamp with air is called a
''fire np-air mixture."
wo factors are essential to cause a firedamp explosion, namely:- •
(l)t ~f~~..J?,E.~.~~.P.d,~1~., ~. ,Jtt.!r~~~.mR. . !,~,. . t~!,~.~mm.a.bl~ . (~~.~h~ive) <~r~P<:>E!i~lls, i.e. admixed with the right
amoun cf· ·air; an . · -. ,.,,,,,., · ··•·"· · · · ·· ···· -. · ·• · · ··· · ·· · · · -
(2) A suit~gJ.~,,Jgnit1ng,,ag.~nt.
Con;-f;~t""~;igilance is required if a gas explosion is to be avoided. For most mines, and especially
• the deeper mines, are continually giving off firedamp, and it is not always possible to. ensure that,
in all places and at all times, the gas will be effectively diluted; whilst in every mine, there are many
possible ways in which, by accident or by negligence, a source of ignition may be created. The ideal
to aim at is that there shall never be an e){J?l?s~::e mi:l(~ure p~c~~I.lt i!;:,~J'}Y place, and also that no
possible C:':l~~~ ?f}gp:itifFL?l1all be allowed fo"o'cclfr :·· Tf ever there is any' failure to achieve these two
aims, then, sooiie'r or later, the critical moment may come ·when both the factors of an explosion are
present together and an ignition inevitably occurs.
I
'~ INPLAMMABLE MIXTURES.
An inflammable mixture of gases is o:Qg_vyhich, when oi~g~ ignit~g' -~J~;JI~~~!!!!1~:r;;~,.:;~;;~~~~~
- .
·~.•~~p~~~~~~~ t,!l~g}!9'~~e.t.JbJ;Lmi~tJlX9?·-:~~-~9,l?~D>;i~ti,;~}'!~:~;;,•~!!Q,:aW~Y
,: · rom.~, . . . ,.,, .•&, . "''~;•:•·•·•·N·:;~'"*'io!tCAJ,r;;J;~gl~ .. ·
r, ·• • · .. · -": •··.• •

<-.,."""·'Iil""other'\-\rords, an inflammable mixture is one that is capable of propagating an explosion. It

is an explosive mixture. The violence of the explosion depends on the composition of the mixture
and the speed with which flame is propagated.
It is likely that all mixtures of methane and air can be ignited by some means or other, but it is I
only when the methane and air are mixed in certain proportions that the mixture is inflammable \
(explosive) and will allow flame to spread indefinitely in all directions.

-. ·~~!~!!~,1·~·~·}"~!!~m.m!,!i!!!.!~,. 2!... !i~~~!~.i1.~~!!~, .>C!~~.!

• ' eihe 'lowest percentage of methane in air that yields an inflammable mixture is called the lower
limit of Inrlammabtllty, The highest percentage of methane in air that yields a similar mixture is
. .~ _, ~·'\f'.alled the ~her limit of inflammability.
• • • '\·'~ \If' These limiting percentages, or "limiting mixtures of inflammability," depend on a number of
/.;:..rr~~, . factors including (a) the direction of travel taken by the flame, whether upwards, downwards, or
-r"i_ ~ . • Jtorizontally ;· (1:>) the manner in which the mixture is confined; (c) whether the mixture is at rest,
r/l(~)-~ •p .... 4 or moving in a stream, or turbulent ; and (d) the initial temperature and pressure. The important
>f':. ,...,...... thing to remember, however, is that, with firedamp-air mixtures at ordinary mine pressures and tem-
1.~~t>? . i.·ll"'"" I eratures, the widest limits of inflammability are as follows :-·
.) · rw. <7,\..;..,.;.V-t•'l .., Lower limit• of inflammability 5% of methane in air.
~ ,j,11-'..,. ' ..• ~~ Higher limit of inflammability...: . . .. . . .. . 14 ·8% of methane in air.
Je~'. \;..,:. ,. .:. \ ;:» .·4X".· . The figt:re 5%. refe~s to a me~hane-~ir. r~1ixture which i~ ii: a s~ate of turl;>~len~e prior to ign.ition .
..,.~ (.-4'\.""J. .~Jf the gas-mixture is quiescent prior to 1grut1011, the lower Iimit of inflammabihty is somewhat higher,
·~' . t.-"''.>? :. namely about 5 ·4%. •
~.f's f .;. ~ i, .,•"f~'° . . ·.At the lower limit of inflammability, a methane-air mixture is just faintly explosive, for ~here is
j'ust s•1fficient methane present (with an excess of oxygen) to generate the heat necessary tor self-

••
~ ·"'"~ ~ -,j

propagation of flame. •
If more methane be added, more heat is generated, and the mixture becomes increasingly explosive
nq,il, whenabout 10% of methane is present the mixture exhibits maximum explosive violence. At
• t'
tbis point, there is just about twice as much oxygen present as methane, i.e. just sufficient oxygen
ensure complite combustion in accordance with the equation :-- • •
CH4 + 202 .= C02 2H20 .
•
+ .
• (

I
I

., •
I
~
• • • •
 •
• .•
' .. ~G/~
•
• •

• 2 Firedamp Explosions:

If-the percentage of methane be still further increased, above 10%, the combustion is incomplete, • •
less heat is generated, and the explosive force decreases until, at about 14 ·8% of methane, the mixture
is once again just faintly explosive. At this point, there is just sufficient oxygen present to generate ,~ I
• the lteat necessary for propagation of flame. •

•
•
Effect of . high pressures and temperatures.
Within the range of temperatures and pressures normally met with in mines, the foregoing limits
of inflammability are not affected to any material extent. It has been found, however, that, if the
init.ial pressure of the gas ...mixture be greatly raised, richer .mixtures become inflammable. Thus, ;at
~t'pressure of 125 atmospheres (1,875 lbs. per sq. inch) the higher limit is about 46%.
Moreover, by suddenly compressing the gas-mixture, both temperature and pressure are raised
simultaneously, and it has been found possible to ignite in this way a mixture containing as little
as 2% and as much as 75% of methane. This fact is of some importance because it shows that the
pressure-waves, or the hot compressed ,gases, of an explosive may, during shot-firing, ignite a wider
range of firedamp-air mixtures, in breaks or cavities behind the face, than was at one time thought
possible.

.Effect of blackdamp and reduced oxygen percentage on inflammability. , •

The presence in a mine of ordinary proportions of blackdamp (which is a mixture of carbon dioxide
and excess nitrogen) has . ~~r:~.Jim~ ~ff.~wt iA.g,*111in.!§.~.iH~ ~~~ ~~nger o.f a,n exptosionot firedamp.
~xcess f-
Experiment has showri'"th.at, .for all percentages of nitrogen or of ordinary blackdamp up •
t() a"i:)():'}t 35% (the percentage of oxygen present then being about 12!%) the lower limit of inflammability
·""feinaills almost unaffected, bein&>~~~~~~l1 5% .find €?,%· •
\ ·¥, -. The effect on the higbe:t""filiiit'"i~· r~t-h~r diffe;ent, for it is about 14 ·8% when no blackdamp and •
.~~\1 the normal percentage of oxygen is present, and it gradually falls to about 6% as the percentage of •
• \ r blackdamp increases up to 35% and the oxygen percentage decreases to 12!%- The upper and lower
I . · limits then coincide .. It is only when. t.he percentage of blaekdamp exceeds. about 35% that the atmosphere - •
. becomes non-inflammable with any percentage of methane.
Even if the blackdarnp were· to consist solely of carbon dioxide, CO 2, (a condition never met with
in a mine) at least .25% of CO 2 would be required to render the. mixture non-inflammable with any
percentage of methane.
It is therefore evident that, in a mine, although the limits of inflammability are narrowed as the •
p~rcentage of· blackdamp increases and that of oxygen decreases, the explosive risk is not reduced by
the presence of blaekdamp in the percentages ordinarily met with ; nor is. it practicable to render the
atmosphere immune from an explosive risk by adding car.bon dioxide to it without at the same time
rendering the atmosphere totally unfit to breathe. •
Atrnospheres behind stoppings.
When a district of .kl gci,sc;y mine is sealed off, there is a progressive accumulation of blackdafnp
and 9f.fired_3-mp (at: va:ryu~g rates) and a progressive reduction in the percentage of oxygen. At some
- --·-- --stage m this process, an inflammabre miutur.., m~y: be formed, req11iring only C1 suitable source (:)f
• ignition for an explosion to occur. Thereafter (assuming no explosion) the percentage of rrredamp
will increase beyondthe higher limit of inflammability, whilst the percentage of oxygen will be reduced
to a safe amount. The atmosphere will then be non-explosive, and, of course, quite irrespirable.
Now let us assume that the district is to be re-opened and re-ventilated. The question then

•
arises, will an explosive mixture be formed during the process of dilution of the gas-mixture with air?
This question may conveniently be answered from the graph shown in fig. 1.
In this graph, the percentages of methane are shown by the vertical lines and those of oxygen
by the horizontal lines. The remainder of the

---
22
atmosphere may be taken as extinctive gases, I
I MPRODUCE.O
11XTURfS WHICH CANNOT BE I
• •
(chiefly nitrogen, but including any CO 2 that may
also be present).
20
-

X
5·4%

~---r-+-- .
H~OYI METHANE-AIR

I
--..14-·8%
• .
----
18
There are three cases to consider:-
(A)' All mixtures lying within the triangular
area XYZ are in themselves explosive.
16
'
EXPUJSIVE

,,./
/
_, y ""z- r--
.. • •
(B) All mixtures lying to the right of PYZ
14 •
contain too much methane to explode, but they y'-.:. ./
will form explosive mixtures when mixed with the
right amount of air.
12
-, GAPABLE gF FORMING
EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES.WITH AIR
\
(C) All mixtures lying to the left of PYX
z 8 r\. •
are neither explosive, nor capable of forming w NOT CAPABLE ·,\
explosive mixtures with air.
-. •
OF FORM.ING EX.PL051VE
~6
•Points
to notice are:- )(
MIXTURES WITH AIR

04
(1) that the lower limit of inflammability
'I\ •
•
.
•••
remains almost constant at somewhat about 5 ·4% 2.
(or orily slightly higher) for all percentages of j\ \.p
oxygen down to about 12! % ; 0 .2 4 6 8 16 18 ~: ~
• (2) that the higher limit gradually decreases
10 12 14

•from 14 ·8% to about 6% with decreasing percen-

METHANE%
Fig. L
•
• tages of oxygen; • .J._
• Limits of inflammability of Methane, Oxyg~n and Nitrogen
•
•
•
 •• fl

MG/GI')
The Universal Mining_ School, Cardiff. 3-
• - ...
(3) that no percentage of methane is explosive gvhen the percentage of oxygen is 12% or less; but
(4) that many firedamp-air mixtures may become explosive when diluted with an appropriate
f)
•amount of air which brings the new mixture within the limits of the triangle XYZ. ''

•• Inflammability of other combustible gases.

Combustible gases other than methane may occur in a mine as the result of a heating or a fire,
or in the afterdamp of an explosion, e.g. carbon monoxide and possibly hydrogen. These gases have
wider limits of inflammability than methane. Fortunately, their presence usuallv coincides with a
reduction in the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere and this reduces to some extent the explosion .
risk. The gas ethane, sometimes found in natural firedamp, usually occurs in proportions that are
too small to affect the inflammability of the firedamp materially. The Jimits of inflammability of the
foregoing gases are approximately:-
Carbon monoxide -CO Lower limit 12 ·5% Upper limit 74 ·2%
Hydregen H2 4 ·1% 74·2%
Ethane C2H6 3·1% 22·0%
An explosion is more readily initiated by these gases than by methane, and it is therefore fortunate
that methane is normally the only gas to be considered from the explosion point of view .

. IGNITION OF FIREDAMP.
A mixture of firedamp and air is said to be '' ignited '' when it has been heated to such an extent
• as to cause the mixture to "burst into flame."
At ordinary temperatures, no chemical reaction between the firedamp and the air takes place..
At higher temperatures (of the order of 300 °C) the methane and the oxygen in the air may combine
• ... chemically without ·producing flame. At still higher temperatures, the rate of reaction is so much "'
increased that visible flame is produced.

Ignition temperatures.
I"'b&J~~~L!.!:ID1?J~EB-1RE~JRc- ..YvJi~s!i.. ;:t"g~,S.+,mus,t.py .raised to ensure theeventual production of flame
is ~~11:i:~C:T9ftf-~'i~nition ternperatl1re." It is not possible, however, to speak of some one fixed, definite,
• '''temp·erafiire as the' ignition temperature of methane because this varies with (a) the mode of ignition,
and (b) the percentage of methane present. .,
In experimental work to determine ignition temperatures, methane-air mixtures have been
'ignited in three chief ways : (i) by being brought into contact with a heated quartz surface ; (ii) by
heating the methane and air separately and then mixing them out of contact with a heated surface;
and (iii) by sudden compression. The ignition temperatures obtained by these three methods (in
round numbers) are as follows:-
• (i) Incontact with heated surface 675 °to 780°C (1247 °to 1436°F).
(ii) Out of contact with heated surface 650° to 750°C (1202° to 1382°F).
(iii) By adiabatic compression 430 °to 810 °C (806 ° to 1490 °F).

M:osf: easily ignited mixtures.

•
The foregoing figures imply that some methane-air mixtures are most easily ignited (i.e. they
are ignited at a lower temperature) than others, although the particular percentage of methane that
is most easily ignited varies with different modes of ignition. Thus, when the mode of ignition is
by a heated surface, a mixture containing 5% to 6% of methane is ignited at about 675°C (1247°F) .
._. Greater percentages of methane require fhe heated surface to be at a higher temperature, up to 780 °C
(14•6 °F), before ignition will take place. In a similar manner, f?.~ ~ac~mode of ignition, there is a
• . C~J:!9.:!P . . P,~:C:~t:11tCl,ge of rneJha11e that has the lowest ignition temf)'eratm:e and can therefore be most
easily ignit~d in fliat particular way. The most easily ignitable mixtures have been determined by
•experiment and the approximate results are given below, for the modes of ignition stated:-
•

+
•
•
•
·- Ignition by heated surfaces
heated wires
about 5-6%
6-7%
of methane .

,, electric sparks ... 7-8%

. , , explosives 9%
flames 10%
• In general, it will be noted that the weaker mixtures (containing less than 10% of methane) are
more easily ignited than richer mixtures, no matter what the source of ignition may be .
•The lag on ignition.
*
1'' , ' if''rti~st'noT
15e thought .that a firedamp-air mixture immediately bursts into flame when it has
been •,aised to its ignition temperature. The latter temperature must be· maintained for a definite
interval of time to ensure that flame will appear.

~~ -· sg~,~~ea~nJe(.;)a\~~. ~~~;~~~,~~~~,:~r;~~";.:i~~~fJe~~~h~x~o;y;_A~~~ ;~~fu<l1:7'·-~~J

1~h~~~~;~tfo~i~~\\~~ '\
pel"iOa is called the -"J~ . .W!,~_IJ.!tion.,:,'' During this penod, the r~te of heat produc~10~ progressively.,
• increases and the temperature nses. Thus the temperature at which flame appears is higher than the .,
.
initial temperature imparted to the mixture. The temperature- of the flame itself is higher still.
" "( .
• . .
•
•
 . . ~··
' • • •
MG/G •
• - -4------ Firedamp Ex-plosions,

rfhe lag on ignition is not constant, but varies with (a) .tl;e ~~!PJ>~~:J.t:ii~~ 9J,th~.}Ki:?:~tj11& source, •
and (b) the percentage of Ill~~han~ in thegas-111i9cture. The nigher "the temperature of the source -of-·--
ignj.tion;-the- sliorfer is - the "lime during which the. mixture need be exposed -to that temperature. t~
ensure the production of flame. Conversely, a lower temperature requires a correspondingly longer
•time to bring about ignition. Furthermore, the lag on ignition is longest with the weaker mixtur~s
ignited at the lowest temperatures.
A lag of more than 18 seconds has been recorded with a mixture containing 6 ·8% of methane
ignited at about 700 °C (1292 °F), but this must be regarded as exceptionally long. Thus, with an
igniting source at 1200 °C (2192 °F), flame appears within one-fiftieth part of a second in all inflammable
mixtures of methane and air ; and, when an electric spark forms the means of ignition, the lag is
almost infinitesimally short .
_ 4':ctical importance- of the lag on ignition.
v.:.,-;1"'i-.
e,\,

The lag on ignition is most important from the practical point of view, for it is clear that an
inflammable mixture may be exposed for a period to a source of ignition of adequate temp"trature
andlyet will fail to explode if this period is shorter than the '' lag " corresponding to the temperature
and gas-mixture concerned. '
In a flame safety lamp, the gauzes may conceivably become red-hot if the lamp is left burning
in an inflammable atmosphere (for the firedamp may then be ignited and continue to burn within the
gauzes) but the external inflammable atmosphere may not be ignited because it is constantly moving
• past the gauzes and does not remain in contact with them for a sufficient time.
•
During shot-firing, the flame or hot' gases produced by the explosive may initially be quite hot
enough to ignite firedamp, but the temperature may fall (and usually does fall) so rapidly 'that ignition •
of4the firedamp-air mixture does not occur, assuming such a mixture to be present.
. In flame-proof electrical apparatus-defined as apparatus totally enclosed within a steel casing
(not " gas-tight ") which is strong enough to resist an internal explosion and will also prevent the - ~. ,
4~
-)
• transmission of a dangerous flame from inside to outside--firedamp may enter via the narrow spaces· •
between the rough-machined flanges and be ignited inside the casing by an electric arc or spark. The
resulting hot products of combustion, or even visible flame, may then issue from the casing but will
fail to ignite an inflammable atmosphere outside the casing chiefly because of the effect of the l~g: . QJJ_
ig~i_!!g_n. The turbulence of the issuing flame gases prevents any part Gf them being in C()r:.tac;:f-Y''ith
fl~e e;xter:ri3:1 g-as !nixt11refor _<:1 sufficieritt irne. In addition, the cooling ac~i~I1Yf the fl-C1,11g<:;f~nCf tnef~ll
iT:-th~ t~fuP.S:ICl_tut~- of the gases due to expansion may play some :rmirm prevenfir~g external ignition:
. . ._ . ".It must not be thought that, because methane exhibits a lag on ignition, we are justified in taking
any risks. The lag is in many cases infinitesimally short. But it is fortunate that methane forms
the chief inflammable gas met with in mines, as some other gases (e.g'. hydrogen) exhibit li ttle or no
la~ and their presence would render impossible the working of mines as we know it to-day.
CAUSES OF IGNITION OF FIREDAMP IN MINES.
\>-~~/ The ways in which firedamp-air mixtures can be ignited underground may be divided into 'our
mam groups :-
• (1) Ig:1itisri, .P-Y .flamcs. (3) Ignition by sparks ...
(2) fgll:ition by heated surfaces. (4) Ignition by explosives.
Flames.
Any sustained flame· (e.g. of a match, oil, or candle) will ignite firedamp, however small the flame
may be. A lamp flame, turned so low as to be on the point of extinction, has a temperature exceeding ~-_ ..._-_-.·_-'_,
1000 °C, and this is far in excess of the minimum ignition temperature of any inflammable mixture of .- -
firedamp and air. The lag period is therefore very short (a few thousandths of a second).
Naked lights have been responsible for a very large number of explosions, chiefly of a very localised .-
character. Such explosions result from the ignition of small accumulations or pockets of firedcrnp,
generally in cavities or in the neighbourhood of faults, in mines where the occurrence of firedamp
in any quantity is rare.
In gassy mines, of course, the use of naked lights is prohibited, but every care must be taken to•
avoid damage to a flame safety lamp, which is quite safe when undamaged and properly assernbled.j,
but highly dangerous when the glass is broken or the gauzes defective. Precautions must al~o
obviously be taken against matches or other contrivances being illegally introduced underground.·
In mines liable to spontaneous combustion, the possibility always exists of firedamp being ignited
by the flame or incandescent coal caused by a gob fire, and this is one of the great dangers to be guarded
against when self-heating occurs. a

, Heated surfaces. o
A large variety of modes of ignition can be included under this heading.
,- (i) Overheated lamp-gauzes. If firedamp becomes ignited within a safety lamp gauz,e, ft
may continue- to burn there indefinitely, even though the oil-flame be extinguished. With bonneted
lamps having two gauzes (or their equivalent) however, there is high margin of safety, and the possibility
of an external inflammable atmosphere becoming ignited, unless the lamp is damaged, is not very
great even under the most unfavourable cond1t10ns·. As already mentioned, this is due partly to the
rapid movement of the gas by convection currents past the gauze, the gas not then remaining iR
contact therewith for a sufficient time to cause external ignition ; but it is also. due partly to thesfact
.€
·that the wire itself seems to exert a preventive effect, in some manner not fully understood, by bringing
•. about a chemical reaction on the gauze surface in such a way that inflammable gases adjacent thereto
combine with oxygen without the production of flame.
0

I
..
 ..•
The Universal lvlining School, Cardiff. -~~_Gj.6
5
. (ii) Electrically heated wires. The tungsten filament of an incandescent electric lamp '(even
a 2-volt lamp) is quite capable of igniting a firedamp-air mixture if the enclosing bulb should become
C\ccidentally broken. .
(iii) Heated rock surfaces. Continued friction between certain kinds of sandstone can generate
sufficient heat to ignite firedamp, not so much by the sparks produced as by the glovving surface at
the point of contact. Under practical conditions, such friction.rnay occur when a large mass of rock
falls· some distance and glides along the sharp edges of another piece. It has also been found that
although .the friction of rock upon rock is more likely to cause ignition than that of metal upon rock,
nevertheless it is quite possible to ignite firedamp by the glancing blow of a pick on quartzitic sandstone.
(iv) Incandescent coal. Danger of ignition from this cause is only liable t'o occur in those
mines where the coal (either in pillars or in the goaf) is subject to self-heating or spontaneous com-
bustion. IgniLon of firedamp may occur before the coal actually fires, i.e. at a stage where the exposed
surfaces of· the coal are becoming incandescent.
(~).General. The student will no doubt be able to add several other causes of ignition under
the heading of heated surfaces, e.g. overheated brake-blocks, timber or steel props heated by moving
conveyor troughs, unlubricated haulage rollers heated by rope-friction, and so on.
fl.•

Sparks.
Under this heading, we may include :-'-
-~ (i) Electric sparks and arcs. These occur wherever an electric current is interrupted by
• breaking the circuit. They may be produced by switchgear : by the breakdown of cable insulation ;
• by signalling apparatus; by shot-firing magneto-exploders ; and at rubbing contacts such as com-
mutators and slip rings. ·f~: £,. f
,. • (ii) " Static '' sparks from compressed air pipes. When dust particles are blown through
and projected from a compressed air pipe or nozzle, the dust cloud may become electrified and, under
e -cer tain conditions, the electrostatic discharge that results may be capable of igniting firedamp. It
is stated that the required conditions (apart from the presence of an explosive mixture) are (a) very
high insulation of the nozzle or outlet, (b) sufficient electrical capacity formed by the proximity of
the nozzle to some other metal (e.g. a girder), ·(c) dry surroundings and perhaps (d) very free discharge
of air. The coincidence of these conditions may be rare, but not unknown. No danger is likely to
arise in wet pits, or where .ctr relative hum.idity of the surround . ing air is greater than about 70%,
for a sufficient charge of electricity does not then accumulate. Q.n dry mines, danger can be avoided
by ensuring that the pipes are electrically continuous and efficiently earthed, and by usi1lg" anti-static ""'
rubber hose which incorporates graphite or carbon compounds to act as a conductor)
(iii) Friction sparks from iron pyrites. This substance is sulphide of iron, FeS 2, and is commonly
known as "brasses." It has been shown that methane-air mixtures can easily be ignited by the
rubbing of blunt coalcutter picks or of pick-boxes against pyrites. Under the rubbing action, some
of the pyrites is ground to a fine powder (often to the accompaniment of brilliant sparks) and heated
to ~tween 200 ° and 300 °C, whereupon the powdered pyrites oxidises rapid ly and ultimately flame
(of burning sulphur) appears. Actually, it is this flame that is supposed to ignite the firedamp, and
not the sparks, but we include this mode of ignition under the heading of " sparks" because these
still ren:afn unde~ ~1!-~-Pi~ion. '.lTh~ cl~nger is~.e~~1ced by u_~ing ~nly sh~r~, picks for coalcutting purposes.)
t1>1t~~~--f~" f"'···'::>.k,b::._~ <:q .. .l;t_~ ... AD \.•"-"' Zi,"''\;;"-- "'-'"''"""""\ }U, C\J"J.A\lcJ,<,:>,c_,, • fr
Explosives.
Ignition of firedamp-air mixtures may result from either (a) the flame produced by the explosive,
or (b) the hotgases e.mitted, or (c) .t.he heat of . compression, .or from a CQmbina:t:ion of all threc.. 1_ \ ... ,r.:ic e-r:te.,
(9.) kt h\(.l""IAd.e..sc,e'4" f>t":<t\cle..f":> #,,e..r_.f:;,v fr,,.,.,. -;;J..c<J-l..£]e.. rg;J.'11.0L_,,,...plt..hly .c...\.Qf£n,_4_._:; i!.",:Ji}£>"5."r\C c.,..,..~'>'...U.l\o i:;;.~... ~. L" (.uv<<>..(-
The flame rrom the explosive usuafly lasts a very short time and fails -to ignite an nflammable
mixture (even if present) because the time of contact is too short ; whilst the hot gases (after cooling
below incandescence) although initially at a dangerously high temperature, are usually cooled very
....., rapidly by the transformation o~ heat intq mechanical work.
• 'With regard to the heat of compression, it is well known that the sudden compression of a gas
~reatly increases its temperature. Some 20-~old compression, if applied suddenly enough, will ignite
• • practically all inflammable mixtures of firedamp and air. In shot-firing, the danger of ignition from
this cause (even though the flame from the explosive is entirely suppressed) is most likely to occur
• • V411here pockets of inflammable gas (firedamp and air) have collected in breaks or crevices adjoining
the shot-hole. This is the reason why search for the presence of breaks must be made before blasting,
• as the breaks. may communicate with larger quantities of gas in the adjacent mine atmosphere, or in
the goat, and so cause an explosion to be propagated on a large scale.
, Further <~possible causes of ignition by explosives are that (a) incandescent solid particles of partially
• burnt explosive may be ejected from the shot-hole, or (b) the burning residue of an incompletely
• de,t,onated charge may become exposed to an inflammable atmosphere when the coal is broken down.

J'.e,EVENTION OF FIREDAMP EXPLOSIONS.

lJ.· ._/__.dilute
·:, . . Thethefirst line of defence against a firedamp explosion is the provision of adequate ventilation to

- firedamp to a safe percentage as it is given off,' and to carry it out of the mine. No further
precaution would be needed if we could be certain that all parts of a mine were always adequately
ventilated.
To ensure that the mine is adequately ventilated, a special ventilating engineer should be appointed
whose duties, with the aid of a suitable staff; should include maintenance of all ventilating appliances
• in efficient condition, regular and systematic air-measurement .and periodical sampling and analysis .
of the air in each district in order to determine the firedamp content at the face and in the return ·'
• airways, preferably by an approved apparatus capable of giving readings on the spot.
~ Cr·'c
l'•", '>'• -
J.·""" .s:·i~kS
r f··rw< /,4h_f+
1
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a 11
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,1
c4,..; . _f'<I:. .er_,,:

. + . AJ\:-O...:f.-.-$-1: b__.: .\n·R-S.I eM;.~ cf, . ;,,-l\..U-v /,,,,y

'ii"J.Le1ct 1"tfc:11'\.+\.
'··-·A '\r(tn- L._".,. 6'.,fo1._"\~t-1.e._.Q._ '"¥1-L.$-l CV O'~JA.f>..'-"' "\.~- .....
;,..:l\e--"'""· 5l ""'v\,\_e..l\.. .U - .. J 11 • .,

0:5~ e>ve.v , ·J-- ~ S>-v~- n,-11.-. ,_e.~¢:.c\A-(1 4-tN c.:\..:l~~~

t·to·-.-e. ~ J:; ~~\..G'V~ 1\-v ~ <i".'·

f ~""
0

-s ~(?1 .i-'? \.eA v-e ' a_. '3 """ .e_~ '>/ " .. t~\,;.. cl-. o»..'. ,_,\,._ c__o_~.l,v..Q.. St>''(~ C.AK-~ J.._11 ~ I '. : (")
4, -r- h ~·I t. - · - /1' fl. .L. L I--··- ~. j.l
 Unfortunately, the constant maintenance of perfect ventilation is impossible in practice. Falls'
of roof inevitably occur at times in mine roadw~ys and reduce or stop the air-current in the district
concerned. Falls of roof occur in mine. goaves and may cause a sudden rush of firedamp into the
roadways. A sudden "blower" of gas may temporarily'.' foul" a whole district, and there are alw'!>Ys
places-roof cavities, dead-ends, under-cuts, etc.,-where the normal ventilation may fail to reach
during its course around the mine.
In all such cases, firedamp may gradually or suddenly accumulate .in the affected parts of the
mine in spite of the mine as a whole being normally ventilated in an adequate manner. It is therefore
necessary to detect the presence of gas before it reaches a dangerous percentage and to stop all work
within the area concerned. To this end, regular testing for firedamp must be carried out by the
•
district deputies ; automatic firedamp detectors must be provided for use by the workmen ; men
must be withdrawn at the "withdrawal percentages " specified by law (these being far below the
lower limit of inflammability) ; and the electric current. must be cut 'off from any electrical apparatus
in the neighbourhood of which gas can be detected by a safety lamp. Detailed rules on these matters
are laid down by law, and the student should make himself familiar with them by reference to the
appropriate official regulations. *"
There still remains the danger that gas in explosive percentages may suddenly occur in places
where work is going on, and we must therefore have a second line of defence, namely to institute
safeguards so that an inflammable mixture, even if present, shall not be ignited, or, if ignited, shall
not propagate flame.
Safeguards against ignition.
Consideration of the possible causes of ignition will suggest to the student the precautions
necessary to prevent it. Many of them are laid down by law. Others are based on good mining

•
practice.
(a) To prevent ignition by flames.
Use only locked safety lamps except in mines where inflammable gas is unknown. Have an
efficient system of examination and maintenance of lamps, and instruct new workmen in the use
and care of lamps under their charge. r
Institute a rigorous system of searching persons. for prohibited articles, preferably at the surface,
so as to eliminate the danger of such articles being carried underground, by accident or by negligence.
c In mines liable to spontaneous combustion, adopt every possible precaution against the occurrence
of self-heating and, if sealing off should become necessary, keep the area ventilated, so as to dilute
the firedamp, until the last possible moment.
In. all mines, reduce the fire risk by using incombustible linings for roadways, engine houses, and
other underground structures, and install adequate fire-fighting apparatus so that, if a fire should
unfortunately occur, it may be extinguished in its earliest stages.
(b) To prevent ignition by heated surfaces.
Apart from the danger due to over-heated lamp gauzes, or the exposed filament of an electric
safety lamp, the precautions here - are largely of a commonsense character. They involve (i) the
careful examination of machinery to prevent overheated bearings or brake-blocks : (ii) regular
lubrication of rollers or pulleys ; (iii) careful alignment of conveyors to prevent their rubbing against
roof supports ; and so on.

•
( c) T.o prevent ignition by electricity.
For low-powered electrical apparatus such as is used for shot-firing, signalling and""telephone
communication, the proper safeguard is to install only apparatus that is intrinsically safe, i.e. so
constructed that any spark given off is too feeble to be capable of igniting the most explosive mixture js
of firedamp and air. .-..
Other apparatus (chiefly motors and switchgear) cannot be made "intrinsically safe " but should
be protected by flameproof enclosure, so designed and maintained that an explosion within the apparatus
cannot be communicated to the atmosphere outside it. There are various ways of making an enclosur~
flameproof, but the one generally adopted is to provide wide rough-machined flanges 0 ·01 to 0 ·02 inch,
apart when the apparatus is assembled. It should be carefully noted that flameproof enclosures ate
not gas-tight, and it is wrong to apply the term gas-tight to them.
In addition, all electrical circuits should be so designed as to be almost fool-proof in operation.
Only authorised persons should have access to the interior of electrical apparatus -~ provision should
be made by means of mechanical or electrical interlocks to ensure correct sequence ~f operations;
circuits sh()'l.ll_cL be protected by automatic circuit. breakers which-cut off-the current in the event :Of"a
fault or overload ; leakage protective devices should be installed so as to cut off the current in the
earliest stages of a fault and before it has had time to develop into a short-circuit between phases;
coalcutters and conveyors should be operated by remote-control whereby all switching operat iona,
other than in a low-voltage pilot circuit, take place within the gate-end switchgear and not at the
machine itself.
Above all, only the most robust type of electrical apparatus, of approved type, should be purchased
for use underground ; the utmost care should be taken, to house the apparatus in a safe place ; and
cables should be so laid, or suspended, or protected, that they are not likely to be damaged by derailed
tubs.
Constant care and watchfulness is needed if the risk of ignition by electricity is to be avoided,
and it is most essential that all apparatus shall be regularly examined, tested and maintained by com-
• ••
petent electricians. .·---4-.
Q
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. • ,
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. 7

( d) To prevent ignition by explosives.

This is an exceedingly big subject, requiring •
a lesson to itself, but we can here give a summary
ot=the more important precautions, namely '.'-- •
•

•
• (i) Only psrmttted explosives should be used in any safety lamp mine, and these should be. of
the sheathed type, or of" Eq. S." type (equivalent to sheathed).
A sheathed. explosive is an ordinary permitted explosive surrounded by a jacket of some suitable
chemical (e.g. sodium bicarbonate) which, when the explosive is detonated, yields a protective blanket
around the flame.. An eight-ounce cartridge of a sheathed explosive, when freely suspended in the
most explosive mixture of firedamp and air, can be fired without igniting the mixture, whereas the
heaviest charge of ordinary unsheathed explosive capable of passing a similar test is only two ounces.
- "Eq. S." explosives differ from sheathed explosives in that the cooling .material that would
normally be contained in the external sheath is incorporated directly and uniformly into the explosive
itself. Such explosives are equivalent in safety and performance to sheathed explosives of the same
class and they possess the advantage that they· are easier and cheaper to manufacture, whilst their
safety 'is not dependent on an added sheath which may become damaged or be removed, accidentally
• or otherwise, during use.
Both sheathed and Eq. S. explosives are intended as a safeguard against the danger arising from
the presence of undetected breaks in or near a shot-hole.
(ii) Sand-clay stemming (or its equivalent) should be used, this being much more effective than
• clay alone .

.. (iii) The detonator should normally be placed next to the stemming, pointing towards the back

•
of the hole (a method known as " direct initiation "). An exception is when the back of the hole is
the weakest part, or in "sumping" holes, or when using delay-action detonators .
• (iv) Simultaneous shot-firing should be adopted in suitable cases.
(v) Substitutes for explosives should be used whenever possible. These include 'pneumatic picks,
hydraulic coal-bursters, and Cardox and Hydrox. o.......d. "'-v:- ~-<"""-s\Y~'( 1\-h t-.2?c~.l:-.{'.r( .
To ensure that all the foregoing precautions shall be duly carried o ut , it is, of course, essential •
• that the discipline malntatned by management, omcials an:l men shall be of a high order. A manager
must necessarily delegate much of his responsibility to other officials and authorised persons, and a "
great deal depends on the care with which they are selected. Constant watchfulness is required on
the part of all engaged underground, and every m an must play his part.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A FIREDAMP EXPLOSION.

The explosio n of an inflammable firedamp-air mixture (in the absence of coal-dust) is normally,
thoug4h not invariably, of the nature of a rapid Intlamm atlon, rather than a true." explosive combustion"
or detonation. The difference between the two Ii es chiefly in the rate at which flarnz is propagated
and in the speed at which combustion takes place. •
In a rapid inflammation, the flame-speeds are measurable in feat or yards per second. On the
I other hand, in a true explosion or detonation, the flame-speed or " explosive-wave ·'' is of the order
of one to four miles per second.
In experimental work, when an inflammable m ixt ure is ignite:i at the opan end of a tube which is
closed at the other end, the dame travels a certain distance at a low uniform speed, the maximum
speed being given by a mixture containing about 10% of methane. Thereafter, the movement of
the flame becomes undulatory or vibratory in character. During this phase, the mean speed of the
~ame ~1creases, and fairly high speeds may be attained in any one vibration. Speeds up to 2,000 feet
• per second have been recorded.
• When the inflammable mixture is ignited at the closed end of a tube which is open at the other
• • end, the phase of low uniform movement does not occur and the flame-speed increases rapidly due
~ the impetus given by the expanding gases behind the flame. Eventually, violent vibrations are
• set~p as before and the flame is extinguished by being drawn back into the burnt gases when these
• cool and contract .
It has been found that the presenee of obstructions has the effect of causing turbulence of the
air and greatly increasing the speed of propagation of flame. In the mine, the violence of a firedamp
I explosion is urfdoubtedly increased by the presence of props, tubs, doors, brattice cloths and other
• • obstructions and restrictions in the airways affected.
The maximum pressure developed by a firedamp explosion in experimental work, with a quiescent
infsammable mixture at atmospheric· pressure and containing about 10% of methane, is about 105 to
110 lbs. per sq. inch, A turbulent mixture gives a maximum pressure of about 115 lbs. per sq. inch.

- It is presumed that the maximum pressures ordinarily developed in actual gas explosions underground
are of si:ij].ilarmagnitude.

•• •
All the foregoing refers to explosions of "the nature of rapid inflammations, in which a true
"explosion-wave " is not propagated. The latter type of wave only occurs when the rate of flame
traveb is sufficient to ignite the unburnt gases in front by adiabatic compression, the whole mass being
detonated almost instantly. The· propagation of an explosion wave may suddenly follow the vibratory
movement previously mentioned and may be regarded as a " single intense oscillation traversing the
• •
•whole mass of the gas." •
•
• . . •

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~-~~@_ F1:redamp Explosions ..

8
~
In an underground frrech~m_p explosion, only a comparatiyely quiet form of combustion normally. •
takes "?lace at the seat or ongm of the explosion and, thereafter, the fl.arn.e-speed and the pressure
dc~:eloµed increase ra.)?1a1y to some max\.mum, depenaing, on the percentage oi n:reG.am-p -present a.~d

•
the conditions in the area affected. In general, the explosion does not pass beyond the stage of. a rapid
intlammation, but there are exceptions to this general rule and the following is a case in point. •
A..t a colliery in South Wales, an explosion of firedamp took place in a shaft which, by some means
not fully explained, had become filled with an explosive mixture of firedamp and air. Just prior to
the explosion, a. small ilre was noticed at the surface and steps were taken to deal with it by means of
water. At the very rnornent when the water was turned on, an explosion of a most violent character
occurred, the effects of which were described as " phenomenal." Surface buildings were completely
wrecked. Fans and fan drift were blown into the air and literally disintegrated. The steel pithead
frame collapsed and fell across the pit top. The cages were blown into the air and the shattered
remnants hurled to upwards of 100 yards. The noise of the explosion was heard 20 miles away.
There is little doubt that the occurrence just described was a true explosion or detonation, and
not a mere rapid inflammation. Why such extreme violence was developed on this occasion has not
been fully explained.
To revert to gaseous explosions underground, these differ in several ways from coal-dust explosions,
or from one in which coal-dust has taken part.
/ {a)' A gas explosion is usually limited to the roadways near the face and to the return airway.
This follows naturally from the fact that firedamp in explosive proportions is most likely to be found
in these places. Rarely does a gas-explosion travel far along an intake airway. ·
• •
(b] The explosion is usually confined to a single ventilating district, for it is most unlikely, except
in the case of a sudden large outburst of gas, that more than one district will he fouled by fire-damp
at one and the same t ime. On the other hand, a coal-dust explosion has been known to traverse the
whole of the roadways of ~1 mine, and especially the main intake haulage roadways where most coal •
dust is liable to be found.
(c) A gas explosion is usually less violent than a coal-dust explosion_and the great and widespread
devastation and destruction that frequently result from an extensive coal-dust explosion are rarely
experienced (although, as we have seen, extreme violence is not unknown with a gas explosion).
At this point it is convenient to refer to a rather special and unusual type of explosion about
which the student should have some knowledge.

Explosion of water gas.

When steam is passed over red-hot coal or coke, the water is decomposed into hydrogen and
oxygen, and two highly explosive gases are formed, namely hydrogen and carbon monoxide, the mixture
being known as " water gas.•' "
Explosions due to water gas are naturally rare in mines, but at least one case is on record (resulting
in a number of deaths) where water had been applied to burning coal which had become ignited by
spontaneous heating. The conditions for such an explosion would seem to be :-:--
(1) A large mass of red hot carbonaceous material. r
(2) A supply of water which, on conversion to steam, remains for an appreciable time in contact

•
with the hot carbon.
(3) Partial confinement (by packs or otherwise) to a space in which the mixture of gas and air
takes place.
(4) The presence of a suitable igniting medium in the region where the gas-and-air mixture has l
accumulated. Gi "

Such conditions are only likely to occur when a fire is deep-seated in a mass of coal, but it would
seem that treatment of deep-seated spontaneous fires with water may be a hazardous operation.
At ;_my rate, the danger should be borne in mind. •
• •
ANALYSIS OF AFTERDAMP.
•
It is of interest .hcre to give a few analyses showing the possible composition of the afterdamp
of an explosion.
The- first analysis is given by
Penman as the co.rrposit ior; of a sample -----------------~::;worth l __ 1•iredam~J-~oa1-dust
taken nndergro· .. ind after an exj-Iosion at
Usworth Colliery, The second resulted Oxygen 7·23 I 1 ·15
from the experimental explosion of a Nitrogen ... 76·80 79·09 I 73 ·75 C)

methane-air mixture containing 12 ·5% Carbon dioxide 4·54 6·09 I 11 ·25

CH 4, 18·13% oxygen, and 69 ·37% nitro- Carbon monoxide 2·48 I 7·74 8 ·15'
gen. The third was the composition of Hydrogen 6·70 ,2 ·75
the afterdamp resulting from an ex- Methane "·· ,8·68 0·38 2·95
plosion of coal dust (Altofts). I
The important feature to note is the dangerously high percentage of carbon monoxide ineach
case, and the urgent need for rescuers to wear breathing apparatus in all places likely to be affected
· by tne afterdamp of an explosion, unless and until such places. have been tested and found to be safe.
 •
The Universal Mining School, Card~ff.
,
• PROCEDURE AFTER AN EXPLOSION.
This really comes under the heading of Rescue•work, a subject more fully dealt with elsewhere,
~ut we may here set down a few of the guiding principles. •
• (l) The organisation for fire-fighting, rescue and recovery work should be set up beforehand, so. •
that responsible officials (including telephonist, surface foreman, store-keeper, engineer, electrician,
lampman, banksman, surveyor, and trained rescue men) know their duties and have all materials
and appliances available in the event of a sudden emergency.
(2) All necessary outside assistance should be summoned at once, including rescue brigades,
H.IVL Inspectors, doctors, police, workmen's representatives, local mining engineers, and so on.
(3) The supply of electricity should be cut off from the mine without delay.
(4) Men should be withdrawn from unaffected districts.
(5) An examination must be made of the shafts, main airways, junctions of splits, etc., in order
to ascertain generally the extent of the explosion, and how far inbye it is possible to set up a fresh-air
base.
(6) Only men wearing breathing apparatus should be permitted to travel in any airway not proved,
by actual fest, to be safe.
Thereafter, the procedure will vary with almost every case. In a limited explosion, with no
indication of subsequent fire, the ventilation may be rapidly restored, the whole district quickly
examined, and survivors, if any, recovered. •
In a major explosion, the rescue and recovery work may be arduous, dangerous and prolonged.
General policy will be decided by an advisory council consisting of the Agent, Inspectors of Mines,
Chief Officer of the Rescue Brigade, and other senior officials and mining engineers. Executive work
underground will be in the hands of the manager or undermanager, district overman, superintendent

•
of the rescue brigade, and one of H.M. Inspectors .
• In general, the first object must be to rescue all possible survivors in the affected area. In many •
cases, however, it may be found more practicable to utilise the rescue brigades for restoring the.ventila-
tion, section by section, and for doing the most urgent repairs, leaving the final recovery of the mine
to other men, not encumbered by heavy breathing apparatus. Only local circumstances can determine
the best procedure to be adopted.
During all the operations, the Rules laid down in the Rescue Regulations must be strictly observed.
•
We do not repeat these rules here, but students are advised to refer to them now, and to study thetp
carefully.

TEST PAPER MG/6.

1. (a) Wha.t is meant by the terms "upper and l~:rw:er closure without flame being comrn.unicatecl to an
limitsof inflammability" ? (b) What are the limits external inflammable atmosphere ?
o!t inflammability of methane in air under ordinary
mine conditions; and (c) how are they affected by 5. At w ha t particular peridd irr the cycle of operations
the absorption of oxygen by the coal and any other underground would you expect to find the greatest
oxidisable material present ? percentage of firedamp in the ventilating current, •
assuming the fan to be kept running at cpnstant
2.\Write the chemical equation which shows t he speed ? Give your reasons. Assume longwall
working.
'complete combustion of methane in oxygen: and
describe the chemical results of that combustion.
6. (a) Explain under what general conditions a firedamp
explosion is liable to occur in a mine, arid (b) give an
3. (a) Wha.t do you understand by_the term'' ignition account of the most likely causes of ignition.
~temperature" in connec~~on w1tl~ ~"'.tha~e-? and
(b) what is meant by the lag on ignrtion ~ 7. How can breaks in roof strata contribute to an
explosion of firedamp ? Make a sketch plan and
section to illustrate your answer.
4. (c!'f What is meant by a "flameproof enclosure " for
electrical apparatus, and (b) how may such. a_n 8. Explain carefully the precautions that should be
enclosure be rendered :flameproof ? (c) Why is rt taken by a colliery manager to guard against the
that firedamp may be ignited within such an en- risk of .a firedamp explosion .
•
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MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

- Answers MG/6.
FIREDAMP ·EXPLOSIONSo
•
1. (a) What is meant by the terms "upper and lower limits of inflanimabiluy " ? (b) What are the
limits of inflammability of methane in air under ordinary mine conditions ; and (c) how are they
affected by the absorption of oxygen by the coal and any other o xidisable material present?
•
LIMITS OF INFLAMMABILITY •
•
(a) The smallest percentage of a combustible gas in air that will propagate an explosion is called
- the " lower limit " of inflammability ; the highest percentage is called the " upper limit " of in-

•
flammability. All gas-and-air mixtures lying between these limits are necessarily explosive or
•"inflammable," i.e., flame may be propagated throughout the mixture away from the original source
of ignition, and even if that source be extinguished; .
(b) The limits of inflammability of methane in air under ordinary mine conditions are :-
Lower limit 5-4% Upper limit 14·8%

• These limits, however, may be extended under various conditions that may occur in a mine .
Thus, turbulence of the air may reduce the lower limit to about 5%. Moreover, increase of temperature •
and pressure has the effect. of widening the range of inflammable mixtures, a matter of importance
and possible danger in shot-firing. The greatest explosive violence occurs with a mixture containing
some 10% .of methane.

(c) If the percentage of oxygen is reduced below normal by being absorbed by oxidisable materials
such ~s coal, the lower limit remains almost unaffected, but the higher limit falls progressively from
14 ·8% to about 6%, as the percentage of oxygen falls from normal down to about 12!%- Such an
atmosphere would consist approximately of 6% methane, 60% air (including 12 ·5% oxygen) and
34% blackdamp (i.e. excess nitrogen plus C0.2)·. Any further decrease in oxygen, or increase in
•
blackdamp, would render the atmosphere non-explosive.

2. Write the chemical equation which shows the complete combustion of methane ,in oxygen, and
describe the chemical results of that combustion .
• •
COMPLETE COMBUSTION. OF METHANE.

• • • Methane Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water-vapour

• • •
The required equation is :- CH 4
1 volume
+ 202
2 volumes
C02
1 volume
+ 2H"O
2 volumes

This equation shows that, for complete combustion, methane requires double its own volume of
.
oxygen, the products of the combustion being carbon dioxide and steam (water vapour) .
• In terms bf weight: 16 parts of CH 4 react with 64 parts of oxygen, producing 44 parts by weight
• of CO 2 and 36 parts by weight of water vapour.

• At themoment. of combustion, the volume of the_ products of combustion is equal to .the volume
of the original gases, but the water vapour quickly condenses! so that 3 volumes of gas before explosion
yield 1 volume of gas after condensation of the steam. This neglects the nitrogen of the air which

- takes no part in the chemical reaction and remains constant in volume before and .after,
•
the percentage of oxygen is less than" twice the percentage of methane,
[If the combustion is
incomplete and carbon monoxide is included in the products of combustion.]

• • •
.(5010)
•. ~-
• • •
• .• •

• '
•• • . ' ' •
 •
• •
' • • ll][G/6
' Firedamp E )f .plosions •
• •
••
!_~/~_ ·----------------·--·--·--·-·----------------·-------.~-------- --·-----··-·-
a. (a) What 'eta yoit 'Understand by the term "ignition temperature" in connectiof1 with methane? •
and (b) what is meant by the " lag on igni,io11 " ?

IGNITION TEMPERATURE AND LAG. •

• • (a) The ignition temperature of methane is the lowest temperature to which a methane-air mixture
must be raised in order to ensure the production of flame. Any temperature below this will fail to
cause flame to appear, no matter how long it is applied. Any temperature above the ignition temperature
will cause flame to be produced more readily.
The ignition temperature is not one fixed, definite, temperature, but varies with (a) the percentage
of methane present, and (b) the pressure under which the gas-mixture is confined.
Very high pressures reduce the ignition temperature considerably but, assuming ordinary atmos-
pheric pressure, ignition temperatures range between about 650 °C and 780 °C (1202 °F to 1436 °F).
Mixtures containing less than 10% of methane are more easily ignited (i.e. they ignite at lower
temperatures) than mixtures containing more than _10% of methane.
-
(b) The lag on ignition is the period of time that elapses between (i) the application of an igniting
source of sufficient temperature, and (ii) the appearance of flame. This period varies with the mode
of ignition and becomes shorter as the temperature of the source increases. The lag may be quite a •
number of seconds in some cases. With an oil flame, however, as the means of ignition, the temperature
is so high (more than 1100°C) that the lag is only a fraction of a second. With an electric spark, the
.iag is almost infinitesimally short.

'"''ji
\.
... . :.·.·.· ·.·.- -.·.·.
..
(a) What is meant by a "flameproof enclosure" for electrical apparatus, and (b) how may such.
an enclosure be rendered flameproof? (c) Why is it that firedamp may be ignited within such
•
..
•
• .....

an enclosure ioithout flame being communicated to an external inflammable atmosphere?

FLAMEPROOF ENCLOSURES.
•
(a) A flameproof-enclosure is defined as one which will :-
(i) Withstand, without injury, any expl~sion that may occur in practice within it under the
conditions of operation within the rating of the apparatus enclosed by it, (and recognised overloads,
if any, associated therewith) ; and will
(ii) Prevent the transmission of flame such as will ignite any inflammable mixture which may be •
present in the surrounding atmosphere.
(b) To render an enclosure ·flameproof.
The commonest method is ~lo build the enclosure of suitably strong material, e.g. boiler-plate
steel, and to design the flanges in- such a way as to release the pressure produced by an internal explosion
and prevent the passage of flame through the joints. This method is conveniently known as flange
protection; the main Matures being:- •
-. (1) All joints must be opposed metal-to-metal without the interve1ntion of perishable jointing
material. - ·-r-., .. .__~ · "(4-~-; . . ,
(2) The flanges must.be not less than 1 inch wide, ~ in cases of small volume and low power.
(3) The minimum distance between the inner edge of the bolt-holes and the inner edges of the
enclosure should not be less than 0 ·375 inch.
(4) The flanges should be rough-machined, so as to form transverse grooves which allow a gap not
exceeding 0 ·02 inch between opposing faces when the apparatus is assembled. (This gap is reduced
to 0 ·006 inch for apparatus normally filled with hydrocarbon oil; e.g. oil-break switchgear, because
"cracking" of the oil may produce gases, such as hydrogen, which are more dangerous than m~thane),.
(5) External flanges are preferable to internal flanges, as the omission of a bolt from theelatter •
leaves a hole through which flame may pass, unless the holes are "bottomed'' or "blind." ]Jn-
.bottomed holes in internal flanges are a source of danger.
(6) Bearings for shafts or spindles should be at least 2 inches in length, and the spindle shourd ·
be truly central. •
(7) The heads of bolts, studs, or screws should be shrouded, to deter unauthorised opening• of
the enclosure.
(8) Connections to ~external conductors should be made by a terminal box, or by a flameproof
plug
.
and socket. .

. y arious methods have .been used .to secure . greater.irelease. of pressure from. the .larger casings,
.
but they are not generally- approved. Such " venting devices,'" as they are called, include cutting •
away one of the flanges to a depth of 0 ·02 inch; spring-loaded relief bolts; and devices which provide
a larger number of narrow outlets for the escaping hot gases between a series of spaced plates, (e.g.,
the "ring-relief" and the " plate-relief" device) and so on.·
(c) Reasons for non-ignition of gas external to the enclosure.
These include (i) the lag on ignition exhibited by firedamp, (ii) cooling of the issuing pr~ducts of
combustion by conduction with the flanges, and (iii) "cooling by expansion as the hot gases escape.
It is now thought that the lag on ignition, coupled with the turbulence of the issuing gases, is the major
factor involved. ·
• • •
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• • •
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 •• The Universal Mining School, Cardiff ~·~~.f ~
=sp:»:
5. At what particular period in the cycle of o-perations 'Underground would _>,•oZ:t- expect to find the
• greatest percentage of firedamp in the ventilating current, assuming the fan to be hept nmning at
constant speed? Give your reasons e- Ass~e longwall working .
• •
?ERIODS WHEN MOST GAS IS GIVEN OFF. •
In machine mining, I would usually expect to find the greatest percentage of gas in the ventilating
current towards the end of the cutting shift (or the cutter-loader shift where simultaneous cutting or
stripping and loading is carried on). During this shift, the cutter has been breaking new ground arid
tapping fresh sources of firedamp. Considerable disturbance of the roof strata also takes place and
this facilitates the further issue of firedamp: The percentage of gas in the undercut itself may be very
high and a number of ignitions have occurred due to this.

- In hand-worked districts, advancing at a slow rate, the evolution of gas is usually fairly uniform,
with a tendency to increase during the coal-getting shifts, and also progressively during the working
week, afterwards falling at the week-ends when coal-getting operations are suspended.
There are, however; some exceptions to the foregoing rules. Thus, in machine mining where coal
is fired down at the face by explosives, there is sometimes a peak issue during shot-firing operations,
• over and above what was experienced during the cutting shift .
Moreover, in some mines, most gas is given off during t-he packing shift. This is unlikely if good
roof control is secured and the strata subside gently without fracturing, but 'itmay occur if considerable
roof movement takes place when the back timber is being withdrawn, or if heavy falls of roof occur--,
• in the waste .
•
[Note. Other variable factors, of course, may upset the normal issue of firedamp. Thus, the
- •
tapping of a blower, or the proximity of faulty ground, or the working of an area of disintegrated coal,
or an unusually heavy weighting of the roof, or a rapid fall in atmospheric pressure, may result in
the percentage of firedamp in the air occasionally being a maximum at some period not in any way
related specifically to the work being carried on.] ;.

•
\/
/(a) Explain under what general conditions a firedamp explosion is liable to occur in a mine·, and.
(b) give an account of the most likely causes of ignition.

CAUSES OF FIREDAMP EXPLOSIONS.

. -
In general, a firedamp explosion can only occur if (i) a sufficient body of firedamp is mixed with
""--- th~ air in proportions within the limits of inflammability (approximately 5% to 15% of CH 4 in air)
and (ii) sufficient heat is present for a sufficient time to enable the firedamp-air mixture to be ignited.
The presence of firedamp in explosive percentages is most likely to occur (so far as the working • \,..ot..~"'-

.,.
parts of a mine are coricerned) in (a) cavities in the roof, (b) in roof rippings, (c) in breaks communicating~) . c
with shot-holes, (d) in the holing or under-cut made by a coal-cutting machine, and. (e) in rise places 6) ~
or dead-ends. In such cases, a local ignition may occur unless proper precautions are taken to prevent it. ~ ,,1,_.;.;;..~
crt: Jl.,e,,., y.e__ope"-'''-"i a. ~"'-""'-'-eJ -o-ff:- cl'st-,.-cl ~
A firedamp explosion is also liable to occur when sealing off a gob-fire in a gassy seam unless the torl
ventilation is maintained,....durj_:µg
the operation in order to dilute the gas to a safe degree. /\ ~
e« OL.:;{.j-V-Sf-e.U _ - . \j) fV' -
On a more extensive scale, the presence of firedamp in quantity implies inadequate ventilation, - \,:it
, due either to accident, or to neglect, and brought about by (a) a poor general layout, (b) the gradual w
• de~rioration of return airways, (c) the occurrence of a large fall of roofin a main airway, (d) interference
with regulators, or (e) disarranged doors or brattice cloths at vital points.(-U '?h ppa:7e o} et."' a..1u11•lfr~y
0
• The possible sources of ignition, arranged approximately in their order of relative importance
• • (as judged by the number of separate occurrences officially reported) are :-
• • • (1) Naked lights, e.g. candles or acetylene lamps in naked-light mines, or matches introduced

·- illegally into safety-lamp mines.

(2) Defective or damaged safety lamps, e.g. glass broken, gauze pierced, parts incorrectly assembled,
or lamp ille~ally-opened u~derground.
• (3) Shotfiring, especially in the neighbourhood of breaks, or.in roof rippings, or by using a defective
exploder, or if the shot is overcharged or insufficiently stemmed,
(4) Spont~neous eombustion of coal, igniting gas in the waste .
•
(5) Electric sparks, flashes, or arcs arising from improperly enclosed motors or switchgear;

- rubbing contacts; damaged cables ; bare signalling wires (unless the apparatus used is intrinsically
safe) • electrostatic discharge from compressed air pipes; or the filament of a broken lamp bulb.
(6) Friction of falling rock masses ; or picks on quartzitic sandstone ; of blunt picks on iron •
py_rites; of unlubricated rollers ;' or of conveyors- against roof supports.

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Firedamp Explosions.
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7. How can breaks i.n roof strata contribute to an explosion of firedamp? Make a sketch plan and
"' section to illustrate your answer. • t
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DANGER OF BREAKS IN ROOF STRATA .:
c •
Breaks in roof strata may contribute to an explosion of firedamp in various ways :-
(1) By increasing the quantity of firedamp given off generally from the.strata into the ve_ntilat~ng
current or into the waste. Strata movement which causes roof fractures also conduces to the liberation
of more firedamp.
(2) By forming channels which ~may communicate with an overlying seam, or with faults, and
•

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so drain off large volumes of gas into the seam being worked.

(3) By rendering shot-firing operations more dangerous, for the break rnay contain an inflammable
mixture of firedamp and air which may be ignited by a shot. The presence of a break in a shothole
in the roof represents about the most dangerous condition that may be conceived in shot-firing. The
shot would act in the break as though unstemmed. Ignition may be caused by the flame and hot
gases from the explosive, or by burning particles of explosive, or by compression, or by all acting
together. A wider range of gaseous mixtures may be ignited in this way than the normal 5% to 15%
of CH 4 in air.

' (4) If an ignition should occur in a break, the flame may

travel long distances through other breaks which communicate
with larger bodies of. gas in cavities, or in the goaf. The A •

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danger of fire or explosion is therefore not confined. to the FACE
~ ~_:OAL- __.AIR
immediate neighbourhood of the shot, but may be extended
.. . t

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by breaks to other parts of the workings.
~ ~ •
The adjoining sketches illustrate a simple case in which WASTE ;
a shot was fired in a roof ripping some 16 yards back from x y
the face. FALLE~

Immediatelv afterwards, flame issued from the waste

and burnt the shotrirer and an asslstant who were sheltering
along the face around the corner of a pack. Some of the
timber at the edge of the waste was set on fire and continued
burning for two hours.

Later examination showed that a horizontal break

extended from the side of the ripping over the pack, and so
formed a communication with the waste where a considerable
quantity of firedamp was present. ::::.-= -= ~-==--=--
- --- ' --~
- .::=:.:__ = ~--==-
-==---===--- --:==::_
-~ --

The shot, of course, should not have been fired at all,

because of both the existence of the break and the presence
~f :firedamp in a contiguous accessible place. But the
occurrence shows how a break may transmit a flame over
some distance (even over considerable distances) and so SECT ION ON XY
possibly give rise to a major explosion. Flame has been known Showing Danger of Breaks.
to be transmitted over a distance of more than 100 yards in { Not to scate).
this WCfY·

E xplain carefully the precautions that should be· taken by a colliery nianager to guard agasnst
the risk of a [iredamq: explosion, oec..u.'¥'1!'-~'"-l{ ·

PRECAUTIONS ·AGAINST A FIR~DAMP EXPLOSION. •

This is an extremely wide question, involving much more than a mere recital of the detailed- •
precautions that should he taken to guard against ignition by particular causes. The maih points
may be summarised as follows :- . .

(1) The manager m:ust fir~t make himself thoroughly _familiar, not only wit], all- the.regulations
for safety agamst explosions laid down by law, but also with the most up-to-dateffndfngs of research.
work, so that, by fulL knowledge of the hazards, he mayttake the necessary precautions to guard
against them. He must be a m2,nager in whom officials and men have confidence. ·-

(2) He must appoint a staff of c~mpetent and properly trained officials, covering all departments
of underground work, who can be relied on to carry out his instructions, obey the law, and maintain
discipline undergr~und. Such men. m~st know their job and carry out their duties of supervision, '
maintenance, and instruction conscientiously.

(3) He mu~t plan the ventilation ?f the mine workings in adyance, having due regard to the '"
method of wo~ki?g, the output,.t:he gassn~ess of the se_ams,~n~ the distance inbye, so that the required
quantity of air is constantly circulated m the workmg d1stncts. To. maintain adequate ventilation, •
~as planned, he should appoint a ventilating engineer whose duties, with the aid .of a suitable staff and
the co-operation of district. officials, are to carry out· periodical ventilation surveys· {pressure-quantity
 NIG/tli
The Universal lvfining School,· Card1jf
A/5
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,. surveys)
ue kept
1l1 good
rippings,
; to take systematic air samples and have t~em analysed; to see that all ventilating appliances
in good order; . and to ensure that airways, and particularly returnairways, are maintasned
condition. Special attention should be paid to the ventilation of fast-ends, rib-sides, roof-.
and other places· where gas may be liable to accumulate.

(4) He must institute a rigid and systematic system of searching men for prohibited articles before
they proceed underground and make sure that new workers are properly instructedas to the dangers
of such articles and as to the use and care of safety lamps under their charge.
•

(5) He must ensure that the regulations regarding testing for firedamp are properly carried out
and that automaticgas-detectorsare provided and used in the prescribed manner, so that men may be
withdrawn, or electricity cut off, before the danger of an ignition becomes imminent.

(6) He must appoint competent shotfirers, who understand the limitations of permitted explosives,
who have been instructed in the principles of safe blasting, and who can be trusted to carry out their q_~·
c.e
legal obligations as laid down in the Explosive Orders. He must provide them with. approved typesai--$
of exploder (which must be periodically tested), sand-clay stemming,. and sheathed explosives.jeHe ·
must see that they understand the extreme clanger of breaks in shot-holes, and that the number of
shots to be fired per shift is well within their capacity.

(7) He should see whether, by some change in the method of working, or by good roof control,
he can-reduce or eliminate the use of explosives, or substitute Cardox, Hydrox, or mechanical picks,
• soelirninating the risk of ignition inseparable from blasting in gassy mines .
• (8) He must appoint a well-trainedand qualified electrical engineer to advise and guide him in
the selection of underground electrical equipment, and make sure that all such apparatus is properly
• installed; protected, maintained and worked. He must pay special attention to the motors, switch-
gear, and cables in use at the working face, obtaining daily reports as to their condition, and making
sure _that damaged or defective apparatus is withdrawn from service. In particular, such apparatus
should be (a) flameproof, (b) fitted with automatic overload and leakage,protective d,evi~E}.S, and (c)
preferably operated by remote control. fn ~ "4\.\:.c;4." ~\iro.c<St~Qlli .SQ.~'-' -;:1.rp4.1'1'!:it.U""$

(9) He must take all possible steps against the outbreak of a fire underground, by using onl:,;.
incombustible material for main road linings, junctions and engine houses ; by arranging for frequent
inspection of machinery, rollers, brake-wheels, conveyors, and other moving appliances; and, in
mines liable to spontaneous combustion, by appointing a special official to be responsible for all necessary
precautions against gob-fires.

(10) Finally, he should see that his first-aid, fire-fighting, and rescue organisation are all made
~:~1;. as ll'ficient as possible so that, if an explosion should unfortunately occur, rescue and recovery work
may be begun with the minimum of delay.
•
CARDIFF PRINTERS LTD •

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FOUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT
T. A. SOUTHERN ·LTD.~-
• THE
WAS ·THE FIRST
U.M.S •
THIS PAPt::R
IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE
e MINING SCHOOL
IN THE WORLD.
~~c'U.m,~af .~ £,Jwof; OONOITION
IT IS RESErfvED
THAT

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EXCLUSIVELY FOR •
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[l.lOORPORATlD 1931. CARDIFF (a--r. BRrrAIN.) YOUR ·owN USE

MINE GASES AND· EXPLOSIONS

Lesson. MG;7
• COAL DUST AND ITS TREATMENT .

It has long been fully recognised that coal dust, when suspended as a cloud in the air, is capable·
• of propagating an explosion, even in the complete absence of firedamp, and many of the most devastat-
• ing mine explosions. have been ascribed to this cause .
. Perhaps the earliest suggestion of the possibly explosive nature of coal dust was made in 1803
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. by Buddle, the famous north-countrymining engineer. Others who took part in the early controversies
were Lyell and Faraday (1844), Galloway (1870), Hall (1876), and the brothers Atkinson (1886).
• Investigations (with indefinite results) were conducted by Royal Commissions in 1881, 1891, and 1907.
But the matter was placed beyond all doubt by large-scale experiments carried out at Altotts, Yorkshire
(1908-1911) by the Mining Association of Great Britain, and at Eskmeals, Cumberland (1911-1924)
by the Explosions in Mines Committee, and later the Safety in Mines Research Board. Subsequently,
the work of the Board was transferred to Buxton, in Derbyshire, where investigations still continue.

EXPERIMENTAL GALLERIES.
To demonstrate the explosive nature of coal dust,. and to enable large-scale investigations to be
carried out, special galleries have been constructed. Two types of gallery may be referred to i-e-
I • .'!> .,,..,_. -~c:r0 "1l'V

1 •. '), .c., Jl) Steel tube gallery, <!f_tee~{f~eter and {originally) -1.~99·-.#. long; builtlr-J? o.f40 sections of
i_~h mild steel tubing, each . long, and tested hydraulically to 5.0.0...iB&,..:f>~~~ -ineh, The
sections are bolted together and are mounted '}.~~~···dear_ of the ground on concrete cradles .
.()ne end of the gallery is open, the other end being closed by an iron plate -out connected through
a. right-angled adapter to a short fan-drift which can be closed when required. A fan is provided for
clearing the gallery of fumes after an explosion, or for producing a current of air, in either direction, •
during the course of an explosion.
Two special sections are provided with openings (four on each side) and removable covers so that
the effects of release of pressure may be investigated. Steel cabins, housing pressure-recorders and
other instruments, are placed at intervals of 100 ft. alongside the gallery.
(2) Underground gallery, 8 ft. wide, 8ft. high, and 700 ft. long, supported by steel arches and by
reinforced concrete. One end can be· closed by a steel armour-plate door and the gallery is ventilated
by a fan. This gallery is used for demonstrations and for experiements of more than unusual danger
,and violence, or when it is desired to imitate pit conditions as nearly as possible .
• •
Typical Experiment.
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• • One end of the gallery is closed, and some distance from it is placed an iron cannon, of 2 ineh
• bore, with its mouth pointing towards the open end of the gallery. The cannon is charged with
• ~~o~zs.-0f gunpowder, tightly stemmed with g~~g~ (1r._l~!~~-foal dust .
1 ~- t:J ust in front of and in line with the cannon, -is - placed an open-ended steel tube, termed the
Impetus-tube. It is L ft-: diam. and ~-ft.. long, and is strewn inside with 1-! lbs;- of coal dust .
t£
. The floor. of t}J-e 'bg~{i·~~y in front the tube and the bars of several timb~;:-~ts are covered with a
thin layer (abeut -j4 Hkh thick) of fine co~l .du~t, the. amount of dust being Lt;~'.l-\l;s·. ~F1Jiri:ea:Ffoot
• o! gallery. The effect of the timber sets is to ,impart turbulence to the dust~ctmili.r ~- r; ~-•'·"'·""'
When the charge of gunpowder in the ca~non is fired, a dense cloud of burning dust is projected
from the .impetus tul)e,anc1 _this, in its tur~Lsweepsup and ignites the dust in thegallery, . Such a
nfeans of ignition, i.e. gunpowder charge plus impetus tube, corresponds closely in igniting power
"with the flame and force of a firedamp explosion (9 ·5% methane) which has travelled about 50 feet .
. ' With the foregoing arrangements, a violent explosion is usually produced, its violence depending
on the ~lass of coal used, and a large cloud of burning dust· belches forth from the open end of the
gallery and extends for some 200 to 300 feet~
• This large flame in the open air is not the true flame of the explosion, but is due to the burning
of the so-called pioneering cloud of dust which is driven in advance of the explosion and plays a large
• part in its propagation. The true flame of the explosion is usually less than 10 feet long; • •
(5104)
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~~~S;l2 Coal Dust and its Treatment
2 • •
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IG~TION OF COAL DUST.
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• Before a coal dust explosion can be started, the 9::i::t?t_Il1~st first be ratsed as .;;t . cloud in the ait,
an<;!Jl1~ d1+stIl1ust remain in contact with, ~sour~e -or·ne~t of sufficient size (dimensions) and irrtensitv
(teri:-P~-~f3:tyr~),J6r <=:t sufficient. Iength of time, · - "
,,. Coal dust in a heap is innocuous, from the explosion point of view, in the presence of any source
of heat that does not_ cause disturbance of the air and so raise the dust as a cloud.
The lowest temperature at which a cloud of dust has been ignited experimentally, with resultant
propagation of flame throughout the dust/air mixture, is 690°C (1274°F), this being the temperature
of a porcelain tube containing a loosely rolled spiral of copper gauze through which the cloud of dust
was blown.
In mines, the most likely cause of ignition of coal dust is a local firedamp explosion which, bytl
concussion, raises into suspension the dust previously lying on the floor, or on the sides of timbers, I
or in crevices, and then ignites the dust with sufficient violence to propagate an explosion through J
the dust/air mixture. . -
'Coal dust may also be ignited by a blown-out shot, although experiments have shown that it is •
difficult to ignite a dust-cloud, in the absence of firedamp, even with unstemmed. shots weighing as
much as 28 ozs. of the permitted explosives. ~
A pre-formed cloud of dust, of a certain minimum density and volume, may be ignited by a naked •
lamp-flame, or by an electric arc, or even by an overheated metal bearing, and it will then propagate
flame. At least one serious mine explosion was caused by a runaway set of coal tubs which became •

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derailed in~ main intake airway where there was no suspicion of firedamp and where stonedustinz

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was carefully carried out .. The overturned tubs raised a cloud of coal dust and smashed a cabl~
joik'1't-box, so setting up an electric flash or arc which ignited the dust.
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~~ecautions. to be taken to prevent ignition of coal dust.

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t.' It will be seen from the foregoing that, in so far as a coal dust explosion may be initiated by a
local firedamp explosion, the precautions necessary are precisely the same as those required to prevent
ignition of firedamp. These are fully dealt with elsewhere, but they include adequate ventilation
(with all that this implies in the way of planning, supervision, and maintenance) as a first line of
.defence ; and the provision and maintenance of safety lamps, intrinsically safe or flameproof electrical •
apparatus, and all other commonsense safeguards, as a second line of defence.
Even small pockets of gas, of relatively little danger in themselves, are potential sources of disaster.
Even if firedamp is not itself present in explosive proportions, it will render the ignition of coal dust
much easier.
During shotfiring, every possible precaution must be taken to ensure absence of breaks, proper
holing of the coal, caref~l regulation of the charge to the amount of work it has to do, careful stemming
with a sand-clay mixture, and so on.
• Electric cables and other electrical apparatus should not, as far as possible, be placed on haulage
roads, at any rate in positions where they are liable to be damaged by derailed tubs.
INFLAMMABI:UTYOF COAL DUSTS.
T~~mm~11?JU!Y . . 0Ja . c:!l,1sL111~X- be defined as its ~-~·imy tg promote a spreading tlame away

•
fJ::gn1"tJi~. ,$,o.ur0e ... oi-ignition.
Some coal dusts are more inflammable than others, and it is obviously desirable that we should
have some means of determining the relative degrees of inflammability of different dusts. , It has been
found that the best way of doing this is to find experimentally how much inert stone dust must be
mixed with the coal dust to suppress inflammation, i.e. to prevent flame being spread through the,-
mixture'. Obviously, the greater the amount of inert dust that is required for this purpose, the gr~ater •
is the inflammability of the coal dust concerned. ,.·
The term "inflammability" should be distinguished from ignitability, which refers to the eass
with which a dust may be ignited, as indicated by its ignition temperature. An easily ignited dust ••
is not necessarily a highly inflammable dust. · • • •
The inflammability of a dust should also be distinguished from its explosibllity, or ability to produce
violent effects. Nevertheless, in most cases, inflammability and explosibility go together, i.e. a highly
inflammable dust usually produces violent effects when exploded.
Limits of inflammability. • •
The Ieast amount -of- pure coal dust required to propagate an explosion, Le. the lower limit o•f
inflammability varies for different kinds of coal and. cannot be determined with absolute accuracy.
It is generally taken, however, that about one-tenth of an ounce of coal dust per cubic foot of air space
is sufficient. This is equivalent to 1 lb. of dust per 160 cub. ft. of air, or about 5 ozs. per linear foo\
of roadway having a sectional area of 50 sq. ft. Even less than this will suffice in some cases.
Such .a small amount of dust, when distributed over the exposed surfaces' of mine roadways, is
almost imperceptible. Nevertheless, it is sufficient to produce an extremely dense. dust clbud, so·
dense as to be almost impenetrable to light. •
The upper limit of inflammability, i.e. the maximum concentration of dust that will permit pro-
pagation of flame, is difficult to ascertain experimentally, A dust cloud may be dense enough at first
• • to extinguish a flame; but.some of. the du~t at once falls out of suspension; leaving the remainder capable •
.. . of carrying on an explosion, It is sufficient to note that an amount of suspended dust corresponding • ....___
to the upper limit of inflammability is unljkely to occur in a mine. · ,
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The Universal Mining School, Card~fj. • 3

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ft,
The greatest violence is said to be produced by a dust concentration
but this figure should be accepted with reserve.
of about 0 ·35 ozs. per cub.
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f~ctors affecting Inflammabillty of coal dust.
(1)
(2)
(3)
.

The fineness of the particles.

These are chiefly :-
The percentage of volatile combustible matter.

The percentage of incombustible matter.

(I) The percentage of volatile combustible matter.
(4)
(5)
(6)
The presence of moisture.
The presence of firedamp.
The age of the dust.

Broadly speaking, with coal dusts of an equal degree of fineness, the inflammability increases with
the volatile combustible content, expressed as a percentage of the total combustible matter in the coal,
and calculated on an ash-free dry basis.
By the term '' volatile matter '' is meant the gaseous products driven off from coal when heated
to above 900°C. out of contact with air. It includes hydrogen, and various inflammable hydro-carbons
such as methane, CH 4, ethelyne C2H 4, ethane C 2H 6, propane C 2H 8, and acetylene C 2H 2• The residue
left after driving off the volatile matter consists of " fixed carbon" (combustible) and ash (incom-
bustible).
·~· Roughly, anthracite contains 4%· to 10% of volatiles ; bituminous coals 10% to 45% ; cannels,
40% to 55% ; and lignites 45% to 55% (much of the latter, however, being incombustible volatiles.) ...
At this point let us explain what is meant by the term " ash-free dry basis.'' Consider a coal of
the following analysis :-

- .. Fixed Carbon 60%. Volatile Matter 30%. Moisture 4~.'~. Ash 6~~ .

•
The actual percentage of volatile matter in this sample, is 30%, but if we exclude the moisture
and ash, we have 30 parts of volatile matter out of 90 parts of total combustible matter, and this gives
33i% of volatiles " calculated on an ash-free dry basis." It remains the same no matter how much
stone dust may be added to the mixture. It is the percentage which determines the inflammability
of the coal dust contained in the mixture. It is the percentage which determines how much inert
matter must be present to suppress inflammation.
It has been shown that a coal dust containing less than about 12 ·5% of volatiles" (this includes
the anthracites) is not likely to propagate flame (in the absence of firedamp) unless the source of
ignition is abnormally violent ; and the lower the percentage of volatiles, the less does the likelihood"
become, although the possibility still exists. Anthracite dust, for example, although most difficult
to ignite, is quite capable of carrying on an explosion when once ignited. Bituminous coal dusts become
increasingly explosive as the volatile content rises.
In order to place a number of coal dusts roughly in their correct order of inflammability, it is
convenient to assume that the " index of inflammability," F, of a coal dust containing 12 ·5% of
volatile matter* is unity ( = I). The " index " of any other dust is then given by the expression
v
F = --, where V is the percentage of volatiles calculated on an ash-free dry basis. Thus a coal •
12·5
dust containing 25% of volatiles" has an " index " of F . 2, and one containing 37 ·5% of volatiles
has an index of F = 3. This does not imply that the last dust is 3 times as explosive as the first, but
merely enables various dusts to be placed in the proper order of inflammability.

(2) The fineness of the coal dust particles.

It is not surprising that the finer the coal dust, or, more specifically, the greater its surface area
per unit mass, the greater is its inflammability.
' Jhe finer. the particles of coal dust, the more rapidly is heat evolved during. their inflammation,
the more rapidly is that heat utilised in igniting fresh particles, the more easily is a cloud raised in the
air, and the more likely is the dust, when raised, to remain suspended in the air indefinitely.
It • • . • The rate of chemical reaction between two substances depends on the facility with which the

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molecules' of one substance are brought into contact with those. of the other, and although particles
molecular size exist only in gases, the nearer particles of coal dust approach to molecular dimensions,
the more intimate is the· contact between them and the molecules of oxygen in the air.
Against this, it should be noted that particles of ultra-microscopic size have some tendency to
agglomerate into masses that resist dispersion, but, apart from this factor (which operates only with
the ultra-fine, particles) it is generally true to say that the finest dust is the most dangerous.
• In a mine, of course, we must regard all coal dust as potentially dangerous, however coarse or
fine. Even ·the coarsest dust tends to break up or become crushed as time goes on, and so becomes
,.
increasingly dangerous.

·(3) Percentage of incombustible matter.

The" incombustible "matter in a coal dust sample, as taken in a mine roadway, includes moisture,

•
inherent ash, and any stone or rock dust that may be present either naturally or by artificial admixture
with the coal dust. It includes also the content of combined CO2 (present in limestone dusts) and of
"combined water, known as " water of crystallisation " (present in gypsum dusts).
It is obvious that, if a dust be 10o<fo pure combustible matter, its inflammability will be a maximum,
and that, as inert or incombustible matter i~ added to the pure dust, its inflammability will decrease. •

•
--- convenient to, be able to calculate at what point this takes place.
* Calculated
..
Eventually, a point will be reached where the dust-mixture will just cease to be inflammable. It is

on an ash-free dry basis .

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Coal Dust and its Treatment

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. The percentage of inert matter, S, that must be present to suppress inflammation varies with the~
volatile content, V, of the coal, calculated on an ash-free dry basis, and is given by the expression
1250 1250 ~-
s = 100 - --. Thus, if V = 25%, then S = 100- -- 50%; and if V 40%, then S
v 25
1250
100 - -- = nearly 70% ; and so on.
40
These results show that, as the volatile content increases, so must more stone dust be added to
render the dust-mixture theoretically safe. The Coal Dust Regulations lay down somewhat higher
percentages of incombustible matter than those obtained by the foregoing calculation, and the extra
percentage added by the Regulations may be regarded as a margin of safety. t

(4) The effect of moisture on coal dust.

The effect of added or external moisture is, first, to reduce the inflammability of the mixture by •
. absQI:bing heat, .and seco. n. dl.y, if in sufficient quantity, to bind the.· c.lu.st parhCTesTogether an. d prevent
.• tileil- being raised as a cloud. .
I I To ensure safety from explosion, however, by means of moisture alone, there must be at least
30% of moisture in intimate mixture with the dust, the latter then being in the form of a paste or
~-

\ thin mud. •
If such a condition could be continuously maintained, it would be an even more effective safe-
guard than stone dust, but there are many practical difficulties in the way. One such difficulty is
that later deposits of dust may merely lie on the top of-the wetted portion, and would then be capable -
of rising and propagating flame if an ignition should occur.
The effect of water vapour in the atmosphere is almost negligible even if the· atmosphere is fully
• t
saturated, for the heat-absorbing ability of such vapour is very small, and not much greater than
that of an equal weight of nitrogen.

(5) The presence of firedamp.

The effect of firedamp, when present in the air in percentages below 5%, is to render easier both
the ignition of coal dust and the propagation of flame. As little as 1 % of firedamp may render explosive
a dust-mixture otherwise non-inflammable.
If firedamp be present, an additional amount of stone dust is needed to suppress inflammation.
Roughly, for ·each 1 % of firedamp in the air, the percentage of stone dust in the mixture must be
208
increased by--, where V is the percentage of volatile matter calculated on an ash-free dry basis.
v
Thus, if V = 25%, the extra percentage of stone dust needed is 208 -;- 25 = say 8%. In practice,
it is best to err on the side of safety, and a better figure to allow is 10% to 15% additional stone dust
for each 1 % of firedamp in the air.
(6) Age of the coal dust. •
It was at one time thought that fresh coal dust would be more dangerous than old dusts because
fresh dust contains occluded inflammable gases such as CH 4, whereas old dusts have lost these gases
.and had them replaced by gases for the most part non-inflammable.
Research has shown, however, that occluded gases, whatever their nature, play little part in the ...~~
matter, and that weathered dusts are the more inflammable because they contain oxygen lossely ..,,..
combined with the coal substance and ready to enter into complete chemical combination when the
dust is ignited.

~/c~MBATTING THE COAL DUST DANG~R. t Cl

All steps having been taken to eliminate possible sources of ignition of coal dust, there remai'n ·-"'
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three further problems to be tackled, namely:-

(1) Preventing the formation of coal dust at the face and elsewhere.
(2) Preventing its dissemination in the workings and roadways.
(3) Rendering the coal . dust. harmless by admixture with stone dust.

Sources of coal dust in mines.

Coal dust is inevitably produced at the coal face during the undercutting, getting and filling of
the coal, the a1?()untci~pending. on the _friability ofthe c.oal andthe mode of working, In general,
modern intensive -mining tends to increase, rather than dycrease, the production of dust at the face,
due partly to the use of eoalcutters and conveyors, partlp to _the need for shotfiring to' prepare the
coal for filling or for power loaders, and partly to the very high tonnages now handled at conveyor,
loading poi~ . ;,. ' -. . '1
· On the, road~ays, more dust is formed in transit by .the bumping of the coal and tubs on badly
laid roads ; by spillage of coal, which is eventually ground to dust, when tubs are overloaded, and
•
•
especially when over-rope end~ess.haulage is US)d ; and. by ha~lage " smash-ups " v.:r1ich_ not only
spill coal on to the floor but raise it as a .dangerous cloud m the air. ·
•
 .•
~iG/7
• The Universal Mining School~ Cardif]. 5

It goes without saying that, if we could prevent the formation of dust at its source, this would
,l:>.e the ideal method of dealing with the trouble. But even if we. can only reduce the quantity of dust
formed, it woul~ bring great advantages in its train. Work~n~~.S2E2:~.~i;:?};"!.~-" c.i:t.!,~~~ face ari.ci :~1~~wl1ere
"':?ul~ l:)e '\'~~~~}.' IJ11PI"8Yed! J.h~. health of the workmen \voliidl)e1Jeiter, 1Ilummahon would be increased.
<a?q:<ts~.~sl~~IJ.t~ ~<:):til;:l 9~·r.~.s±11~-~.d. In addition, the quantity of stone dust required to render the
"l'emaining coal dust harmless would be greatly lessened and •travelling conditions would be infinitely
more comfortable.

TO PREVENT FORMATION OF COAL DUST.

The methods adopted to prevent, or minimise the formation of coal dust at the coal face include :-
(1) The water infusion system; whereby water under pressure is injected through boreholes into
the coal face, so wetting or damping the coal itself, and particularly the dust lying in or near the slips
or cleavage planes. The boreholes may be spaced along the face at 8 to 12 yard intervals and bored
to a depth of some 8 feet.
(2) Use of water-jets on coalcutter jibs, to wet and lay the dust in the holing and, incidentally,
to reduce the danger of ignition of firedamp in the undercut.
Other methods, tending to reduce the production of coal dust, are:-
(3) Holing, where possible, in a dirt band.
(4) Using only sharp coal-cutter picks.
(5) Careful regulation of shotttrtng so that each charge is just sufficient to break up the coal without
shattering it.
(6) Elimination of blasting where possible, and using Cardox, Hydrox, or coalbursters.
(7) Good alignment of conveyors and reduced belt speed to prevent spillage. '
(8) Reducing the drop from conveyor to tub by means of curved chutes to guide the coal smoothly
into the tub.
(9) Oh haulage .roads, the precautions to be taken include well laid haulage track, low-speed
haulage, and non-overloading of ~ubs.

TO PREVENT THE DISSEMINATION OF COAL DUST.

This may be considered under the headings of, :-
(1) Suppressing or collecting the dust at loading points.
(2) Removal of dust from the roadways.
(3) Consolidation of dust on the floor of roadways.

Coal dust at Ioading points.

Large tonnages of coal are handled at loading points and conveyor junctions, and much coal
dust is both produced and disseminated in the air at these places. Two methods of dealing with this
dust are·:-
(1) To suppress the dust by using jets of water, in the form of a fine spray or mist, to wet the coal,
and the dust-cloud itself, so allaying the dust and rendering the working conditions safer and more
comfortable. The spray may be produced by the combined action of compressed air and water, or
''by water alone in specially designed jets where compressed air is not available. The method is simple
• and ~ffective, and is specially suitable where space is limited. ·
(2) To collect the dust by means of dust-extractors.' Many different designs have been tried, but
~ssentially they include (a) a hood or canopy over the loading point, (b) air-tube to carry the dust-laden
• air to a collecting vessef, (c) fan or compressed-air jets to create the necessary suction, and (d) internal
• •w-.ter sprays or a filter, to lay or catch the dust .
Alternatively, the fan may deliver the dry dust-laden air via an air tube to an old roadway or
to a dust-settling chamber especially made in the waste alongside the gateway. This method, of course,
only has a limited application and would be unsuitable in a mine liable to spontaneous combustion .
.,
•
.. Much fine dust is also deposited in loading gates below the conveyor rollers. Such dust, having
adhered to the belt surface after the coal has been discharged, is thrown· off by the action of the return
or bottom rollers and forms heaps on the floor along the whole length of the conveyor. More coal
dust may be deposited in this way than at the loading point itself. Remedial measures include (a) the
use of fine wire brushes, scrapers, or ploughs to remove the dust from the belt surface at the Ioading
point, and (b) the regular removal of the dust from the mine.

Coal dust on roadways. 0

The greatest quantity of coal dust in roadways is disseminated on the main haulage roans which
are usually, but not invariably, the main intake airways. In such roads, dust is deposited from leaky
tubs and it is blown off the tubs in transit, 0especially when the tubs travel at high velocity against
"the air-current.
__ ....__.
A considerable quantity of dust is also carried by the ventilating current into the return airways
and is deposited there, chiefly near the inbye end next the face .

•
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\. ~
••
~G/2_ Coal Dust and its Treatment
6" -------· ___.__ •

-i; ;
The finest dust is deposited on the roof and sides, on ledges and timbers, and in cavities. Th~
• dust' at the coal face and on the floor of roadways is usually of a coarser character. ,,
\Ve have seen that the finest coal dust is also the most dangerous, but, curiously enough, the
coarser floor dust is often purer, i.e. it contains more combustible matter than the finer dust on the
roof and sides. The explanation of this is that very fine. coal dust contains a large proportion of fusain
which always has a higher ash content than the other coal constituents (vitrain, clarain, and durain).
Moreover, it is often the inferior parts of a seam, possibly containing fine bands of dirt, that break
up most easily, and this furnishes another reason why fine dust should be less pure than coarse dust.
Methods of reducing the dissemination of dust on the roadways include :-
(1) Spraying loaded tubs with water.
(2) Erection of mist-projectors or water-sprays at entrance to return airways.
(3) Roomy airways and low-speed haulage to reduce air-velocities.
(4) Using dust-proof tubs and transporting coal dust in totally enclosed containers, or after
thoroughly wetting and consolidating it.

Removal of dust from roadways.

The dust on roadways should be systematically removed, partly to make travelling conditions
more comfortable, and partly to reduce the amount of stone dust necessary to render the coal dust safe.
Removal of dust may be .facilitated by making good roadways with smooth surfaces, by using
brick or concrete arching where possible, or steel arching with a continuous lining of bricks or concrete
between them, or brick walls and girders, or by spraying the roadway surfaces with a cement-gun
so as to fill up crevices with cement. If the road is whitewashed, this will render the black· coal dust
more easily visjble.
When removing the dust, it is best to start at the windward side and to erect wet brattice cloths
to baffle the air-current, catch the dust, and prevent its being carried further away. The finer dust
on roof, sides and timbers, and in crevices, should be systematically brushed down.
It is, of course, quite impossible to clear the roadways of dust altogether, and, - however carefully
it is removed, sufficient dust will invariably be left behind to propagate an explosion (only one-tenth
'.,of an ounce per cubic foot of air space). But removal of accumulations of dust is an essential part
'"Of the stone-dust treatment.
At one time, it was suggested that " dustless zones " might be created to prevent the spread of a
coal dust explosion, but it should now be clear that such zones cannot be made effective. Moreover,
even if a dustless zone could be created and maintained, it would be quite unable to prevent the spread
of an explosion unless it were very long ; for the pioneering cloud of dust which travels in front of an
explosion supplies ample fuel for the flame in parts of a roadway which are not dusty' and this would
allow flame to cross even " dustless" zones to dust-laden areas beyond.~ •

Consolidating the floor dust,

A method of consolidating the dust on the floor is to spray the floor with water containing a
"wetting agent " which binds the particles together, so improving travelling conditions and leaving
only the roof and sides to be dealt with by regular stone-dusting. The wetting agent may be calcium
ehloride, or a special solution known as Perminal W, or a combination of the two.
The method, however, is not completely satisfactory, for its effect is largely to put a crust on top
of the dust which may become broken, so releasing the underlying dust to rise in the event of shock
or turbulence in the air. Moreover, the method does not deal with the danger of coal dust subsequently
. deposited, and re-treatment is necessary from time to time. ,
A further point is that a combination of wetting and stone dusting on roadways is not a des~able
procedure, for the effect of moisture is to reduce the dispersability of stone dust and to render it less
effective as a preventive against an explosion.
c
Dust carried underground from screens.
Much dust is often produced at the screens, and this may find its way underground via the dm.'4i1-• •
cast shaft. Preventive measures include :--'
(a) Placing the screens at least 80 yards from the D.C. shaft.
(b) Enclosing the screens in a building with the minimum number of openings,
. .

(c) _Boxing-in of tipplers. jiggi_r1_g screens, and slack-discharge __chutes,

. • •
, (d) Using cyclone dust-collectors, in conjunction with a suction fan and a pipe system which is
connected to large hoods fitted over the points where most dust is produced.
(e) Allaying the dust by means of steam-jets at mouths of bunkers and at tipplers.
VAPPLICATION OF STONE DUST. '
This represents the most effective known method of rendering harmless the coal dust remaining
in mine roadways after all practicable steps have been taken to suppress it, or to collect and remove it.
The effect 'of stone dust is (1) to absorb some of the ·heat that would otherwise ignite the coal dust
cloud or would assist the propagation of flame through it and \2) to screen the inflammable particles
somewhat from radiant heat. In analysing mine dusts, it is not possible to distinguish between
inherent ash and added inert matter, but external ashy material is said to have a greater effect in
absorbing heat than inherent ash.
It is important to note that stone dusr is more effective in preventing the initiation of a coal dust
explosion than in preventing its propagation when once started.
.•
 .•.~.
•
, ·-
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
•
•
esirable qualities in stone dust.
The essential qualities of a stone dust are :- · •

•• • (1) The dust must rise and form a cloud in the • •

air when disturbed, i.e. it must possess a high
"dispersability." Moreover the dust must not cake, except where directly wetted by water from the
strata, but must remain dispersable in the air for an indefinite period.
(2) The dust must not be. injurious to health
Other desirable qualities of stone dust are :-
(3) Low specific gravity, as near to that of coal as possible. Actually, the S.G. of coal is about
1 ·3, and that of shale, limestone, and similar materials, about twice this .
•
(4) High specific heat so as to absorb heat without attaining a high temperature.
(5) Inexpensive, readily. obtainable and easily pulverised.
(6). White in colour as a contrast to coal dust, .and iJJs9. to incr. ease visibility. [: j
..._7) c~c..,.J. Cc-fdf.>p.,.,, sh..C/) ld Ru, s-,~d-. . n..; tn-.~e<tErl"' Lol"'""''aPr ,.._(j, ..._t,, ·iJ2. ..e..s •
• Stone dusting materials.
The materials most commonly used for stone.:.dusting purposes are:-
·~ (1) Coal-measure shales. These are chiefly argillaceous (clayey) in character and consist essentially.
• of the hydrated silicate of alumina (Al 20 3, 2Si0 2, 2H 20) with a variable proportion of free silica. ..
The specific gravity is about 2 ·7. Black shales containing much organic matter are unsuitable.
• (2) Limestone dust. Thl.s is derived usually from dolomitic or oolitic limestones and consists

... - largely of the carbonates of calcium (CaCO3) and magnesium (MgC03). S.G. = 2 ·7 or 2 ·8. Under
the same heading may be placed Chance's Mud, and water-softener residues. Such materials contain
.
• •
30% to 45% of combined CO 2 .
(~i) Gypsum dust. This consists of the hydrated sulphate of lime, (Ca SO 4, 2H 20), and contains
up to 20% combined water (water of crystallisation).
heading.

Quantity of stone dust required.

S.G. = 2 ·2. Pixie Powder comes under this·
.

This depends on the volatile combustible content of the coal, calculated on an ash-free dry basis;
and it mustbe such as to raise the percentage of incombustible matter in mine dust samples to certain-
minimum percentages laid down by law. The lowest permissible percentage of incombustible matter
is 50%, but the percentage rises to as much as 75% for coals of high volatile content.
To ascertain the volatile combustible content of the coal, a sample for analysis must be taken
either from a representative section of the seam, or from a representative quantity of run-of-mine
coal from the seam.
9To ascertain the percentage of incombustible matter in mine .dust samples, the samples must be·
analysed by a competent chemist in the manner laid down in the regulations. Reference should be
made to these for details.
•
Effect of chemical composition of stone dusts.
Of the three chief types of stone dust available (limestone, gypsum, and shale) it has been shown
that limestone is somewhat more efficaceous than shale, and that gypsum is about twice as effi.caceous
as shale, assuming all three to be of an. equal degree of fineness, dry, and freshly laid. The reason
for this is that limestone dusts contain a large percentage of combined C02, which is driven off when
the dust is heated, whilst gypsum dusts contain combined water, known as water of crystallisation,
which is similarly driven off.
• ·~ 4:t is of interest to note that common sa.lt is 10 to 20 times as effective as sl:a.le, but unfortunately l.r-:
it has a great tendency to cake, or even to liquefy, except under very dry coridi tions. / .t;~'<;, l~ ""?-'>./ 1.,
.. ••
J)ispersability of stone dust •
It should be clearly understood that mere quantity of stone dust is not, of itself, sufficient to
• • pievent an explosion. Only that dust is effective which is raised as a cloud in the air, and the dispersability
of a dust is therefore a most important characteristic.
The ease with which dust is raised and maintained as a dust cloud depends partly on its nature,
partly on the size of the particles, and partly on the degree to which it is weathered.
Unfortuaately, ~e most easily dispersable dust is coal dust, owing to its light weight, friabl~
• aature, and non-teridency to cake. Among stone dusts, shale is most readily dispersed, llmestone-
• less so, and gypsum is the least dispersable, Nevertheless, any freshly laid dust is likely to be raised
by· even a mild explosion.
• The dispersability olgy:psurii maybe improved by mixing it with 20% of shale orlimestone dust,
and that of limestone by mixing it with shale dust. The addition of talc, or of 1 % of carbon black,
improves the dispersability of any dust.
Size of the ·particles.
Contrary to what might be expected, extremely fine dusts are less readily dispersable than coarser •
dust, and this explains why the coal dust regulations stipulate that a certain percentage of coarser stone
dust must be mixed with the fine dust. • ·
Fine dust is essential to suppress flame and prevent .the propagation of an explosion; but ultra- • •
fine dust tends to cohere, or cake, even when dry. It absorbs moisture more readily than coarser
dust and the caking ·tendency is then increased. Fine dl!st also forms a smooth surface over which • •
•• • an air-current glides, instead of raising the dust into the air .

.. . ••
' • •· •
 MG/7
8
Coal Dust and its Treatment

~ Speaking generally, dust coarser than 60 mesh is no use for suppression of flame, although it

-
f improves dispersability. The range 60 mesh to 240 mesh improves dispersability by preventing
~ balling and caking, whilst dust finer than 240 mesh is most effective in extinguishing flame and adher ing
;t to the roof and sides.
~.!!'l
Effect of weathering.
All stone dusts are most dispersable when freshly laid, but the finest particles tend to ball and cake
in time. Limestone and gypsum are more affected in these ways than shale. Balling refers to the
tendency of the particles to agglomerate into masses, although these are easily broken up. Caking
is a more serious danger and is caused by the alternate wetting and drying of the dust deposit, producing
a hard crust which is almost non-dispersable. The tendency of limestone dusts to cake may be
counteracted by adding i% of stearic aci<\.to the dust to act as a waterproofing compound.
Ill' p.()/[ mi. t; C. a;..~ .
Dusts injurious to health.
Injury to health may be caused by :-
(a) Silieious dusts, i.e. dusts from stones such as gannister or sandstone which contain a large
DTOJJOrtionof free crystalline silica or quartz and are liable to break up into fine sharp-edged particles.
(b) Gritty dusts, such as powdered slag, clinker, or dusts which may irritate the eyes and throat
and conduce to bronchial ailments.
Silicious dusts are dangerous because they injure the lungs and form scar tissue, causing the
disease known as silicosis. Silicosis is technically defined as " fibrosis of the lungs due to silica dust.".'
It is specially prevalent among workers in quartzitic rocks in stone drifts and metal mines, and may
lead in due course to tuberculosis or phthisis.
(.)
The mere silica content of a dust, however, is not necessarily a measure of its injuriousness. Thus
shale dust may contain as much free silica as granite, yet shale is relatively harmless, whilst granite
dust is highly dangerous.

No dust, of course, is entirely harmless and the less the quantity that enters the lungs the better.
Even coal dust (or at any rate the mixture of dusts found at the face) in certain mines is known to
set up lung troubles, somewhat akin to silicosis, and grouped under the general term pneumokoniosts. ·>•
From the stone-dusting point of view, we should avoid any dust that feels gritty when placed
in the mouth,_ and use some dust such as lin::-estone or gypsum, which has. no free silica c_on~ent, or a J I.._ 1-t. eol
shale dust which has been proved, by analysis and test, to be a safe material.o> 4"':~ h0----f.,.__._ n; """"71-"'"'t- e·r ·5 ·
°'V4.~"°" L.·-.e S ~
A)( OU.<:l
To summarise the foregoing, we might say that limestone and gypsum form excellent stone dusts
from the point of view of composition, weight, colour and harmlessness to health, but they 'suffer
-from the fact that they tend to cake and are less dispersable than shale dusts. They are therejorc --f
more suitable for deep and dry mines than for shallow mines which are apt to be damp, especially
during the summer months. Many people take the view that, for all-round suitability, the balance of
advantage lies with natural shale dust. It is cheap, and readily obtainable, but should not contain
more than 35% free silica, or more than 10% of combustible matter, as a maximum.

Distribution of stone dust.

It should be carefully noted that it is only by treating the whole of the mine roadways (as distinct
from sections thereof) that any safeguard against the initiation of an. explosion, as well as against its
extension, II is secured, no matter where an igniting source may be present, or may make its appearance.
To ensure the adequate stone-dusting of an extensive mine, it is essential to appoint one or more
" stone-dust " officials and a sufficient number of men to distribute the dust ; to arrange for a plentiful
supply of dust at suitable points; and to organise the operations on a systematic basis.
The amount of stone dust required will vary in every mine and almo~t in every roadway, and
must be based on the results of regular sampling and analysis. Thus, busy haulage roads may need
dusting every week, and loading points daily; but some airways may not require dusting for long
periods.
In this connection it should be noted that, whilst it is desirable that the whole of the mixture of
coal dust and stone dust on a mine roadway should contain a high average percentage of incombustible
matter, what is even more important is that the dust which can be raised into the air shall be of a safe
character. To bring this about, the stone dust should be deposited in thin Iaye'l·s by applying small
quaiififies-a1Tre-qiieiif infervaK ·ntn-e top1ayer ofdust.(! inchOr-firicli) . can·be kept iiiasafecoridifion.;
the likelihood of an explosion occurring is remote. If the top layer be pure coal dust, the conditions
dangerous, even though the under-lying dust mixture is of a satisfactory. character. Th.e top
dust is the critical r"""'~~_,. ,. , ,.
Distribution of dust by hand.
This is generally regarded as satisfactory, provided it is carried out intelligently by conscientious
workmen. It is particularly of service near to the face, and in places where a mechanical distributor
cannot reach. The length to be treated should be tackled from the windward side, and the dust is
scattered from tubs, or from bags. The du.st_EiJ?.uldbe...ihr.Q..~._C~u_p,~~~ (possibly with the aid of a
small shovel or scoop) so that it dislodges the coa~dust __ ~l~s at !!J:~ .
angle __oJ_~gs
~~§~~ This angle is steeper for stone-dust fliantor coal dust, ana thus new deposits of the latter
are less likely to settle. Much stone dust falls to the floor and is usually sufficient in quantity to render
the floor dust harmless. "
.t
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MG/T
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff". --g-
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~echanical distribution of dust. • •

• Mechanical distribution of dust is effected by machines in which a high velocity air-current i~
produced by a fan or blower into which the dust is mechanically. fed from a super-imposed hopper.
The fan may be operated by the motion of a moving tub (as in the Oldham machine) or by an electric
motor ; or compressed air may be used- to give the necessary air velocity. The discharge of dust
may take place through fi.xed openings, or through a flexible pipe. In some mines, the ventilating
current itself is utilised to distribute the stone dust, the machine containing the dust being operated
automatically by passing tubs so as to set· free a certain amount of dust, depending on the number
.. of tubs passing along the roadway. -The result is an intimate mixture of coal and stone dust on the
floor, roof and sides .
.Mechanical distribution of dust has the advantage that it saves labour and spreads a large quantity
of dust evenly and rapidly over the roadway surfaces, though it is perhaps more suitable for re-dusting
than for the initial stone-dusting of a roadway. Among its disadvantages are that the dust does not
lie at the angle of repose, coal dust is not dislodged, and selected parts of the roadway cannot be
• _specially treated as is possible with hand-distribution .
Re-dusting.
After the initial stone-dusting, samples must be taken at regular intervals and analysed to ascertams,
• how rapidly coal dust is accumulating and to determine whether additional stone dusting has become
necessary .
• . In some cases, monthly sampling of road dusts may not be sufficient, and visual inspection may
... . be necessary daily, or even oftener;' to determine the condition of the top layer of dust. Some idea
of the condition of the dust may be obtained by comparing its colour with that of standard samples
which are known to comply. with the regulations .
•
Stone dust barriers.
A " barrier " or " barrage "is a device intended to raise a dense cloud of stone dust in front of
the advancing flame of an explosion and so to prevent its further extension.
Such barriers may consist of collapsible or trigge~-operated shelves or troughs carrying st_on~ ... Q21..2.t
and arranged to be tipped automatically by the explos-ve wave. Placed at intervals aiong the roadways,
they would (it ha.s been suggested) form an effective safeguard againsi;_"'a· coal dust explosion.ec-
. . .. ~~~~4
It is generally considered, however, that stone-dust barriers are, at nest, only a supplementary
precaution. They are most unlikely t.o prever:it the initiation of an explosion and are not universally j

e-ff eC t.i1\ re even

·
against
.
its extension
·
.. x- Sh:n·-'/.-d...,~f,,
·"-'~"'CJvl1A-·l"Y' li.ry "!f...<.r>-cld _!e .,.;"!c.-.cle'd ~l9 a..s 4. 3"/-'f.le.,,,,,e.~,_f,,,._.'-(1. J:ire.c.=t-.0,
av erL1.<> .,.,_,e/J,,,..{
rt»
r h-~Ct..f<rne..u..f- h.•:,..,j.,...,_LJJ l-c» ~,,J I{{)/,,_.- C.,:t,alc.lu.s!oLc._ 1

Even_a~tone dust zone, say.200 yards long, kept cons~antly_in a condition of 100% ston_e dust,a..k;it,:
may not lmut a coal 'dust explosion once started, for the pioneering wave of the explosion might be /et•J/h· c
su'-6.cient to propagate flame through and beyond the zone. Nothing .can eff.ectively take the place. ~f ?ro.,._c/{.0-
treatment with stone' dust of all accessible places throughout the mine roadways, including side roads
and openings not walled off.
•
Watering of roadways.
The general watering of the coal just on roadways by means of water-jets or sprays, is not regarded
as an effective substitute for stone dusting for a variety of reasons :-
( 1) Coal d"flst is difficult to wet, and tends to float on the water instead of absorbing it.
(2) It is tmpractipable to wet the coal dust on roof and sides to a sufficient extent to render it safe.
(3) The dust would soon be dried by the air-current and constant application of water would be
~ needed.
• (4) Watering has a disintegrating effect on the strata in some mines, causing it to heave, swell,
and crumble.
• (5) Water increases the humidity of the air, an important matter in deep, hot, mines .
A combination of watering and stone dusting on roadways is undesirable because watering aims at
t I ·
• • 4!)reventing the dust rising in the air, whereas stone dust, as such, is effective only when it rises as a
cloud. The two methods are not complementary, but act in opposition to each other.
' -.
. ! ! The foregoing remarks, of course, do not apply to the localised and controlled use of water for
allaying coal dust in the undercut, or at loading points, or conveyor junctions, where the aim is to
allay the C<¥tl dust~!_ its source, or to collect it and send it out of the mine. No..- olo iki-y ccN,lx iv ti,:;. J..,,e
1 0

I, 'i,11'-"'-"'-kUf .6\- v,i~v .\..'~ L""'-J"-Ct_·c-...,_ "'..0h . . ""\q-('1;;$.C..o>\s'.·c.. "!:."l.\,-t- 1w l~.;: ~,,__,t,..,se. <Y:t- ol\c,;t

r .
·$..""""€ <'..<r;--•. §:,,,
• COLLECTION OF DUST. SAMPLES. OC< C..a-.-..-t=.--[l C\...& o&-s c....,..&.,) c,_; ,£.t., -~- ~ j:>t>s""-1Y-ot.f61. •

To ascertain whether the dust on mine roadways complies with .the regulations, representative
j. .samples of the dust must be collected and analysed in- !he manner laid down ~y _la~. ' .... - .

l
For this purpose, a special dust plan should be prepared, on which all the roads are divided into

-<
zones, each marked. with a distinctive number. The method of zoning, and the length of the zones,
varieq at different collieries, according to the manner in which the regulations are interpreted, but one
convenient method is to have zones 176 yards long (= 10 zones per mile).
Each zone is then sub-divided into three sections, each 59 yards long, and coloured blue, green, •
and red, so that all blue sections are sampled one month, green the next, and red the third. In this
way, each section is sampled in turn, and. the whole roadway sampled once every three months.
If some other length of zone is chosen, the frequency of sampling will be different, but the same• •
general principle applies.
In addition, a special record book must be kept.spreferably • with. a page for every zone, showing • •
• the date of collection of each sample, the section from which it was collected, whether from roof and
sides, or floor, the result of the analysis, and the treatment given.
.. . • \
••
• • f.
•
 ,. ----.
• •
...
'
MG/7
--~
]O
Coal Dust and its Treatment

••

•
'Underground, the zones should be clearly marked for easy identification by the dust-samplers'[
• -e.g. by enamelled plates fastened to the roof supports. •

Equipment required by dust-samplers.

There are many possible variations, but a convenient outfit would be:-
(1) Light oilcloth or rubberoid, 3 ft. square, for collection and quartering of the dust.
(2) Brush, say 3 ins. wide, and scoop, say 4 to 5 ins. wide.
(3) 60-mesh sieve, say 8 ins. diameter. ,
(4) Small air-tight canisters, each marked with a distinctive number.
The samples must normally be collected to a depth of one-quarter inch on the roof and sides, and
a depth of one inch on the floor, the object being to obtain samples of the dust that would be likely to
be raised in the air by an explosion. Each sample must be collected over a section of road not less
than 50 yards long by either (a) transverse strip sampling at 5-yard intervals, or (b) spot sampling
at one-yard intervals along a zig-zag path. r
trt
The collected dust must be well mixed and divided into quarters; two diagonally opposite CJ)
•
tr.
quarters are discarded, and the remainder well mixed and reduced by quartering. This is continued
-z
(;; 0
until a sample is obtained which, when passed through a 60-mesh sieve, will just fill a canister of
fr.
-- convenient size.

Analysis of samples.
Q
~ ·-~

~
C)
•
The prescribed test of a normal dust involves the determination of (a) its moisture content, by
drying at 105°C to l 10°C, and (b) its content of solid incombustible matter (ash) by incineration of
--·
E
the residue at red heat in an open vessel. •

•
If the dust contains carbonates (e.g. limestone, chalk, or water-softener residues) the motsture
• content is found as before, by drying at 105°C to l 10°C; the ash content (incinerated residue) by •
heating in an open vessel at 950°C or more; and the content of carbon dioxide by treatment with
dilute hydrochloric acid.
If the dust contains water of crystallisation (e.g. Gypsum) the moisture content is found by drying
the dust at a __ temperature between 135°C and 140°C (instead of 105°C to l l0°C), and the ash content
bv incineration as before. -
·· [Note. In conjunction with this lesson.. students are advised to study the Coal Dust Regulations
~·ith great care, and to makea summary of them for. future reference.]

TEST PAPER MG/7.

l,. (a) How has· it been proved that coal dust in mines (a) Set out approximately the figures of a flleW
is explosive, and (b) how would you proceed to analysis of the mixed dust. (b) Calculate the content
investigate the condition of a mine to ascertain of volatile combustible matter in the or ig iraal
whether or not it is in dangerous condition from this sample, on an ash-free dry basis. (c) State to what
• cause? extent greater safety has been attained.

2. What are the chief factors that affect the inflam- 6. Outline generally the precautions that should be
mability of coal dust? Briefly comment on each adopted in an extensive mine to prevent the occur-
item. rence and propagation of an explosion; The mine
is very dry and dusty and yields large quantities
3. What is meant by the " dispersability " of a dust, of firedamp.
and on what factors does it depend ?
7. (a) Wha.t are the principal dangers likely to be
4. (a) What are the qualities of a good stone-dusting encountered in exploring and restoring underground -1
material, and (b) what practical conditions must be workings after an explosion, and (b) what preca~ions
fulfilled before stone dust can be relied on to prevent should be taken against them ?
the extension of a coal dust explosion in mine
roadways? ·
8. Assuming that an . explosion occurs when you are•
5. A sample of coal dust from an underground roadway, with· a number of workmen in a distant part of the •
before treatment with stone dust, gives the following
analysis:-
mine which is not affected by the explosion, wh<i.t •
steps· would you take for the· safety of your party ?
•
Fixed carbon 55 % ; Moisture 5% ;
Volatile matter 25% ; Ash 15%.
9. Assume that, after an explosion, the question of
Assume that you now treat the roadway by reversing the ventilation arises. What matters
distributing dry stone dust in the proportion, by would you consider before eciect°ding •whether such
weight, of one of stone dust to one of coal dust. a step would be advisable or not ? · - ~ ---•
( Continued in next column). I •
CARDIFF. PRINTERS LTl:le

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• •
•
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•
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T. A. SOUTHERN I~TD ...
THIS PAPER
• WAS ·THE FIRST
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MINE GAS_ES AND EXPLOSIONS

. '

Answers MG/7
COAL DUST AND ITS TREATMENT
1. (a) How has it been proved that coal dust in mines is explosiuc, and (b) how would you proceed
• to inuestigate the condition of a ·mine to ascertain iehether or not it is in a dangerous condition
. •'.... from this cause ? ·

•
INVESTIGATIONS RE COAL DUST • - ...
(a) The danger of coal dust explosions has been proved conclusively by large-scale experiments
• in specially constructed galleries at Altofts, Eskmeals, and Buxton in Great Britain, and also in rnanv

- . countries abroad. Many such experiments have been carried' out in an underground gallery at Buxton,
designed to- resemble an actual roadway in a mine. There, coal dust explosions, with violent results,
·have repeatedly been produced by a blown-out shot of gunpowder, equivalent in force to a local
• firedamp explosion.
Moreover, many underground explosions have occurred in mines where the only possible agent
for the continued propagation of the explosion was CQal dust and, in some cases, where there has been
complete absence of firedamp even at the point of initiation of the explosion.
· · (b)l'l'o ascertain whether or not a mine is in a dangerous condition due to coal dust, I would :-
1
~) First make a visual examination of all the roadways and working faces and note the general
condition of the mine, the extent to which coal dust is being produced, and the steps being taken to"
deal with it. It may be that even a superficial examination of this character would decide whether
the mine, .or certain parts of it, was in a dangerous condition, or a border-line case, or relatively safe.
(2) Determine the volatile combustible content of the coal worked in order to see what percentage
of stone dust would be needed to ensure safety.
(3) Examine recent records of analyses of the dust samples collected on the mine roadways to
see ~;hether they are in compliance with the regulations. . • •
(4) Take a number of representative check samples, paying special attention to doubtful places,
and have them analysed by a competent chemist. · •

...
( 5) Pay particular regard to the top layer of dust which is most likely to be raised as a cloud when
disturbed.
(6) Observe the condition of the stone dust, whether fine and dry, and evenly spread, or caked
and therefore not dispersable .
(7) Pay special attentio~ to dust concentrations ~t loading points, conveyor junctions, beneath
conveyor rollers, and at the mbye entrance to return airways, to see whether adequate steps are beinz
taken to deal with them, either by allaying the dust, or by collecting and removing it. b

• • +s) . Check up the stone-dustin~ organisation and met~ods. to see whether these are adequate to
cope with the danger, whether the nght type of stone dust is bemg used, and whether the arrangements
are such as to ensure that new deposits of coal dust are immediately treated and the mine maintained
• •• tn a continuously safe condition .

• •
•
What are the chief factors that affect the. inflammability of coal dust ? Briefly comment on each
=«, • •
• •
• FACTORS AFFECTING INFLAMMABILITY OF COAL DUST.
• The chief factors that affect the inflammability of coal dust are :-
(1) The volatile combustible content. In general, a coal dust becomes progressively more dangerous
as its volatile content increases, as indicated by the increasing amounts of stone dust that must be
admixed with the coal dust to suppress flame. Th'is is reflected in the coal dust regulations which
require increasing percentages of incombustiljle matter with coal dusts of increasing volatile content.
(2) Its degree of fineness. Any coal dust that can be-raised as a cloud in the air by concussion
•
is dangerous, and, for all practical purposes, the finer the coal dust the more dangerous it becomes.
In mines, the finest and most dangerous dust is found on roof and sides of haulage and conveyor roads, •
in crevices, underneath conveyor rollers, and in return airways next to the face. •
•
(5104)
• • •
• •
.. . \
••
• • •• ='-r--
•
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• • •
•
MG/7
Coal Dust and its Treatment
--:A;2__ ~~~~·~~-
•
(3) The age of the dust. Old dusts are mor9edangerous than fresh dusts because they contain
•• OX)~en in loose combination, i.e. in intimate association with the coal dust particles, ready to en ter
• •into chemical combination when heated. •
(4) The presence of firedamp. All coal dusts are rendered more easily ignited and can more readilv
propagate flame when firedamp is present in the atmosphere, even in small percentages (below 5%,).
More stone dust is then needed to render the dust mixture non-inflammable.
(5) The moisture content. Moisture, if present in sufficienc quantity, will render coal dust non-
inflammable, but coal dust is notoriously difficult to wet (except by a fine mist or spray, or by special
wetting agents) and at least 30% of moisture must be present in intimate mixture. Dry coal dust
•
lying on the top of wet dust is quite capable of rising into the air and propagating an explosion.
(6) The content of incombustible matter. Coal dust may be rendered non-inflammable by admixture
with sufficient inert matter (ash plus stone dust) depending on the volatile combustible content of
the coal, calculated on an ash-free dry basis. It is essential, however, that the coal and stone dust
must be well mixed, that the top layer shall be stone dust, and that the latter shall be highly dispersable.
Coal dust is most dangerous when there is a .eombination of unfavourable circumstances, namely,
fine dry coal dust of high volatile content, poor admixture with stone dust, more or less firedamp. •
an intense source of ignition, and physical obstructions (timbers, tubs, etc.) which increase turbulence .-,. :.'• • .
.,;.andgreatly increase the violence of the resulting explosion.
- .
•
•
~)., What i's meant by the " dispersability "of a dust, and. on what factors does it depend ?
•
DISPERSABILITY OF STONE DUST.
The " dispersability " of a dust may be broadly defined as its capacity to form and maintain a •
cloud in the air when· acted upon by a disturbing force.
A dust may be said to be highly dispersable when (1) it is easily moved from rest by a slight
disturbing force, as in the early stages of an explosion; (2) it becomes quickly disseminated in the
air ; and (3) it remains suspended in the air for some time. All these stages in the formation of a dust
cloud overlap, and the " dispersability :" of a dust is the resultant of its behaviour during the several
-stages.

Factors affecting dispersability. These include :-

(1) The kind of dust. Shale dust is more ·dispersable 'than either limestone or. gypsum dusts ;
Iimestone is more dispersable than gypsum ; and coal dust is the most dispersable of all.
(2) The fineness of the particles. Although the finest particles of dust are the most " buoyant ''
•in air, they are more difficult to move from rest than coarser particles, by a tangential current o'- air
flowing over a smooth surface of the dust ; they tend to form into a compact mass (especially lime-
stone dust) ; and they tend to adhere to la:r:gerparticles or to " ball " into spherical aggregates, even
• when dry (especially gypsum dust). The exclusion of the finest particles (below IO microns*) and
the inclusion of coarser particles improves the overall dispersability of any dust, of whatever type.
(3) The presence of moisture -. Moisture may act in two ways, physical and chemical. Physically,
water may be absorbed by the dust, so rendering it heavier (as with shale), or it may be absorbed
on the surface of the particles, so ·causing· greater adhesion · (as with limestone). Chemically, water
may cause re-crystallisation of the particles, forming a deposit with .considerable structural rigidity
(as with gypsum and common salt).. ,
It is when dust, especiallyIimestone and gypsum, becomes alternately wet and then dry that the
greatest danger exists, for the deposit then cakes with a hard crust that resists dispersion.
· (4) Mixing of dusts. The dispersability of stone dusts may be improved by suitable mixing.
• •
• •
Thus gypsum is improved by shale or .limestone: limestone by shale ; and all dusts by talc, or by
1 % of carbon black. Limestone may also be improved by the addition of stearic acid which acts as a
waterproofing compound and prevents caking. ••
• • •

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r:z,ust befulfiiled. before stone dust can be relied on to prevent the extension of a coal dust explosion
in mine roadways ?
_c_o_n_d_itiMJ,,5

QUALITIES OF .(\. GOOD STONE DUST. •

(a) A good stone dusting material should possess the following characteristics:-.

•
(1) It should possess a high dispersability and should remain dispersable for an indefinite period
under· ordinary mine conditions. , . • .
• {2) It should be harmless to health, Le~ it. should. not be silicious or gritty in character, and not
liable to cause lung troubles·such as silicosis, pneumokoniosis, or bronchitis. .
(3) Its capacity to suppress flame .should be high, set thatthe quantity required to be distributed
• • may be reduced to a minimum. In this respect, gypsum is. superior to limestone because of its content
of combined water, and limestone is superior to shale because of its content of combined CO 2•
• •
•
~:
-·
 ,,,. .,
MG(7
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
A/3
•
(4) It should be easily pulverised to the requirdd degree of fineness, without producing ultra-fine
~ust which reduces dispersability. · •
•
.
• (5) It should be white in colour, partly to improve illumination, and partly to enable the general"
condition of a roadway to be judged readily by visual examination. ·

(6) It s_hould be easily obtain;tblei,,,inexpensiv_ e_ and _ ligh. t ii;_. we1.~gh._t,_~,.· '\. . . . . . • -'"a~
{"/) }Jf/fJ. sp ·
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(b) To prevent the extension of a coal dust exploslon i=- 1~ • .> I-~)
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(1) All accessible places throughout the mine roadways must be systematically treated with stone i·a. g;
dust of the required degree of fineness, including roof, sides, and floor, ledges, crevices, cavities, and · .,
side openings, large or small, from which coal dust may be drawn into the roadway.
. .
The coal and stone dusts must be in intimate admixture, especially the upper layers of dust
(2)
which are likely to be raised as a cloud in the· air by a disturbing force .
• (3) The top layer of dust should be dry stone dust, not caked by weathering and not overlain by
coal dust. The fatter condition may be difficult to maintain continuously, but it is the ideal to aim at.

(4) The percentage of incombustible matter in dust samples must be adequate to prevent propagatlon'"
• of flame, having due regard to the volatile combustible content of the coal. The required percentage
• may range up to 75%, and even this provides very little margin of safety with high volatile coals ..
(.".'!!.> -;,\ 4!- ~>\- l..n. ... ~··.w.s: .g.\,...,,...,tb ~ e: ... ._.cro..:s. ~Jc,.· .·v.,.\~~~JI~,~·· -~·-o --~~S.ll!' l~. cl.R.V··S..ltt..
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•
5. A sample of coal dust from an underground roadway, before treatment with stone dust, gioes
the fallowing analysis :~ ·
Fixed carbon 55% ; Moisture 5% ; Volafile. matter 25% ; Ash 15°/o.
Assitme that you now treat the roadway by distributing dry stone dust in the proportion, by.
weight, of one of stone dust to one of coal dust.
(a) Set out approximately the figures of a new analysis of the n~ixed dust. (b) Calculate the
content of volatile combustible matter in the original sample, on an ash-free dry basis. (c) State
to what extent greater safety has been attained .

•
ANALYSIS OF MINE DUST SAMPLES.
(a) The final sample, when an equal ~·ei~ht (100 parts) of sto::ie dust, assumed to be pure, dry, •
shale dust, is added to 100 parts of the existmg dust, would contam :-

Fixed carbon 55 parts out of 200 parts 27·5% l 40% Combustible.

Volatile matter 25 12 ·5% J

Moisture 5 2·5%} 60% Incombustible.

Ash +
stone dust 115 57·5%
• •(b)
The percentage of volatile matter; (calculated on an ash-free dry basis) in the original sample
is 25 parts out of 80 parts total combustible matter = 31 ·25%. (It still remains at 31 ·25% in the
• • "new sample, namely 12 ·5 parts volatile matter out of 40 parts total combustible matter) .

• • (c) Comparison of the two analyses .

The original sample contains 80% of combustible matter (volatile matter and fixed carbon) and
•. only 20% of incombustible matter (~oist_ure and_ ash). It. is the~ef<?re a very dangerous dust, capable
of propagating an explosion when raised m the air and suitably ignited .
•
To ensure theoretical safety, the percentage of incombustible matter in the treated dust must
•
•
1250
lie at least :-S -- 100 = 100 - 40 60%.
31 ·25
The final sample contains 40% of .combustible matter and 60% of incombustible matter. It is

·~• therefoce a relatively safe sample, assuming the stone dust to be well mixed with the coal dust and no
firedamp to be present,
To provide some additional ?1argin of. safety, however, a further quantity of stone dust should
be added until the percentage of incombustible matter exceeds 70% •

•
• •

.. . , •· . •
 ,,. •
• •
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MG/7
--A /4 Coal Dust and its Treatment

Outline generally the precautions that sh!fuld be adopted in an extensive mine to prevent the
occurrence and propagation of an explosion. The mine is ver_v dry and dusty and yields large
quantities of firedamp.

GENERAL OUTLINE OF PRECAUTIONS AGAINST AN EXPLOSION.

In a mine of the character described everything possible should be done to :-
(1) Dilute the firedamp to a safe percentage.
(2) Prevent the ignition of firedamp, even if present.
(3) Reduce the production and dissemination of coal dust.
(4) Render the remaining coal dust harmless.

(1) Dilution of firedamp. •

The essential requirement is to provide and maintain adequate ventilation in all working places,
,2Jnd to prove its adequacy by daily routine tests by competent firemen or deputies, and by regular
,J sampling and analysis of the air at the face and irrfhe district returns. No gas explosion will occur
if the firedamp is always diluted below the lower limit of inflammability (about 5%), and a coal dust •
explosion would be unlikely because the commonest cause _of such an explosion is a previous firedamp •
explosion. :S t'Lc. . .:~. <ll~s1d\- . ~"-"""'?! L..t... \'-c:...•:.A \-'o ~ \IL...._"\; k.t~·o:i J1- ""IS'Df ca v,·t.·~.( ,. "t"doJ
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•
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(2) To prevent ignition of firedamp. {o.ve ..a. +o t>'(ev-4!. .... + -rc..-o-f- \.'"'"(Se ... - ..... , •

The chief causes of ignition are (a) naked lights, (b) damaged or defective lamps, (c) shotfiring,
(d) electricity, and (e) friction. The main precautions required. apart from avoiding friction dangers,
are thus:-
(a) Searching of workmen for prohibited articles, preferably at the surface.
0
(b) Careful inspection of safety lamps, instruction of new workers in their use and dangers, and
disciplinary action against those who misuse their lamps.
(c) Elimination of shotfiring, if possible, or rigid control of shotfiring by trained shotfirers.
(d) Use compressed air in preference to electricity at the face, or, if electricity is used, install
ffameproof electrical apparatus complete with all modern automatic protective devices, and maintained
by competent electricians.
(e) Withdraw workmen and cut off electric current at the :firedamp percentages specified by !taw. -~·,

-~3) To reduce the production of coal dust.

The original source of coal dust is at the face, and it is here that every effort must first be made
to prevent the formation of dust by (a) injecting water into the coal face, where practicable, by the
water infusion system, (b) holing in a dirt band, (c) using jets of water on coal-cutter jibs, (d) elimination
of shotfiring, or it~ scientific control, and (e) careful layout of conveyors.
Large quantities of coal dust are also produced, or at any rate disseminated in the air, at loading
points and conveyor junctions, and this dust must be dealt with either by water sprays, or by dust-
extractors. Accumulations of dust beneath conveyors and at the entrance to returns must be•
systematically cleared. ~
On haulage roads, the production of dust may be minimised by well-laid rails and low haulage
speeds, and by not overloading the tubs. The coal in tubs may be sprayed with water. The dust on=
the floor may be consolidated by wetting agents such as calcium chloride.
• •
(4) To render the coal dust harmless.
This requires the systematic distribution of stone dust in all accessible places on the mine roadways,
in such quantity and of such character that the dust would not be ignited or-that flame would be
quickly suppressed.
The quantity of stone dust required would depend partly on the quantity of coal dust present, •
and partly on the volatile combustible content of the coal. As much as 75% incombustible matter
may be needed to ensure safety, i.e. roughly a mixture of 3 to 1 of stone and coal dust.
The stone dust must be of a degree of fineness laid down by the regulations, of a dry and dtspersable
character and not caked. It must be intimately mixed with the coal dust. Frequent application is
necessary to ensure that the top layer is stone dust and not· coal dust. 0

Representative samples of dust must be taken and analysed to ensure that the roadways are ..
maintained in a safe condition, or that unsafe sections are at once re-treated by removal of accumulations
followed by further stone-dusting. Visual examination may show that even daily treatment is required
in some roadways.
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The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. --A./5-
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dangers likely to b€lt encountered in exploring and restoring icruiergro-und

"' (a) vVhat are the principal
workings after an explosion, and (b) what precautions should be taken against them ? _

DANGERS IN EXPJ. .. ORATION AND RECOVERY WORK.

(a) The principal dangers likely to be encountered are :-
(1) Afterdamp in the workings affected, and especially the highly poisonous carbon monoxide.
(2) Disorganised ventilation, due to destruction of doors, stoppings and aircrossings and rendering
necessary the use. of breathing apparatus.
(3) Falls of roof, either actual or likely to occur because of broken and displaced roof supports.
(4) Fires caused by the first explosion; rendering the roadways concerned impassable and filling
them with smoke that will hinder the rescue teams.
(5) Possible further explosions, due to newly discharged firedamp being ignited by smouldering
materials or actual fire.

(b) The necessary precautions include :-

( 1) Use of breathing apparatus. Only trained rescue men should be allowed to enter the affected'
•• workings, and they must obey all the rules laid down in the Rescue Regulations. In particular:-
• (a) Fresh air bases must be properly organised; •.
(b) The members of rescue teams must keep together ;
•

• (t
(c) Spare teams must be kept constantly
(d) Life-lines should be used in smoky atmospheres;
(e)
in reserve;

All orders should be explicit and in writing;

(f) A responsible official or leader should be in control of each party.
(2) Exploration of workings. The workings must first be thoroughly examined by rescue teams
who must gradually restore the ventilation, render the roadways safe for travelling, extinguish fires.,
and make certain that the workings can be safely re-entered by ordinary recovery parties.
(3) Testing of the atmosphere. No one must be allowed (unless wearing breathing apparatus)
to enter any place until the atmosphere therein has been tested by birds for carbon monoxide, and by
flame safety lamps for firedamp and for oxygen deficiency. In addition, samples of the air should be
taken and analysed. . . • ·
0(4) Restoration of ventilation. This should be carried out section by-seetlon, and the restored
ventilation should be restricted to those parts of the mine which have. been examined and found to be «
free from fire and smouldering debris.
(5) General. The rescue parties should be properly organised and strict discipline enforced by-
the manager and other competent persons acting on behalf of a consultative committee formed of
representatives of the inspectorate, management and workmen. Only- authorised persons must be
allowed below ground and a strict check kept on their movements.

&. Assuming that an explosion occurs when you are with a number of ioorkmen in. a distant part
o of the mine which is not affected by the explosion, what steps would )'OU take for the safety of your
party?

':PROCEDURE IN UNAFFECTED DISTRICT.

0
0
It is difficult to lay down precise rules of procedure in such a case because much depends on the
layout of the mine, the system of ventilation, and the extent of the explosion.
I assume, however, that my district is ventilated as an independent split, that telephone coin-
municai:ion outbye has been interrupted, and that I have to act on my own initiative.
0 '.:1

_ I would bear in mind that one explosion is sometimes followed by a second and that it is urgent
to get the men out of the mine if this is practicable.
My first step would be to send word inbye for the men to withdraw from their working places
and join me at the meeting station. Here, I should make a roll-call, explain the situation, and urge
on the men the need to keep cool and follow my instructions.
H the ventilation of my district is apparently normal, and no smoke or afterdamp is coming in
with me intake air, I should lead the men_outbye via the intake airway, advising them to keep together
.and instructing a level-headed man to bring up the rear. It may be that the explosion is purely local
in character and confined to one district, and, in that event, we would safely reach the downcast shaft.
Alternatively, if we met with any difficulty. it may be possible for us to make our way to another
unaffected seam, via a .c~oss-measure drift or a staple pit, or possibly to another ventilation shaft,
remote from the explosion.
.i ~ .
.

. ~-. ~ .
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,
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, MG/7
Coal Dust and its T reatment
_A/ 6 ---------~----------
•
In any case, it is essential to avoid any road where atterdamp from the affected district may be
.
.• found and, for this reason, I should .not travel out by the return airway. Only in the unlikely event
of ~y district being on the .ret urri side of the explosion would I consider trying to escape via t!\e

•
• return, after erecting brattice cloths to stop the ventilation. •
If I found smoke or afterdamp travelling inbye with the intake air, or had other reason to conclude
that the explosion was of an extensive character, affecting both main intake and main return airways,
I should deem it very unwise to try to escape through the afterdamp, and I' should decide to remain
or retreat Inbye and to conserve the body of fresh air in my district.
With this object in view, I would short-circuit the ventilation at the entrance to the district, and
erect brattice stoppings to barricade the district off from the rest of the mine, leaving a chalked message
as to the number of men, the time, and our place of retreat. The air impounded in the workings
would remain respirable for a considerable time and may possibly be supplemented with a supply
from compressed air pipes, assuming the corn.pressors to be kept running at the surface. To maintain
illumination as long as possible, all flame safety lamps would be turned down and some of the electric
lamps extinguished altogether. It would then be a question of awaiting rescue by organised rescue
teams. •

,-
9. Assume that, after an explosion, the question of reversing the ueniilation. arises. What matters
•
would you consider before deciding whether such a step would be advisable or not ?

REVERSING THE AIR AFTER AN EXPLOSION. -

to

In the first place, reversal of the air in a mine after an explosion is such a drastic procedure that •
I should want to be quite definitely satisfied of its necessity before I gave the order. I should want to
feel assured that reversal would save men's lives or render possible rescue and recovery operations
that might otherwise be impossible.

Among the matters to be considered are:-

(1) Are men alive in the mine, and where are they ?
(2) Are there any fires, and if so, where ?
(3) Is the mine gassy and may reversal cause a second explosion?
(4) Is there any alt,ernative procedure that might render rev~rsal unnecessary ?
The mere fact that even an extensive explosion has occurred is not, in itself, a sufficient n!'ason
for reversing the air. Survivors will no doubt base their immediate action on the assumption that the
• normal direction of the air-current is being maintained. Reversal might hinder, rather than help,
their escape.
Obviously, if the explosion (with or without resulting fire) has affected only the faces and return
airways, it would be futile to reverse the air. The only result would be to carry back the afterdamp

•
from the returns into the intakes which might otherwise be safe to travel.
In general, the question of reversal chiefly arises when there is a large and growing fire in the main
intake airway, at or near the downcast shaft, and when smoke and fumes are pouring inbye. In such
a case, men inbye who have survived the explosion may be asphyxiated, even if they are situated in
a district unaffected by the explosion itself. Reversal, if prompt, may save their lives. • •
•
If life is not at stake, it would be necessary to consider whether reversal will prevent the fire
spreading inbye ; whether the fire can be fought better from the inbye side ; and whether the mine
••
can be explored and recovered more quickly via the original returns which may be less devastated
than the in takes. • .
In all cases, I must consider whether the mine is gassy, for the effect of reversing the air might be
to divert firedamp in explosive percentages from the goaves and old workings on to the fire and so
. •
cause a further explosion.

It is recognised that, wh~n the air is reversed, all the ventilating doors will swing open, flnless latched,
and that most of the reversed air will leak away through them without reaching the faces .. Even thfs
degree of reversal, however, may be sufficient for its purpose in a grave emergency. •
In practice, I should not feel justified in ordering reversal until I had a clear knowledge of cotl-·
ditions underground, whereas, to be effective in saving life, reversal should be carried out "without
delay. A decision to reverse the air is one of the most difficult a manager may be called upon to make.
. .
An alternative to reversal would be to slow down t,he fan, erect emergency stoppings to prevent
.
smoke and fumes.from going inbye, and short-circuit the air on the inbye side of the fire, making only
local adjustments in the course of the air.

•. •. Cardiff Printers Ltd .

• •
•
 .-•
•
COPYRIGHT
•
FOUNDED 1883
TJltE U.M.S.
T. A. SOU'THERN LTD., -·-
.
THIS PAPER

tT~e 6llUN~af ~
..
WAS THE FIRST IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE
•MINING SCHOOL
4tN THE WORLD
~,JwJ, CONDITIOr. THAT
IT IS RESERVEp
•
•
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
INCORPORATED1931 CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USE

MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

'•
Lesson MG;8
• RESCUE WORK AND APPARATUS .
The principal types of apparatus used in mine rescue work include (a) smoke helmets and other
short-distance tube apparatus ; (b) self-contained breathing apparatus, including " escape apparatus t' es,
(c) gas masks, including self-rescuers ; and (d) reviving
• apparatus. These all have their separate and well-
• defined fields of utility and their purpose and construc-
tion (and their limitations) should be well understood._
• •
SHORT-DISTANCE TUBE APPARATUS.
• This represents the simplest type of apparatus •
whereby air is supplied to the rescuer through a flexible
hose from a point situated in fresh air. It has a range
of operation of some 40 yards or so.

t-/' - The '' _ Spirelmo '' Smoke Helmet (fig. 1) is typical

of this class. It consists of a raw hide helmet having
mica eye-pieces fitted in aluminium frames. The
helmet totally covers the head of the wearer and is
provided with a flexible hose pipe of 1 inch internal
diam. and up to 40 yds. long. Air is forced through
the pipe by a hand-driven bellows or fan, worked by
a second person in fresh air, in sufficient quantity to •
supjfly the needs of the wearer and prevent access
of polluted air to the helmet. The exhaled air passes
from the helmet via the loose joint which it makes
Fig .. 1.
•
around the shoulders of the wearer.
" Spirelmo Smoke Helmet ''
Siebe Gorman and Co. Ltd.

The "Bloman '' Hose Mask (fig. 2)

differs from a smoke helmet in that it has
a face mask, fitted with inspiratory and
expiratory valves in place of the helmet ;
a hand-operated blower of centrifugal
J:ype ; and a flexible corrugated tube
• bet~en mask and main air tube. The
corrugated tube allows freer movement of
the head and it also forms an air reservoir
• •• or " equaliser" whereby the wearer. is
.enabled to draw air through the hose with-
• odt appreciable resistance to breathing, if

"- •
the operator should stop working the
blower .
The " Antip~s '; Short-distance Ap-
paratus disperises altogether with the use of
• a·blower and relies entirely on the resilient
• corrugated tube between mouth-piece and
air hose so that the .wearer draws his own
supply of air and is independent of.a second

, operator. During each inhalation, the tube

contracts, and during expiration expands,

• thus alfcomatically tilling with air ready

for the next inhalation, and so on.
• <

Tube apparatus of any type can only be

used when the work to be done does not •
require the wearer to proceed more than
Fig. 2.
The "Bloman " Hose Mask.
• about 40 yards from fresh air. Within this limited field,.it is a simple and effective contrivance
can be worn by men not specially trained in rescue work-although a
which
trained man should always be
• •
• •
•

• • (5307)
•
... ••
•
• •
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. __ ...

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• •

' MG/8
-2--. Rescue Work and Apparatus.
•

.• •
used when available. Typical applications include fire-fighting, rescuing persons from irrespirable air•
opening ventilation doors in smoke-laden air, or other recovery work within the range of the apparatus .

•
•
• The disadvantages of tube apparatus are :- •
(1) The air hose may be cut or flattened by falling stone, or held fast so as to prevent the retreat
of the wearer.
(2) The hose may be cut by tubs if these have to be run in, as when building a stopping.
(3) If a fall blocks the roadway, the wearer is unable to escape by any other road.
(4) The hose hinders freedom of movement and renders rapid escape difficult.
When the distance from fresh air exceeds 40 yds. or so, self-contained breathing apparatus must
be used and this will now be described.

SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS.

This is defined as " apparatus of such a character that the wearer carries with him all the means
for respiration in an irrespirable atmosphere, and is not dependent for them, while in such an atmos- •
phere, on any other person or persons." Such apparatus renders the wearer entirely independent of
air supply from the surrounding. atmosphere and it enables him to work with safety for periods up to
4"fwohours at a time, in the most poisonous gases or in an atmosphere deficient in oxygen.
The normal 2-hour types of breathing apparatus used in Great Britain are (a) the Proto compressed •
oxygen apparatus and (b) the Aerophor liquid air apparatus. Both must only be worn by trained rescue
men in full accordance with the rules laid down in the regulations relating to rescue work.
•

•
THE PROTO COMPRESSED OXYGEN APPARATUS. •
• In this apparatus, the wearer breathes pure oxygen •
supplied from a cylinder and the carbon dioxide given off
during each expiration is extracted by a chemical absorbent
(Protosorb) placed in the breathing bag.

Exhaled gases pass from the mouthpiece, via the tube

T 1 and exhalation valve X into one compartment of the
PRESSURE
breathing bag B where they are" purified "by the absorbent. GAUGE
They then pass up . the other side of the partition in the
~)
breathing bag where they are replenished by fresh oxygen
from the cylinder through the reducing valve R, tube F, BREATHING
.and connection N. From the breathing bag, the mixture
passes through the outlet 0 to a cooling chamber C and
BAG B· J F

•thence via the inhalation valve Y along the tube T 2 to the

wearer. Other fittings iiiclude a skull cap, with cheek straps
•
.and buckles, to keep the mouthpiece in position, and an
• adjustable nose-clip to prevent the inhalation of any
outside air. Further details of construction are :-
OJl.YGEN
(a) Oxygen cylinder. This is of steel or special light

•
C.YLI NDER
.alloy and contains, when charged, 10·5 cu. ft. ofoxygen (about
280 litres) compressed to 120 atmospheres (1800 lbs. per Fig. 3. Proto Breathing Apparatus.
sq. inch).· Associated with the cylind~r are four valves :- Siebe, Gorman and Co., Ltd.
(i) Main Valve, M, kept open by a locking device when the apparatus is in use.
(ii) Reducing valve, R, adjusted to allow a flow of not less than 2 litres (122 cub. ins.) of o~gen•
per minute. . •
in the
(iii) By-pass valve, S, whereby the wearer can supply himself direct with oxygen from the cylinder
. event of the .reducing valve failing to act properly or a greater supply of oxygen being needed
durmg heavy exer tiori.
. •• •
(iv) Pressure gauge valve, P, to admit 'high-pressure oxygen to the pressure gauge which must.
be read every 20 minutes when the apparatus is in use. Each division on the gauge indicates 10 atrnds- •
pheres of pressure or, assuming the reducing valve is passing 2 litres per min., IO minutes of time.
(b) Breathing bag, B. This is. of vulcanised rubber and is divided into two compartments, front
and back, by a partition except at the lowerend, In the bottom of the bag is placed about 4t lbs. of
CO 2 absorbent known as Protosorb-c-essentially a rnixture of calcium hydroxide,°Ca(OH~ and caustic
.soda . . (2. . NaOH~-::=:which_is_intend,ed-to-keep-t-h.e~p€:-r:GeB.-tage--of-{;G-rin--1:-he--brea-th-i-ng-circuit-helow-2·%lll--····· - ----.j

At the top of the breathing bag (on the left in the sketch) is placed a relief valve, K, which allows the •
escape of any oxygen in excess of the wearer's requirements.
(c) Cooling chamber, C. This is a hollow copper chamber containing, in a sealed box, about IO os.
of sodium phosphate (Na 2HPO 4) which is in crystal form at ordinary temperatures but deliquesces
(i.e. becomes a liquid) at 95°F., absorbing much heat in the process. The oxygen entering the chamber
oirculates around the sealed box and is cooled by giving up heat to the sodium phosphate. •
• The total weight of the apparatus is normally about 38 lbs. but, if light-weight alloys are used
in its construction, the weight is reduced to about 32 lbs. ·· ·
Oxygen for breathing apparatus must be at least 98% pure to prevent gradual but dangerous
• accumulation of nitrogen in the breathing circuit. When the apparatus is first put on, the wearer should
• 'inhale pure oxygen from the breathing bagand exhale to. the atmosphere for several respirations, so
:flushing out his lungs and the apparatus with oxygen and expelling the. nitrogen. Thereafter, the
• • possibility of too 1!1uchnitrogen accumula~ng is remote .
j~ ~1 . y """ \> ' «; ·tw \'- ~ t a.:. «-{ l~J
.. ~......,,. .(,... J; J_, 2 • 'c •
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• "
MG/8
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff • 3

tHE BLACKETT AEROPH9R (BROWN-MILLS) TYPE. • •

.
• This liquid-air type of breathing apparatus essentially comprises the following parts :- •
( 1) Liquid-air pack, about 10" x 11"x5 ", containing an inner perforated nickel-silver case filled with
tightly packed asbestos wool to absorb about 6 lbs. of liquid air. This is enclosed by a second, un-
perforated, container which fits closely, except at the bottom, where there is a space forming an
evaporating chamber. The second container issurrounded by asbestos fibre loosely packed between it
and a third, outer, case. The loose fibre serves as a trap for any liquid air which, due to overfilling,
may escape into the breathing circuit The whole is then covered with magnesite-asbestos and felt,

.. enclosed by a leather protecting case, the object of these being to act as a non-conductor of heat and
prevent too rapid evaporation of the liquid air. An opening is provided for pouring in the liquid air,
and is closed with a screw cap. The complete pack is attached to a padded canvas jacket with cane
stiffeners to protect the wearer's back. ·
(2) Breathing bag, 13" diam. by about 3 or. 4 ins. thick when
fully distended, made of india rubber and enclosed in a leather
• protecting bag fitted with bronze springs to prevent collapse .
The bag is an air reservoir having a capacity of 6 litres of air at
the normal pressure of 3! ins. w-g. BREATHING
(3) Purifier consisting of a rectangular sheet-metal container, BAG
• 14" x 5" x 5 ", having 12 compartments formed by vertical 13" Diam .
gauzes and containing 2 lbs. of caustic soda pellets. There are
• also 5 baffle plates, forming four groups " in series," each having
three compartments " in parallel."

• •
(4) Copper supply-pipe, P 1, 0 ·4" diam., carrying newly
evaporated air from the pack to the brass circulating tube P 2
1 inch diam. The supply-pipe is separate from and lies outside of
the circulating tube, but it enters this tube at the point D, just
beyond the stop shown.
(5) Corrugated rubber tubes T 1 T 2, fitted with (a) inspiratory
and expiratory valves, (b) mouthpiece connection of nickel-plated
•

brass or nickel-silver, and (c) mouthpiece of vulcanised rubber.

(6) Automatic relief-valve, R, set to blow off at 3!" w-g.
(7) Skull-cap and nose-clip.
The total weight of the apparatus when fully charged is from
38 to 40 lbs.

Thee breathing circuit.

Newly evaporated air leaves the pack through the copper pipe LIQUID
P 1 and passes in due course either to the breathing bag or direct to
AIR •
the mouthpiece via the inspiratory valve and corrugated tube T 1
according to the requirements of the wearer. The exhaled air PACK
passes through the corrugated tube T 2 andfiows via the circufating

••
tube P 2 to the purifier where the CO 2 is extracted by the caustic
soda. Leaving the purifier, the air passes up the opposite (right-
hand) side of the circulating tube to the breathing bag, where it
is mixed with newly evaporated air. When the. wearer inhales,
this mixture is drawn back part-way along the right-hand
.circulating tube to the inspiratory valve and thence along corru-
• gate~ tube T 1to the mouthpiece. Any excess of air in the circuit
causes the pressure to rise, and some of the exhaled air is auto- .Fig. 4.
lllatically ejected through the relief-valve R. Blackett 'is Aerophor •
• •
• .
Liquid air for breathing apparatus .
. .
Brown-Mills Type .

To liquefy a gas, it must first be cooled below a point known as its critical temperature. Thereafter,
condensation to a liquid is caused either by co:rp-pressingthe gas to its critical pressure, or by further
.

• cooling the gas to its boiling point at atmospheric pressure, or by a combination of compression and
cooling. ~b_ove the crjtical temperat1:1-r.e, a gas will remain gaseous _no matter what pressure is applied.
At the critical temperature, the critical pressure must be applied to cause condensation. Below
t!ie critical temperature, the gas will liquefy at pressures less than the critical pressure until finally,
if the temperature be low enough, the gas will liquefy at atmospheric pressure, or even below, this.
I~.P~f3:<::_t!(::~,_air _i?!1()~1:P_3:!!Y ltgf!.~fi~c=l-a!_<:L __ E~~s~~1~~ j_u~t ~Eg_htly ~~~~egj_J]K ~tl!!<??Rh~!"i~_ R:C:.~-~s_un~·, tpe
required cooling effect bemg obtained by first compressing the gas and extracting the heat of comp-res~
sion, and then allowing the gas to expand through a small aperture or porous plug (an effect known as.
the Joule-Thomson effect). The important figures relating to certain gases are :-

• .
•
Gas
.I Critical
T em.perature
Critical
Pressure
I
Boiling Point at
Atmospheric Pressure

Oxygen -l l8°C. • 51 atmospheres -184°C.

Nitrogen -146°C. 35 -196°C.
• •
. "

•
....,__ Carbon dioxide
Steam
31°C.
374°C.
72
218 " •
"
- 80°C.
l00°C. _ ·- .
.. •
••
•
•
. .
.,
•
 f I

MG/8
-~ Rescue Work and Apparatus

.. H will be seen from the foregoing figures that nitrogen must be cooled .to a lower temperature than.
y
(

•
Qxygen before it will liquefy. In consequence, liquid air used in breathing apparatus invariably contains
over 45% oxygen, even at the beginning of the two-hour period. At the end of the period, the Iiquirf
may contain over 90% oxygen owing to the nitrogen evaporating more readily than oxygen. In passing,
it is of interest to note that liquid oxygen is pale blue and its S.G. is 1 ·13(water=1): whilst liquid
nitrogen is colourless and its S.G. is 0 ·81. The temperature of the mixture in the storage flasks is
between - l 86°C and -190°C.

When liquid air is poured into the pack of a breathing apparatus,

evaporation begins automatically and cannot be retarded. The rate of
flow ranges from 30 to 35 litres per min. at the start of a two-hour period
to about 8 litres per min. at the end of two hours. Meanwhile, however,
the oxygen percentage gradually increases and it is stated that, even
at the end of two hours, the flow of oxygen is never less than 4t litres
per minute.

To store liquid air ready for immediate use, special vacuum con-
tainers holding some 30 lbs. of liquid are required (fig. 5). The Dewar f .
-Tlask'"is made of copper alloy and comprises two spherical globes, one .'ff
within the other, the space between being exhausted of all air. The
two facing surfaces are highly silvered to prevent radiation of heat

.
across the vacuous space and some activated charcoal is placed in a
perforated dish soldered to the bottom of the inner globe to adsorb any
air that may find its way through joints during manufacture. The
liquid air is held in the inner globe which is suspended by its neck (t inch '

internal diam.) so as to hang almost concentrically within the outer "

globe. The air cannot, of course, be stored indefinitely and the loss by
evaporation is upwards of 3!-% per 24 hours. Where liquid air apparatus
is in use, therefore, it is necessary to manufacture liquid air continually Fig. 5. Dewar Vacuum Flask.
to make up the loss.
~recautions when using breathing apparatus.
Although the modern self-contained breathing apparatus has reached a comparatively high state
of efficiency, its possibilities must not be exaggerated, and there are dangers to be guarded against,
both in the apparatus itself and in the organisation of rescue work. Many of the necessary precautions
are laid down in the rescue regulations, but the following are worthy of special note :--
{1) The apparatus must be tested for leakage before use, by the prescribed test. It is obvious. that
the danger of irresp_irable air entering the apparatus must be avoided.
(2) All parts must be correctly assembled by trained rescue men. Incorrect adjustment of valves is
a source of danger.
(3) The pressure-gauge of oxygen apparatus must be read at regular intervals to ascertain the reserve
of oxygen in the· cylinder. In the case of the Aerophor, the liquid air must be carefully weighed
to see that the right amount to last at least two hours (St lbs. or more) is placed in the container.

•
(4) Over-exertion when wearing the apparatus must be avoided, for too great a demand is then made
on the oxygen or air supply and the body-temperature rises. ·
(5) The two-hour period must never be exceeded, and the leader must make sure that his team arrives
back at the fresh-air base in good time before the expiry of the two hours. Working more than
the specified time is inexcusable.
:. (;omparison of types of breathing apparatus.
1
• •
<~~/ In. general, and with reservations it may be said that the liquid-air apparatus has advantages
from the point of view of the wearer's comfort, whilst the oxygen apparatus is in many respects the"
more convenient for general rescue purposes. Both types, however, have been widely used and have •
.given good service. ~
The liquid-air type is simple ; it is easy to understand ; it yields a more liberal supply of oxygen;
the air is cool and pleasant to breathe ; and no pressure-gauge or valves are required, several potential
causes of danger being thereby eliminated.
"· The compressed-oxygenapparatushas the ad\Tantagesthat the oxygen may be'. st~red•indefinitely;
··-tne-·cylind-ers~-of-each~apparatu-nrra:y be-cnafged ·at-me·-surface -irisfeaa-·01 -aTthe· ffesn~afr-oase--( as 1!f
· necessary with liquid-air) ; transport difficulties are reduced or eliminated ; and the oxygen need
not be turned on until actually required by the rescue men.
..
* Walking capacity of. rescue teams ·wearing breathing apparatus.
Conditions underground. after an explosion or other occurrence reqmrmg the services of rescue
tteams vary so greatly that it is difficult, to specify the distance that can be travelled in an irrespirable
atmosphere by men wearing breathing apparatus.· Nevertheless, assuming (a) the best conditions as
to visibility; temperature, and headroom; (b) a well-trained team; and (c) ·it hours' travelling time;
;it may be tentatively suggested that:-
• (1) In a level seam, the team could make a round trip of rather more than 4000 yards, walking
mbye at about 60 yds. per min. and outbye at 40 yds, per min. ,
• (2) In a seam dipping at 1 in 7, the corresponding total distance might be 2400 yds., the rate inbye
•,
Qdownhill) being 4(; yds. per min., and outbye (uphill) 20 yds. per min. •.
... -~ 1l-1b (..,.~ wt;·~ l.~st cWr-ol Ie e « '>"-u;,>1-L.~9 6s~f
 ~· .
• ,
MG/8
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. .-5-
•
• (3) In a seam dipping at 1 in 4, the total distance might be 1350 yds. inbye (downhill) at 30 yds.
per min., and outbye (uphill) at 10 yds. per min . •
.
•
The foregoing figures represent the maximum distances under the most favourable conditions
where only walking along good roads is concerned. In practice, after an explosion or other incident,
a rescue team is normally set a more restricted task and will do well to advance and explore a distance
of, say, 300 yards or so in advance of the fresh air base. In some circumstances (low roadways, steep
gradients, high temperature, and so on) the advance made may be even less than this. Due account
must be paid to all the local circumstances.

Working in hot and humid atmospheres.

Great care must be taken by rescue workers in these conditions if a dangerous rise in body
temperature and possible collapse due to heat stroke are to be avoided. The necessary precautions
include:-
(1) Rescue team members to be specially selected fit men, preferably those acclimatised to such
atmospheres.
• (2) The minimum of light clothing to be worn .
(3) Dry and wet bulb temperatures to be taken and recorded as -the team advances .
• (4) The whole team to return to the base and report ~hen the wet bulb temperature exceeds 8S°F.
• (5) Subsequent operations to be subject to special local rules as to time limit and work to be done .
(6) Hot drinks and blankets to be available at the fresh air base .
•
I
. iiCAPE APPARATUS.
•
(\".,\.,.C.:::...--·
.r> -<
The term " escape apparatus " is conveniently applied to certain types of simple, light-weight,
self-contained breathing apparatus which can., in emergency, be fitted to and worn by untrained men
(under the supervision of trained rescue men) to enable them, if trapped in respirable air on the inbye
side of an irrespirable zone, to pass safely through that zone to the base. Apparatus of this type, namely
the " Salvus" apparatus, was used successfully for this purpose at Knockshinnock Castle Colliery in
1950 when no fewer than 116 men were fitted with the .apparatus and rescued in the circumstances
described.

Escape apparatus may also be used for inspection purposes in irrespirable atmospheres by a
·~·
minss inspector, or a colliery official, provided that the wearer has been properly instructed in its use"
and is certified medically fit. In this way, inspections may be made beyond the fresh air base indepen-
dently of the actual rescue teams, even though the officials concerned are not trained rescue men. The •
latter, of course, may use escape apparatus for any operation considered suitable by the rescue station
superintendent.

••
•
The Savox Apparatus .
This is a compressed oxygen escape apparatus
(an improved form of· Salvus apparatus)
approved for use up to a time limit of 45 minutes .
•It
consists of an alloy steel cylinder con-
taining, when charged,. 4 cub. ft. of oxygen t-

• • •(about 120 litres) compressed to 120 atrnos- ·~(" liANOWHEEL

pheres. Controlling valves include a cylinder ,,;-,;_ ,J-'/··
• VilVe, locked in the open position when the~"', ~' RELIEF
apparatus is being worn ; a reducing valve set VALVE
to deliver 2 litres of oxygen per min.· and fitted '-.....
• with a hand-operated by-pass valve ; and a
relief valve fitted to. the top of the breathing
bag to blow' off at not less than 4 in. w-g.
• l:anisters containing Protosorb to extract the
CO2 and sodium phosphate to cool the air in
<;.].rculationare also provided.

When the cylinder valve is opened, oxygen

passes via the reducing valve to the . breathing

••
~~i-}-;.·~~- •
bag anti thence upwards through the absorbent,
cooler and mouthpiece tube to the wearer. The
"exhaled air passes downwards through the
cooler and absorbent into the bag where it meets
with oxygen from the reducing valve. ~he
apparatus, weighing only 13! lbs., is carried on
the wearer's chest in a frame supported by [a
Fig. 6. Savox Breathing Apparatus.
Siebe, Gorman and Co. Ltd .
• •

.• ,:. \
shoulder strap and body belt. • • •

.. . • ••
•
•
• •
• • •
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MGrS
-6-·- Rescue Work and Apparatus.

.• Thee Chemox Apparatus.

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This is an American type of apparatus in which
the oxygen required is not stored in a cylinder but is
produced chemically by ·a reagent contained in a
canister. The reagent used is mainly potassium
tetroxide in granular form. Exhaled air containing
moisture and carbon dioxide passes through the
canister where the carbon dioxide is absorbed and
a
oxygen is produced at rate proportional to the rate of
breathing, i.e. to the degree of exertion. The apparatus
is designed to give about 190 litres of oxygen over a
period of 45 minutes. It is fitted with a face mask
and fog-free lenses and weighs 13t lbs.

It is recommended that, when it is to be worn for

escape purposes by an untrained man, it should
always be started up by a trained rescuer who should
.then transfer it, when working properly, to the- un-
,. trained man. It is stated that the Chemox apparatus
can be stored indefinitely without deterioration.
Fig. 7.
The Chemox Escape Apparatus.
The Brown Utility Apparatus.

•
This is a form of escape apparatus available to rescue teams
· equipped with the Aerophor type of breathing apparatus. It utilises •••

the air which is surplus to the requirements of the wearer of the parent ~
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apparatus. ·i·
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The utility apparatus has a breathing bag, purifier, valves, tubes

and mouthpiece exactly like the Aerophor and, in addition, it is 'fitted
with an armoured canvas-covered tube, 10 ft. long, with coupling to
connect to a collar situated behind the relief valve of the Aerophor.
Excess air from -the Aerophor passes clown this tube into the utility
apparatus. The latter weighs about 20 lbs. and is carried on the back
of the wearer, whether he be a person being rescued, or an official or
mines inspector engaged in making an inspection.

The cylinder marked " carbon dioxide " is an extra fitment which
was fitted at one time ,.to enable the air flowing in the circuit to be
mixed with 5% CO 2 for resuscitation purposes. The fitting of this
c cylinder has now been discontinued.

}As MASKS. (Including Self-rescuers). PURIFIER

"' ''::-:.,,~. Gas masks differ fundamentally fro~n the various types of Brown u~:fty 8Apparatus.

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apparatus so far described in that they do not supply the wearer with .
oxygen. They can only be worn with safety in an atmosphere which already contains sufficient oxygen
to support life, as indicated by an oil safety lamp continuing to burn. Their purpose is to remove small
percentages of poisonous gases from the air, so rendering the latter fit to breathe.
All-service gas masks* (2-hour type).
This is designed to neutralise all the poisonous gases met with in
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mining, always assuming sufficient oxygen to be present in the air.

As shown in fig. 9, it consists of :-
(a) A metal canister (not necessarily of the shape shown) con-
taining layers of granular absorbents and filters and fitted with an
inlet valve. ·
(b) A face piece fitted with eyepieces and an exhalation valve,
and connected to the canister by a corrugated tube.
The contents of the canister are :-
{i) Hopcaffte.Ta-mixture·-0r1TI.anganese 'dioxide and copper oxide)
to remove carbon monoxide.
(ii) Caustite (caustic soda and pumice) to remove sulphuretted
hydrogen.
(iii) Silica gel (hydrochloric acid and waterglass) to remove
ammonia and water vapour.
(iv) Activated charcoal to remove organic vapours, e.g., petroleum
products. . r

(v) Anhydrous calcium chloride to remove water vapour.

(vi) Cotton wool and turkish towelling to remove, dust and smoke.
(vii) Screens of iron wire-gauze to act as supports. {j
Fig. 9. Gas Mask.
The weight of the complete apparatus is about 8 or 9 lbs.

*1Not officially approved for use in British Mines.]

 • MG/8
The Universr.tl Mining School, Cardiff
• .7

It should be noted that hopcalite cannot be relied upon to remove more than 2% of CO, but if
the atmosphere contains more than this, it is unlikely that there would be sufficient oxygen pre~ent
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tcJ support life or enable aflame lamp to burn.
Gas masks have considerable utility after an explosion or fire. They can be worn by anyone after
a few minutes' instruction; they do not impede the wearer's movements; but they should only be
worn by a team acting in conjunction with another team fully equipped with breathing apparatus. The
latter may be in reserve, or in advance, according to circumstances, but they must be at hand in case
an adverse change occurs in the atmosphere in which the gas-mask men are engaged.

Self-rescuer (!-hour type).

This is essentially a simplified form of gas mask having no corrugated tube but consisting of a
small canister containing filters and chemicals, valves to direct the path of air, a mouthpiece attached
directly to the canister, and a nose-clip. Until required for use, it is enclosed in a hermetically ~P~1,.·~ 1

case which can easily be ripped open.

The purpose of a self-rescuer. is to enable men to escape through fumes from a fire, or through.
• the afterdamp from an explosion, where the chief poisonous gas to be neutralised is carbon monoxide .
The materials required in the canister are :-:-
(i) A layer of absorbent cotton to remove dust and smoke.
(ii) Silica gel to absorb water vapour which destroys the effectiveness of hopcalite. '
• (iii) Hopcalite to convert carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide .
(iv) Silica gel to protect the hopcalite against moisture or saliva penetrating past the inhalation
• valve.
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. It must be clearly understood that self rescuers can only be of service in an atmosphere which,
though poisonous, contains sufficient oxygen to support life. Moreover, if their purpose is to be fulfilled,
• they must be immediately available when the need arises. The alternatives are (1) to store them at •
strategic points underground in each district, and (2) to issue them each day to the underground personnel
who return them to the surface at the end of their shift. The latter method ensures that each man has
his own self-rescuer with him and that it is taken care of and regularly examined by the man whose
life may be at stake. Storage underground is simpler to organise and avoids the workmen having to
carry the extra weight, but the storage sites must be carefully selected and conveniently accessible
and the risk of deterioration must be guarded against by regular inspection and replacement where.
necessary.
REVIVING APPARATUS.
The function of reviving apparatus is to enable pure oxygen to be administered to an unconscious
person or to one who is suffering from the effects of noxious gases or whose breathing is feeble from
some other cause. In this way, normal breathing may be rapidly restored and the recovery of the
patil!nt made more certain. Where necessary, the apparatus is used in conjunot:ion With some method•
of artificial respiration after the patient has been removed to fresh air.
At one time, a mixture of 5% to 7% carbon dioxide and 93% to 95% ox:ygen-a mixture known •
as dicarbox or carbogen-was used in reviving apparatus because of the stimulating effect of the
carbon dioxide on breathing. It is now considered, however, that the administration of carbogen to a
person whose breathing is already weakened, or who may have inhaled excess carbon dioxide from a

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noxious mine atmosphere, may actually raise the carbon dioxide content of the body above the narcotic
level, and thus increase the risk of collapse. The present practice therefore is to use pure oxygen only
in reviving apparatus.

The Novox Reviving Apparatus.

• l'his is made in various patterns one of which is
• shown in Fig. 10. It consists of :-
(a). Two cylinders, each containing 15 cub. ft.
'800 litres) of oxygen charged to 120 atmospheres.
• • • (b) Reducing valve ; (c) hand-control valve.
• • (d) Dial calibrated from zero to 30 litres per min.
(e) Flexible breathing bag.
(j) Corrugated tube, with inhalation valve,
leading to a face mask fitted with exhalation valve
and also an inlet .val~e opening to the outer atrnos-
phere. •
• (g) Pressure gauge and main valves.
The complete apparatus .weighs 35 lbs. A some-
. w.hat ligh ter __ single-cylinder_ p<l,tt_e.r-11 js also a vaila l?le,
having a capacity of 20 cub. ft.
In using the apparatus, one of the main valves
is opened and the hand-control valve adjusted so that
the breathing bag is not allowed to collapse, the rate
of flow usually ranging from 10 to 30 litres per min. •
kcording to the rate and depth of the patient's
breathing. The quantity of gas breathed (within the
controlled limits) thus depends on the patient, himself.
•

• •
If the patient requires more than 30 litres per min.,
• he draws additional air through the inlet valve on the
face mask. •
Fig. 10.
Novox Apparatus.
Siebe, Gorman. and Co. Ltd, . ..
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MG/8
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Rescue Wark and A ppuratus.

Application and limitations of reviving apparatus.

Primarily, in mines, reviving apparatus is intended for use at the fresh air base where it can be
applied to survivors in conjunction with artificial respiration. There is normally no difficulty in
arranging for the transport of the apparatus, in sufficient numbers, up to this point.
A further important application arises when unconscious survivors, or survivors whose breathing
is very feeble, are found by a rescue team in air that is more or less irrespirable in advance of the fresh
air base. In such a case, if sufficient reviving apparatus were available, it could be fittedto the survivors
so that they may be supplied with pure oxygen whilst being carried outbye to the base.
It must be realised, however, that, owing to its size and weight, only one reviving apparatus can
normally be carried by a rescue team in addition to their other equipment. Moreover, it can only
supply oxygen during a very limited period-about 30 mins. or so in the case of the 20 cub. ft. cylinder
apparatus. These facts place a very definite limit on the extent to which reviving apparatus can be
used beyond the base. If a large number of survivors were found in such conditions, a serious problem
would present itself, necessitating the employment of a succession of rescue teams, each equipped
with suitable apparatus. No attempt should be made to apply artificial respiration, so using up the
available oxygen more quickly, until the survivors have reached the base.
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In emergency, some form of escape apparatus, e.g. the Savox, or the Brown Utility apparatus,
may be used as an alternative to reviving apparatus to supply survivors with oxygen whilst being
carried to the base, although reviving apparatus would be the normal type of apparatus to use where
a person's breathing has become unduly affected. •
In all cases, the aim must be to protect any victim found in advance of the base from the effects
of the surrounding atmosphere at the earliest possible moment and to carry him to the base where
greater facilities exist for adequate medical attention. ,. •

ORGANISATION OF RESCUE WORK.

In Great Britain, rescue work is governed by a code of Rescue Regulations with which students
are expected to make themselves familiar whilst studying this Lesson. They should prepare summarised
notes on such matters as the number of rescue teams to be provided, their selection and training, the
apparatus and equipment to be kept .at rescue stations and collieries, and the duties of the manager
and of the captain and members of rescue teams.

Rescue Stations.
These are of two types, namely Scheme A and Scheme B stations, both fully equipped for rescue
work and the training of rescue men and both under the immediate control of a superintendent and
his deputy, Under Scheme A, a permanent corps of not less than 6 trained men must be maintained·
111 constant readiness at the station whilst additional trained men, on a specified scale, must be provded
by each colliery, to be called on in case of need: Under Scheme B, there is no permanent corps at the
station, but a number of rescue teams, each consisting of not less than five trained men, must be
organised at the collieries according to their size.
The great advantage of. Scheme A stations is that the permanent resident corps is ready for
immediate action when required, at a time when every minute may be vital. The great advantage of
Scheme B stations is that a greater number of rescue teams are maintained in a given area, and this is
a matter of importance in cases where rescue operations are prolonged. Moreover, the men are likely
to be fitter and more acclimatised to arduous underground work. It wouldthus seem that a combination
of the two systems would give the best results. In practice, all the various stations are interlinked and
the services of any group of stations can be mobilised when required, one supporting and reinforcing
the other.
It should be understood that only a limited amount of rescue equipment is kept at the collieries ..
This includes smoke helmets, birds, flame and electric safety lamps, and reviving apparatus, but not~
self-contained breathing apparatus. The latter is kept at the central rescue station where, along with
other essential equipment, it is maintained constantly available for immediate transport to the scene
of an emergency. ·•
Organisation at the colliery.
It is essential that there should be a carefully prepared pre-arranged plan of action at every colliery
which can be put into operation immediately when an emergency occurs. Such a"plan must include:-
___ -(-1-)-Glea-r-instr-uct-io-ns---to -be -given-to-keymen-··a;s-to- the-iniutiesairn-responsilJHities ·50-tfial--tne),.
may move at once to their " action stations " and know what to do. Such men include the engii;ieer,
electrician, surveyor, surface foreman, storekeeper, lampman, and surface telephonist. All underground
officials must place themselves immediately at the disposal of the manager and undermanager. "
(2) An efficient telephone service, with a list of emergency telephone numbers and instructions as
.. to the per.sons to be informed and the services to be called. Further, the telephone system must be such
as to be..capable of dealing with the flood of enquiries, messages, and reports that have to be handled
during the rescue operations themselves. ·
(3) Adequate accommodation to be made. available for the control headquarters and its staff;
rescue brigades and their equipment ; medical and first aid facilities; welfare and canteen arrange-
ments ; and so on. "'
(4) Adequate stores facilities whereby all the mining materials required underground during
rescue operations can be made quickly available and carefully checked.
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The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. !1Gf8
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• (5) An efficient authorisation system whereby strict control can be kept on all men entering ~nd
leaving the mine.
(6) Encouragement of men of all grades to become trained rescue workers who can act as leaders
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in an emergency and provide ample man-power to maintain rescue work continuous~y.

Rescue operations.
The manner of organising the operations naturally depends on the nature-and magnitude of the
occurrence that has called for the services of the rescue organisation. Such occurrences. may include
(a) the rescue of a man who has strayed into old unventilated workings and has become unconscious at
a distance from fresh air beyond the reach of tube apparatus; (b) fighting an underground fire ; (c)
erecting stoppings to seal off a district where a fire has broken out ; (d) re-opening a sealed-off district ;
and (e) exploration and recovery work after an explosion. It is with the last mentioned that we are
here chiefly concerned .

C; :•
• Procedure after an explosion.
A mine explosion may be of a relatively minor character affecting only one district or part of a
district; or a major disaster involving several districts or even a whole mine. Obviously, there must,
be a great difference in the scale of the rescue operations in the two cases, but the same general
principles apply.
• The first step must be to set in motion all the pre-arranged plans whereby telephone messages are
sent out at once to all the services required, including the central rescue station and trained members
of the colliery teams, doctors and hospitals, divisional inspector, higher officials of the N.C.B., local
offices of the Miners' Union, and so on. All members of the colliery staff must be summoned and must
• proceed at once to their allotted stations. •
In the initial stages, the main . responsibility for directing the. operations will rest on the manager
but, as soon as possible, an advisory council should be established consisting of the manager and other
more senior officials, the chief officer of the rescue station, the divisional inspector, scientific officers
of the N.C.B. and representatives of the men. Meanwhile, reports will be coming in from officials
underground. The nature of these reports will govern subsequent procedure. General principles,
however, include:-
(I) An underground advance base must· be established in fresh air, as near to the irrespirable zone
as safety permits and connected by telephone to the surface control room. At the base, there must
always be a spare team fully equipped and ready for service. Control will be exercised by a senior official
acting in consultation with representatives of the central rescue station, mines inspectorate and the
men. To the base must be transported all necessary equipment for the rescue teams, including breathing
appzg atus, reviving apparatus, stretchers, tools and mining supplies of all. ki~ds likely to be of 1:1se •
in recovery work. At the base, there must also be kept flame safety lamps, birds, and carbon monoxide
detectors, so that the atmosphere at that point may be kept under constant observation for the safety
..,i
of all persons engaged there . •
(2) Clear and concise reports on the situation disclosed by the exploring rescue teams must be
transmitted regularly to the surface control room from the advance base so that further operations
can be efficiently planned.
(3) Written instructions, and a plan of the district, should be given to the leader of each rescue
team, stating exactly where he must go and what he must attempt to do. This may be to locate and
recover missing persons,_ or deal with a known or suspected fire, or merely to explore for a given distance
and make a report on what he has found. If possible a rescue man familiar with the district should
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4>e in.luded in each team .
(4) Each team should consist of at least five men, including the leader responsible for their safety.
The whole team must operate as one unit and never be split up. If one member of a team becomes
• . tiistressed, or circumstances demand an immediate report to the base, the whole team must return
together .
• • (5) No rescue man must do a second spell of work, even in reserve at the base, unless examined
and certified medically fit. '
• (6) The route taken by the team must be marked in chalk, or, if the atmosphere is smoky, a life
line must be led in from the base.
• In genentl, the fi~st duty of a rescue team after an explosion is to search for possible survivors •
It one survivor is found, he should be carried out to the base via the shortest and safest route. If he
can be.supplied with oxygen on the way by means of a reviving or other apparatus, so much the better.
At the base, artificial respiration can be safely applied and emergency medical treatment given .
• If a number of survivors are found, one of them may be carried out but it is urgent that a report
as to their number, location and condition shall be got to the fresh air base as quickly as possible so
that the necessary steps may be taken to despatch further teams inbye with sufficient suitable apparatus
to cornjflete the rescue with all speed.
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• The direct rescue of survivors in the fo;egoing manner pre-supposes that there is a reasonably •
good road into the affected area and that the men in danger are not too far from the base, say less
than 500 or 600 yards.
•
Where the rescue of survivors is not involved, the main task of the rescue teams will be to restore • •
• the ventilation section by section and do the most urgent repairs. Each section, of course, must be
examined and found free from fire or smouldering materiar before the air is advanced into it. There-
• after, when gas analysis, and tests by safety lamps and birds, show that the atrnosphere has been
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Rescue Work and Apparatus,
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.• rerfdered safe, the underground base may be moved forward and the heavier recovery work carried «fut
• • in respirable air by ordinary workmen. •
Sanitary arrangements after an explosion.
One of the difficult problems to be faced after an explosion is the recovery and disposal of the
dead bodies of men and horses, a taskwhich must be carried out with minimum discomfort and danger
to the rescuers and minimum distress to the relatives. The steps to be taken include :-
(1) Recovery personnel to be supplied with rubber gloves.
(2) Use of a respirator of the mouth and nose-pad type, saturated with a suitable disinfectant
and deodorant, to counteract offensive odours in cases where the bodies have been lying for some time
before recovery.
(3) Application of chloride of lime or carbolic acid in the vicinity after removal of the body.
(4) Bodies of men to be rolled immediately in sheets of brattice cloth provided for the purpose
and placed in a wooden or aluminium-alloy shell at the pit bottom before being conveyed to the
mortuary at the surface.

TEST PAPER MG/8.-

1. What conditions limit the distance which can be 5. An investigation is to be made in a mine after an
travelled· by a rescue brigade in a poisonous atmos- explosion in order to ascertain (a) the seat or point
phere? of origin of the explosion, and (b) the cause ~
ignition. To what details should attention be directed
2. A workman has inadvertently entered an irrespirable in collecting the necessary information to enable
atmosphere, the oxygen content of the air having these objects to be achieved ?
been reduced by excess of firedamp. He is believed
to be alive but unconscious. You are a district 6. In the everit of a serious outbreak of fire on the
official quickly called to the scene. How would you surface near the shafts during working hours, what
proceed to rescue him ? steps would you take to extinguish the fire and
secure the safety of the men underground ?
3. During recovery work after an explosion, men have
been found· alive, but unconscious, by a rescue team 7. State the various conditions in coal mining that may
wearing self-contained breathing apparatus. As- have a detrimental effect on the health of the work-
suming that the team is 300 yards from the base, men. Comment on each item and outline the
what steps should be taken ? remedies that may be applied.

4. During the exploration of a mine after an explosion,

•a trained rescue man, after wearing self-contained
breathing apparatus for ha.ff-an-hour, suddenly shows •
signs of distress. Enumerate the possible causes of
• this condition.

Cardi{f Printen Ltd.

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'FOUNDED 1883 • COPYRIGHT
T.t'tE U.M.S.
T. A. SOUI'HERN LTD.,
• THIS lilb<.PER

tl"iie 'Uw,~ar ~ &';,cb,t, ·

• WAS THE FIRST IS SUPPLIED ON
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MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

Answers MG/8.
, BREATHING APPARATUS AND RESCUE WORK.
• I. What conditions limit the distance which can be travelled by a rescue brigade in a poisonous.
atmosphere?

CONDITIONS LIMITING DISTANCE TRAVELLED.

The distance that can be travelled by men wearing breathing apparatus is limited by many factors,
including :-
• (1) The capacity of the apparatus. Breathing apparatus is usually supplied with oxygen or liquid
..___. air to permit of 2 hours' continuous use, and the team must return to the fresh-air base within that
period. This obviously limits the radius of action. It ,is assumed that all the apparatus is in good
• order. A defect in the apparatus, from whatever cause, will naturally reduce the distance that may •
be travelled.
(2) The size and condition of the roadway. It is clear that a much greater distance can be travelled
in a roomy, well-supported airway than in one which is small in area and low in height, with possibly
falls of roof and side here and there.
(3) The gradient. A steep uphill gradient is a serious handicap to men in breathing apparatus.
(4) The temperature of the atmosphere. A high temperature greatly limits the distance that
may be travelled and may cause severe distress to some members of the team. •
(5) The physical condition of the least efficient member of the team. The whole team must always
keep together and must adjust its- speed to. that of the slowest member.
(6) The load carried by the team. This depends on the nature of the work to be done, whether
repair work, or carrying stretchers or other material, e.g. reviving apparatus, tools, timber, brattice
cloth, etc., or merely making an inspection.

A workman. has inadvertently. entered an irrespirable atmosphere, the oxygen content of the air
having been reduced by excess of firedamp. He is believed to be alive but unconscious. You are
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a district official quicl?.ly called to the scene. How teould you proceed to rescue him? •
RESCUE OF MAN FROM AIR DEFICIENT IN OXYGEN.
IfI were suddenly faced with this situation, I would realise the need for quick action if the man •
is to be rescued alive, but I would also realise the futility of allowing anyone to rush headlong into
the place and so become a second victim, as has too often occurred in the past. It is enough to have
one man to recover, without increasing the number by foolhardy bravery.
Assuming that the man cannot be seen and may have strayed some distance (possibly more than
.SO y~rds) before c9llap::;,i.~g:LI.~-~~~ld t~k: the following steps:-
• ( 1) Send at once for a smoke-]i'elnie't-in the· hope t~~CtJt~~.!:?:.~~e would be long enough to enable
rescuers to reach the man ; also for a reviving apparatus, stretcne. , ::r:~,.J,,l,r_c;t::q,}d kit.

• • . • . (2) Send word out bye for the rescue brigade to be summoned and for the·1~~a:~-.-2~er . and under-
rfianager to be informed of the exact circumstances (man's name, district, place where he is fyi1~g, and
• so.on). . . . . . ·
(3) Withdraw workmen on the return side of the affected place and have the electric current cut off.
'-t. (4) Arrange for fresh air to be directed into the place by re-arranging the ventilation, and by
• means of brattice cloth and/or air tubes, supplemented by compressed air hoses, if available. Tests
for firedamp would b~ made constantly as the work proceeded.
• • In favou·rable circumstances, the place may be speedily re-verrtila.ted and the man quickly
recovered in that way; but otherwise I would make immediate use of the smoke helmet on its arrival.
If, however, the place is difficult to ventilate, or the hose too short to reach the man (and this has been
~own to occur in practice) I 'should have no alternative but to await the rescue team. Men have
beenrecovered safely in this way after an interval of two hours or more.
As soon as the man was brought' out to .fresh air, I would at once apply artificial respiration and
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continue doing so until life was pronounced extinct by a doctor. A report of the accident would be
made at the first opportunity .
[Note. Many valuable lives have been lost by officials and men who have endeavoured to recover
•
a man from air deficient in oxygen and who failed to appreciate the urgent need for more 'resh air
or for' the use of proper rescue apparatus. ;fhe right thing to do .is to send at once for the rescue •
brigade whilst also adopting every other safe means of recovering the victim in an endeavour to reach •
• him at the earliest possible moment.]
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• • (5307). •

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" MG/8 •
Answers on Breathing Apparatus and Rescue Work.
A/2• •
•• .3 . During recovery work after an explosion, men have been found alive, but unconscious, by a rescue y
• team wearing self-contained breathing apparatus .. Assuming that the team is 300 yards fro:ti
the base, what steps should be taken ?

RESCUE OF UNCONSCIOUSMEN, 300 YARDS FROM FRESH AIR BASE.

It is to be presumed that the air in advance of the fresh air base is at least semi-irrespirable in
character and that no time must be lost in arranging for the survivors to be carried out to the base
where adequate facilities exist for emergency medical treatment and subsequent transport to hospital.
•

•
The immediate duties of the rescue team who have found these men are (a) to make a rapid but
accurate assessment of the situation, noting the time, the number of men found, their general condition
and their exact location, (b) to return, as a team, to the base carrying with them one of the survivors,
and (c) to make a full report of what they have found to the official in charge at the base. The proper
functioning of rescue operations depends on the receipt of rapid and accurate reports from exploring
teams.
It is assumed that this was an early exploration in which the possibility of finding survivors had
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been visualised and that the - team were carrying a stretcher and a reviving apparatus with them.
If so, they should fit the apparatus to the rescued survivor to keep him supplied with oxygen during
'the journey outbye, but without applying artificial respiration until the base is reached. The victim
should, if possible, be covered up to prevent his becoming chilled. •
At the fresh air base, arrangements would be made by the official in charge, to :-
(a) Send in other rescu,e teams, in succession, and with proper equipment, to recover the remaining
•
men. .___...

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(b) Give emergency medical treatment to the victims as they are brought out, including artificial
• respiration where necessary. •
(c) Keep the survlvers warm by means of blankets or extra clothing and, when they are fully
conscious, by hot coffee.
(d) Transport the survivors outbye.
(e) Transmit regular reports ,to the operations room at the surface so that arrangementsmay be
made for (1) transport of the survivors to hospital, (2) notification of relatives, (3) organisation of·
teams, apparatus, equipment and stores in the required numbers and quantities to enable the further
rescue and recovery operations to proceed without interruption.

4. During the exploration of a mine after an explosion, a trained rescue man ; after wearing self-
contained breathing apparatus for half-an-hour, suddenly shows signs of distress. Enumerate
• the possible causes of this condition .
•
BREATHING APPARATU~ : CAUSES OF DISTRESS•
• Causes of distress may be considered under two headings, namely (a) due to the apparatus, and
(b) due to the condition of the rescue man concerned.

• (a) Distress due to defects in the apparatus .

Although breathing apparatus must be carefully tested before use, defects may have passed
unnoticed, or have developed since the test was made. Possible defects include :-

'
(1) Defective valves, impeding the flowof oxygen from the cylinder, or impeding the circulation
of oxygen in the breathing circuit, or permitting too much oxygen to escape to atmosphere via the
relief valve.
. ·- - ··-·-~- ··-- ·-·----·-e.. __..! __" .
(2) Depleted supply of oxygen, arising from-aninaccurate pressure gauge or, in the case of the
Aerophor, due to in.corri='r::·;,vi.ghmg of the liquid air placed in the apparatus.
~2) · ~xcess of carbon dioxide in the breathing circuit due to imperfect action of the absorbent•
(Protosorb or caustic soda).
.• •
• •
(4) High temperature of the inhaled oxygen due to imperfect action of the cooler fitted to com-
pressed oxygen apparatus.
•
(5) Infiltration of poisonous gases due to leakage in some part of the breathing. circuit, especially
in the flexible tubes and connections leading from the breathing bag to the mouth. • •
\ •
(b) Distress due to the .eondttton of the rescue man. •
(1) Over-exertion, whereby his oxygen demand exceeds the capacity of the apparatus and partial
collapse occurs. •

-.. (2) Rise in body temperature, due to working in a hot and humid atmosphere, the effect of which

•
·~aggravated by the heat of the apparatus and its weight. •
• (3) Great nervous tension and mental strain, in some degree inseparable from rescue operations~
(4) Physical defect passed unnoticed during the previous medical examination and only brought
• to light under stress. . •
• It should be understood that, if one member of a team shows distress, the whole team must return
to the base. •
• • ---"-.--- .-.---.~--..,i.: . .-. . ------__:_-.
• ---- . -·~.__,_------.--· ____:,__.____:._~---
•
 •
The Univefsal Mining School, Cardiff. • MG/8

• . .
~/3
An investigation is to be made in a mine after an explosion in order to ascertain (a) the seit or
point of origin of the explosion, and (b) the cause of ignition. To what details should attention •
.•
• be directed in collecting the necessary information to enable these objects to be achieved ? •

DETERMINING POINT OF ORIGI~ AND CAUSE OF EXPLOSION.

In practice, any conclusion as to the seat of an explosion, and its· cause, must be based on a full
and impartial consideration of all the available evidence, including the evidence of survivors, the
previous history of the affected districts, the nature of the work being carried on at the time of the
explosion, and the reports of technical experts, mines inspectors, scientific advisers, and colliery
officials, as to .the conditions found underground after the explosion.

(a) Seat or origin of explosion.

, Unless the explosion is very local in character, it is often very difficult to trace its precise course
but the general aim must be to locate the area from which the exploslvesvlolenceappears to have radiated.
The points to be considered include :--
•
(1) The directions in which the explosive force has travelled, as indicated chiefly by the displace-
ment of heavy objects, such as loaded tubs, girders, and machinery. The movement of lighter materials
is a less reliable indication because of the effect of the back blast of the explosion. -
• (2) The evidences of burning, indicating the direction in which the flame has passed. The materials

•.
• most likely to show scorching are paper, string, cloth and wood fibres. Heavy charring and burning
only occur, as a rule, near the outer fringes of the explosion area where flame has lingered.
(3) The evidence of coked coal dust. Some dust is coked in situ : other dust carried forward by
, • the blast is impacted on surfaces facing the origin and coked there ; whilst yet other dust, originally
raised as a cloud, is coked and thrown back by the flame so that it is deposited on surfaces facing away
•
from the origin. Samples of all types should be collected Iorrnicroscopic examination.
(4) Position of equipment and victims in relation to the normal or probable working place of each
man, and whether they met their death by burning and violence, or by afterdamp.
(5) Evidence as to the presence of firedamp, e.g. in a waste or unventilated heading, which might
• have become ignited and so caused the explosion. •
(6) Evidence as to the composition of the roadway dust, both before the explosion (as disclosed
by statutory sampling) and after the explosion (as disclosed by samples collected during the investi-
gation).
• All the data would be carefully noted down at the time and would thereafter, as far as possible,
be viarked on a large scale plan of the workings. The evidence will in most cases enable the generas
area of the seat of explosion to be deduced, but it is unlikely that the exact point of origin will be
located unless the cause of ignition is also found. Attention would therefore be further directed to this .
•
(b) Cause of ignition.
The first step is to narrow down the possible cause by finding out what work was being done in the
explosion area at the time, whether coalcutting, shot firing, repair work,_ or coal filling, and whether •
electrical apparatus was installed or in use. It would then be a matter of examining with care every
potentially dangerous piece of apparatus.
During the inspection, a search would be made of the vital area for traces of a recent shot having
besn fired: for possibly defective electrical apparatus; for prohibited articles such as tobacco, pipes,

" . • ciga.ettes, or matches; for evidence-et-spontaneous combustion, or of conveyors rubbing on timber;

for a damaged or open lamp, and so on. And, from the evidence so found, an opinion could be formed,

• •• .
by a process of elimination, as to the probable cause. On the other l!Ct.'2..0, the precise cause is sometimes
.never ascertained, and conflicting views are given by experts who all have the same ev~±i:mce before
. •· ..
,.
them .

• --.-------------~---------------------------------

'· • 6. In the event of a serious outbreak of fire on the surface near the shafts during working hours,
~ what. ste'f)s teould you take to extinguish the fire and secure the safety of the men underground ?
•
• DEALING WITH SURFACE FIRE NEAR SHAFT~
4;:l) Extinguishing the fire.
I should at once set in motion the pre-arrangedplans for such an emergency, and instruct the
surface officials (engineer, foreman, storekeeper, telephonist; and so on) to carry out their allotted -..
•
tasks. •It is assumed that fire-fighting squads have previously been formed from the surface staff and
have been properly trained in their duties. •It is assumed also that fire-fighting equipment has also •
•been provided, including water mains under pressure, with the necessary pumps, stand-pipes, hoses,
and nozzles at suitable points. Special attention would be paid to the urgent need for preventing the
fire spreading to the headgear, winding engine house, and other structures immediately surrounding
the shafts. If necessary, the local fire and rescue brigades should be summoned to take the place of, or• •
. -~- supplement, the colliery fire-fighting teams. Immediate word, of course, would be sent to the senior
colliery officials, H.M. Inspector of Mines, and other persons concerned. • •
• •

• •• ••
• • •
 , -----.-·-
, .
• . •
..
' -. MG18 • Answers on Breathing Apparat,u~ and Rescue Work.
A/\ •

• .• (b) Securing safety of men underground.

•As •

•
soon as the serious. nature of the outbreak was realised, telephone messages would be sent
•inbye for the district officials to withdraw their men and bring them out via the return airways to th~
U .C. shaft.\...Meanwhilesmoke and fumes must be prevented from being carried underground, the manner
of doing this-depenaiiig-OilIOc-a:I-circumstances-;)prvia an alternative exit, well removed from the fire.
If a high wind is blowing the fumes away from both shafts, or towards the U.C. shaft, leaving the D.C.
shaft clear, no change in the ventilation will be necessary. If both shafts are equally affected by the fumes,
the fan should be stopped at once, and the natural ventilation should also be stopped, e.g. by erecting
brattice stoppings underground. If smoke is pouring down the D.C. shaft, and the U.C. shaft is clear,
the air current should be reversed and word sent underground thatthis was being done. Other necessary
precautions include :~ ·
(1) Careful checking of all men as they leave the mine.
(2) First aid treatment of affected men at the surface.
(3) Rescue teams to be summoned and ready for action in the event of the men underground being
affected by fumes.
(4) District officials to make an immediate report of the number of men in their shift, the number
raised safely to the surface, details of any mishap, and the state of the ventilation in their district
•and in tlie roadways leading to the shafts.
.
---+--------·------------·---·-----··-
.
· -.-----------.---.-----
. •

.·
~/I./ State the various conditions in_ coal mining_ that may ha~e a detrimental effe~t on the health of the
workmen. Comment on each item and outline the remedies that may be applied. .
-·
.b:;j

CONDITIONS IN COAL MINING DETRIMENTAL TO HEALTH.

The conditions in mining that. may have an adverse effect on the health of the persons engaged
in it (apart altogether from accidents causing personal injury) may be outlined as follows:-
(1) Noxious gases. In a normal well-ventilated mine, little dangerarises fromthis cause, bl1t health
may be adversely affected by the fumes from explosives or from gob fires.
•,.
•
The remedy is to have a brisk ventilation and, in particular (a) not to return to the scene of
!:>lastingoperations until a reasonable timehas elapsed, and (b) to test or analyse the airnear heatings •
and take whatever precautions may be indicated.
(2) High air temperature and humidity. These conditions may exist in deep mines rendering
efficient work impossible. Severe colic and prostration may occur due to profuse sweating and the
resulting deficiency of chlorides in the blood. Boils and other skin troubles may follow. In severe
cases, the body temperature rises and collapse may occur through heat stroke.
• The remedies are (~;) to reduce the temperature and humidity by circulating large volumes oi air
at a reasonably high velocity, (b) to eliminate moisture, as far as possible, from shafts and roadways,
• (c)_ to drive main roads in rock to reduce oxidation, and (d) to supply drinking water containing 0·25%
of common salt.
(3) Dust. All forms of dust may be detrimental to health, but special danger attaches to (a) dusts
of a silicious character (leading to silicosis) and (b) the mixed coal and rock dusts met with chiefly in
• the anthracite districts of South Wales but also in other coalfields (leading to pneumoconiosis).
The remedies include (a) good ventilation to clear away the dust as formed, (b) the allaying of ~
a
dust during drilling by forcing water into the bottom of shotholes, or by the use of dust trap, (c) ~·
drenching the rock with water after drilling, and (d) injection of water into the solid coal (water infusion). . .»>: ' r
In addition,. the men should .be subj~ct. to periodical e:camination ~¥ ll!edi{}.?:L ~pe~_!aJ~-eSO-t!ld:t·-a--rry-·-c--
effect on their lungs may be detected in its carhcst-stages.: ·--· . . . . .-- • •
( 4) Defective mumination. This is· gen~~ally regarded as the cause of miners' nystagmus, a dis- •
tressing disease of the eyes tl1at may result in total incapacity for underground work.
Preventive measures include everythingthat can be done to improve illumination, e.g. the white .. ••
washing of the pit-bottom, main roads,_ an~ face timbers, the shading of lamps on travelling roads,
the use_of cap lamps, _the use_of lamps with mcrea~ed candle-power, and the extension of lighting frdhi •
the mams, or by means of air-turbo lamps, both m the roadways and, where possible, at the face.
(5) Wet conditions. Workmen may suffer from· rheumatism, bronchial troubles, and general
ill~health. The trouble is accentuated if the men travel outbye along fhe intake _ainvays, so becoming
..
•
chilled. •
The obvious remedies are to pay proper attention to drainage .and to divert the water from wher~
men are working. The men should travel out by the returns. Dryclothes should be put oh as soon as
..
the surface is reached, or preferably after a hot bath at the pithead. •
(6) Infection by miero-organlsms. The dirty conditions underground render miners specially liable
- ....
to suffer from (a) septic cuts and abrasions, (b) beat hand, knee, or elbow, an inflammatory condition
which also affects the general health, and (d) ankylostomiasis (very rare in Britain) due to the p•esence
of hook-worm in the intestines and causing anaemia. • ·
• The remedies include prompt first aid treatment of even apparently minor injuries ; the prevention-
of beat hand, =.
by the use. of suitable pads, coupled with medical treatment where necessary;
• and general cleanlmess. • ·
•
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Addendum to Lesson MG/7

COAL DUST.
The following additional notes refer to (1) collection of dust at loading points, and (2) the water
infusion system of preventing the forma!ion of dust.

DUST COLLECTIONAT LOADING POINTS.

The collection of coal dust at loading points, as distinct from its suppression, by means of water
sprays or mists, requires, in general, some form of canopy over the loading point, a fan or other device
to create a suction, and a duct or tube to carry the dust-laden air away. Thereafter, the dust may be
allayed within the duct by a water-spray, or passed through a filter, or delivered to an old roadway
or dust-settling chamber. It is possible here only to describe one of the many different arrangements
that have been used.

Dust extractor. (Dobbs-Anderton

Patent}.
This type of dust collector consists
essentially of:--
(a) Canopy or hood.
(b) Convergent-divergent tu be.
(c) Compressed-air jet and mist-
spray .
(d) . Water tank.
Fig. 1. Dust Extractor.
The canopy serves the dual purpose of enclosing the loading point and preventing dispersion of
the dust, and of increasing the efficiency of the suction.
The convergent-divergent tube is about 14 ft. long and '20 ins. in diameter" except at the nari'tw
throat, and communicates with the interior of the canopy. It is fitted with curved vanes which
increase turbulence of the air, and with doors which enable the dust or sludge to be cleaned out.

The compressed-air jet induces a flow of air amounting to some 2,000 cu. ft. per minute through
the tube, and also acts as a mist projector.
The water tank provides a supply of water which is fed at an adjustable rate under air-pressure
to the jet. Here, the water and compressed air are intimately mixed so that a finely atomised mist
of water is created within the tube.
In operation, the dust-laden air in the canopy is drawn through the tube and is given a swirling
motion whereby the dust is thoroughly wetted by the mist spray. Thereafter, the dust or sludge settles
on the base and sides of the tube from which it can be readily removed, and the cleaned air passes
into the roadway.
The extractor has the advantage that there are no moving parts. It is claimed that the efficiency. -~-----
of extraction is about 90%.
Other forms of dust extractor may differ from the foregoing in that a small 5 H.P. fan may be
used to induce the flow of air, the tube being of the same diameter throughout ; the position of the
water sprays may be altered; or some dry method of dust collection may be adopted through the
medium of a filter, or a cyclone separator.
Among the disadvantages of dust-extractors in general are that they occupy considerable space
and are rather costly; the canopy interferes somewhat with loading operations; and they require
skilled· attention to maintain in efficient crder. For these reasons, a simple spray system is often
preferred, although its efficiency may not be so high.

(5104)
Addm. MG/?
2
Coal Dust
------·--··-····I·· -- -----------·····-------~---

TH;E WATER INFUSION SYSTEM.

Briefly, this system consists of injecting water under pressure into a coal seam by means of holes
bored in the coal, so preventing or reducing the formation or dispersal of dust during subsequent
working.
The method was first adopted in the. anthracite mines of West Wales with the particular object
of combatting the lung disease known as pneumokoniosis. This disease is akin to silicosis and is
especially prevalent among coal face workers in the anthracite districts .. It is apparently caused by
the extremely dusty condit ions there experienced, the smallest particles (below 5 microns)* being
the most dangerous. c:- .:. __ / · · ·

It is apparent, however, that if the water infusion system can successfully prevent the formation
of coal dust, having regard to the danger of pneumokoniosis, it will also provide a means of combatting
coal dust, having regard to the danger of explosions.
The equipment required is essentially of a very simple character, and includes (a) drilling machines
for boring the holes, (b) water pipes leading to and along the face..v(,c)flexible hose to connect the pipes
to the boreholes, and (d) a sealing device to prevent the water flowing freely out of the holes.
The boreholes may be 1! to 2 ins. diameter, up to about 8 feet long, and spaced 8 to 12 yards
apart along the face; but the best length, spacing, and position of the holes will vary in every seam
and must be the subject of experiment in each case.
The water-pressure may be as low as 25 lbs. per sq. inch, but it is suggested that a fair working
pressure is 50 lbs. per sq. inch. One hole may be injected at a time, or up to six holes may be connected
in -parallel to the water pipes. The quantity of water and the time required for injection naturally
vary in different cases, but the seam may be considered sufficiently saturated when water appears
at the free surface of the coal.
The water infusion system is likely to' be most effective where the coal is intersected by prominent
eleavage planes or slips which permit the ready passage of water for some distance in advance of the
face. It has been shown that nearly all the air-borne dust (in the seams where the method has been
adopted) comes from the cleavage planes, or from the thin crust of crushed coal bordering them.
The effect of water infusion is greatly to reduce the quantity of coal dust formed at the face itself,
whether by coal-cutting. or by mechanical picks, or by shotfiring. Moreover, less dust is dispersed
by conveyors and at the loading point, the improvement in some cases being so marked that special
dust-collecting apparatus has been dispensed with. In some seams, the "getting" of the coal by
hand has been rendered much easier. and shotfiring eliminated. In all cases, illumination at the coal
fac a is greatly increased, and working conditions for the men rendered more comfortable.
Some doubt has been expressed about the possibly adverse effect that water infusion may have
011 the strata and on roof control, but it would seem that the danger from this cause can be exaggerated.
If the holes are well placed and just enough water is used to dampen the coal itself, the effect on the
strata should, in general, be very slight. ·
A further danger is the increase in humidity in deep hot mines, but it is probable that only in
exceptional cases will any serious difficulty be experienced from this cause.
()·It is stated that water infusion has little or no detrimental effect on screening operations or on
the marketing properties of the coal.

1
*11 micron 0 ·001 millimetre inch.]
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• •
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MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

, Lesson MG/9.
•

rt
, ·41a
MINE LIGHTING
• In literature on mine lighting, the student will constantly meet with a number of technical
terms which have rather precise meanings and it is therefore necessary for us briefly to define them
before dealing with particular methods of lighting .

• •
. .•. · "~.-.'- *'·
"'.• . . ·.· ·•

( 1) Candle-power.
This defines the luminous intensity of a light source. The British Parliamentary Candle (now
obsolete) is the intensity of light emitted horizontally by the flame of a sperm wax candle weighing
i lb. and burning 120 grains per hour. The International Candle is one-twentieth of the luminous
intensity, viewed normally, of a square cm. of molten platinum at the temperature of solidification.
• The ratio between these two units is 1 : 1·02. Neither is convenient for use in ordinary work and a •
more praetleal standard is one-tenth of the light intensity emitted by the Harcourt Pentane lamp
which burns a mixture of pentane vapour (C 5H 12) and air and has a horizontal c.p. of 10 under
specified conditions of temperature and pressure. For ordinary comparative purposes, the most
convenient secondary standard is an electric lamp, the c.p. of which has been tested at the National
Physical Laboratory.
•
- y' •It will be understood that the intensity of light emitted by a light sou,.rce varies in different s
directions, depending on its shape and the effect of lamp fittings (pillars, reflector, etc.). It is possible,
by means of reflectors, to enhance greatly the c.p. in one direction but this can only be done at the
expense of light in some other direction. The mean spherleal e.p, is the average of all the candle- •
powers measured in all directions from the source and is a true measure of the total light energy
available. The mean horizontalc.p. is theaverage of all the candle-powers measured in all horizontal
directions from the source. • · •

• •
(2) The lumen.
This is a unit of luminous flux emitted by a light source. Consider a light source of l c.p. placed
at the centre of a sphere which has a radius of 1 ft. and a surface area of 47Tr2 = 47Tsq. ft. The Iighf
•willtradiate its light energy or "luminous flux" in all directions and the amount of flux falling on
each square foot is called a '~lumen.''
can therefore say :-
The total flux radiated by 1 c.p. is thus 4-rr Iumens and we

• •• • Lumens emitted. by aIamp =-, mean spherical c.p. >< 4Tr _ (1)
• • The lumens output of a lamp naturally depends on its type and size, but it is of the order of
~- 22 to 24 lumens for modem cap lamps, 24 to 32 lumens for electric hand lamps, 1, 100 Iumens for
.,. a 100 watt, 200 volt, gas-filled lamp, and 3,000 lumens for an 80 'Natt, 5-ft., 230-250 volt, fluorescent
tube.

• • •
•3) Foot-candle .
• This defines the intensity of illumination received by a surface from a light source, and one foot-
candle is the illumination produced by one c.p. at a distance of one foot. I:f the c.p. is increased, the
iTl.umination will be increased in proportion. If the distance be increased, the illumination will.
be decreased in proportion to the square of the distance and, in general ;-
Candle-power of light source
,llumination of a surface in foot candles == --------·-.--------:---- ·.·.(2}
• (distance in feet) 2 •

This assumes that the light rays strike the surface '':normally', (i.e. at right angles to the
surface). If they strike the surface obliquely, the illumination is reduced according to Lambert'~
Cosine law in the ratio cos 8, where 8 is the angle of incidence of the rays on the surface, (i.e. the • •
__ ......_ • angle between the rays and the normal to the surface). In other words, in the case of oblique rays,
the illumination obtained by Formula (2) must be multip!ied by cos 8 to give its true value. • •

,. •
•
~
• (5712)

•
••
• • .. '
•
 • •
I
, . • ..
•
•
•
MG/9 •
2
Mine Lighting
•
• •
• We have just explained that 1' ft.-candle is the illumination produced by I c.p, at a distance
of 1 ft. and we have previously stated that 1 c.p. at a distance of I ft. causes one lumen of flux lo
fall on each sq. ft. of surface. It thus follows that one foot-candle is equivalent to one lumen per
square foot and that the illumination of a surface may be expressed either in ft.-candles or in lms./sq.
ft., the numerical value being the same in each case.
No standards of illumination have been specifically laid down for mines, but it has been suggested
that desirable levels of illumination to be aimed at (but so far rarely achieved) would be 6 to 10 lumens
per sq. ft. (or ft.-candles) for pit bottoms ; 4 to 6 lm./sq. ft. for main junctions, landings, and loading
points ; 2 to 4 lm./sq. ft. for roads up to (say) 200-400 yds from the pit bottom ; and 0·5 lm./sq. ft.
for other illuminated roadways. A desirable standard at the coal face would be 0·4 lm./sq. ft. but
this would be very difficult to achieve generally on the face unless lighting from the mains can be
introduced. By contrast, the illumination provided in offices at the surface may range from 10
to 20 lm./sq. ft and up to 50 lm./sq. ft. for precision work. '•
• (4) Luminance or Brightness of an illuminated surface.
This depends on the illumination in foot-candles (the light received by the surface) and on the •
reflection factor of the surface (this being the proportion of the received light that is reflected and
not absorbed or transmitted). Luminance is expressed in toot-Lamberts and :- •
Luminance in ft.-Lamberts = illumination in ft . -candles x reflection factor (3)
• Reflection factors range from about 0·9 for polished silver, 0·8 for white blotting paper, 0·7 for •
a whitewashed surface, 0·5 for light-coloured stone dust, 0·25 for shale dust, and down to as low
as 0·05 for coal dust, and the "brightness" varies in a similar way. Anything that can be done to
improve the reflection factor underground, by whitewashing or otherwise, is obviously well worth
while.
The brightness of a source of light may be expressed as its c.p, per unit area. Thus an oil flame
•
•
• of 1 c.p. having an area of 0·4 sq. in. has a brightness of 2~s c.p. per sq. in. On the other hand, the •
filament of a tungsten-filament electric lamp has a brightness some 200 or 300 times as great-hence
the use of devices such as frosted or prismatic glasses on electric lamps to avoid glare and consequent
acute eye discomfort. Fluorescent tubular lamps have a relatively low intrinsic brightness of about
3 to 5 c.p. per sq. in. and therefore provide a much more comfortable source of light .

• .
Measurement of Candle-power . •
• The c.p. of a lamp may be determined either (a). by comparing its light-intensity with that of
a standard lamp or candle by means of visual comparison, or (b) by the use of a photo-electric
cell. In either case, the. instrument is called a photometer. We will describe one type of each to
show the principles .involved.

(a) The Shadow Photometer.

This consists of a base-board B; a screen S with an opaque
white surface ; a rod R ; a standard candle C which is adjustable
vertically; and the lamp L whose c.p. is to be found. The
test, of course, must be carried out in a dark room. The lamp L
is moved towards or away from the screen S until the two shadows
• •
of the rod R are equal in intensity, as judged by eye. Now
the candle-powers of two light sources vary as the square of
their distances from the screen, and so we can calculate the c.p. ••
of lamp L from the equation:-
Fig. 1. Shadow Photometer. • •
c. p. of lamp L (distance of lamp) 2

...........•.....•.............. ~ ..............•.... ( 4-)

c.p. of standard (distance of standard) 2

Such a photometer is not very accurate in its results and depends very much on the personal
• • •
factor. For routine measurement of candle-power in a colliery lamp-room, (and it is with this that
the mining student is chiefly concerned) use is now invariably made of photometers involving a
photo-electric or photronic cell. •

-.. (b) The photo-electric or photronic cell. One form of this,

known as a selenium barrier-layer cell, consists of a small box,
about 2 in. diam., containing an iron back plate coated with
LIGHT Ml~O-AMMETIER

• selenium which is itself covered by . a thin transparent layer of

gold. When light falls on the gold-selenium boundary, it liberates
electrons which pass from the gold to the selenium (and thence
• • · to the iron back plate) so setting up a potential '"1.ifference Fig. 2. Principle of Photo-electric Cell.
between the iron plate and the gold layer. If, now, a micro- •
• • ammeter is ·connected in the circuit, a •mall electric current will flow which is proportional to the

.
intensity of the•light. The micro-ammeter may, in fact, be calibrated to give the candle-power, or
the lumens output, of the lamp direct.
·. .
• . .,
 •

• •
The Universal Mining School, C~rdiff., ." 3

• Fig. 3. shows the Ceag Spherical Photometer which utilises • •

the foregoing principle and is typical of the photometers used for •
the regular testing of electric cap lamps in colliery lamprooms
although other models are also available. It consists of a hollow
sphere of cast aluminium 12 in. diam., coated inside with white
paint to give a matt surface and made in two halves which are
hermetically sealed to exclude dirt and dust. The sphere is fitted
with an armour plate glass window through which the light is
introduced, a photronic cell placed diametrically opposite· the window
but shielded by a round screen so that no direct light reaches the
cell, and a micro-ammeter placed above the window. The head-
piece of the lamp to be tested is held against the window and the
light therefrom is repeatedly reflected from the internal surface so
that the reading of the micro-ammeter gives the mean spherical c.p.
direct. A certain number of lamps should be tested each day (after
• 9 hours' burning) so that all the lamps in an installation are tested
periodically in succession. Any lamp showing less than the Fig. 3. Oeag Spherical
Photometer.
.-- prescribed minimum is examined and the cause of the low reading
ascertained and rectified.
~"f.;1!'

.,. • \",,,/"fHE FLAl\'IE SAFETY LAMP

Although during the nineteenth century and the early decades of the twentieth century, flame
safety lamps served the double purpose of providing illumination and enabling officials and workmen
to test for firedamp, they are now used almost exclusively for gas-testing purposes only. Great
• efforts were made at one time to design flame lamps of high illuminating power, but, with the extensive •
use of electric lamps underground, the need for high c.p. flame lamps has progressively decreased,
the essential requirement of a flame lamp being that it shall have good gas-testing qualities.

The principle of the flame safety lamp.

The first successful safety lamp was invented. by Sir Humphry Davy in 1815 and consisted
essentially of an oil flame. surrounded by a single \\jire gauze cylinder, without either glass or bonnet , ,
The safety of the lamp in an inflammable firedamp-alt mixture depends on the wire gauze ·and this
still remains the essential safety feature in modern lamps.
The action of the wire gauze may be explained by a simple experiment. If a flat piece of wire
gauze be lowered gently upon the flame of a candle or gas jet, the flame will be depressed and possibly
extinguished. Alternatively, if the stream of gas be ignited above the gauze, the flame will not
pas~ downwards to ignite the gas on the underside. In both cases, the gauze prevents the passage »
•
of flame by splitting this up into a large number of small tongues which are rapid'ty cooled by conduction
as they try to pass through the gauze apertures. The gauze itself is cooled by radiation and the
uprising current of air. If, however, the gauze should be heated until it is nearly white hot, it will •
no longer prevent the passage of flame. Moreover, if the gauze becomes coated with soot, its powers
of dissipating heat will be diminished;
The application of the foregoing principles to the flame safety lamp will be self-evident ; for, if
a lamp flame be completely surrounded by a gauze cylinder and cover, the wick flame, or the flame
· of burning firedamp, will be unable to ignite an external inflammable atmosphere so long as the
gauze does not reach the ignition temperature of the gas, or the flame is not forced through the gauze

•
.
by some means, e.g. a high-velocity air current, or. the concussion from a shot. These two dangers
•were not entirely overcome in early lamps, but are almost non-existent in modern lamps.

Development .of flame safety lamps.

.

This subject is now chiefly of historical interest and need not be pursued here in great detail .
•• ~uffi.ce it that the single-gauze Davy lamp (1815) gave less than 0·15 c.p. and was unsafe in an
• inJlammable atmosphere if the air velocity exceeded 6 ft. per sec .. The Clanny lamp (1839) introduced
a short glass cylinder with the gauze above and gave 0·3 c.p. but was no safer than the Davy lamp.
The Mueseler lamp ( 1840) added an inner conical metal chimney to separate the inlet air from the
products of combustion, so giving what is called "controlled ventilation." It was somewhat safer
than the previous tyl'es so long as the lamp ventilation took its normal course. The Marsaut lamp
• (1880) embodied (a) an outer shield or bonnet to protect the gauze and (b) two gauzes, one within
the other. Lamps of Marsaut type are safe in air velocities of 20 ft. per sec. even if gas burns within
• the gauzes continuously, whilst velocities of 50 ft. per sec. have been withstood for limited periods.
The mean horizontal c.p. was originally about 0·3 c.p. but this has been increased to more than
i--c.p: by improvements in the design-of burner and-wick and-by burninga-high-grade fuel.- The
remaining principal type of lamp is the Combustion-tube lamp and this will be described presently.
.
•,
Standafd gauzes. . . ,
• The gauzes used in safety lamps are ·of steel or best charcoal annealed iron wire and of either •
28 mesh or 20 mesh. The 28 mesh gauze has 28 meshes to the linear inch (784 to the square inch)
and is made of wire 0·0148 in. diam. (28 S.W.G.). Lamps used for surveying purposes are fitted
with 28-mesh gauzes of copper wire. The 20 mesh gauze has 20 meshes to the linear inch (400 to • •
• the sq. in.) and is made of wire either 0·0164 or 0·0180 in. diam. (27 S.W.G. or 26 S.W.G. respectively).
The advantage of the more open gauze is that it tends tq. improve the ventilation of the lamp and
.increase its candle-power; ~ • •
• •

• •
• • .. '
•
 •
• • ..
•
MG/9
--4-·' Mine ·Lighting

• Illtenlnants .
• The type of fuel used in safety lamps· is a mineral oil distilled from petroleum and of variou~
densities and flash points, namely :-
(a) Mineral colza -
(b) Paraffin
Flash point 250°F.
,, ,, 96° to 142°F.
S.G. = 0·83.
S.G. = 0·79 to 0·82.
(c) Petroleum spirit (known variously as benzoline, naphtha, colzaline, or simply "spirit")
Flash point 78°F. S.G. 0·7 to 0·78.
It should be noted that the flash point of an oil or spirit is the lowest temperature at which it
•
gives off combustible vapour. The ignition point is the lowest temperature to which such vap<;>ur
must be raised to produce flame. The most suitable fuel for an ordinary Marsaut-type lamp having
a flat wick 176 in. wide is a mixture of mineral colza and paraffin ; for lamps having a round wick
i in. diam., the fuel should be a spirit and the oil vessel should contain cotton wool or other~bsorbent
to soak up the fuel ; and for combustion tube lamps, a heavy oil is desirable (S.G. exceedmg 0·83).
'
The Prestwich Protector Lamp.
This is typical of modern Marsaut lamps designed primarily
for gas-testing purposes and consists of three main sections screwed
together.
(1) The lower section is the fuel vessel filled with colzaline
or spirit which is soaked up by a sponge to prevent spillage. . The
vessel is fitted with a ! in. diam. round wick and wick tube, a
regulator thumb-screw to adjust the wick height, and either a lead
rivet or a magnetic lock. A safety feature is that the vessel
cannot be unscrewed without extinguishing the flame.
(2) . The mlddle section consists of a composite lower plate
which screws into the fuel vessel, and a composite middle ring
provided with air inlet holes and with a shut-off ring so that, for
gas testing near the roof, the middle air inlets may be closed, the
•
air then entering only at the top of the lamp. The lower plate
. and middle ring are interconnected by standards which also
protect the glass, the latter being rendered air-tight at top and
bottom by asbestos washers, The lower plate is also fitted with
a flint wheel, pinion, and operating key for relighting purposes.
(T1!is feature is omitted from lamps to be used by workmen).
(3) The. upper section consists of the bonnet which is screwed
• to the middle ring and. is provided with outlet holes at the top and
with lamp hook and- 'eyelet. The bonnet serves to enclose and Fig. 4. Protector Safety Lan1p.
protect the two .gauzes, each of 28 . mesh.
. The lamp is an excellent gas-tester and possesses a high margin of safety if properly assemble~.
-It can only become unsafe (a) if wrongly assembled, e.g. by ommitting a washer; (b) if the glass is
cracked or ill-fitting, (c) if the gauzes are defective or become damaged, or (d) if the lamp is illegally
opened in an inflammable atmosphere which becomes ignited before the lamp flame is extinguished.

.The Combustion-tube lamp.

This .rnay be described as a combined Marsaut-Mueseler
lamp having a glass extension to the inner metal chimney in
order to improve the draught and increase the illuminating
power. The general design of one type is shown in Fig. 5 which N'lc0<t4-+---
BONrtU
•
POU !)LE
•
is self-explanatory. Special features. include a baffle ring to P<;A?X?.r:Jllo--+-~- GAUZES
protect the inlet holes, a deflector ring' to divert the inlet air
downwards, and a perforated cap at top of chimney to split up
the products of combustion. The 'Iamp is fitted with two
20-mesh ·gauzes, an enclosed dome burner, re-lighter pin, and
·a;· magnetic· lock. In this, the) glass-holding ·ring is provided
""lX~===;i~- OEFLE'Cltft
with ratchet· teeth which engage' with the steel bolt B, held in RING
'the up-position by a strong springB which rests on an iron ~'lt--M--- CHIMNEY
'guard plug P .. The effect of -the bolt and ratchet is to prevent
·the oil: vessel.·.being.·unscrewed: · when the lamp is to.be -uri- ,..,....,,..,~----·eAFFlt!'(
RING
locked, it is' placed on an electro-magnet which· draws down
'the-bolt against' .the.resistance·of.the spring .s, so releasing the
lfo1t from theratchet and freeing-the upper part of the lamp. I NflotE i:t

-...
~ooMllll----
·•'.; ·:·:!,[;.:.•·.· :·. :. . .:.. .· .. : ,:·; ..••. GLASS
Combustion-tube lamps can give a mean horizontal c.p. of Ntl!--OUTER.
about 2·5 c.p. and a maximum h.c.p. of 3 c.p .. although the .GLASS
latter figure can be considerably increased by the µse of a f"lllii----Pt LL."R
reflector. Thechief objections.tothe lamp are (a) high tempera- --~i!Nl"""-.
OJLVALVE'
bii.~e of the: bonnet, ·(b) inability· -to.rdetect low percenfa.~es of
~s with certainty, and· (c) '. liability: 'of .irmer glass to become
•: -smoked.: .~ As:&tated;·earlier;,1the . need-fordlame safety farnps of'
1

:nigh· c.p.: has'. nC.n.\i::.great1Y' diminsh~d~thB_ir~laCB--11J ·

..~~)tffl'l~IJ!!l~~~~
lby eleet:ficd<la~1 la:llip$' ;\.\,hich:tare '. , now» ilii almost um~·v~e~·rt's~al~u~s~e._
• • in British collieries, Fig~-s-~----'Cijffibust.i..:>n"'iube·'-ba:mp.·--~"
. )

'
 __ The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
,__ ------·-----------'----------------·------

ECTRIC SAFETY LAMPS

-------- - -----

Electric safety lamps may be divided into (a) hand lamps and (b) cap lamps, the latter forming
abou.t 95% of the total used. In either case, the current to the bulb is supplied by a battery of two
or more secondary cells or accumulators, and these may be either (i) lead-acid, or (ii) alkaline cells,
the former being the more widely used.

Oldham-Wheat Lead-acid Cap Lamp.

This is a typical lamp of the lead-acid type. It is a 2-cell,
4-volt lamp consisting essentially of:-
(a) Two lead-acid cells connected in series and assembled in a
hard rubber container which is carried on the miner's· back. The
container is fitted with a stainless steel lid secured by a special
sealed screw.
(b) A locked headpiece. made of moulded plastic to be affixed
to the user's helmet and carrying the bulb and reflector assembly.
(c) A flexible, two-core, rubber insulated, cable sheathed with
oil-and-grease-resisting polychloroprene, to connect the battery to
the headpiece.
Each cell of a lead-acid battery consists of a number of composite
• lead-antimony tubes or plates carrying the active materials and
immersed in a 30% solution of sulphuric acid (H 2SO .1) and distilled Fig. 6. Oldham-Wheat Lamp.
water. In the Oldham lamp, the positive element is of tubular
construction, the negative element is of flat plate construction, and the insulating separators are of
• Sponac (a highly absorbent type of wood) which absorbs about 85% of the total acid in the cell, so
rendering the battery virtually unspillable;
In the fully charged condition, the active material in the positive plates is brown lead peroxide
(Pb02), and in the negative plates, itis grey spongy lead (Pb). During discharge, both positive
and .negative plates change partly into lead sulphate (PbSO 4) with the liberation of water. .The
reaction may be set out as follows, reading from left to right for discharge and vice-versa for charging:-
Pb02 + 2H2S04 + Pb PbS04 + 2H20 +
PbS04 "
Positive Electrolyte Negative Positive Electrolyte Negative
In the charged condition, the S.G. of the acid is about 1·280, but this falls during discharge to
about 1·180. During charge, the reverse occurs and the S.G. rises again. The end of charge is
marked by the liberation of oxygen and hydrogen from the electrolyte, a condition known as "gassing."
Periodically, the cell must be topped up with distilled water to replace the loss.
...
• The nominal voltage of a single lead-acid cell is 2 volts so that two cells must be connected in
series to give a 4-volt lamp. Actually, at the beginning of discharge, the lamp voltage is about
4·4 volts but this falls progressively during use to about 3·6 volts ( = 1 ·8 volts per cell) below which
it must never be allowed to fall in order to avoid permanent sulphating of the plates.
The headpiece of the Oldham lamp is fitted with two bulbs (main and pilot bulbs), a selector
switch by which either bulb can be brought into use, a reflector which may have· either a polished
or a matt surface, a cap hook, and a charging contact. The bulbs are krypton filled for high e:ffciency.
The main bulb may be rated at either 4-volt, 0·8 amp., or 4-volt, 0·55 amp., giving light outputs
• oL,3.8·0lumens and 22·5 lumens respectively. The pilot bulb is rated at '4-volt, 0·46 amp. The life
of the bulbs in the· pit is about 600 hours.
The Oldham lamp (and also other makes of lead-acid cap lamp) is designed for a "self-service''
• · sys~m in which the miner puts his lamp on charge in the lamp room and removes it himself, charging
taking· place through contacts on the headpiece. A suitable number of lamps are all connected in
parallel on the charging rack and are -charged on a constant potential system, the low-voltage d.c .
,. •• • power required (at about 5 to 6 volts) being obtained from a transformer-rectifier unit. The current
•taken varies according to the state of charge of the battery, gradually becoming less as the battery
• 1-ecornesmore fully charged. . Each lamp takes only the current necessary for a correct charge and
~·
'llif' the low voltage used eliminates any danger of shock to the man placing his lamp on charge.
, The Ceag Alkaline Cap Lamp. _
This re~eml1les~he previous type externally in so far as it consists of (a) battery, (b) headpiece,
• .and (c) cable, but it differs completely in its mode of operation.
The Ceag c~plamp, Type A 7, is a 3-cell, 3·75 volt alkaline .lamp, the battery being housed in a
stainless steel container fitted with a lid secured by a magnetic .lock. (Actually a spring lock which
-ts unlocked magnetically). . . Jhe headpiece may: be either . of mouldedbakelite .·or . of .stajnless steel
and may be fitted with either a single main bulb rated at 3·75 volts, 1 amp., or with both a main
bulb and a smaller pilot bulb.v T4e. principal distinguishing feature, however, lies in the .battery.
Pm alkaline cell consists of a numberof composite plates or tubes of thin perforated nickel steel
containing the active material and .imrnerse'\lin a 20% .sohrtion of potassium hydrate (caustic potash •
• KOH) having a constant S.G. of about 1 ·2. The active material in the· positive plates is nickel
hydroxide, and that in the ne~a:t~ve is-iron or cadmium oxide or a mixture of the two. The chemical
reactions cannot be accurately expressed bv an equatiori but it is known that: during charge, OF.I •
radicals passfrom negative to positive, whilst the reverse takes place during discharge .. A .single •
alkaline cell gives an E.M.F: ofabout 1·25 volts so that three cells must be connected in series to
~
give a 3·75·volt lamp. · , ' •
.
· ·
.
,,,.. ,
' '
• •
. •
• •
 , . ..
•
•
Mine Lighting •
-------------------·------

~The normal method of charging an alkaline cap lamp is on a constant current system, a numbee
,.. of lamps being connected in series on the charging rack. During charge, the initial voltage applied
to the terminals of a 3-cell battery is about 4·2 volts and this rises to about 5·25 vol ts at the end
of the charging period. The charging current depends on the ampere-hour capacity of the battery
but, for cap lamps, is commonly 1·5 amp. for a period of 9 hours. The charging d.c. voltage applied
to a group of lamps in series is either 110 volts or 220 volts, the d.c. supply being obtained from
either a motor-generator set or a mercury arc rectifier. A modified self-service or "self..:issue"
system may be used whereby the miner puts his lamp on a receiving rack, but thereafter the lamp
•
room attendant must unlock the container and, after examining the lamp for damage, place .the
battery in its container on a separate charging shelf. When the battery has been re-charged, the
attendant relocks the container, examines the lamp generally, and places it in position for the miner
to collect. ·

Lead-acid versus alkaline lamps.

The chief advantages of the lead-acid battery are (1) its lower first cost (about half that of its
'•
alkaline equivalent) ; (2) higher electrical efficiency; (3) lower cost for re-plating ; and (4) safety
in handling when, as in lamps, the electrolyte is largely absorbed in balsa wood separators. On the
"'other hand, the battery may be spoiled by prolonged overcharging or prolonged idleness and the
plates require renewal every 18 to 24 months.
The chief advantages of the alkaline battery are (1) its longer working life (7 or 8 years) without
-
renewal; (2) lower maintenance cost ; and (3) abilityto withstand adverse treatment (overcharging,
excessive discharging, short-circuiting, or prolonged· idleness) without damage. A somewhat serious

•
drawback is that quite severe flesh burns may be caused by spilled caustic electrolyte and this has
caused considerable concern at some collieries although modern lamps and topping-up equipment
are designed to eliminate the trouble as far as possible. •

Electric Hand Lamp.

Although this is now relatively little used, its principal
features should be known. Fig. 7 illustrates a typical
-hand lamp of the .alkaline type. (A lead-acid lamp is
similar in general arrangement but would contain its
battery in a celluloid or a hard rubber container). It is
designed on the "two-piece" principle, i.e. the top in one
unit and the battery and case combined in another unit. INSULATING
The lamp top carries the protecting pillars, hood and hook,
~prismatic well glass, reflector, and the bulb with its mountings ~~~~~~~~~PLATE
~ MAGNETIC
and spring contacts. e:
LOCK •
C.ONTAGT
The lower casing is of welded steel and contains two NUT

cells in series to give a 2·5 volt lamp. The plates of each

cell are encased in a steel· sheath, open at top and bottom,
and the. electrode assembly is detached from the casing
from which it is insulated with ebonite. The terminals are
of solid steel and the lamp is hung from these when on
charge. The lamp top and bottom are connected by a
single-action bayonet joint acting in conjunction with
a magnetic lock at one side.
All miners' hand lamp batteries (whether lead-acid
or alkaline) must be removed from the lamps for charging
and they are almost invariably charged at constant current,
•
a number of batteries being connected in series and the
whole charged at either 110 or 220 volts, the d.c. supply
being obtained from a motor-generator set or a mercury
•
arc rectifier. ,
Fig. 7. Ceag Hand Lamp.

COLLIERY LAMPROOMS
#'
To ensure proper maintenance of safety lamps (of whatever type) the essentials are :-
f.
(r): A weu.;designed, well-lit Iamproom;·eql.iippedWith-aILthe-riecessary apparafiisfoi"urifockill"g,
cleaning, charging, repairing, accommodating and lighting lamps.
(2) An adequate staff of we11-trained attendants under the control of a competent head lamp-
man.
(3) A well-organtsed system whereby all lamps pass through a regular routine ·of inspection,
cleaning, re-charging and final testing before being re-issued for use underground. ,,,
(4) Careful records, whereby the history of each hfmp may be checked, having regard to any
damage it may have sustained, and any repairs or renewals it may have required. '
(5) Routine photometric tests to ensure that the prescribed lighting efficiency is being maintained.
Nearly all lamproorns in Great Britain, in so far as'cap lamps are concerned, are now designed
on the self-service system whereby the men place their own cap lamps on charge (in the case. of lead-
acid lamps) or on receiving racks (in the •.case of alkaline lamps) after leaving the pit, and pick up
the charged lamps: next day on returning to work.
 •
•
• .MG/9
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff . 7
(
• To enable a full self-service system to be operated, the lamps must be of one-piece construction ..•
•
so that they do nothave to be disassembled to be charged; a low-voltage parallel charging system >
at 5 or 6 volts must be used to avoid danger from shock; and a constant potential charging system is
necessary so that the batteries may be left on charge indefinitely providing that the charging voltage
is correctly determined and maintained. These conditions can be fulfilled with lead-acid cap lamps,
but not entirely with alkaline cap lamps which, because of their battery characteristics, cannot
receive a full charge at constant low voltage and must be charged on a constant current series
charging system at 110 or. 220 volts. The batteries must therefore be put on charge by the lamp
room attendant. Nevertheless, a modified self-service, or "self-help" system may be operated as
already described.
Fig. 8 illustrates a
lamproom for lead-acid
typical
lamps.
self-service
Points to
COVEREP :::!J EMEl\&EMC.'<

•
note ·are:-
(1) The lamproom
between the pit-head and
should be located
the pit-head baths.
rr PASSAGE

IH F"ROl\'\BATHS
.

(2) The route arranged for the men r-;=-..~.--~---r--

500 CAP LAMPS
should be such that there is one-way traffic
• through the lamproom, so avoiding congestion
and ensuring that all men pass the control soo
• point where a checking system can be en- OUT-
forced, complaints received, and discipline 500
maintained.
• (3) The route from the baths to the 500 CAP LAMPS •
pit-head should be under cover to protect the
men from adverse weather conditions.
(4) All the auxiliary rooms (head lamp-
man's office, oil lamp room, repair section, TO PIT
mess and washing rooms) should preferably Fig. 8. Layout for 2,000 Lead-acid Self-service Cap
be arranged at the exit end of the building to Lamps and 350 Oil Lamps.
facilitate the work of the lamproom staff.
{5) The oil lamp section should have an emergency exit to the open air and the fewest possible
connections with the main lamproom which can be closed off by sliding steel doors in case of fire.
(6) The interior of the lamproom should be made· as attractive as possible and kept clean. The
£Io.ormay be tiled and the walls of tiling or glazed bricks up to a height of at least 6 feet. The room, •
should have large windows and skylights to give good natural lighting, whilst adequate artificial
lighting should be provided by fluorescent tubes or otherwise. Some form of space heating is also
necessary. •
(7) Buckets of sand and fire-extinguishers should be provided for use in case of fire, and sufficient
hose and couplings at hand to connect up the hydrants spaced around the building .

.PNEUMATIC ELECTRIC LAMPS

These form a convenient source of light in places where a high standard of lighting is desirable
(loading and transfer points, landings, junctions and EXHAUST
• so on) and where compressed air is the only source of
• po~er available, or where electricity cannot be used
owing to danger of firedamp explosion. They have also
• been used in lighting installations on the face.
• •• • The general arrangement of such a lamp is shown
WH

• in Fig. 9. · It consists of a small turbo-generator driven

by compressed air and running in ball bearings. The
generator is of the revolving field pattern, and so there
are no rubbing contacts to produce sparking. A reducing STATOR
valve is fitted -to _reduce the supply air-pressure to
• 40 lb. per sq. in. and a centrifugal governor is provided
• • to prevent racing. The lamp interior is in communica-
tion with the exhaust side of the turbine, an air pressure
•of about ~ _ lb. per sq. in. being maintained by a spring
loaded valve, so. preventing access of firedamp to the
interior. In addition, a safety device is incorporated AUTOMATI~ /
ua
to cut off the current if the internal pressure fails due CUT-OUT,,.
-' -,
to breakage of the well-glass or other cause. This
device consists of a spring-loaded diaphragm, one side
0
:c ..
• being exposed to the outside air and the other to the
exhaust pressure. Under normal conditions, the z•

~ •
diaphragm holds two contacts apart and. permits the
lafnp to function. If the exhaust pressure fails, either
by breakage of the lamp glass or by failure of the air
d(
~ ..
• supply, the contacts touch, so short-circuiting the • • •
• .. • generator and making the lamp dead. Fig. 9. M.L. Pneumltie .Electric Lamp •
/' •
• •
• •
 MG/S'
Mine Lighting
~

Various patterns of pneumatic electric lamps are available. One pattern of tungsten-filament
lamp at 25 volts has an output of 60 watts, consumes about 8 cub. ft. of free air per min. and gives
a m.h.c.p. of about 70 c.p. Another pattern is a mercury-vapour lamp of 110 volts, 40 watt rating,
consuming about 7 cub. ft. per min., and giving a m.h.c.p. of about 100 c.p. A more recent develop-
ment is the Dayfluor M.L. lamp which incorporates two 15 watt, 18 in., fluorescent tubular lamps
backed by reflectors and consuming only about 6 cub. ft. per min. The light output is 1,200 to
1,400 lumens, equivalent to 100 m.s.c.p. or more.
For lighting on the face by means of pneumatic electric lamps, compressed air is fed from the
main pipe range in the gateway through a main control valve coupled to a filter and drainer to
exclude dirt and moisture. From here, the trunk air line along the face is sectionalised to facilitate
dismantling, moving forward, and re-assembly, and consists of I-inch bore four-ply rubber hose
divided into sections 4 or 5 yds. long, according to the desired spacing of the lamps. Adjacent
sections are connected by T-pieces fitted with on-off cocks and with !-inch bore hose feeding each
lamp. The lamps, preferably of the fluorescent type to reduce glare; are suspended above the face
conveyor by hooks or brackets and the pipe lines are slung up to the roof. In one such installation,
with lamps spaced at 5 yd. intervals, the maximum illumination opposite the lamps was 0·9 lm./sq. ft.
, and the average between the lamps was 0·31 lm./sq. ft.

LIGHTING FROM THE MAINS

Under present regulations, mains lighting is permitted on intake roads up to within 50 yds. of
the coal face and on other roads up to within 300 yds. of the face. Moreover, in districts where
electric power is used on the face, mains lighting can be used up to within 10 yds. of the face on intake
roads and 100 yds. on other roads, or up to within 10 yds. of the face in any circumstances, if
authorised by the divisional inspector. Mains lighting at the face itself is only permitted by Special
Regulations applicable to the mine concerned.
The voltage of an underground lighting system must not exceed 250 volts and, as electric power
is usually distributed at high or medium pressure, it is necessary to transform down to the lower
voltage at or near the actual lighting points. Lighting transformers are usually single-phase air-
"cooled units ranging up to S kVA fitted with double-pole switch and fuses on both H.T. and L.T.
sides and with incoming and outgoing cable boxes. The lighting circuits are sectionalised to facilitate
inspection or repair and all switches are of flameproof pattern. Lighting cables are single-wire
armoured, two-core cables insulated with vulcanised rubber or compound, the conductors consisting
of either 3 or 7 wires 0·036 in. diameter. ,
The two chief types of lamp used for mains lighting of roadways cue :-
(a) Tungsten titament lamps with either ''\vell-glass" or "bulkhead" fitting and of 40 to 80 ,~'att
output, although larger sizes are sometimes used. The well-glass fitting is designed for attachment
to the roadway roof and the bulkhead fitting for wall mounting or where height is limited. Recent
improvements include a lens-type ribbed cover glass to reduce glare. Such lamps have light outputs
of 11-14 lumens per watt and a life of about 1,000 hours.
(b) ~Iercm:y-vapour fluorescent discharge tubes. 2 to 5 ft. long and of 20 to 80 watt capacity.
These require a much larger housing and take up more room than the previous type and they are
higher in first cost and in maintenance, but they possess many advantages, including low power •
consumption per unit of light output, comparative freedom from glare, more evenlight distribution,
less shadow and longer life. Fluorescent lamps have light outputs ranging from 30 to 40 lumens
per watt and a rated life of 3,000 to 5,000 hours. ii·

It is evident that the number and spacing of lamp fittings on roadways must be governed by
the degree of illumination required, this being much higher at pit-bottoms, landings and loading
points than elsewhere. Spacings are commonly 10 to 16 yds. In general, it is better to have closely ..
spaced lamps of low wattage to give a good average level of illumination than widely-spaced lamps
of high wattage with a high level of illumination uhder the lamps and poor illumination between
them. The ratio between the maximum (under the lamps) and the minimum (between them) is
known as the "diversity ratio" and should not exceed about 5 to 1 although this is often greatly
exceeded in practice. In all cases, the illumination can be greatly increased by whitewashing the
surroundings to increase the reflectivity factor.
•
eoat-raee ·Ughting ftomtfie mains. •
Although there have been many experimental installations in Great Britain of coal-face lighting
from the mains, the system has not yet reached the stage of general application. The difficulties
to be overcome are considerable. The working height is generally restricted and it is unlikely that
mains lighting will be practicable in seams less than 3 ft. thick; there is already a great deal o'f
equipment on a mechanised face, with little room to manoeuvre; there is risk of darnage jto the
lighting fittings due to shot-firing, falls of roof, or other J:iazard ; the equipment must be sufficiently
strong and robust to withstand possible rough treatment and it must be designed so as to eliminate.
any risk of igniting gas if anything goes wrong; and the whole lighting installation must be capable
of being moved forward daily as the face advances. Nevertheless, it is at the face where a reasonably
.. l;dgh level of illumination-upwards of 0·4 lumen per sq.' ft.-is most needed to enable efficient work
to be carried on and to reduce the risk of accident. Mains lighting on the face has been widely
adopted in Germany for many years, espgcially in seams where shot-firing is not required and risk
of accident from that cause is eliminated, and there is no doubt that further developments in coal-<
face lighting will also take place in Great Britain as time goes on. · --
 •
• MG/9
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
9
•
• The single-phase supply for mains lighting at the face is obtained from flameproof transformer-
~witch units made in the form of a gate-end box similar to those used for operating coalcutters. The"
transformer may be of 2 to 5 kVA output, designed to reduce the district supply voltage to 110-125
volts and fitted with overload and earth leakage protection. The cable may be a 4-core trailing or
--
pliable armoured cable carrying two power cores, an earth core and a pilot core, the latter carrying
a pilot current which operates the contactor in the gate-end box and breaks the circuit if the earth
or pilot circuit is interrupted. The lamp fittir g1 are connected to the cable by 4-pin plug and socket
connectors which enable the equipment to he dismantled easily and re-assembled daily as the face
advances. The lamps themselves may be either ~a) 40 to 60-watt tungsten-filament lamps with
glass suitably designed to reduce the surface brightness and glare; or (b) twin 20 to 30-watt straight
fluorescent tubes; or (c) 40-watt, 10 in. diam. circular fluorescent tubes. The advantages of
fluorescent lighting at the face are its low intrinsic brilliance and large area of light source. The
advantages of tungsten filament lamps are that they are lighter in weight, less bulky, and cheaper
than. their fluorescent counterparts.
In general, the lamps on the face are connected electrically in parallel, and are spaced at intervals
of 4 to 6 yds. They may be arranged in one of two ways :-
( 1) Straight-through coupling system, in which a number of lamp units are connected mechanically•
in series by plug and socket connectors, so forming a relatively fixed line of fittings extending along
., . the face. The whole line is mounted on the roof supports behind the face conveyor so that some
obstruction to the lights is inevitably caused by the face supports. A disadvantage of the system
is that, if any lamp unit fails and has to be removed or replaced, the whole face is plunged in darkness
until a new unit is inserted.
(2) Wander-lead system, in which the main lighting cable is still mounted for protection behind •
• the face conveyor, but 3-yd. lengths of cable (the wander-leads) are teed off the main cable at intervals
of, say, 12 It., each lead being fitted with a lamp which can be moved about to the most convenient
position in the working area. If one lamp fails, supply to the others is not interrupted and adjacent
lamps can be moved closer together to maintain reasonable illumination at that point.
In cases where armoured snaking conveyors are in use, it is possible to mount the lighting
fittings on the back of the conveyor framework so that they move forward with it. A disadvantage"
of this arrangement is that the fittings are likely to be in the line of vision of the coal-face workers
and it is difficult to avoid undue glare. ·
It should be understood that, even where face lighting from the mains is installed, it is still
necessary to provide additional light from cap lamps in order (1) to penetrate deep shadows in the •
··working area at the start of the shift, (2) to raise the general level of i1luminationtowards the end •
of tte shift, and (3) to provide light to ensure the safety of workmen in the event of failure of the
main~ lighting system.
•
TEST PAPER MG/9.
•
1. Briefly define what is meant by the following 5. Sketch and describe the electric safety cap lamp
terms used in illumination :-(a) candle-power; with which you are most familiar, mentioning
(b) lumen; and (c) foot-candle. any features of special interest. State the type
of battery used and its mode of action.
2. Find the intensity of illumination (a) under each 6. (a) What are the essential requirements to ensure
lamp and (b) midway between the lamps on that the safety lamps at a colliery are main-
• • the floor of the roadway which is equipped tained in an efficient condition ? State the
with 100 c.p. lamps mounted at a height of points to which attention should be paid in
8 ft. and at intervals of 10 yds. along the respect of (b) flame safety lamps and (c)
centre line of the road. Illustrate your electric lamps.
·~ .
• Ill •• answer by a sketch .
7. (a) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
• 3.• Do you consider the following a correct statement?
"The gauzes used in a flame safety lamp
self-servicing lamprooms. (b) Describe, with
the aid of a sketch, a . modern layout for
prevent gas from getting to the flame." If 2,000 cap-lamp self-servicing installation, with
not, what exactly is the purpose.of the gauzes? provision for servicing oil lamps.
8. (a) Discuss the types of lighting installations you
4.
• •
Describe a• modern flame safety lamp used for would adopt at pit bottom and main haulage
• gas-testing purposes, preferably the t ype-used junctions in a large modern colliery. (b)
• at your. colliery. Illustrate your answer by Discuss briefly the application of safe and
a sketch . .efficient lighting at the coal face.
•
GARDIFP PRINTERS LTD.
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FOUNDED 1883 COPY~IGHT
• T. A.- SOUTHERN LTD.,
1'1'fE U.M.S. THIS PAPER.
WAS THE FIRST IS SUPPl.lEp ON •
fil'~e ~~af ~-cfwof.
~· ~
<!OP.RES PON DENCE CONDITION .THAT
fl1NING SCHOOL IT IS RESERVE&
IN THE WORLD EXCLUSIVELY FOR.
INCORPORATED t991 CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USE

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MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

Answers MG/9 .
•
MINE LIGHTING .
• 1. Briefly define what is meant by the following terms used in illumination :-(a) candle-power;
• (b) lumen; and (c) foot-candle .

••
DEFINITION OF TERMS
· (a) Candle-power. This expresses the luminous intensity of a light source and is technically •
• defined as the "amount of luminous flux emitted by a point source of light per unit solid angle."
One candle-power is most easily visualised as the intensity of light given out by a sperm wax candle
although this standard has now been superseded by an internationally agreed standard the value
of which is 1 ·02 times the old British standard. In practice, a convenient standard lamp to use
for comparative purposes is a 10 c.p. Harcourt pentane lamp, whilst a tested electric lamp may
be used as a secondary standard.
It is not enough, however, to state that a lamp is of (say) 5 c.p. For a complete knowledge-
of the luminous intensity of the lamp, it is necessary to know whether this is the average intensity
in all directions (i.e. the m.s.c.p.), or only in all horizontal directions (m.h.c.p.), or within certain
specified degrees of arc, or the maximum c.p, in one direction. It is. possible for a light-source to
have a m.s.c.p. of 1, and yet, by the use of a reflector, to have a maximum c.p. of 20 or more in
one direction. Whether a lamp should give all-round illumination, or have. its light concentrated •
<. ,,,, in one direction, or within a limited arc, is determined by the nature of the work to be done. •
• •
(b) Lumen. This is a unit of luminous flux and is a measure of the light output of a lamp. One
lumen is the flux emitted in unit solid angle by a uniform point source of one international candle. •
Alternatively, it is the amount of light falling on a surface of 1 sq. ft., 'every point of which is 1 ft.
distant from a source of light of 1 c.p. The total flux emitted in all directions by a source of 1 c.p. is
47T lumens -:- 12·57 lumens and, in general, we can say that the lumens output of a lamp = its •
m.s.c.p. x 477.

•
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•
'.i

• ••
• •
•.
This measures the intensity of illumination of a surface and one foot-candle
(c) Foot-candle.
'is the illumination produced by 1 c.p. at a distance of 1 foot. It is the illumination of the inner
surface of a sphere of one foot radius at the centre of which there is a source of 1 c.p. It is also
equivalent to an illumination of one lumen per sq. ft .. and the two terms are inter-changeable.
•The illumination received by a surface varies directly as the c. p. of the source and inversely as
the square of the distance. It is also proportional to the cosine of the angle 8 between the normal
to the surface and the direction of the light rays. The whole relationship can be expressed by
•.the equation :-
C.p. of light source
lliumination of a surface in ft.-candles x cos 8
(Distance in feet) 2

2. .F.ind•thee/,ntens#y of illumination (a) under each lamp and (b) midway between the lamps
• on the floor of a roadway, which is equipped with 100 c.p. lamps mounted at a height of 8 ft. and
• at interuals of lO yds. along the centre line of the road. Illustrate your answer by a sketch .

- -11.-o"A:DW~Y-IliliUMlN~TION -· -
In the adjoining sketch, X and Y represent two 100 c.p.
lamps mounted 8 ft. above the floor AB and 30 ft. apart. C is •
..
the point midway between and angle XCD = 8 is the angle

• •
of incidence of the oblique rays XC and 'fC from the normal.
•The length of XC = yl52
(a)
• c.p. 100
+
82 = y289 = 17 ft.
Illumination below lamps at A or B •

= -- = 1 ·56 ft. candles (or 1 ·56 lm./sq. ft.) Fig. 1. Roadway Illumination.
• • •
•

d2 - 64 • • •
• • • •
• (5712).
• •
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IvlG/9··
A n'.s~ers on M ine Lighting •
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(b)
..
A/2·_.. -·-------
Illumination between lamps at C will be that due to both the lamps X and Y (neglecting the•'
)
~small amount of light given by lamps further away)' namely :--

d2
c.p.
X cos 0 X 2 lamps = .--
--

-----------·----------------·---------
172
x
17
x 2
100 8
=: 0·32 ft. C (or lm./sq. ft.)

. :t 3. Do you consider the f oUowin.g a correct statement ? "The gauzes used in a flame safety lamp
•

·-
\./ · prevent gas from getting to the flame." If not, what exactly is the purpose of the gauzes ? •
PURPOSE OF WIRE GAUZE
It is, of course, quite incorrect to say that the gauzes prevent gas getting to the wick flame. If
it were true, the lamp would cease to function for lack of air. When the lamp is burning in the
presence of gas, the gas enters the lampalong with the inlet air and is ignited at the wick-flame, the •
products of combustion passing out through the upper part of the gauzes.
• The purpose of the gauzes is to prevent the passage .of flame from the interior to the exterior of
the lamp so that, even if gas be ignited within the gauzes, no external ignition will occur. This holds
good so long as the gauzes themselves do not become white hot, or flame is not forced through the •
apertures by high air velocities. A single unprotected gauze (as in the old Davy lamp) was ineffective
to prevent these dangers, but modern lamps, with their double gauzes and protective outer bonnet, •
successfully resist the passage of flame in all conditions likely to be met with underground .

•
4. Describe a modern flame safety lanip used for gas-testing pitrposes, preferably the type used
•
at your colliery. Iliustrate your answer by a sketch. -

5. Sketch and describe the electric safety cap lamp with which you, are mostfamiiiar, mentioning
any features of special interest. State the type of battery used and its mode of action.

[Note. In questions 4 and 5, students are intended to examine the lamps they use themselves
so asto familiarise themselves with the details of construction and assembly, being guided generally
by .the sketches and descriptions given in the Lesson.]
• •--·--·-~-......
' .l -··---------------------

- Jf. (a) What a:e the essential requirements to ensure that the safety lamps at a colliery •are
V~aintained in an efficient condition ? State the points to which attention should be paid in
• respect of (b) flame safety lamps and (c) electric lanip«. JI-

MAINTENANCE OF SAFETY LAMPS

•
(a) Essential requirements.

•
Very broadly, the essentials are a properly designed and fully equipped lamproom, with
adequately trained staff and a regular routine of inspection, photometric testing, and keeping of •
records. In particular, the responsible post of head lampman should be held by a competent and
experienced person who is capable of exercising discipline and of supervising all the maintenance
and repair work in an efficient manner. Control of the condition of the lamps is best ensured by
regular photometric testing, one quarter ofthe lamps being tested each week and the whole instalh!tion •
.once every month, any defect discovered being remedied at the time.
•
(b) Flame lamps. . ·: •
The maintenance of flame lamps is largely a matter of cleanliness, proper assembly, and· thorouglf .• •
examination by the lamproom staff. Damaged lamps should be removed at once to the repajr •
room. Damaged gauzes should be destroyed at once. -Lamps designed to be lit electrically should
be so lit in the lamproom before being taken underground. It is important to see that the lamp-glass
7
is air-tight, that the wick-adjuster is working freely, and that the lamp is properly locked.
(c) Electric lamps. . . • •
'
These require more -skilled attention, especially the battery- a-nd--t-he-bu-1-bs-;---an-d-the- makers-: --
•
instructions must be carefully adhered to. Important points are :- •
(1) The batteries should be topped up to the correct level every 7 to 10 days, only distilled water
being used. •

-.
(2) The tops of the batteries and the terminals and contact plates should be kept clean and
..• smeared with Vaseline.
(3) Charging mustrbe carried out ·.at the correct 'IOltage specified· by· the makers. Le~d-aci?
• cells must never be left in a discharged condition.

•
.. ' ' ' ' ' .
. (4) Only-approved bulbs of the correct rating should be used, being replaced after about 600•
hours'. burning, or when photometric tests indicate that the light output- is below- ·.
standard.
' _·

(5) If a lamp fails during use, the appropriate steps are to test the bulb, check the switcbsand
'• .. '

internal contacts· in the headpiece, examine 'the cable, for defects, and check the battery, in that •
• •
.
order. Any replacement of plates in th! battery should be carried out by the makers .
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-.1\'1G /9
• The Universal Mining School, Cardiff . A/3

•
•
7. (a) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of self-service lamprooms. . . .
(b) Describe, with the aid of a sketch, a modern layout for a 2,000 cap-lamp self-service installation,
•• .. •

with provision for servicing oil lamps,

SELF-SERVICE LAMPROOMS
(a) The main advantages of a self-service Iamproom are:-
(1) TheIamproom staff is released from much unnecessary handling of the lamps and has more
time at its disposal for attending to the more important duties of maintaining the lamps, overhauling
them when necessary, photometric testing, and attending to complaints.
(2) The number of lamproom personnel in a large installation may be reduced without detriment
to the maintenance of high lighting efficiency.
(3) The queueing of men at lamp issuing windows is avoided.
(4) The men .are likely to take a greater personal interest in the operation of their lamps •
• (5,) The lamps are not subject to the same rough handling that they receive at the lamproom
windows with the hand-issuing system, or the wear and tear associated with dismantling and re-
assembly. · •
• . Perhaps the only disadvantage of the system is that, in a full self-service system, the possibility
exists of a damaged or faulty· lamp being put on charge by a workman and taken underground the
• following day without the defect having been reported or the lamp having been examined by a competent
person, as required by regulations. In the alternative hand-issue system, and also in the "self-help"
system used with alkaline· lamps, the lamproom attendant himself puts the battery on charge and

•
- -!8
examines the lamp before doing so. The problem, however, is a matter of lamproom discipline •
• whereby the attendant is required to examine the head-piece, battery cover lock, cable, and bulb
filament during each shift and keep regular records of all the examinations carried out as part of
the lamproom routine (photometric tests, repairs, lamp-history book, and so on). H these records
are properly kept, the chance of a damaged or unsafe lamp going into service underground is very
remote. ·

(b) Self-service Iamproom for 2,000 cap lamps.

The adjoining . outline sketch
shows a simple design of lamproom OIL
suitable for the self-service of 2,000 L.AMP
lead-acid cap lamps with some charging

l
ROOM
rack accommodation to spare. With •
this layout, men and officials, entering . ~ ~ L~~l'I 38 1 •

fro~ the left, hand in their oil lamps ~IN EACH FOR OUT AHO

at the hatch of the oil lamp room ; I I ~TORES e

hand in· defective lamps or register 5"'0 CAP LAMPS
complaints at the repair room; and,
REPAIR
ROOM __ __
.__ _._ __._ __ __
-----------.----..----~--
....,__ __._ __.
............
travelling in the directions shown by
the arrows, place their cap lamps on .._----~----------------------------- •
the charging racks in the numbered

•• •
• places allotted to them. The batteries
are then automatically charged on a

indicate that it is charging correctly.

Fig. 2. Self-service Lamp Room .

constant potential system at about 6 volts, an ammeter being placed directly above each lamp to
All the lamps are carefully examined by the lamproom staff
•in tie course of their shift in readiness for workmen to collect their lamps the following day : the
batteries are topped up once a week; and photometric tests are made once per month. This ensures
that the lamps are regularly inspected and maintained.

• • . • The overall dimensions of the lamproom are 78 ft. x 38 ft. Each row of charging racks is
. about 44 ft. long and accommodates 560 lamps, there being 5 sections in each row, each holding
• 142 lamps (56 each side). The floor is laid with terra-cotta tiles and the walls are lined half-way
up with porcelain tiles, the upper half being painted in a light shade. Adequate window lighting
is provided and also an overhead fluorescent system of artificial lighting. Auxiliary equipment
includes transformer rectifier units to supply the low-voltage direct current for charging, battery
testing set, ~1obi~et<ipping-up apparatus, and photometers. ·
•
•
8. (a) Discuss the types of l1:ghtinginstallations you would adopt at pit bottom and main haulage
• [unctions=in: a large modern colliery. (b) Discuss briefly the application of safe and efficient
lighting at the coalface. •
•,
MAINS LIGHTING UNDERGROUND
'
(a) At the pit bottom and main haulage junctions, a high standard of illumination is essential,
"arranged in such a manner that haulage workers do not stand in their own light, that deep shadows
.
are not cast, and that glare is avoided. No standard has been laid down but it has been suggested
that the illumination should be of the order of 6 to 10 lumens per sq. ft. at pit bottoms and 4 tt> • •
6 11'1./sq.ft. at haulage junctions .. These figures are rarely reached in practice, even on the floor
• directly below the lamps, and still less between them'. l;he solution lies in (1) the use of lamps of . •
sufficiently high candle-power but low intrinsic brightness, and (2) closer spacing, In addition, all
•

. .. ,•
• • •the surroundings must be kept in a whitened condition to improve the reflectivity factor.
•
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MG/9-
A~=--- ------- A_n_s_w_er_s_-
_o_n_M_in_e_L_i_·g_h_.:._t_in_g_--'--,--------'---
•

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•
The installation required for mains lighting includes lighting transformers with a ·voltage ratio
of anything from 3,000 down to llO volts, although 250 volts pressure is now permissible; flameproof
•

switches to control the sectionalised lighting circuits; and twin-core single-wire armoured cables
leading to the lamp fittings. These may be spaced along the centre line of the roadway or on alternate
sides, at intervals determined by the degree of illumination aimed at.
The types of lamps available include (a) incandescent tungsten filament lamps in well-glass or
bulkhead fittings in various sizes up to 150 watts and (b) mercury-vapour fluorescent tubes in sizes
ranging from 20 to 80 watts with 24 in., 48 in., and 60 in. tubes. The tungsten filament lamps are
cheaper, less bulky, and simpler to install and maintain, but they have a relatively short life (about
1,000 hours) and are liable to cause glare. The latter defect may be minimised by the use of frosted,
opalescent, or lens-type glass but the illumination is thereby also reduced. Tubular fluorescent
lamps are a more recent introduction and possess many advantages ·over the incandescent type.
Their light-output is about ~.S lumens per watt (about 3 times that of tungsten lamps); their brightness
is relatively low, so reduc'P.ngglare ; they are less susceptible to voltage fluctuations; they are
inherently safer; and theyhavealongerlife (upwardsof2,500 hours). Their control equipment, however,
. is more elaborate and they require more maintenance.

· (b) Lighting at the coal face.

The problem of obtaining safe and efficient lighting at the coal face is not easy to solve and no
general answer has been found in spite of many experimental installations having operated with
greater or less success over many years. The difficulties are readily understood. Conditions are very

•
cramped ; any mains lighting equipment is likely to be subject to rough treatment ; it is liable to
• damage from roof falls or from shotfiring; the equipment has to be dismantled and moved forward
•
each day at a time suited to the general cycle of operations ; and there is an ever-present risk of
firedamp ignition due to a damaged cable or fitting. Nevertheless; many benefits would follow the
wider introduction of flood lighting at the face, in ensuring greater working comfort for· the men,
'improved working efficiency and output, and reduced risk of accident.
Several systems of face lighting have been used, including (a) fluorescent lighting by means of
.pneumatic electric lamps which can be used under any conditions where compressed air is available; •
(b) fluorescent lighting from the mains on both the straight-through and wander-lead systems ; and
(c) tungsten filament lamps similarly supplied. All three methods have been used with success. The
aim should be to obtain an illumination of 0·4 lumen per sq.ft. by a suitable choice of lamps and
their spacing. One of the difficulties is that coal has a low reflection factor of only about 5%i and this
can only be counteracted by systematic whitewashing of the coal, roof, pack walls, and supports
• at the face. Even when mains lighting is used, workmen must still be supplied with portable safety
•1amps to ensure theirs safety if the lighting installation should fail: •

•
CAR;,IPF PRINTERS LTD •

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FOUNDED. 1883 COPYRIGHT
it:tE U.M.S.
T. A. .SOUTHERN LTD., • THIS PAPER
• WAS THE FIRST

G/Luv~~ ~
IS SUPP"'ED ON
•CORRESPONDENCE
MINING SCHOOL
ll'I THE WORLD
~~e ~ko(, CONDITION THAT
IT IS RESERVED
EXCLUSIVEL.. FOR •
V4CORP01l.ATED 19SI CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN us~

MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

• L e.sson MG/IO.
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION .
••
•. , Spontaneous combustion may be defined as the self-heating of coal or other carbonaceous material
resulting eventually in its ignition without the application of any external heat.
The process is essentially one of oxidation of the coal under conditions which favour the retention
of the heat inevitably generated by ehemical action. With the retention of heat, the temperature"
• rises, the rate of oxidation is accelerated and the process becomes cumulative. The oxidising material
first becomes warm, then hot, and finally it ignites.
-· Probably all coal is liable to self-heating in some degree, and it is only necessary to establish a
suitable air-current in one direction through a sufficient mass of coal in order to produce spontaneous
firing with any variety of coal ; but some seams are specially prone to it because of certain pre-
disposing factors, partly chemical, partly physical.
• The. coalfields of Great Britain ·where spontaneous combustion is most prevalent are those of
•
N. and S. Staffordshire, Warwickshire, S. Yorkshire, Lancashire, Forest of Dean, and Fifeshire.

GimERAL CONDITIONS FAVOURING OXIDATION.

-\ ...>;);:;/-

Certain pre-disposing factors include the following :-

• (1) Low carbon content. In general, coals of low carbon content (up to say 85%) are more
liable to self-heating than those of higher carbon content. Fires are practically unknown in the
true anthracites.
(2) Bright coals. The bright constituents of coal (vitrain and clarain) are more oxidisable
than the dull constituent (durain.)
(3) Pre.sence of iron pyrites (brasses). It is now generally agreed that, whilst the heatin~ •
efft!ct of iron pyrites (sulphide of iron) when undergoing oxidation, may be- an important factor in
the initial stages of combustion in certain seams, its main effect is that, in oxidising, it swells up and
disintegrates the coal, so rendering the coal more permeable by air and exposing a greater area of coal •
substance to oxidation. This is specially liable to occur when the pyrites exists as an amorphous form
of marcasite and is disseminated throughout the seam. ,
(4) Presence of moisture. Thisdoes not, ofitself, assist the oxidation of coal, but its presence •
is necessary for the oxidation of pyrites and it has an accelerating effect on the disietegration of
• the coal.
'(S) Friable coal. Small coal self-heats- more readily than large coal, and it thus follows that
a friable coal which readily breaks into small pieces is more likely to self-heat than a hard coal.
• (6) aigh temperature. Increase of temperature favours oxidation and thus, unless the· heat
of ~idation is constantly being dissipated, ignition will eventually occur. An unlimited air-supply·
will effectively prevent undue increase· of temperature ; absence of air will prevent oxidation ; and

. ... .
*-
•. somewhere between these two extremes, conditions may permit marked heating to take place. Of
•.course, once ignition occurs (as distinct from slow oxidation) the admission of air will only increase
the combustion.
·• • It is often said that timber, paper, oily waste, rags, etc., are also liable to self-heating but, whilst
. 1Jf· these are combustible materials, they do not begin to heat up and burn or smoulder until spontaneous
heating of coal and its associated carbonaceous or pyritic matter has started. The chief danger of
leaving props (wJ1etherof wood or steel) in the goaf is that they prevent even settlement of the roof
• and consolidation of,he packs and so permit air percolation to continue unchecked for a longer period .
• At this point, it is desirable to introduce the student to a brief account of the structure of coal,
• in so far as it bears on the subject under discussion.
• From the chemical point of view, coal has been found to consist essentially of (a) a ground mass
of " ulmin " or "humic " materials, these being the structureless products of decay of the cellular
tissues of the original plants contributing to the coal deposit; and (b) a smaller quantity of well-
•
preserved plant remains, namely (i) cuticles (the durable skin forming the outer wall of the surface ..
••
cells ot leaves and stems), (ii) spore-cases or,pore-exines (virtually the seed by which the coal-measure
• trees reproduce themselves) and (iii) woody tissues. •
. Of the foregoing constituents, the three latter are resistant to oxidation, as they were resistant
to decay in the first instance, whilst the structureless ulmins are very prone to oxidation, their suscep-

•
••
til:)ijity to oxidation being greater as the percentage of oxygen and moisture increases.
(5411)
•
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I •
\ i
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• ..
•
MG/10 • Spontaneous ·Combustion, •
2. •
From the physical point of view, a banded bituminous coal may be divided into four characteristic
• corftponerrts, termed vitraln, clarain, durain, and fusain. Of these, the vitrain and clarain form the

•
• bright portions of the coal, durain the dull portion, and fusain the soft, powdery, somewhat fibrous
strands occurring chiefly in small patches and wedges between the other constituents and knowri
sometimes as " mother of coal " or " mineral charcoal."
The vitrain consists almost entirely of ulmins in the form of a structureless substance resembling
consolidated jelly, and it also occurs in thin (brilliantly glossy) bands which fracture readily into
small pieces. It is thus very prone to oxidation. Similar remarks apply in a somewhat less degree
to the (bright) clarain.
The (dull) duraln contains a fair proportion (15 to 20%) of resistant material (cuticles, spore-
cases, and woody tissues) in addition to its ulmin content, and it is hard and difficult to fracture. It •
does not therefore oxidise readily. The layers of durain may be as much as two or three inches thick.
'W
The tusaln consists very largely (about 80%) of resistant materials (chiefly woody tissues) and
therefore would not oxidise were it not for the fact that it is a porous, flocculent powder which presents
·• .
an extremely large surface to the air. Actually therefore it oxidises.rapidly at low temperatures, •
but it forms only about 5% of the coal and is thus not so important a factor in spontaneous com-
bustion as the vitrain. It has been said that the critical point in any piece of coal is the junction
•between fusain and vitrain, and it is the fusain that sets the vitrain on fire.
It is interesting to note that the coking properties of bituminous coals appear to ·be due to•the •
vitrain and clarain, although they, by
durain yields an incoherent gravelly
themselves, yield a
coke; whilst Iusain
puffy-looking coke that is easily crushed;
is as non-coking as charcoal. A strong
•
industrial coke is yielded by;:· a suitable
.. ,;,
mixture
;··
of the first three ingredients.
-
• -, \~JTUATIONS
\
\_1
!
WHERE SELF-HEATING IS MOST LIKELY TO OCCUR.
(1) Thick seams. Seams exceeding 4 ft. in thickness are more liable to self-heat than thinner
seams, partly because coal is a bad conductor of heat compared with shale or sandstone, and the
temperature rise due to oxidation can only be kept down by air passing over or through the coal;
and partly because it is difficult, if not impossible, to extract all the coal. Pillars. or stumps of coal
are unavoidably left and are subject to crushing. Sometimes, the seam is extracted in two or more
•

•
.lifts and heating occurs in the second or subsequent working. In other cases, a modified pillar-and-
stall method is adopted and heating occurs during the extraction of the pillars.
(2) Deep seams.. These are more liable to self-heating, . partly because the strata temperature
is greater, and partly because the crush is increased. For both reasons, oxidising processes are likely
to be accelerated. ·
• (3) Seams containing bands of inferior coal, interspersed with thin layers of dirt and possibly
,.,,.
•having a roof of carbonaceous shale, are prone to self-heating because the inferior bands and dirtgare '

often left underground, and the shale itself may also oxidise after falling in the wastes.
• (4) Loosely-packed goaf containing small coal and other carbonaceous refuse. This forms perhaps -}
the most usual site for self-heating to occur. The air percolates through the coal, sufficient in quantity
to cause oxidation, but insufficient to carry off the heat generated.
to occur near the face, where the packs have not become consolidated;
Such conditions are most likely
near doors and stoppings
'
•
in cross-roads between intake and return, because air is liable to leak through the packs or coal in the

•
vicinity; and at the side of ribs where the solid coal prevents the roof from subsiding and tightening
the packs. •
(5) Sites of old falls. It has been said that the easiest way to start a gob-fire is to leave a small
pillar of coal, together with a few roof supports, in the goaf, behind the advancing face. Such stooks
of coal and roof supports should always, if possible, be carefully removed. • •
(6) Edges of solid coal pillars and ribs. These are liable to be crushed and fractured by the
superincumbent pressure and often form the site of a heating.
(7) Faults. These contribute indirectly to self-heating because inferior coal is sometimes left.•
next to them; they interfere with the regularity of the line of face; and they conduce to falls and
.•
the leaving behind of coal in the goaf. ·~ C·?tc cs« ·~ S . l · 'l (_ j f,./tctA/ · • •
, <:.J) •G-!4 sc.YJ S.e.~ ~1 l a. o ·. tP . o . ·.. . '
' '[SYMPTOMS ()F SELF-HEATIN~·@ (;)v!L'f·-Tt'~V-, er/kiz• )>/ll(;l.rS.. ~
', ..._,L. Speaking generally, the development of self-heating is accompanied progresswely by "haze,''
.. sweating," "stink," "smoke," and finally "fire." These symptoms, how~ver, a~ capable of •
finer differentiation.

(a) Slight or incipient heating. •

-· · - •
• ·-
(1) Faint haze, due to the moisture given off during oxidation being condensed as small globules

..•
in the cooler air away from the heating .
(2) Sweating, due to the condensation of moisture and its deposition as beads on the. cooler
surfaces (roof, sides, timbers, and metal surfaces). , · ·
•
(3) Faint odour, known as " gob-stink," slightly oily, sometimes sweet, sometimes like the smell-
of decaying timber.
• • (4) Slight discomfort, due· to increased air temperature and humidity, a sensation of tickling

. • in nose and throat, and an intense desire to swallow repeatedly.

• (S) Crickets, when present, show increased activity and chirping .
•
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The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. ~
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{b) Intermediate stage.
The previous symptoms are intensified and, in addition:-
(6) Pronounced paraffin or petrol-like odour of. the gob-stink, indicating the beginning of dis-
tillation of the coal. If timber is undergoing oxidation, the odours are of a more pungent and irritant
character.
•
•
- •

(c) Heating approaching ignition.

(7) Tarry odour, known as "fire-stink," develops due to further distillation of coal.
This "fire-
stink:" is quite distinct from the "gob-stink" previously noticeable, but does not necessarily indicate
actual fire.
(8) Smoke may begin to be seen. In some cases, however, the smoke from an actual fire may be
filtered during its passage through finely broken ground, and thus may not be seen.
• ·• (d) After heating has ceased.
• When a heating is no longer active and is cooling down, an extremely sour and unpleasant" dead"
smell, reminiscent of stale garlic, becomes noticeable.
It must be clearly understood that the various symptoms overlap and some may even be missing.
in the early stages. The ventilation may be strong enough to carry off, dilute, and dissipate the
• earl'y products of combustion. "Fire-stink" or smoke may, in some cases, be the first evidence
• of anything amiss. Odours may be present, but masked by other smells, and they may therefore

.• be overlooked. Among such mlsleadtng' smells may be mentioned those due to :-

(a) Rope oil or other lubricant,
/

(b) Decay of wood in warm damp places.

it
(d) Tarred bra,ttice
.,<•,-.
cloth .
(e) Oil seepage from the roof.
·• •
(c) Grinding of rock under roof weight. (f) Pine-like odour of new timber.
In some mines, the deputies carry a pointed iron or copper rod which they push into the refuse
in the packs and wastes for a few moments and, by feeling it on withdrawal, can detect any heating
of. the refuse. In some cases also, systematic records of dry and wet bulb hygrometer readings in
district return airways are kept, because increased temperatures, especially of the wet-bulb, may
indisate incipient heating although other evidence may be absent.
~/ .

Gi(S-ANALYSIS AND DETECTION OF HEATING.

~~~:J.t~~I
It is generally agreed that analysis of the return air is no substitute for the regular inspection •
of underground districts by specially trained firemen and officials. Some go so far as to say that
" there is no scientific instrument-eo-equal the nose." Under favourable conditions, however, gas-
analysis may be a more positive and reliable means of detection than even a skilled practical observeg •
(w~o may nevertheless be misled although on the look-out for the usual symptoms). It is desirable
that the two methods should be used in conjunction with each other.
In the application of gas-analysis to the detection of heatings, the important thing to ascertain •
is, not so much the actual percentages of the various gases in the air (although these must be found in
the first instance) but the ratios of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide produced by oxldatlon to
{.
the oxygen used up in the process. The student should remember the following:- •
(a) In the case of breathing of men and animals, the burning of lights, and the decay of timber,
• no CO is evolved and the amount of C02 produced is roughly equivalent to the deficiency of oxygen,
i.e. to the amount of 02 used up or "absorbed." In other words, the ratio of C02 produced to 02
consumed or absorbed (termed the C02/02 ratio) is, say, 80% upwards. Also the C0/02 ratio is nil.
• (b) In the case of oxidation of iron pyrites* (iron disulphide, FeS2) no CO is produced, and the
am~unt of C02 produced indirectly by the action of sulphuric acid on carbonates in the coal is usually
jess than half the oxygen " absorbed." The C02/02 ratio is thus less than 50% and the CO/02 -ratlo
jS nit
•. •• (c) In the case of oxidation of coal, a variable amount of both C02 and CO is produced, depending
• ~n how long the coal has been exposed to the atmosphere and on the temperature of the material.
At normal temperatures, the oxidation of fresh coal produces very small quantities of the oxides
of carbon in relation to the oxygen absorbed, the C02/02 ratio being only about 4% and the C0/02 ·
ratio below about 0·5% (in round numbers). With old coal, the C02/02 ratio rises to about 20%,
and the COf.02 mti~possibly to 2 per cent.

- •
• At higher temperatures (up to say 140°C or 284°F), the C02/0 2 ratio is of the order of 40% and
the C0/02 ratio may rise to about 7%, or higher in exceptional cases. (These figures are subject to
variation according to' the na-ture of the coal considered).

*[Note. When iron pyrites oxidises at ordinary temperatures (the presence of moisture being •
essentjal) it forms ferrous sulphate and sulphuric acid in accordance with the equation -,
2FeS2 + 702 +., 2H20 = 2FeS04 · + 2H2SO 4
•
• The ferrous sulphate appears as white feathery crystals in the form of incrustations or small accumu-
lations, whilst the acid is only too familiar in connection with the corrosion ofpipes and pumps.
The pyrites, however, is usually associated with carbonates, and the sulphuric acid acts on the~e,
lib~ating C02 and forming sulphates. When pyrites is heated in an atmosphere deficient iri oxygen • •
• and in contact with coal or other organic materials containing hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen
.• •
· {H2S) is produced.] •
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MG/IO
-4--- Spontaneous Combustion.
----- ---·---------·--·---·----·-----·-

.H will be seen that in any mine air-sample, the C02/02 ratio is always affected more or less by-
_,factorsother than the oxidation of coal, and may have any value from say 10 or 15% upwards to
60% according to the extent to which the oxidation of timber and iron pyrites, as well as that of'
coal is responsible for the vitiation.

Variations in the C0/02 ratio, however, are caused by coal oxidation only, and the C0/02 ratio
is therefore the more important one to watch. Under normal conditions, in mines subject to spontaneous
heating, the C0/02 ratio is round about 0· 1 % to 0·5% in main returns, and upwards possibly to
about 1 % in the working places. When heating is taking place, the C0/02 ratio increases gradually,
•
a ratio of about 3% being commonly recorded, although higher ratios up to as much as 12·5% have
occasionally been observed.

It is clear that in using gas-analysis for the detection of heating, the first essential is to obtain
the ratios (and especially the C0/02 ratio) that are normal to the seam and district under observation,
and then any increase must be regarded with suspicion. No definite dangerous minimum value for
the C0/02 ratio can be stated as applying to all cases. In some mines, a ratio of as little as 0·25% - ..
may indicate incipient heating ; in others a ratio of 1 % may not indicate anything unusual ; but a
progressive i~crease in the C0/02 ra~io ~orrnor~ than a day or so is a reliabl~ indication of the deve~op-
ment of heatmg. If the C0/02 ratio rises rapidly to say 3%, the trouble rs undoubtedly of a serious
character. It is noteworthy that the C0/02 figures are generally lower in machine mining than with
hand-got methods of working. t)

It must be clearly understood that the actual percentage of CO in the air is very different from
the C0/02 ratio. The actual percentage depends on the quantity of air flowing, the quantity of -
oxidising material and the extent to which the gas is diluted. Usually, under normal conditions,
(if present at all) it ranges between 0·001 % (or less) and 0·01 %, but it may rise to 0·25% or 0·3%
or even more in the return air from a fire. Special methods of analysis are necessary to enable these
small percentages to be accurately determined.

The following is an example of an analysis of normal return air in a certain seam liable to spon-
•
taneous combustion and will serve to show how the C02/02 and C0/02 ratios are calculated:-
per cent. per cent.
Carbon Dioxide 0·39 C02 prod.
Methane 0·93 02 abs. 40
Oxygen 19·95
Nitrogen 78·72 CO pro.rl..
t: Carbon Monoxide 0·005 02 ab;;~--- 0·56
Now the percentage of._oxygenin normal air is 20·93, of nitrogen (including argon) is 79·04, and of C02 is O·t/3.
20·93
• The oxygen corresponding to 78·72 parts of nitrogen x 78·72 = 20·85%
79·04
Oxygen absorbed 20·85 - 19·95 0·9%
•. C02 produced
absorbed
= (0·39 - 0·03)
== (0·36 -:-- 0·9) X 100 ==
0·36%, and this, expressed as a percentage
40%
of the oxygen

CO produced 0·005% (0·005 -:-- 0·9) x 100 0·56% of the oxygen absorbed.

The following analysis was taken in the same seam when dangerous heating was taking place,
:and is given for comparison with the previous sample, the figures being worked out in a similar way.
The panel in which the sample was taken was immediately sealed oft, the decision being taken pagtly •
.as a result of the analysis and partly because of the presence of other dangerous symptoms. Attention
is specially drawn to=the low value of the CO percentage as compared with the relatively high value
•
of the C0/02 ratio.
·~·
Carbon Dioxide
per cent.
0·40 C02 prod.
per cent.
• . ..
..•

Methane 1·03 o;-abs. 40

Oxygen 19·90
Nitrogen
Carbon Monoxide
78·67
0·03
CO prod.
02 abs. 3·2 ~- --
METHODS OF WORKING SEAMS LIABLE "TO SPONTANEOus ·· COl.\1f.BUSTION.
Broadly speaking, all coal seams are worked by either (a) advancing longwall, or (b) retreating
longwall, or (c) some pillar method of working, the latter being restricted mainly to thick seams or"
to seams where only partial extraction is permitted. All these methods have been used with success
• in seams liable to spontaneous combustion, advancing longwall being the most common although
retreating longwall has much in its favour.
Perhaps the most important first precaution is to dfvide the area to be worked into a number
ot small districts or panels, the entrance to each panel being limited to two (or three) roads provided ·
with arrangements for rapid and effective sealing-oft should the need arise. Each panel should be
Isolated from its neighbour either by a solid coal rib or, \n some cases where advancing longwaU is
•• ... acfopted, by a solid dirt and sand pack some 20 yards wide so as to permit even settlement of the n!of .

•
•
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• The Universal Mining School, Cardiff .

• Within each panel, the coal should be extracted as rapidly and continuously as possible in ot"der
to push the zone of higher temperature, developed by oxidation, as far back into the gob as possible.
-
•

•
~nd reduce the adverse effect of convection currents and fluctuations of barometric and ventilating
pressure at the waste edge. In pillar methods of working, large pillars should be formed to prevent
crushing and they should be extracted quickly on the retreat from the boundary of the panel.

Layout for advancing longwall.

Fig. 1 shows one possible layout of a double-
unit longwall face served by a central loading gate
and two tail gates and having adjoining panels
on each side.

, In this case, the panel is isolated from its

• neighbours by a solid sand and stone pack on
each side although a solid coal rib may be left if
• experience shows .that this is necessary to give
more effective sealing.

Where possible, the goaf may be completely

·• stowed by pneumatic or mechanical stowing. This, ----=H=A=u=L=A=G:;E:----;-~--====i,,_;::-;..._-
however, is frequently not possible. and reliance TRAVE"1..L1 t-1G
• is placed on well-built strip packs. In particular, -~.;;:.=:::::::::::;::----.--"------======;~-
the packs alongside the gateways, and especially Fig. 1. Advancmg Longwall Panel System
those at each end of the face and along rib sides should be made as strong and air-tight as possible

• •
to ensure even settlement of the roof without fracturing and. to prevent leakage across the goaf or
between adjoining panels.

Sites for stoppings should be prepared, or the stopplngs partially built, at the three points marked
SSS and adequate supplies of material kept ready for rapid completion if the need arises.

A new panel may be opened out after the previous one has advanced, say 100 yards or a distance
•

sufficient to ensure that the goaf has become consolidated.

When all the coal has been extracted from the panel, the equipment should be withdrawn, and
the panel sealed off whether there has been trouble from self-heating or not.
•
Layout for retreating longwall. •
• Fig. 2 shows a layout for retreating longwall FACE A FAGEB •
in which pairs of narrow headings are driven to :1, ..._.--.-~--·.-,,;
a chosen boundary and two single-unit retreating
faces, A and B, say 100 yards long, are worked
WIDE
SAND
1'.
:11 •'
• .• '· .. ,
'..1':
11.
•
back to the line XY. The intervening pillar C is PAc.t<
AT :1: ·: •
'
::: • GOAF
•••
•
,
• .,::
:l· PILLAR(,
WORt<EO 1
AETRl:ATlrt&
I
I

RlB- :•1 · ... · FAC.E :

extracted later. tr LATER :
11.;·~.:_·_ . .:_::..i· •
SIDE
I
!!
•
Within ·each panel, wide roadside and ribside RETl\EATINC> I
I
FAcE ~ I y
• packwalls are built of ·inert material, the large I
I

stones ·being dry mortared . with small material s ·-·--' s

and a layer of sand or stone dust, well rammed,
being placed on top of the pack. -$
• • 11

. . •.
•
•
•
Fig. 2. Retreating Longwall in Panels
As in the previous case, preparatory stoppings are erected at SSSS so that each panel may be
r'*1)idlysealed off when worked out, or if an emergency arises .
. :~ . Further precautionary measures.
These are so numerous that it is best to remember them under well-defined headings, bearing
in mind that spontaneous combustion will not occur if crushing of coal can be avoided, or if no crushed

- •
coal is left behind, o! if air percolation through crushed coal is prevented.
• (1) At the face. Advance the face continuously and rapidly. Secure good roof control to
prevent falls and induce gradual lowering of the roof without fracturing and excessive crush. Avoid
.$.ort stepped faces connected by .narrow airways. Remove as much small coal and carbonaceous
refuse from the mine as possible. Withdraw all timber from the goaf to permit even roof settlement and
• reduce air-leakage. Build wide solid packs, rammed with sand, against rib-sides and faults. Hole •
the coal, if practicable, in the under-dirt. When a fall occurs at the face, remove a1J.. coal next to
it and f>ack the cavity solidly.
(2) In the roadways. Drive main roads in stone, or rip them up as soon as possible into stone, •
·thereby burying the. roadside packs. Alternatively, build wide roadside packs of inert material
and, where necessary or in suspected places, line the roadway with steel arches backed by corrugated
· ste~ plates, sanded well behind, to prevent iir leakage. If a thin seam is adjacent to a thicker seam • •
• which is being worked, drive the main roads in the thin seam and connect up to U1e thick seam at
intervals. Tightly stow all disused roads with sand and ~tone packs after the equipment has been •
• •withdrawn. •
• .. " •
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MG/10
Spontaneous Combustion
•
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• • (3) Ventilation. Drive roomy airways circulating large volumes of air at a low watergauge •
• Keep the pit-bottom w-g as constant as possible. Arrange intakes and returns as far apart as possible.
Install stoppings, doors, sheets, aircrossings, and regulators in firm consolidated ground to avoid'
diversion of air around them.
equally.
Install doors and regulators in duplicate so that theyshare the work
Do everything possible to prevent leakage through packs. Avoid restrictions in airways,
whether permanent or temporary, to prevent high air velocities.
(4) Organisation and staff. Appoint a special staff of experienced officials and workmen to
examine all districts at regular intervals, thus enabling incipient heating to be promptly detected
and dealt with. Systematically record all falls and mark their position on the working plan. Instruct
•
all workmen to inform an official of any suspicious sign. Make arrangements for the regular collection,
analysis, and recording of air· samples. Establish the CO/02 ratio normal to each district. Provide
adequate supplies of materials for use in case of self-heating, e.g. sand, stone dust, bricks, mortar,
~irders, ventilating pipes, water under pressure, and portable fire extinguishers.
J! •
\. :~ETHODS OF DEALING WITH HEATINGS AND FIRES.
•
'v · The procedure to be adopted when a heating occurs naturally depends on the site of the heating,
its extent, the stage it has reached, whether gas is present or not, and other local factors .
• If a heating is disc;overed in its early or incipient stage, as indicated by the faint odour of gob
stink, or the presence of haze, the official in charge, assisted by an experienced gob-fire team, rsust •
at once take steps. to locate the site and cause of the trouble and, if posslble, prevent it from developing
further. Meanwhile, the area must be kept under constant observation until it is certain that the •
heating has died. down. In some cases, a heating 'does not develop into a fire but gradually dies
away of its own accord. In others, the second stage, with its paraffin smell, has been noticed to, ·~.·
• continue for some time and then die away .
If it is once suspected that the heating has developed into a fire, or possible fire, all men must
be withdrawn from the district except those dealing with the emergency and must not be readmitted
until the matter has been dealt with and a thorough examination and report have been made as laid
down in Regulations.
The steps to be taken to deal with the trouble may be considered under the headings of (a) local
•
• •
sealing to prevent access of air to the heating; (b) temporary stoppings; (c) digging out the heated
materials; and (d) sealing off the entire district. In all cases, the roadways contiguous to a heating
or a fire should be thoroughly re-stonedusted as a precaution against the spread of a possible explosion.
(a) Local sealing.
In cases where a heating is discovered in its early stages, sealing the area in the immediate
• vicinity is often successful in combatting the trouble. Instances are recorded where the simple
~xpedient of piling up _loose sand all around the perimeter of the affected area has been suffic~nt
to reduce oxidation and allow the heating to cool down. Other steps may include (1) building brick
• or stone walls some little distance from the packwall adjacent to the heating arid packing the space
with sand ; (2) building a sand pack across the goaf to seal off air from the face side; (3) lagging
arches with steel sheets and ramming sand behind; and (4) sealing off roof breaks by cement guniting
the surface of packs and strata in the vicinity. In short, every effort should be made to seal every
route whereby air may gain access to the heated material.

•-
(b) Temporary stopplngs,
Depending on the situation of the fire with the possibilities of isolation and ventilation control,
simple stoppings of a temporary. type may be erected in nearby roadways and may be sufficient to
create conditions under which a heating or a fire cannot exist .. Such stoppings should be sited as
near the affected area as is safe, and in such positions that little or no change is occasioned ire the e
ventilation of the unaffected parts of the district. They must also be capable of being rapidly built
of materials commonly available in the pit. Examples are :-

dirt.
(1) Tight stone pack 4 to 6 yards thick and having the interstices well rammed with sand or fine.• .• •
(2) Sandbag stopping, which forms perhaps the readiest means of constructing a stopping quickl' •
(3) Boards and stone dust stopping,·consisting of two sets of tongued and grooved boards erected f'
across the roadway, some 2 or 3 ft. apart, the i;ritervening space being tightly packed with stone dust. ..._
(c) Digging out. • • -. ....
This fs preferred in some districts, where practicable, because it 15 a more certain cure for th~ •
,,

trouble, but it is only possible (i) if the heating or fire is easily accessible ; (ii) if it has not attained
appreciable dimensions ; (iii) if there is no danger from firedamp; and (iv) if the roof is good. Th~
restricts the method to mines that are non-gassy, or to cases where the heated materials can be located
and removed before actual fire develops . •.
•
.• If the heating has occurred in the goaf, one or more scourings or headings must be driven tprough
the packs from the intake side to the seat of the trouble. The ventilation should be restricted as
• much as possible, but sufficient air must be directed to the scene of operations to dilute the noxious ..
gases given off and render it safe for the men to work. The heated material should be covered with
sand or flue-dust, filled into steel tubs, and sent to the surface. Glowing or burning material may
• • 1'e treated with port.able fire extinguishers. When the material ha~ all been removed, the fire.ir~a
should be packed with sand and stone packs. One or more canaries should be kept constantly m
• the vicinity to test for the presence of oarbon monoxide in dangerous percentages, and breathing
apparatus shou.ld i>e available for use if necessary.

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Water has been used in some cases, but is generally looked upon with disfavour. It has the
disadvantages that dense volumes of steam are formed, visibility is impaired, and conditions'[are

•
,endered very uncomfortable for the men. Moreover, water gas (a mixture of hydrogen and carbon s
monoxide) may be generated by the reaction of steam passing over red-hot material, giving rise to
the danger of explosion.
If the heating has occurred in the solid coal or in main road pillars, one method of dealing with
it is to take out the heated material, stow the cavity with sand and stone, and face up with a sand
and brick dam let well into the sides beyond the· breaks, the sand being well rammed. Another
method is to rip up into the roof, and raise the road level, burying the heated material with sand or
fine debris. A third method is the injection of liquid cement under pressure, and this has been suc-
• cessfully applied to the strata overlying and adjoining roads where heatings have been a source of
prolonged trouble and anxiety.

•. • (d) Sealing off the district.

... If the foregoing methods of local sealing, or digging out the heated material, are impracticable
or prove to be of no avail owing to the extent or inaccessibility of the heating, with the result that
the fire develops and becomes unmanageable, or if there is danger of an explosion occurring, the

. ..
entire district must be sealed off by means of permanent stoppings. It goes without saying thats
these must always be a first class job because leakage, through either the stopping or the adjoining
strata, may render the work useless. Important points to be considered are:-
• (1) The site of the stoppings. This should be in firm well-supported ground, conveniently
accessible for the transport of material and -for subsequent ventilation and balancing of air-pressures
on the outbye side. In a non-gassy mine the area sealed off may be as small as the foregoing circum-
•

•
stances permit. In a gassy mine, it is generally considered desirable to build the stoppings well back.
• from the site of the fire so as to have a long column of air between the fire and the .stoppings and •
delay the possible formation of an explosive mixture.
(2) Maintenance of the ventilation. During the erection of permanent stoppings, the air supply
to the district concerned should be maintained in as near as possible normal quantity until the stoppings
are finally closed. This is desirable in all mines in order to permit ordinary workmen to be engaged
on the building of the stoppings except possibly during the final stage of sealing the return stopping ;
and it is especially necessary in a gassy mine in order to keep the firedamp content of the air well
below the lower exi>losivelimit and so reduce the risk of an explosion occurring.
•
Fig. 3 shows one type of permanent stopping, with
the arrangements for ventilation. It consists of a •
ser~s of brick walls alternating with sand packs,"
but two steel ventilating tubes are built into the
stopping to maintain the air supply to the last moment.
At this stage, most of the men may leave the mine •
and the air tubes may be closed by pulling, a previously
prepared sandbag plug (with the aid of the wire rope
shown) into the in bye end of the tubes. The latter. are •
then filled up with sandbags well rammed home. The
• final wall. may then be built ~p rapidly and all the
men withdrawn. Later, if desired; the stopping
may be further strengthened by a further stopping· on
the outbye side. An air-sampling pipe (say, t inch
• diara.) with valve. should be bunt through the stopping
to permit air samples from behind the stopping to be

. ... •.
taken for analysis.
••
Fig. 3.
ELEVATION
Permanent stopping with Air-tubes
for Ventilation .
• •
Fig. 4 shows an alternative type of
permanent stopping. The main body
of the stopping is built of sandbags,
• interlocked .in •successive layers as
~eaders and stretchers, and reinforced
• at the inbye end (on the left) with
vertical steel rails set between roof and
-tloor-,--anel-at-the---outbye; end with
corrugated steel sheets and with hori-
•
zontal girders set from side to side
across J:he road. ..
Whilst the stopping is being built,
• a passage or plug hole, 3! ft. square •
throughout, -or tapered towards the

•
outbye end, and roofed by corrugated
._ , Fig. 4. Alternative Type of Permanent Stopping.
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steel plates, is left for ventilation purposes. The passage is sealed rapidly at the last moment and

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• its ~utbye end dosed by a steel plate securely spragged by one or more steel girders. The stopp~n[J
• may be additionally reinforced by interlaced steel channels set between roof and floor, or from s1d~
to side. Later, a brick wall may be built in front of the stopping to reduce air leakage, the space
between wall and stopping being well rammed with sand and the outbye face of the wall coated
with sand and cement wash. A~ inch diam. sampling pipe is placed through the stopping as before.
1 During the operation of erecting the stoppings, the state of the atmosphere in the vicinity sho1:ld
be continually tested by flame lamps, canaries, and air sampling and analysis, so that the necessity
for wearing breathing apparatus, or for withdrawing the men, may be indicated without delay. The
work should, of course, be under the direct supervision of a trustworthy official and the men should
work in teams, relieving one another at suitably frequent intervals. •
In all cases, both intake and return stoppings should be built simultaneously and fheir final closing
carried out rapidly after all men except those indispensable have left the mine. After the lapse
of, say, 24 hours after closure, the stoppings should be examined, samples of air taken from behind • •
them, and the stoppings further strengthened if necessary.
Conditions in the Sealed-off Area. . ...
The aims of sealing are (1) to contain the trouble and prevent the extension of a possible explosion
•to other districts, and (2) to prevent air continuing to gain access to the fire so that the latter may
be extinguished by lack of oxygen. • •
Within the sealed area, the percentage of oxygen gradually falls. Some oxygen is chemically
consumed by the oxidising process, being replaced by CO 2, CO, and other products of combustion ; • •
some is physically absorbed by the coaly matter present; and the remainder becomes a smaller
proportion of the general atmosphere because of firedamp being given off from the strata. •
• It may be noted that active flame will cease when the oxygen percentage is less than about
12·4%, but slow combustion of carbonaceous material will, or may, continue as long as any oxygen
at all continues to be present, although such combustion is unlikely when there is less than 5 or 6% of
oxygen. It follows that, if an area is inefficiently sealed, a fire within the sealed area may last
indefinitely.
In some mines, firedamp may be given off sufficiently quickly to form an explosive mixture before
•
•
the oxygen percentage is sufficiently lowered to render an explosion impossible-r-hence the need
1!o keep the gas diluted by· ventilation whilst the stoppings are being built. When the percentage
of firedamp, however, exceeds about 15%, no explosion is possible (whatever the percentage of oxygen
may be) ; and the same applies when the oxygen percentage is less than about 12·4% (whatever
• the percentage of firedamp may be).
Balancing of air pressure on stoppings •
• • No matter how carefully stoppings are built, it is not possible to seal off an area, as it were
hermetically. Both th~ stoppings themselves, and coal pillars or adjacent strata, are more or fess
permeable by air, and air will inevitably flow through them and around the area if the necessary
• difference of pressure exists.
Consider a district which has been sealed off by stoppings in both intake and return. Before
sealing, the ventilation of the district was maintained by a difference of pressure between intake
• and return amounting, say, to 0·5 inch w-g. or more. After sealing, unless steps are taken to balance

•
the pressures, this difference of pressure would continue to exist between the outbye faces of the
intake and return stoppings and consequently a limited quantity of air would continue to . flow right •
around the district. There would be a constant access of fresh air into the sealed area through the
intake stopping, and a corresponding expulsion of foul gases at the return stopping, and the whole
purpose of sealing off the district would be destroyed. .
. ·
It is therefore of first importance for the effective sealing-off of a district to ensure that no diff er,nce
. .

. .
of pressure shall exist between the outbye faces of the intake and return stoppings. Fortunately,
this can usually be done quite simply by putting the stoppings into communication with each other -,
in a single air circuit. In figs. 1 and 2, for example, all the stoppings may be put under the returr» •.
air pressure by breaking through the air-crossings shown and erecting doors in the cut-throughs
between the main intake haulage road and the main return so as tq prevent air from short-circuitirfg •
from one to the other.
In a case where there are only· two roads leading to a district, if there is a cut-through between
intake and return just outbye of the seals, all that is needed is to open the doors invthe cut-through,
•
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or remove any stoppings that may have been erected in it, so that air may pa;s direct=from intake
to· re turn. - --If-necessary;-- a-- cut"throu-gh·-may-be--speciatly clriVeff-for-Tfie·· pi.irp-os-e.-· . ·-x--regufator ·15•
then placed in the district return to reduce the air flowing to the minimum quantity required to
keep the faces of the seals clear of gas. The small quantity of air flowing requires only a very small
pressure-difference and the pressures on the outbye faces of the seals would be almost identical. rr
goes without saying that, when sites for stoppings are being chosen, regard should be paid to the
•
..• need for selecting a place where subsequent balancing of air pressures can be conveniently arranged .
'' Breathing '' at stopplngs, •
• The term, "breathing" here refers to a certain exchange of air between the inbye side and the •
outbye side of individual stoppings whereby sometimes the outbye side of each is fouled by noxious

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.. gases or, conversely the inbye side of each is diluted with fresh air. Such " breathing " is due to
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• The U nive1'sal Mining School, Cardiff. 9
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tfie variable difference of pressure between the atmospheric pressure on the outbye side and •the
~as-pressure on the in bye side, and it occurs even though the air pressures on the out bye faces have • -
• been balanced as previously described .
If the pressure inside the sealed area is positive, all " breathing " will be in an outward direction
and gases from behind the stopping will penetrate to the outbye side. Conversely, if the pressure
inside is negative, fresh air will penetrate some little distance behind the stopping.
In a gassy. seam, the constant evolution of firedamp in the sealed area may ensure that the
pressure there is always positive so that " breathing" is always in an outward direction. In other
cases, fluctuations of barometric pressure may cause the "breathing" to be inward (when the baro-
meter is rising) and outward (when the barometer is falling). Such fluctuations of pressure, and
the relatively small exchange of air caused by them, cannot be. prevented, nor need they cause undue
concern, but all avoidable leakage can and should be prevented by choosing the strongest possible
• ground for building the stoppings and making them as air-tight as circumstances permit.
•
. .. \ ~t . ·bPENING A SEALED AREA.
\/
The re-opening of an area which has been sealed-off in consequence of a fire (whether a gob-fire

• •
•
or one resulting from an explosion or other cause) is necessarily an operation attended with con- t
siderable risk. Active combustion may have ceased, but the material may still be hot and ready
to bftrst into flame when the ventilation is restored. It is difficult, if not impossible, to assess how
long the area should remain closed to make certain that the heated material has properly cooled
down. Moreover, the atmosphere behinds {he stoppings may be extinctive and. non-inflammable,
and yet be capable of forming an explosive mixture when diluted with fresh air. The risks being
• known and admitted, they must be faced, but all possible steps must be taken to reduce the danger

• • to its lowest limit.

(a) The first essential is to take samples of the gases from behind the stoppings at regular intervals
over a 'long period and analyse them. Such samples should always be collected, if possible, when the
pressure behind the stopplngs is positive because then the "breathing " is. in an outward direction
and the samples are more likely to be truly representative of the atmosphere in the sealed area.
Early samples (taken shortly after sealing) will show a relatively large percentage of oxygen and
•

CO 2, a small percentage of CO (probably a fraction of I%) and some methane (the quantity depending,
on the "gassiness" of the- seam), the remainder being nitrogen. The CO/O 2 ratio will be relatively
high.
Continuance of the fire will be indicated by a gradual decrease in the percentage of oxygen, a •
gradual increase in the percentage of CO 2 (up to say 5 or 6%) and the maintenance of a high CO/O 2
ratio.
•
Active flame ceases when the percentage of •
oxy~en falls below about 12·4%, but slow com-
bustion will continue for a much longer period, so
long as any material percentage of oxygen is •
present, Meanwhile the percentages of CO 2 and
CO will begin to fall and the percentage of CH 4 to
rise, as shown by the graph. •
The fire may be taken to be extinct when the
•oxygen percentage is negligible and the CO/O 2
ratio has returned to normal owing (presumably)
to the re-absorption by carbonaceous material of ACTIVE ,.:1Rl: DYIHG OOWN
the CO previously formed. Meanwhile, the percent-
"-ge c1' methane progressively rises and may even tu- Fig. 5.
ally form most of the atmosphere behind the seals. Graph of Analyses from Sealed-off Area.
~'. .
-"'~ether
(b) The second essential is to take the temperature .of the gases behind the stoppings and note
it has fallen to strata-temperature or is. still dangerously high.
!• •. •.

(c) The third essential is to allow sufficient time to elapse after the fir~ has apparently become
• ex4!inguishedto enable the area to cool do.wn. This may be many months, or even years, in some
cases, where a large body of coal has been involved.
Precautions when re-opening a sealed-off district.
After it lias been decided to re-open the area, great care and circumspection are required to

- • s~fegm1rd the workmen. A complete plan of operations should be prepared; the recovery personnel
must. be thoroughly trained and organised; and adequate supplies of material must be available.
The precise procedure must depend on conditions but, as a rule, it is desirable either for (1) the
wfl<:>~e district _ tC> J?e-. partially repaired . and . thoroughly . examined .by. rescue men wearing breathing
apparatus (to make certain that no smouldering material is present) before any attempt is made
•
• to restore the ventilation ; or for (2) the sealed-off· area to be examined and recovered section by
section, .the ventilation being carried forward in the same manner. The latter method is necessary ..
where the. district is large, or the roadways highly inclined, or the atmosphere in the district is too
:Q.ot and humid for a rescue team to travel very far., In either case, preliminary precautions would
•
include :-,-
(I) Only men actually engaged on recovery operations should be allowed underground.
~) Roadways leading to the affected di.rict should be well re-stonedusted. • • •
• (3) The return airway should be fenced off.
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Spontaneous Combustion. •
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mains for fire-fighting purposes should be inspected and renewed. •
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(5) Height of evasee chimney should be raised and steps taken to prohibit open lights at th~
surface whilst the area is being re-ventilated.
Thereafter, assuming recovery and re-ventilation section by section, the procedure may be :- '
(a) Erect an air-tight air-lock consisting of two steel doors on the outbye side of stoppings.
(b) Establish a fresh-air base on the outbye side of the air locks.
(c) Broach one stopping and instruct a rescue team to make an inspection to a specified distance,
if possible inbye of a connecting slit, where a new temporary stopping is to be erected. The captain
should measure roadway dimensions, take air samples and hygrometer readings, and return to the
base with his team. •
(d) Erect a temporary stopping at the chosen site. This stopping must be air-tight but not
necessar ily explosion-proof and may be made of tongued and grooved boarding with door built in
to permit exploration further inbye in due course. Two such stoppings may be erected, if desired, to . '
•
•
form an air-lock.
(e) Broach the second stopping in a similar way and erect a temporary seal in the second road.
(f) Re-establish ventilation as far as the connecting slit by allowing a limited amount of air
. ..
I to flow (say 5,000 cub. ft. per min.) through the recovered roadways, the balance of the air passing
direct to the return in order to effect· some dilution of the gases being removed.
(g) Move up the fresh air base to near the temporary seals and repeat all the foregoing procedure, •
step by step, until the whole district has been recovered.
In a case where only a part of the district is to be recovered, existing permanent stoppings in
•
intake and return being moved inbye to a new position, the temporary stopping erected by rescue

•
men may consist of two sets of tongued and grooved boards, the space between being tightly packed
• with stonedust. If tests show that this stopping is sufficiently air-tight to maintain an inert atmos- •
phere on the inbye side, the roadway may then be re-ventilated by air tubes and the arduous work
of erecting the new permanent stopping carried out by ordinary workmen in fresh air. If there
is any doubt about the air-tightness of the temporary seal, however, at least part of the permanent
stopping (say 4 yards thick) should be erected by rescue men, the remainder being completed later.
Only one roadway should be tackled at a time, the second stopping being advanced in a similar way
when the first has been completed. Finally, the air-pressures on the out bye side of both new stoppings
"should be balanced .

• TEST PAPER MG/10.

1. Describe concisely (a) the causes of gob-fires,
and (b) the chief dangers to which they give
• rise .
•
2. (a)Make a dimensio~ed vertical section of a coal
seam known to be, or likely to. be, liable to
• spontaneous combustion. (b) Describe the
particular features of the seam which render
it so liable.
3. Spontaneous combustion has commenced unex-
pectedly in a part of the mine out of reach
5. Set out in a numbered list what you consider to
be the chief precautions necessary to prevent
spontaneous heatings and fires. ·
6. A change is observed in the smell of the air~ the
return airway from a district. (a) To what
various causes may this be attributed, and
(b) what steps would you take ?
7. (a) What are the dangers to be anticipated when
sealing off a gob-fire in a gassy seam and
(b) what precautions should be taken to
guard against them ?

•
of direct observation. (a) How would the
evidence of heating be first detected, and
how would its progress be apparent? (b) 8. Owing to a gob-fire, it has been necessary to seal•
When would you consider it to be dangerous ? off a district in a seam of coal by permanent
stoppings in two levels, and after a time it
4. (a) What is meant by the C0/02 ratio in relation becomes necessary to move these stoppings
to self-heating? (b) An air sample taken
from the return airwa v of a district shows
the following analysis; C02 0·4% ; CH4
inbye a distance of 100 yards withoui inte ..
fering with the extinctive atmosphere in the
district. How would you proceed with the
,
1·17%; 02 19·92%; N2 78·49%; CO work?
0·02%. Wliat deductions would you make
from this analysis ? • .•
CARDIFF PRINTERS LTD., CtTY RoA D, CARDIFF • •
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FOUNDED 1883 • COPYRIGHT
T. A. SOU"I'HERN LTD., _JL_

• TWE U.M.S • THIS PAPER

WAS THl: FIRST IS SUPPLIED ON •
CORRESPONDENCE
t1JNING SCHOOL
IN THE WORLD
fil'Ae ~~af ~ ~J'roof. CONDITIOf\4' THAT
IT IS RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
.
• CARDIFF (CT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USE
INCORPORATED 1931

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MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS.

• Answers MG/10 .
• •
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION .
. .. Describe concisely (a) the causes of gob-fires, and (b) .the chief dangers to which they give rise.
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lir CAUSES OF GOB-FIRES.

,. •
(a) • The primary cause of a gob-fire is the undue oxidation and consequent self-heating of coal and
other carbonaceous material left in the goaf behind the advancing face, under conditions which permit
retention of the heat generated .
It is chiefly liable to occur in certain seams, partly because of their chemical composition (low
• carbon content, high oxygen and moisture content, and iron pyrites disseminated through the seam)
•
• and partly because of their physical structure (friability, associated dirt bands, and carbonaceous
shale roof).
A loosely packed goat containing carbonaceous material forms a common site for a heating and
subsequent fire, especially near rib-sides or at the site of an old fall. The constant percolation of
air leads to oxidation and, if the heat so generated is not carried rapidly away, the temperature
rises, oxidation increases, and fire ultimately breaks out.
(b) Dangers arising from gob-fires.
(1) Poisonous gases are produced, including CO, H 25 and SO 2, together with C02 and various
inflammable hydrocarbons.
(2) Large areas of workable ooal may be lost.
(3) If a fire or heated material is being dug out, the men work under arduous conditions of tempera-
ture and humidity, coupled with the possible presence of smoke and fumes. •
• (4) When a fire is being sealed off in a gassy seam, there is a grave risk ~f a firedamp explosion
occurring. A perilous situation. inevitably exists until the completion of the operations.
•
2. (a) Make a dimensioned vertical section of a coal seam known to be, or likely co be, liable to
spontaneous combustion, (b) Describe the particular features of the seam which render it
.
so. liable.
• CH~RACTER OF S~AM LIABLE TO SELF-HEATING.
(a)' The adjoining sketch shows the Bullhurst seam of North n.1
Staffordshire. GREY
• ~) The features conducing to self-heating in this case are :- SHALE

TOP COAL.
• 6

. •. •
(1) The great thickness of the seam, ranging from about 7 ft. to
-zo ft., or even 30 ft., in isolated cases, so rendering complete extraction
impossible.
HUSISL.E

MIODL.f:CCAL
DIRT
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ao
4
0

• • BOTTOM CO 3 0
(2) The variable hardness and quality of the seam. Where it is

-· friable and of inferior quality, it is liable to break up into small pieces

and a greater proportion is left underground.
TOTAL
Fig. 1. The Bullhurst Seam of
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(•)
• •
The weak nature of the roof where it has been subject to thrust
and crush. In some cases, coal is left up to support the roof and the coal becomes crushed and
subject to undue oxidation .
North Staffordshire.
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(4) The association of the seam with a highly carbonaceous shale band, known as "hussle" which

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.' • is suspected lo assist oxidation when mixed with small coat
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(5) The seam is often associated with fault!' ground where roof conditions are difficult coal is left
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unworked , .and air leakages are likely to occur. '
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Other contributory factors in otherseams may be their great depth and the presence of Iron,
pyri~, especially when disseminated througljout the seam. . • •

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Spontaneous Combustion
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3. Spontaneous combustion has commenced unexpectedly in a part of the mine out of reach o]
direct obseruation,
progress be appareni?
(a) How would the evidence of heating be first detected, and how toould. ii~
(b) When would you consider it to be dangerous ?
)

"EVIDENCE OF PROGRESS OF A HEATING.

(a) The heating would probably first become apparent by the smell of "gob-stink" in the return
airway from- the part of the mine concerned, accompanied possibly by a faint haze and the deposition
of moisture on cool metal surfaces. In the early stages, the smell resembles the close musty smell
of decaying timber. As the heating develops, there ensues a paraffin or petrol-like odour. Finally,
as ignition approaches, the tarry smell of "fire-stink" becomes apparent, followed by smoke and •
acrid rumes. It must be understood,' however, that the first indication may be the appearance of
smoke, the previous symptoms being missing. .,
As the heating has occurred unexpectedly, it is unlikely that hygrometric readings have been • ' •
taken regularly, or that a system of gas-analysis has been in operation, but, if such precautions have
been taken, the first evidence may be increased dry and wet bulb temperatures or an increase in the
t CO/0 2 ratio normal to the district. •!
... •

(b) When considered dangerous. The safe way is to consider any heating potentially dangerous
right from the start. In some mines, a heating, when once begun, develops very rapidly and demands
immediate attention if it is not to get out of hand. In others, the incipient stage may be protracted
A very serious situation certainly exists if the gob-stink
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and the heating may not develop further:
continues to increase in intensity or if the CO/O 2 ratio rises progressively to 3 or more.
•
• 4. (a) What is.meant by the C0/02 ratio in relation to self-heating? (b) An air sam.ple taken • ;·
from the return. airway of a district shotos the following analysis:
0 2 19·92% ; N 2 78 ·49% ; C 0 0 ·02%.
C02 0·4% ; CH 4 1 ·17% ;
What deductions would you make from this analysisi
'
INTERPRETATION OF GAS ANALYSIS.
(a) The C0/02 ratio, sometimes called the CO/O 2 deficiency ratio, is a figure which expresses
.the CO produced by oxidation of coal as a percentage of the oxygen used up or absorbed in the
process. It is this ratio that is the most reliable guide to the progress of a heating.
In the application of gas analysis to the detection of a heating, it is first essential to ascertain
• the C0/02 ratio normal to the district concerned. This may vary from about O·l % in some cases
to as much as 1 % or slightly more in others. Any increase in the ratio indicates the development
• of a heating. Broadly, a ratio exceeding 1 % demands careful watching; a ratio of 2% indicates
•distinctly dangerous conditions ; whilst a ratio of 3% or more is a generally definite indication that
fire exists. • •
• (b) Deductions from the given analysis .
A simple inspection of the figures shows 0·02% of CO, whereas normally the percentage of CO
rarely exceeds 0·005% in the absence of heating. Conditions are therefore abnormal, but it isnecessary
to find the CO/O 2 ratio to deduce the degree of danger.
20·93x 78·49
Now the percentage of oxygen corresponding to 78·49% of nitrogen = 20·78%
79·04 •
The percentage of oxygen absorbed 20·78 19·92 0·86%
CO prod. 0·02
Hence the ratio 0·023 2·3%
0 2 abs. 0·86 • •
, This figure is definitely high and is indicative of a heating in a fairly advanced stage. It should
be noted, however, that a single analysis Jike this does not show whether a heating is increasing or
decreasing. To ascertain this, it would be necessary to take a series of analyses at regular intervais-
and no,te whether there is a progressive increase, or· a progressive decrease, in the C0/02 ratios. •
...
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5. Set out in a numbered list what you consider to be the chief precau,tions necessary to prevent . '7 · .
spontaneous heatings and fires. '·
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- PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. • •
All precautions must be directed towards (a) reducing the quantity of crushed coal that is available
for oxidation, and (b) preventing the access of air to the crushed material that remains. They may
-· • --
be listed as follows:- •
(1) Where practicable, completely extract all coal by the Iongwall system, either advancing
..• or retreating, maintaining a straight line of face and excluding from the goaf as much carbonaceous •

•
refuse as possible. • •
• (2) Advance the face rapidly and continuously to induce rapid consolidation of the gob behind
the advancing face. · •
• • (3) In pillar methods of working, form .large pillars and extract them rapidly.
•
•
(4) Avoid leavlng stocks of coal in the goaf and,
. !•a.
fall of roo~ occurs at the face, see thlet ali
the coal is taken out and the place properly packed with inert material.
.

•
•

' '\ • •
•
'· ..
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. MG/10
"---;\[3

(5) Build wide roadside and ribside packs of inert material, dry mortared with fine material''a.nd
-well rammed with sand. Where necessary, support the roadways with steel arches lined with corru=
gated sheeting well sanded behind. Alternatively, rip the roof and bury the roadside packs.
(6) Withdraw all props, whether of steel or timber, from the goaf.
(7) Keep intakes and returns as far apart as possible, and seal off all leakage paths between them.
(8) Drive straight roomy airways so that an adequate quantity of air may flow at a low watergauge.
(9) Site· all doors, stoppings, alrerosslngs and regulators in strong, unbroken ground in order
to prevent leakage of air around them.
(10) Avoid " bottle necks '' in roadways, either permanent or temporary (due to standing tubs,
• machinery, .etc.) in order to prevent high air velocities and diversion of air through the packs .
• ( 11) Tightly stow all disused roadways and seal off worked out panels.
(12) Deal promptly with the situation when the first signs of incipient heating appear.
The foregoing points cover the important steps necessary to prevent self-heating and firess
Numerous other precautions, of course, are necessary to ensure its early detection or to enable a heating
, to 'he safely dealt with before it reaches a dangerous stage .
• •
. •

•
• 6. A change is observed in the smell of the air in the return airway from a' district. (a) To what
various causes may this be attributed, and (b) what steps would you take ?
-~-

• CHANGE OF SMELL IN RETURN AIRWAY •

(a) It has been said that every main return has a different smell peculiar tothe district concerned
Any change in this smell must be due to something new or abnormal in the district and calls f<lr
prompt investigation. The possible causes include :-
(1) The introduction of a new kind of oiJ, timber, or bratt.ice cloth. "
(2) The exposure of a fault, or holding into an old gob, which may release gases of somewhat
different composition and odour. ~
•. (3) The heating or scorching of wood caused by the friction of a wheel .or pulley, or overheatefl
brake' blocks, or a conveyor moving against timber, or a stalled belt being rubbed by a revolving
roller, or the smouldering of some blown-out explosive, any of which may lead to an open fire unless 0

promptly, attended to.

(4) The self-heating of coal as evidenced by the characteristic smell of gob-stink, and calling
possibly for prolonged treatment to prevent its further development. •
• (b) Steps to be taken.
The first immediate step is to trace this unusual smell to its source and ascertain what is amiss.
If anything is found that can be remedied by immediate action, the matter would be rectified at
once and the cause of the trouble eliminated.
" If the cause is found to be due to self-heating of coal in its incipient stage (and this may w ell
be the case in a seam liable to spontaneous combustion) the official in charge of the district. must

• •
(,

• -~c
~'
•
_
-
initiate the first remedial measures by informing the manager and undermanager, endeavouring
•to locate the site of the heated material and its extent, and summoning the gob-fire squad to work
under his directions. Thereafter, arrangements would be made to keep the district under constant
~bservation, to take wet and dry bulb temperature readings, and to collect samples of air regularly
for immediate analysis and calculation of the CO/O 2 ratio.

The practicJtl steps required to be taken to _eradicate the heating depend on local circumstances.
It may be ~ossible to dig out the heated material and fill the area with inert material. Alternativ~ly,
"1 all points of possible air-leakage around the area may be sealed by sand or stone dust, cement groutm:g, .
guniting, erection of extra packs, or other means. It may well befhat these steps will prevent any
further trouble and that normal work in the district could continue throughout, with an intensification.'
~of the methods normally used in the district to prevent spontaneous heating occurring. If it is
once suspected, however, that the heating has developed into a fire, all men must be withdrawn
from the district except those ·dealing with the emergency and a thorough examination made in
accordance with regulations. The further steps then needed would be governed by the progress
of the heating. Only in the event of the heating growing and getting out of hand would the question
arise of sealing off the district by permanent stoppings, although it would be wise to visualise this c
possibility and make plans and preparations in case the need should arise.

~ '-)
e

c i) . 0.; Ill

1 •,
 .
•
• • . ...
•
•
•
Spontaneous Comb~stion •
/ /l/ .

.
• .,.'Y-f//(a) What are ~he dangers to be anticipated wh~n sealing oJf a gob-fire in a gassy seam and (b~
~~~,{>' What precautions should be taken to guard against them?
•
•SEALING OFF A ·GOB-FIRE IN A GASSY SEAM. '·.,).'-
(a) Dangers. These include:-
(1) A firedamp explosion in the area during (or after) erection of the seals.
(2) Men at return stoppings are exposed to noxious gases and fumes from the fire area.
(3) Arduous nature of the work, especially during the final stages.
(b) Precautions. •
(1) The ventilation must be maintained whilst the stoppings are being built, a passage or plug
hole being left for this purpose through each stopping until the last moment.
(2) The stopplngs should be sited well outbye, to give a long column of air between the seals and •
the fire, and in strong ground, convenient for the transport of materials.
(3) The roadways should be heavily stone-dusted throughout the affected area.
(4) The stopplngs must be erected as rapidly as possible to reduce the time during which men
· ..
llre exposed to danger.
(5) The atmosphere near the stoppings must be constantly tested by flame safety lamps and
birds, and air samples. taken for analysis.
tubing should be available at each stopping.
An oxygen reviving apparatus and a smoke helmet with ..
•

(6) The. stoppings must be strongly reinforced by interlaced steel channels or girders, or semi-
•

•
arches, to withstand the force of an explosion.
(7) .The plug holes in intake and return stoppings must be closed rapidly and simultaneously and •
the men withdrawn for 24 hours when an inspection is made and the stoppings strengthened on
the outbye side.
......
(8) The air pressures on the outbye side of the stoppings must be balanced in order to prevent air
entering the intake stopping and so maintaining the fire indefinitely.
The whole operation must be well organised to ensure that the work proceeds without interruption
. under competent officials and that materials and stores are constantly available when required.
Only men engaged on the task must be allowed underground and a careful check kept of their move-
'·· ,, ments. Due regard must also be paid to welfare arrangements, includingfirst aid, medical attendance,
ambulance, bathing, and food.

• 8. Oioing to a gob-fire, it has been necessary to seal off a district in a seam of coal by permanent
• stoppings in two lev,,s, and after a time it becomes necessary to move these stoppings inbyff. a
distance of 100 ).1ards without interfering with the extinctive atmosphere in the district. How
would you proceed with the work?
• MOVING GOB-FIRE STOPPINGS INBYE.
This is a. relatively limited operation involving the inspection and recovery of only 200 yards
• of roadway and the re-erection of two permanent stoppings 100 yards inbye. Nevertheless, access
of fresh air beyond the sites of the new stopplngs must be totally prevented and the work must be
carried out with great circumspection. The principles to be followed may be outlined as follows, •
although the details will vary in individual cases :-
(a) Erect two steel ·doors in each level to form an air lock,and establish a fresh air base on the
outbye side, with birds and safety lamps to ensure thattheair there remains uncontaminatedv j,
(b) Broach one old stopping at a time (the other being left intact) rescue men being employed
•
.
.:

• .

in the later stages of this operation.

(c) Instruct the rescue men to examine the roadway to the new site, to take samples and hygro-. - - .•. .
•. metric readings, and measure up the cross-sectional area. '
(d) Erect a new temporary air-tight stopping, e.g. of boards and stone dust, 100 yards inbye. If
•
'T.·•
necessary, complete part of the new permanent stopping to make certain that no leakage of air into
the sealed area will occur. ·
(e) Re-ventilate the single road by means of air tubes and, if necessary, an al,_lxmaryfan, leading
the foul gases direct to the return where they are immediately diluted with fresh ci.ir~
... ·. ···-----· ···-···-
···-----···-·-··-··---····---··-·-·-·----·

(frcompICte the new permanent stopping, using ordinary workmen for this arduous duty.
·--·· ·-·-·· ···- ···-····· .. .. -····· ···-· . . . • -
(g) Move forward the stopping in the second level in a similar manner and re-ventilate the road .
(h) Finally balance the pressures on the outbye side of both new stoppings to prevent circulation. •
of any air through the sealed off area .

..• The rescue men would be organised in teams of five, one being leader and responsible for safety.

•
At the fresh air base, there would always be a spare tearq fully equipped and ready for service. No
• team would be allowed to work more than two hours. Suitable signalling. arrangements would
be installed so that the men inbye could communicate with the base. .
Other general precautions are as set out in the last paragraph of Answer 7.

• • •
CARDI:PP PJiJ)ITllR8 LTD .4J·
• •
• .
' .
 ..MG/11 _
1
,'FOUHDEO teea. T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.41 COPYRl~HT.
TH• U•M,•.
THIS .PAPEft
WA8 THE FlftaT'
18 SUPPLIEO OM
CORREll"OHD,NCIE
MINING 80HbOL
IN THE WOfllLD.
~~etUal ~~,Jwof, CONDITfON THAT
IT IS RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY l'OR
hca01tPOllATCD1991. CARDIF'F (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN US•.

Lesson MG/11.
INUNDATIONS OF WATER
Inrushes of . water into mine workings have been responsible for inany disasters, causing serious
loss of ~ife and the unavoidable abandonment of valuable areas of coal. In certain ca$es,. such eruptions
have occurred into workings under the sea or under water-bearing strata (e.g. the Magnesian Limestone
ln,]'it.E. England) where the thickness of" cover" has been insufficient or the method of working unsuit-
able, but more frequently they have been due to wafer bursting in from old workings in the same or an
adjacent seam. Most of the accidents have arisen from· the inaccuracy or entire absence of old plans ;
others from errors of judgment or neglect of precautions ; and the remainder from a variety of causes
such as the unsuspected presence of old shafts, variation in the throw of faults, unauthorised trespass
over the boundary· between two collieries, and so on. ·

UNRELIABILITY OF OLD PLANS.

In nearly all the coalfields of Great Britain, coal has been worked for many centuries. At first, the
workings were confined to the outcrops of seams but the advent of the steam engine enabled seams to
be worked at ever increasing depths with the result that some districts are literally honey-combed with
abandoned workings. Plans of mine workings were. not required by Law to be kept prior to the year
1850 and thus there are extensive workings of which no plans or records have been preserved in any forth.
. Between 1850 and. 1887, the standard of surveying was extremely low in many cases, and it is con- .
sidered that no reliance should be placed on plans made during that period. Such plans should be
regarded as indicating, not the actual position of the old workings, but merely that workings existed some- .
where in the vicinity.
After 1887, the standard of surveying greatly improved and more reliance can be placed on plaas
mlladesince that date, provided the history of the surveying at the particular mine is satisfactory. Never-
theless, even fairly recent plans should be regarded with suspicion. Human nature is not infallible, and
it is quite possible, owing to falls of roof or other eventualities, for certain places in any mine to be rendered "
inaccessj1lle to the surveyor. .. · ·
\ ..~e safest procedure is .ne..J.erto take the position of old workings for granted until they
have actually been proved by boring, or otherwise, from the new workings approaching them.
The inaccuracies of old plans include :-
(a) Omission to· show the full extent of the 'workings.
( h) Omission to correlate ·the·. workings with the surface.
(c) Omission to check and record the variation of the magnetic meridian and to apply such variations
·~ in plotting later workings.
(d) The shrinkage and deterioration of the material on which plans hav~ been drawn.
(e) The decrepit. condition of the plans.

ecautfons desirable with present-day plans and surveys.

Modern methods of precision surveying combined with correlation to the Ordnance grid have removed
many of the dangers referred to, especially those arising from imperfect §.xing of boundaries, or imperfect
.,. correlation. between, surface and underground-surveys. Attention may be directed, however,· to the
following cfetails :~
,., '._¥
'~ (1) The pit notes from which surveys are plotted should he preserved. They are not subject
to wear and tear or shrinkage and provide a useful check when required.
(2f Places whi~h have ceased to be worked should be surveyed before any possibility arises
of their· being rendered inaccessible.
(3).·Sep~rate plans of each seam -should be kept.
(4rn11plicate plans should· be made and preserved in separate places.
lS) A longitudinal elevation of the workings, especially in inclined seams, should be kept, showing ·~ ·
all shafts and staples .in the royalty and at neighbouring mines. It should indicate the respective water-
levels at each place and the name of the deposit or stratum from which the water is found to originate.
{6). Plans of ·abandoned ,mines shouldl~ecord the position of (a),underground pumps (with det?lil&"
of the .quantity of water which was pumped); (b) all known water-logged areas; and (e) all dams,
fo with particulars of -their construction and the. pressure of©water they are retaining. "-
·:• ;~ (4805) 1' II

<~: .. (.

c .• 1
 • •. • • •
. •
• • ••
• •
• •
"' MG/ll
-+· Inundations of Water. •
, • li'
.,~jf' •
~ECAUTIONS WHEN APPROACHING OLD WORKINGS. •
•
It is so obviously dangerous to approach old workings if they· happen to be flooded that everything
should be done to makean unexpected holing impossible; The procedure is to a certain extent governed
by Law and the regulations laid down inust be strictly complied· with as a minimum. The actual method
of approach adopted, however, must depend on local circumstances. No one set of rules can be applied
to all conditions, and each case must be considered on its merits.
The essential safeguards include :-
( l) Examine existing plans or records to determine (as nearly as possible) the position of the old
workings.
(2) Drive one or more narrow exploratory headings in advance of the general line of face.
(3) Maintain a system. of boreholes extending in front and on the flanks of the exploratory headings.
(4) Makecproviaion for dealing with the water when tapped.
(5) Take precautions to ensure the safety of the m.en engaged in boring. ·

. Exploratory Headings.
I
The number of these depends on the length of old face or goaf-Iine presented to the advancing
headings by the old workings. In some cases, a single. heading, ventilated· by .brattice or air-tubes w~th
or without an auxiliary fan may be sufficient ; in others, a pair of headings will suffice ;. whilst others may
require a series of headings. ~s far as possible, the headings should be driven at right-angles to the
general outline of the old workings in which water is accumulated, but an approach direct to the full
rise should be avoided· where possible.
• The distance from the old workings (or from their supposed position) at which the narrow headings
should begin to be driven must never be less than ~O yards and may with advantage be 100 yards or
more. Cases are on ·record where boring was begun no less than 390 yards from the supposed position.
Cowman sense and good judgment are called for in a matter of this kind .
• rangement of Boreholes.
The simplest arrangement, but an inadequate one, is to bore a single central '
hc1le constantly kept at least 5 yards in front of the advancing heading and supple-
\

,.l
/
mented by flank-holes (riot more than 5 yards apart) on both sides and _.,at an angle
of, say, 30° to. the line of the heading. It is obvious, however, that such a spacing

..
of the holes may easily admit of contact by the heading with· a narrow. old working
lying in a position between the central and flank-holes .
It is therefore preferable that, as a minimum, there should be two
"'Centre '' boreholes dsiven in advance and that the flank-holes should
be arranged to cross one another by driving them alternately at (say) 22!0
eand 45°. This arrangement is shown in fig. 1. To set off the flank-holes accur-
ately, a centre-line should be marked along the heading, and the direction of the
hole obtained with a triangular frame of wood giving the correct angle.
• The length of the holes must be governed by conditions such as the nature
of the seam, the reliability of the plans, and the expected pressure of water. Five 8'

•
yards must be regarded, as the absolute . minimum, but twenty-five yards would
not be excessive· in some circumstances, and much longer holes have often been Fig. 1. Boreholes •
bored to tap the water. · , at 22! and 45°.
0

4
Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of boreholes adopted at Blackball
Colliery, County Durham, when approaching old workings containing
• •
water at a pressure of 335 ,Jbs. per sq. inch. The heading was begun no
less than 390 yds. from their supposed position and was advanced 3 yds.
at a time. Eight holes were bored for each three yards' advance.
Two of these were centre-holes bored straight ahead two feet from the 2.
• -- .• .
~-
sides of the heading: the other six were flank-holes (three on each side)
bored at angles of 12t 23° and 45° respectively; and all the holes were
0,
' . ¥'
bored to a minimum distance of 70ft. ••
The heading. was driven 340 yds. in the manner described and then
three . holes. about 90 yds. long '\Verebored. i11t<> the ()ld workings to
tap the water. 1t is always wise to .consider boring long holesTike this -
• • ...
so as to drain the old workings (if possible) before advancing further r but
even when everything appears safe for the approach to continue, the face •
of the advancing heading should still be protected by a system. of

..• ~,horter holes so as to avoid contact with any projecting portion of the
flooded workings from which the water may not have been withdrawn .

•
• No old working should be ''holed" into unless ;t
least two
boreholes have penetrated into it, and unless there is evidence, by the
withdrawal of water, or the decrease of pressure, or the appearance of
.gajes from the boreholes, to indicate the removal of the· w1er danger.
An alternative borehole system, designed· ·by H. M; Hudspeth,
8'

Fig. 2. Boreholes at
12-!0, . 23° and· 45°. - •• •
•is shown in fig. 3. It affords good protection 4tmtis somewhat complicated
' and costly to carcy o&t. The plan shows_,three headings, A, B and C, 8 ft.
' • •
•
•
 .,
• •
f

• • fyiG/11'
• The Unioersal Mining . School, Cardiff •-.-~

• wide and 20 yards apart, centre to centre,

•
• with boreholes arranged to give a minimum Y, •
protection . of 5 yds. Previous to the be- ~,' ',
ginning of boring operations, heading B. is / '
5 yds. in advance of headings A and C. The ~ - - - - - - - - - -· ./- II- ' - II~ ,- - - - - - - - - /~
work then proceeds as follows :- '" / / ','5) /
/ / 10 ' '/
(a) Inner flank-holes (1} are bored '~ ~ , · ' ' 12
'Y
from A and C at an angle of 37° to intersect ':>...... - - ~ -c- 12 . c: - -r 7 _ -7i,- - ~ - L - - ~
20 yds. in front of B. ', ' ' . / / , ' ~..... / /
' ':>. / / 6 ,.... - "\/ /
(b)' Heading B is advanced 10 yds. as ~ 7 ' ', ' / ,.
shown at (2). ~. - - ~ - ~ - - L ...,...,- - 4- - /"'"- - - -r
<, ' / .13 3 '/ /
• (c} Two holes (3) are bored at right ' / a /
angles from heading B and. extending '~ o '' "J /
across the front of A and C. Also two ,45 4 ~ 0 B '5?o 45;/
flank-holes· (3) are bored at 45° on the out- <, 37
sipe flanks of . ~ and C, intersecting the
other two holes marked (3}. . .
· . (d) Headings A. and C are advanced
l<Tyards as shown at (4). . .,
• • (e) Inner flank-holes (5) are bored from Fig. 3. Hudspeth's arrangement of Boreholes.

.....
:. •

•
.·•
A and C at an angle of 37° as in (a) and the
same procedure as in paras. (a) to (d) is repeated indefinitely .

oring . Machines,
Various types of machine have been used for boring the holes, including the ordinary miner's
hand ratchet boring machine, the Burnslde apparatus, heavy-type (percussive) hammer-drills, .
and hand-operated or Iighr-power diamond boring machines. The two former are chiefly used
•

for boring in coal, and the two latter for boring through mixed ground. Even the hardest ground can be
drilled by hammer-drills or diamond boring machines and the holes may be at any angle from vertically
upwards to vertically downwards. . Such inclined holes may be necessary when the accumulation of water
is not in the same plane as the seam being worked, e.g. in another seam above or below, or in the same
seam at another side of a fault. ) •'

The Burnside . Patent Safety Boring Apparatus.

The special features of this apparatus are that (a) boring takes place through a pipe or tube whigh
•
can, be rapidly.secured in the hole by means of iron wedges; and (b) the flow ef water can be controlled
, at any. stage of the 1 boring.
•

Fig. 4. The Burnside Patent Safety Boring Apparatus.

•
-·· . . To fix Jhe.machine, a hole of normal diameter (say 2 ins.) is bored for 5 or 6 ft., and then the first
3 ft. of thi~ hole is •enlarged or rimed out to 4 ins. diam. (so forming a shoulder 3 ft. from the mouth of
• the hole) to receive the boring tube. The tube· at its outer. end has fixed to it the flange D, and near its
• inner end A but about 1 inch from it, a second flange.
• . Before the tube is inserted in the hole, one or more thick rubber washers are placed on its inner encl.
. {on -the--fo.bye- side\)f-ilie- flange--A) anaT6ifr--Iron platesare-pTicecrin-l)osit1o:iiarouiia--tlie--fiifie -(on 1tlie
outbye side of the flange A}. Two of these plates BZ BZ (upper and lower). are called supporting plates .
• The other two (side plates) are .called 'wedges and have their wider ends pointing inwards. The tube,
with '1\rashersand plates, is now pushed into.the hole as far as it will go, i.e., until the washers abut against
..
the coal. shoulder. The tube is then firmly secured, first by hammering in the upper and lower plates •
•·- B2 B2 and secondly by drawing back the side wedges by means· of nuts F, screws E, and flange D. When
the wedges are quite tight, the effect of turning the nuts F is to drive the flange D and the tube inwards.
so. compressing the washers against the coa~ shoulder and forming a gas and water-tight joint. e,,, •
4!rl:i . ctintrol of the water }s. effected by 1'oring through a stuffing-box L and . by a series of cocks and •
•
• .. . valves. A smooth round rod ~ pa~ses through the stuffing-box, being connected by a joint to the bore-s,
, rods in front and by the coupling-box N to the worm-screw M of the rotary boring machine behind.
.
. ..
. •
• • • '
• •• •
•
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• •
• •
•
•••
• •
;' MG/11 • .I;
• Inundations of - .Water •
·-~4------~~~---~~~~~--~--~~~~~~~--~---~~~------------~
• The boring machine calls for· no special remark. The rods may be solid or, if desired, they may •
be hollow, a small pump being then fixed at L2 to force water through them and so.flush the hole. T'his s
is not often needed, and has the disadvantage that the borers cannot tell when the hole begins to " sweat "
-or "bleed" as it approaches more closely to the untapped body of water in front. (Note carefully,
however, that many "holings '' have been made by boreholes without any previous "bleeding" to
indicate the proximity of the water).
A branch at H allows the borings (whether dry or wet) to be discharged there, and is fitted with a ·
cock or valve I which allows the water to be shut off when the borehole pierces - the old workings. Two
hartdwheels T (one at each side) on being screwed up, force packing material against the bore-rods
and stop the flow of water if it should happen to break away when the stuffing-box L is off, but whilst
the bore-rods are still in position. The valve at S, in conjunction with the cock at H, shuts off the water
when the bore-rods are withdrawn. It will be seen that almost every possible contingency is provided
for. A pressure gauge may be fitted between E and F to register the water-pressure, - It is recorded
that the Burnside machine has bored a hole in coal no less than 234 yds. long, and that the maximum
• •
pressure tapped is 335 lbs. per sq. inch.
•
•. 4'
•
1. In weak ground, the coal or strata surrounding the mouth of the hole should be thoroughly -con-
solidated by the injection of liquid cement under pressure, whilst if the water~pressure is high the boring
tube should be additionally supported by a brick wall or concrete dam built against the fade of the headyig.
In strata that are liable to be seriously eroded by. water, or in soft friable coal, the entire borehole should
•
be lined with tubes. ·- .• ••

.
•
"·:":i·"
In all cases, the..tube or stand-pipe through which boring proceeds should be tested, if necessary,
to.~_a pressure of 1,000 lbs. per sq. inch and leakages made good before boring proceeds.
.l
\ :J!iovision for dealing with the water
'
wh~n tapped. ,t
To control the water, as described in the preceding paragraphs, is always desirable, but it is
-especially necessary when boring against high pressures or when a holing . is expected to be made, as
indicated either by the plans or perhaps by " bleeding " of water from a "borehole. Additional pre-
•
. •
--_

. '
~:

cautions include :-
• (1) Provide beforehand a channel or pipe-line of suitable size and gradient to deal with any •
possible flow of water from the hole concerned.
(2) Install adequate pumping plant, unless a sufficiently large standage is available underground
to receive the water.
(3) Level up all· depressions in the exploratory headings so that, when a holing is made, there
• ~11 be no danger of water collecting and cutting off the escape of the men or preventing access to the
borehole for the purpose' of regulating the water. •
( 4) Erect a safety. dam in .the main exploratory heading or headings with a strong bu:lk-hea& '
• door which can be closed quickly. 1

• Other Precautions when Boring .

-'(1) Good lighting should be provided at the face by electric safety lamps, and additional lamps .
.should be kept some distance outbye in case of accidents. •
- (2) Orte or more flame safety lamps should be' kept near the face for gas-testing purposes.
(3) The place should be frequently inspected by an official, special notice being taken of any
<C bleeding " or seepage of water through

n~i
the coal, •
•
.. "' .liARRIERS.
·'.,-'"--;)'
/
These are frequently left to hold back water so as ·to reduce or eliminate pumping expenses. The• -
···· width of barrier necessary to ensure that the water shall be retained cannot be found by a formula. The
-..
9
.• .
factors are much too indeterminate. _Usually, the barrier is made wide enough to prevent percolatioll ·.-·-_·-
.(( - --_''
--~
of water, and if this condition is satisfied, there will be no danger of an inrush of water' by collapse of the
__

1
•
harrier. The required width may be as little as 20 yds. in some cases, but it is usually advisable to arrange 1 •,
for a much greater width than this, as much as 150 yds. being not uncommon. The cJiief factors to .be

- -- considered are :- • •
-- ------- (-1-)---'Fhe--thickness,-and--depth--of--the- -s-earn;-wider--rrarriers-- :·heing-:::re,quired~asthetruckness ·ana.•-
depth increa~e. · •
•

..
.. (2) The friability of - the seam and its porosity.
(3) The nature of the parting between the sea]ll and its roof and floor.
(4) The porosity of the strata above and - below the seam. In- some cases, these strata ate much
•
•

••
more permeable than the coal itself. •
• (5) The maximum pressure of water· to be resisted. ·
(6) The ..illclination of the seam. In highly inclined seams, a barrier of coal has a tendencyto
•
slip in succes1sive layers. If the thickness of the seam exceeds 3 ft., no reliance can h: placedon - a barrier
• • ~nnin~ al?ng . the line of_ strike. to protect deeper w~rkings\in the same seatn unless there is a - variajion •
m the inclination or a fault which supports the barrier. - _ - _
• •
-~
-i
• (7) .·The method of working the searft at each side of the barrier and whether or not the goaf is \
solidly packed. • •
•
.
•
- ,

•
•
. '.
 .• •
•
• MG/11
•' The Universal Mining School, Cardiff ·-·-5:-·-·-
•
. . . .
(8) The. presence. of fawts. The effect of these is uncertain, and therefore it is never wise to
.rely upon them to act as a natural barrier to water. To strip away all the coal on the downthrow 'side"
. •

of a fault is obviously· a risky operation, unless the throw is very large and the width of barren ground

••
i

considerable. Even then· water may percolate· down the hade of· the fault and gradually form a fissure
by 'erosion of the broken material in the fault-plane. Faults which cross a barrier at right-angles are
nearly always a line of weakness. If they run parallel to the barrier and are included within it, they often

- add to its security and impermeability. Due regard should always be paid to the fact that a fault seldom
retains the same throw and width throughout its length.
\ l~~/'
.:::.~NSTRUCTION OF DAMS.
Wherever a dam is required to be built to hold back water, no care or expense should be spared
to make it a sound and substantial job. The safety of the entire pit may depend on it. It must be made
• strong enough to resist the maximum possible pressure of water that may at any time come upon it, and
due regard should be paid to the possibility of its being disturbed or crushed by ground movement arising
from future workings in the same or another seam. -,

Pr.elim'.inary
· rneasures . '
.. •It is first.neeessary to choose a suitable site in the strongest available ground and the place
where the dam is to be built must be carefully prepared, and dressed with the· pick; the· use of explosives .
being avoided as much as possible. If the ground is flawless and impervious to water, well and good;
but if it is weak or fissured, it must, be strengthened after completion of the dam by the injection of cement
•

•
under pressure. It is wise- to make this an invariable practice so that the ground surrounding the dam
• shall be indisputably as strong as the dam itself . •
The second essential is to
strengthen the roadway for several. yards inbye and outbye of
the dam by brick or steel arching so as to prevent heaving or movement of the ground and render certain
that the, dam shall be accessible if required.
The third essential; if a feeder of water. is flowing along the roadway (as is frequently the case)
is to erect a temporary dam (not roof-high) on the inbye side of the selected site so that the watv
can be controlled and the dam site kept dry. This temporary dam need not be very strong because rt
has no pressure of water to resist. It may be, say,.3 .ft, high, and built of timber planks forming two walls
spaced two or three feet apart and having the space between rammed with clay. Alternatively, brick-
work extending across -the roadway and some l8ins. thick will suffice. In either case, a pipe should pass
through.it sufficientlylarge to carry off the feeder, and the pipe should extend at least to the outbye side
of the site for the permanent dam,' being coupled, if desired, to a pipe-range leading. to the shaft.
~ . .
.
. .
The type of permanent dam to be erected depends on circumstances, e.g., pressure of water,
. . . •

size of roadway, and materials available. Briefly, three types of dam have been used; (a) timber dam, •
(b) brickwork or m.asonry dam; and (c) cem.ent-concrete dam. Of these, the timber dam is per-
haps most costly and. difficult to construct, although it has the advantage that the pressure of the strata
is likely to compress it and make it stronger rather than crush and disintegrate .it as in the case of a masonry
... dam. Low cost and ease of erection, however, are important considerations and thus one of the other •
two types is generally preferred. At one time, a brickwork dam was commonly built, but nowadays,

•
• a cement .. concrete dam is usually .given preference .
The thickness of a dam depends on (a) the material used; (b) the pressure to be resisted; (c) the
nature of the surrounding strata; and (d) the size of the roadway. Various formulae have been devised
•to e11ablean appropriate thickness to be calculated, but they are all of doubtful practical utility.
One such 'formula, devised by Professor Aldis for use with cylindrical dams, states that :-
20p)
·----
•
•
•
'-\

where K
Thickness in inches
thickness in ins.
I .
= K = r
• l t! !. (• A

1--'- 'V 1 - T
'T = ultimate crushing strength, in lbs. per sq. inch,
L·

r external ( outbye) radius of the material used (average values in round

in inches. numbers : timber=8,000 ; · stone or Stafford-
., • p head of water i11 lbs. per shire blue , brick set in cement_:6,000;
• s141. inch. concrete or ordinary brickwork set in cement
•
.. . . •
Accordin~ to this formula,
2 ;P ~2,500) .

must be less than unity, or the expression under the root sign

.. - ~t>ee0meg....-negaticvec:_al1dc.the·-formula-will--not~wo,rk,--there--being-no· squa-re root-of-a-negative- quantity- - -In-

other words, the material proposed to be used is not strong enough and a different one must be selected .
•
• Nevertheless, in practice, masonry and concrete dams are successfully resisting pressures exceeding
300 lbs .. per sq. inch although these materials, according to the formula, are not strong enough because ..
·•·"".
20 x 300 is much· greater than 2,500. Where practice does not conform with theory, there is usually •
• something wrong with· the theory. ·
In this matter, reliance should. be· placed on experience and good judgment rather than on a formula, •
• an~ even if aformula is used th~ thickp~ss s,t obtained should ?e
regarded merely ~s a the~retical min.j'- •
mum. Due regard should be paid to the natare of the surrounding strata because rt rs essential to prevent •
• any risk of the -dam being displaced in mass, e.g., moving bodily forward and shearing the sides of the
J
•fJoa.dwa.y.1 The. danger Taybe overcome by consolidating tht ground with liquid ce~ent' and by making •
..
• • .· the dam sufficiently ·thick. · , •
• •
•
•
,. . •
•
• .. ' •
.. .'
 •

MG/11
Inundations of Water
6

Timber dams in good ground have usually been made upwards of 6 ft. thick, such a dam .being
(sufficient ina roadway 6 ft. square or thereabouts to resist 600 ft. headof water( ==260·4 lbs. per sq. inch)»
Higher pressures and wider roadways would require correspondingly thicker dams.
Brickwork dams are usually made much thicker than timber dams and probably twice the thickness
referred to above would not be excessive.
Cement-concrete (cementation) dams are· commonly made upwards of 18 ft. thick. Some
engineers would make such a dam 3-0 ft. thick in a roadway 12 ft. wide and. 8 ft. high, assuming average
ground and a pressure of 300 lbs. per sq. inch. All the dimensions given are tentative only and· would
have to be modified according to local conditions.

Timber Dams.
A timber dam. is usually made of oak or pitch-pine
cut into logs specially shaped with a taper corresponding
to the radius selected, fitted together, and numbered at
the surface before being taken underground. In
general appearance the dam is wedge or cone-
shaped (i.e. a segment of a hollow cylinder or of a
hollow sphere) having its convex side exposed to
the water-pressure, as illustrated in fig. 5. (This
also applies to brickwork dams, but not to cementation
dams which often have straight retaining walls.)
The sides of the roadway must be carefully prepared
and smoothed down so that the timbers shall fit exactly
into place.. The· front of the dam (i.e. its concave or
outbye surface) should not quite reach the front of the
recessed part of the sides so as to permit a slight forward
movement. Before the first timbers are laid in position,
a layer of tarred flannel should be placed against the
'Strata. Fig. S. Timber Dam.

During erection, three pipes must be inserted. in the dam:-

(a) a large pipe of sufficient diameter to enable men to pass from one side to the other-
,(note carefully that this pipe is not usually required with any type of dam other than a timber dam}.
( b) a pipe of sm.ali diameter near the roof to permit air to escape from behind the dam when
the water rises ;
(c) a pipe of sufficient size near the floor to carry off the desired quantityof waterfor the
purpose of dealing with a feeder, or of subsequently draining the dammed-off area, or of limiting the
height to which water shall be allowed to rise. The air and water-pipes should each be provided with
a valve, and one of them may also 'be fitted with a pressure-guage.
When all the timbers ha.;ebeen placed in position, they must be wedged from behind, first by wedges
of fir, then of some harder wood such as oak, 'and finally by steel wedges so that the dam.is rendered quite ..
water-tight. The men may then retire through the large pipe, drawing after them a specially prepared
plug. The valve on the water-pipe may then be closed so permitting the water to rise and the dam to
take the pressure. . The valve in the air-pipe must-not be closed until all the air has been expelled

Brickwork Dams.
After. what has been said, the construction of a masonry or brickwork ,
dam requires little description. In shape, it may resemble a timber
dam, as in fig. 5, (without the central pipe for men) or it may
built in three-fold· form as shown in, fig. 6 .so as to reduce the
amount of excavation necessary. The general preliminary preparation PLAN .
is the same as with a timber dam but the sides of the roadway . ,,) . · ..· . · . > . ,

. fn~~~~;.!~i.h:~S.~f~~~~~~~:.~~~~r!~!~~~?.~., .~.w~:~:.·~·.~.~~~(4.·!.~~
is built up. Ordinary red brick may be used, but Staffordshire blue .· · ·~
. ·~•.· .t:i·.·.·.•c;::.·;;t!. 1.·~.~:.~

~--
H

,,
... _! __

brick forms a superior structure. It is a good plari to leave a little space

between the three sections of the darn and fill it with cement-mortar. SECT JON OH AB
.. I'ment-Concrete
· Fig. 6. Masonry· Dam .

Dams.
. , Such a dam may consist merely of two horizontal brickwork arches similar to those already described;"
spaced 2 or 3 ft. apart and having the intervening space filled with concrete, or the. dam may be similar
i:.11 shape to a brickwork dam but made entirely of concre' e. In modern practice, however, it is u~·~.al, ..
especially for high water-pressures to utilise the . -cernerstation process· both in the· construction .
. "' of the dam and in the strengthening pf the surrounding strata, and there· is no doubt that this.
forms a much stronger and more impermeable dam.
 MG/ll
The Uuioersal Mining School, Cardiff
7

Atypical cementatlon dam is shown in fig. 7. It consists of.two retaining walls of brickwork
(usually built .: straight but not necessarily so). separated .by an intervening . space filled with loose bricks
and rubble (see fig. 7, side elevation). The right-hand (inbye} wall is built first, a water"Pip'e W and
an .air-refief" pipe P, __ .. A
Al Ar

--
long enough to extend i
to the outbye side of ~ _a_
I
-·
llilllilll
the left-hand 'wall "<,
being i n s e rt e d

rises. p
through
Whilst the the wall as it
outbye
wall is being built, a ""-. _ .
~ number of cementa-
tion pipes Zins. diam.,
suitably disposed and
n/: I
'. '
r.3'o"+-
..............
.-·-.
of various lengths · to
ensure the efficient
.I . 12'0"-'·~---~
.......
distribution ofcement,
I
El . I Ei
are placed through 12 0---- 1
18'0" -----
the wall, and the space
between gradually
filled with . rubble. End Elevation - sectional Side Elevation
Other . pipes are also Fig. 7. Cementation Dam.
inserted to enable
flanking holes A, B, C, D and E to be .bored through them into the adjoining strata when the dam
itself is completed.
Injection of cement is effected by means of one. or more specially designed compressed-
air double-acting ram pumps, whose suction is connected to a cement-mixing tank, the delivery being
successively connected by means of flexible hose t(), the outbye ends of the pipes previously left through
the front walling. The injection of cement. is commenced at the bottom range of pipes, the flexible hose
being coupled successively to these pipes until the cement makes its appearance at the range next above..
so ensuring the gradual filling up of the spaces in .the rubble in an upward direction. All the pipes are
fitted with cocks which are kept open above the level of the cement, but are closed successively after the
injection through each pipe is accomplished. "This proceeds until the whole volume enclosed by the
walls is filled with cement, except that served by the last (top) range of pipes. The final injection does
not take place until after a.lapse of about 6 or 8hours, the object being to allow settlement of the cement
already introduced. Thereafter, the pipes last injected may be cleaned out and further injected, if
possible, the injection of the topmost range being the final operation so far as the dam itself is concerned .
The dam being completed, and assuming that it has been decided to strengthen the surrounding
strata, the holes.A, B, C, D and E (about l!- ins. diam.) are bored into the strata through the diagonally
placed pipes. This may conveniently be done by heavy-type hammer-drills driven by compressed air
and fitted with a water swivel through which water may be conducted to the inside of the bore-rods and
so to the cutting bit. The water, together with the fine debris formed in drilling, returns outside the
rods, thus . keeping the hole clean. Liquid cement is then injected through these pipes at a pressure
at least equal to twice the static head of water which it is desired to resist, 1,000 lbs. or more per sq. inch
being common. All breaks or planes of leakage are thereby efficiently sealed. The final filling of all
pipes. with pure cement completes the construction of the dam.

'lthe1'.'uses of eementation.
I These include (apart from sinking through water-bearing strata).
(a) The strengthening of existing shaft-Iirrings by boring holes through the tubbing or walling
391.d injecting liquid cement under pressure. '
( b) The consolidation of the strata around existing leaky dams, or of broken or fissured strata
in a ro~dway. -, ·
(c) The strengthening of a barrier of coal where a coal face has inadvertently approached too
near to old workings containing water. As much as 200 yds. of face has been dealt with in this manner.
(d) The rlu,gging of exploratory boreholes with cement after they are finished with, to prevent
percolation of water where this is possible or feared. Such boreholes may have been bored underground,
or from the'· surface through water-bearing strata during prospecting. . . ._ ·
WORKINGS~UNDERTHE SEA. · . · . .
~ --Tneprfin-ry-ai.tn-must-be-topreven~. the devei<>pmenfo:f any--hreak--or--fi·s-sure
that r~ight-~on-
ceivably exten upwards from the mine workings to the sea floor. Due account must be taken of the
thickness of" cover " ; the nature of the intervening strata ; the presence of dykes, hitches, or faults ;
and the thickness _of the seam or seams to be worked.
As far as . possible, the undersea workings should be isolated from the rest of the colliery
by solid coal barriers (with only essential roads driven through them) so that, if an inundation should
unfortunately occur, only a limited area of workings may be affected.
The necessary. precautions to be taken include the following :-
. (l) .The contour of the sea floor must be asce;tainecJ h)' soundings and the contours must be
carefully marked on the mine plan so that the level of the sea floor above datum and the ;hickness of cover
c.t any point may be known.:

').(>!
MG/1,1

'8
Inundations of . Wa!er

~-
(2) Exploration drifts or headings with boreholes kept extending in front should be driven
50 or 100 yards in advance of the main workings to prove the area for faults, intrusive- dykes, and other
irregularities.
(3) Ribs of solid coal, say 10 yds. thick, should be left alongside faults having a throwexceeding
·to yds., and only narrow roadways driven through them.
(4) Barriers. of solid coal should be left between the main workings. and the undersea workings
and also between adjoining panels of undersea workings,
(5) Safety dam.s, with bulk-head doors, should be erected in the roadways leading to the under-
sett workings. · '
(6) A suitable method of working must ·be decided upon, having regard to the thickness of
cover and the thickness of seam being worked.

Thickness of cover and method of working.

The minimum thickness of cover required between the roof of the seam and the sea floor to er.sure
safety depends on the nature of the intervening strata and the thickness of the seam.
If the strata are impervious to water, e.g. consisting· chiefly of shales with perhaps a considerable
thickness of boulder clay, the cover may be less than if they are formed chiefly of sandstones or limestones,
both of which are easily permeated by water. A thin seam requires a less thickness of cover than a. thick z
-
seam, the extraction of which will cause more subsidence and fracturing of the overlying strata. . Bord
and pitlar (whole working only, i.e. without partial or complete extraction of the pillars) may be adopted
with less cover than longwall: andlongwall (with tight packing of the goaves) may be adopted with less
cover than bord and pillar (with complete extraction of the pillars).
It is impossible here to lay down specific figures that are applicable· to all cases alike. Due regard,
must always be paid to local conditions; But the following figures refer to an actual case and will serve
as an approximate general guide :- ·
(1)., No working whatever may be carried onwith less than 270 ft. of cover.
(2) Only' bord and pillar (whole working) permitted between _po ft. and 480 ft. (with seams up to
. +! ft. thick) or up to 810 ft. (with seams exceeding 4t ft,' thick). .
(3) Extraction of
pillars or longwall (both wi.th tight packing) permitted betw~en 480 ft. and 810 fr.
with seams up to 4t
ft. thick, or above 810 ft. of cover with seams exceeding 4~- ft. thick;
( 4) No restrictions imposed when the cover exceeds 810 ft. (with seams up to 4t ft. thick) or
when it exceeds 1080 ft. (with thicker- seams).

TEST PAPER MG/11

1. You are approaching, from the dip, old workings
in a seam dipping 1 in 4, containing water at
300 lbs. per sq; inch pressure. This water
has to be tapped and drawn off. Sketch. and
describe how you would approach the old
workings to tap and drain off . the water.
2. A seam of coal is being worked adjoining an old
colliery which is full . of water. Give an
account· of all' matters which should 'be
investigated to ensure the safety of your
workings.
3. A heading 7, ft. wide and 6 ft. 6 ins. high, with the
necessary boreholes, is being driven 'towards
- -~old~w0rkings-containing-·wateF~at-a-pressure-.0f
200 lbs. per sq. inch. (a) Make a sketch,
with dimensions, of an emergency bulk-head
or "shut off" door. (b) Show also how it
may be erected or " hung " so as to enable a
dam to be completed in the event of an un-
foreseen inrush of water.
4. A narrow heading is advancing to the rise at a
gradient of · 1 in 6 towards old workings.
Boreholes have been put .in without result but
water suddenly appears in alarming quan-
tities on one side of the heading near to the
coal face. State (a) how this may happen and
(b) how you would deal with the situation, .
5. What precautions would you take in working a
seam of ~oal when the faces are approacning
an area qf old workings full of water lying in
another seam 100 yards above the working
faces ? There ·are several faults in the
locality.
6. A dam is to be built as a protection against water
.· What important points m~st receive attention,
apart from the erection of the dam itself ?
7. What are the advantages of. cementation dams as
· compared with timber and brickwork dams ?
8. A vertical shaft, 16 ft. in -diameter, is about to be
· - -~ -:abandoned·:-~the-lowers·eams;-whtcha-re~dry;-~
are to be worked from another shaft, and it
is necessary to prevent 'water from the .upper
seams passing . · down. . Sketch and. describe
the construceion of a suitable shaft". dam or
plug, between the upper and lower seams, to
withstand a pressure of 120 yards head of
water.
9. Give a careful summa~ of the regulations setting
out the precautions to be adopted when
approaching old workings -that may contain
an accumulation of water.

SWANSE'A PRINT'ERS L..TD.

 '• •
• •
MG/11
•
A/1 •
. ~'1:'. -oopYRIGHT.•
-~.
. ·.·.·C··.1.·.' .·
FOUNDED ·.1aea.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.4' •
• TH-E U.M.9. THIS PAPER
WAS '.fHE·FIRST 18 SUPPLIED ON
OORFtE8POND~NCI!
MINING BCH60L
1.N THE WOf'lLD.
~&e'Um,e-waf ~ ~,Jwof, CONDITION
IT IS RE8ERVED
TH-AT

EXCLUSIVELY l"'OR
htOOR .. Oftl<T&D 1 9 31 , CARDIFF' (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN UI~•

MINE GASES AND EXPLOSIONS

• •
Answers G/11
•• .. INUNPATIONS OF WATER •
l. ¥:"ou are approaching, from the dip, old workings in a seam dipping 1 in 4,. containing water at 300 lbs.
per sq'. inch pressure .. This water has to be tapped and drawn off. Sketch and describe how you
·• • would approach the old workings to tap and drain off the water .

APPROACHING AND DRAINING OLD WORKINGS .

• A suitable method of approach is shown in the
• _adjoining sketch. The procedure would be :'-
•
(1) Drive. exploratory headings,.AB and CD,·

- from the present main level X which lies 80 yds. to

the dip of the old workings.
(2) · Protect each heading by boreholes bored
t •
at 22t and 45° alternately so that they intersect,
• 0

and .using the Burnside . apparatus (er similar) so

that water, if tapped, may be at once shut off by a
valve. RETURl't
•
(3) . Build emergency shut-off doors at SS
_so that . they may be quickly closed in emergency. II •
y ll"fTAKE
(4) Provide pipe ranges to lead away the
wa&r when tapped,. and install. sufficient . pumping Fig. 1. Approachitig Old \V orkings •
plant to deal with it. in Dipping Seam.

(5) From B, bore a final hole, followed by a second hole, to tap the water; the holes being •
bored on level course. Boring. should take place through a tube sealed by cement; the adjoining coal
and strata should be injected with liquid cement ; and the boring tube should be additionally supported
by. a brick. wall built against the. face of the coal and by well-secured vertical girders. •
(6) Later, if ,the present·workings are to be worked right up to the old workings, continue
• the level from B. (protected by further flank boreholes) and drive further exploratory headings, with
boreholes, from E to the foll rise.
. [N;pte.-In a dipping seam, it is better to make the first approach to the old workings from
0the.
'i~e, as shown (on level course from B) instead of from immediately below the old workings.]

---.... 2. _/A seam of coal i~. being worke1 ad}oi~ing an ~ld colliery. w~ich is full of water.. Give an account of all
•, \ . . •>>' matters tohichcshould.he Investigated to e~ure the safety of your workings .
• WORKINGS ADJOINING OLD COLLIERY FULL OF WATER.
The matters to· be investigated may be considered under the headings of (a) the history of the old
colliery; (b) the volume and head 'of water present; (c) the geological conditions; and (d) the nature
••

• •
-
•
•
of the steps· needeft to ensure safety.
(a) Hist8:ry of tl~e old colliery. The sources of information include (1) the old plans and records,
~nd (2) ·the evidence of old officials or. workmen. Due regard must be paid ·to possible gross inaccuracies
·-
of the plans. The boundaries of the old colliery must be ascertained as precisely as circumstances permit.
• (b) V?lume and head of '\Vater. ?ome estimates~~:>uldbe made of the probablewater pressure
to be- resisted and the quantity-of water present." It may be possible to drain old shafts or otherwise
• reduce the head, or even to drain the old workings by boreholes from the present workings. •
(c).Geological conditions. It· is necessary to ascertain (l) the nature of the strata between the
two collieries, (2) the existence of faults, (3) the dip of the beds, and (4) the relative levels of the new and
..
_ ;.C>ld. workings. · •
(d) Steps to .be taken. Having regard to all the foregoing factors, a decision must be taken as •
• t? the width of the barrier to be left between tfie two collieries, due regard being paid also to the thickness
an~ depth of the seam, the friability of the 1oal, and the porosity of the strata. In the actual working • •

~1-t
• of the colliery, an investigation must be carried out to test the thickness of the barrier and.to __ensure that
is n?r deficient at any point. - • • • •
(480S)
• •
•
•
• •
•
. .... : '
• J
•
 •
-.- •
• •
• •
•
,, • • •
M'G/191. •
• Inundations of Water

"' A~2
;}·

A heading 7.ft. wide and 6 ft. 6 ins. high, with the necessary boreholes, is being driven towards old workings
•
•
containing water at a pressure of 200 lbs. per sq. inch. (a) Make a sketch, with dimensions, of an
emergency bulk-head or " shu; off " door, (b) Show also how it should be erected or " hung "
so as to enable a dam to be completed in the euent of a,n unforeseen inrush of water. ·

EMERGENCY
BULK-HEAD
DOOR.
s--:r-r. - ,...._-f_r__ -__

r:~
...L_-.J-e-e-
: r - - - -;
,-f4" METAL(

~,
J

T : , : i ·:
,·--,·-,1;·1··-, 1:

I:
(a) The adjoining i:l ! l :; •
dimensioned sketch :: I 11• I 11
•

·1· : : :
shows, m detail, the
:: I 1:: I ::
5'9" :: : :::.: ::
the construction of a
41's" __ L_ ..••
",
suitable door. It -~
1
. r:":
I
.
. . l: : " : : : : :i~:
. 11 I I 11: t I 11
•consists of :- I
I
. I
: · . :: L __ L_U1.. ..L-J ::
I I
•.!....,-.:.:.:; =::.~--=-=.:."'..:::.d.J
9' J~---~ T;----~
(1) Cast iron _±_ ,, . . , II

frame, .} inch thick,

~4'9"----
l-----4'3" ~~PLATE.
• •
with strengthening
ribs on the outbye C.I. DOOR FRAME. STEEL DOOR.
side. Fig. 2. Details of Frame and Door . •
•
(2) Mild steel door, consisting of a half-inch plate large enough to overlap the hole in the frame
•
by 6 ins. all round. It is provided with two straps to form hinges at the top and is' strengthened at the
back by steel angles· 6 ins. x 6 ins. X t, inch thick. All plates and angles are riveted together with ~ inch
'• rivets.

(b) :Arrangement of door. . '

The door may be hung from the inbye wall, A, of a pair of
such. walls designed to form. the retaining· walls of a cementation
dam. (The outer wall is not shown). The wall. is made suffic:-
'iently strong to resist the expected water . pressure for a limited
• period w_hilst the dam is being rapidly completed .
• The steel door:is hung up out of the way next the roof so that
it swings automatically into. position in an emergency when the
• hook holding it is released. A water pipe is provided near the
:floor to enable water to pass through and an air release pipe (not
shown) should pass through the wall, above the door. ,
•
Fig. 3. · General ~rrangement.
•
A narrow heading is advancing to the rise at a gradient of 1 in 6 towards old workings. "Boreholes have
been put in without result but water suddenly appea~s in alarming. quantities on one side of ·the heading
near to the coal face. State (a) how this may happen and (b) how you, zoould deal with the situ~tion.•

WATER APPEARING AT FACE OF EXPLORATORY HEADING.

(a) It is evident that, . in this case, the heading must have b~en protected by 'insufficient bore .. ~· I
, holes. The holes were either too few, or too short, or too far apart, and they hav~, ;failed to intersect •
an old narrow working, or a plane of weakness, through which water is now streaming. · . •
his Pc;>ssible that water is finding its way 'through _l?reaks in the coal (missedby the boreholes), or
possibly also through breaks in the roof, or even in the floor. There may be a fault in the vicinity w~ich ••

.. -·
is providing a channel for water. The driving ofthe heading may have set up movement of the surroun-
ding. beds, so creating new fissures through which water can· pass.·
{b)- -To deal with the sftuation,' the-following steps should- be- taken ::;;;.;.....
. • •
.
0

•
·-
•
.•.
(1) Assess the extent of the danger and. withdraw men from any other part of the mine which

•
may become flooded if a major burst through occurs, t- .
(2) Support as strongly as possible the roof, sides, and floor at the face of the heading so
as to prevent the total collapse of the weakened ground. . At the side of the heading where water is coming •
•
..
..
•
through, erect a stout timber wall or buttress to hold up the weakened coal rib. •
(3) Retire from the face and close the bu~k-heacf .d oor, assuming this to have been prepared
• for just such an emergency. If not, erect a temporary dam (not roof high) to control the flow of water >
• and pipe it away to ·old dip workings, or to the pump standage .
• • (4) Build a permanent dam (or complete the dam'Part:ially erected) to seal off the heading~r •
• • its future security. •
•
• (5) Drive anothe~ heading, adequasely protected by sufficient boreholes, to tap and drain\•
•
the water. •
~~~~~~~~~--~--~
• •
•
 '• •
• • •
•
The Universal· Mining School, Cardiff
• '1'/
'l -
What pre(:autions would 'you take in working a seam of coal when the faces are approaching an area of
•
'
old workings- full of water, lying in another seam 100 yards above the working faces ? There are
several faults fn the locality.

WORKING . BELOW A WATERLOGGED UPPER SEAM.

The chief danger to guard against here arises from. the presence of faults. In the absence
of. faults, and especially if the intervening strata consist chiefly of shales, a " cover " of 300 feet provides
a fair margin ofsafety, provided that the m.ethod of working is such as to prevent extensive roof
fractures or irregular subsidence of· the· 1 overlying beds. ·

• • If, . however, a large downthrow 'fault is . met with, this may bring down the upper seam and greatly
.....
,_,,_, .
lessen the thickness of. cover between the present workings and the- old, whilst the fault plane itself may
form a channel for water to enter the lower seam .
'
The precautions to be taken would include :- •
7•
• •
.. • (1) Critically examine ·existiµg plans showing the levels in both upper and lower seams and the
direction and throw ofany known faults •
(2) Carefufly assess the nature .arrd: thickness of the intervening strata at different points
so that the general safety of continuing to work the lower seam may be determined .
• (3) If possible, drain old shafts leading to the waterlogged upper seam, so reducing the total head
• of water. ·
•
(4) Drive exploratory· headings, with boreholes, well in advance of the face, so as to locate
any fault and determine whether water is finding its way down .
• •
(5) Leave ribs of solid coal alongside faults and drive only essential roadways 'through them.
.. (6) A.<Jopf a safe method of working, either bord and pillar (whole working only) in a seam
exceeding, say, 4 feet thick, or longwall with tight packing in 'a thinner seam. ,. '
(7) Provide water levels, pipe ra:qges, and pumping, plant to deal with any feeder that may
be 'met with. •
•
~1·1.;fA
·
dam is =to be built as a protection against water.
from the erection of the dam itself ?
What important poinofr"'·"111JSt receive attention, ap8rt

•
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH A DAM.
(l) Select the strongest possible ground in a roadway driven in the solid coal, or in a cross-measure •
drift.

• • (2) .Strengthen the roadwa.y supports on the inbye and outbye sides to minimise ground move-
ment.
(3) Erect a temporary dam. (not roof high) to control any feeder of water and pipe the water past
• the.vermanent dam-site to keep the latter dry.
( 4) · P~epare the, actual site without the us~ of explosives, as far as practicable .

' . •_ _ (5) Inject· the surrounding strata with liquid cem.ent (after completing the dam) to prevent
•.leakage through porous ground, breaks, or fissures. .
• • (6) Leave pillars of solfd coal in the vicinity of the dam in the same and adjacent seams so as to •
ensure its ,permanent security .

.. •
•
. 7. What a'e th: ad1/;antages of cementation dams as compared with timber and brickwork dams ?
• •
•
ADVANTAGES OF CEMENTATION DAMS• ·-
. tit. {1).:..L,ess:-excavation~is·-required·• as the strength· of the dam · to resist· forward· movement depends .
• on the· firm bond between dam and strata; and not on a. wedging action within specially shaped recesses .
.
•
Careful dressing of the sides is not needed.
(i) The cerncntatjon dam. is m.ore -suitable in weak ground which can be consolidated over .
..
a wide. area by liquid cement injections under pressure. •

• .
. (3} The dam. can be ~uilt in a roadway of alm.ost any size, being made, thick enough to prevent
the possibility of movement in mass.
•' '' '
•
(4) Erection is. quicker· and_ sim.plet-; .the retaining walls need not be arched; the length· of
.. •
•

,. •
the dam can be extended if necessary ~ and steel reinforceaient by girders fixed between roof and floor.

. ...•..
• / -, {or· fr~m side to side) can be readily· introduced to give added strength. • ·
•
• •
• • '
•
• .. • J·•
 • •
•
• -·-
•
, .. MG/11.
• •
•
Inundations· of Water •
• A4
" ~. A vertical shaft, 16 ft. in diameter, is about to be abandoned : the lower seams, which are dry, are to be"
•
worked from another shaft, and it is necessary to prevent· water from the upper seams passing down. '~.
.; · .'
'.·.·.·: :;:·· ·.· .•

Sketch and describe the construction of a suitable shaft, dam or plug, between the upper and lower :~:_/
seams, to withstand a pressure of 120 yards head of water.

SHAFT DAM OR . PLUG.

->\
The adjoining sketch illus-
trates an actual shaft plug designed
..,.._ i5'o''DIA. --·
,.. __
..·=.~
to meet circumstances similar to •
those described in the question. •
To erect the plug :-

(1) Choose strong ground

fmpervious to water, e.g. in a
sound, homogeneous· shale bed.

(2) Cut away the shaft wall- • •

ing to form the frustum of a cone
having a base 24 ft. diameter.
•
• (3) Erect a double girder
frame by placing joists across the Fig. 4. Shaft Plug.
•3
shaft at 4 ft. intervals, superim-
posed by other joists at right angles. Fill in the spaces between the lower girders with a dose wooden
platform of 9in. x 3in -. boards. .
•
(4) Run in concrete to a thickness of 12 feet. The concrete may consist of 1 part Portland
c'ment, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts gravel or other suitable. aggregate. The weight of concrete required
·- .
would be about 300 tons.

(5) Inject liquid cement under pressure into the surrounding strata through 12 or more inclined
pipes and boreholes arranged radially as shown .
• If desired, a vertical pipe, 6 ins. diam., may pass through the plug to permit water to be drained 'ir'. ·'i
<f.i· . ,
away during its construetion, The pipe may be plugged with concrete after the work is complet~d,
and finally closed with a blank flange at its lower end .
•
(Note.-In another actual case, the plug was made 20 feet thick. Some students suggest two 36 ft.
plu¥~ in series, giving a total thickness of no. less than 72 feet,. and requiring some 2,000 tons of concrete.
• Such a thickness, however, must be regarded as excessive and unnecessary .

As an alternative, the plug may be constructed witl'.lits wider end at the· top, facing the water
pressure. 'Theoretically, no doubt, this would be more correct, as the plug would. then act like a wedge,
being supported laterally by the strata, as well as by the steel girders at its· base. But the construction
shown is one that has actually been adopted in practice in certain known cases.)
• •
•

•
9. Give a careful summary of the regulations setting out the precautions to be adopted when approaching· - - •
old workings that may contain an accumulation of water. • I

• •
REGULATIONS re APPROACHING OLD WORKINGS.
. ~
~:
. .
(The student m~st refer to the official Regulations for the answer to this question.) ••
•
..
-· •
• •

..• •
•
•
• • •
• •
• • • •
• • • •
SWANSEA F''RINTERS LTC>.
\. .
• •
•
• '
FOUNDED 1883 ' COPYRIGHT
ntE U.M.S.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTDo,
THIS PAPER
WAS THE FIRST IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING SCHOOL:
IN THE WORLD
fil'~e 'Uw,~ar·~ S)kof, CONDITION THAT
IT IS RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR.
INCORl'ORATED t931 CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN . USE

Test Paper MB/3

QUESTIONS.
EXPLOSIONS, FIRES AND INUNDATIONS!'

1. Three seams, A, B, and C, at depths of 300, 450, and 500 yards respectively, are being worked
simultaneously at a colliery. The coal from seam A is wound from an inset in the upcast shaft.
The coal from seams B and C is wound at· the· downcast shaft. During an afternoon shift, when
repairers are at work in allfhe seams, an explosion occurs in seam C. As manager of the colliery
what would you do upon hearing of the occurrence?

2~ In consequence· of a fire a section of a mine has been sealed by stoppings in the main intake
and return airways.

The results of analyses of samples taken from pipes in the stoppings are given in the following
tables. What do you understand by these figures?

The stopping in the INTAKE airway.

,.
Samples taken. C02 CH4 02 N2 co
----- -~-----
% % % % % %
On completion of stopping 0·120 0·190 20·700 78·990 Nil 100·000
3 days after completion 0·350 4·500 19·300 75·845 0·005 100·000
6 0·430 9·650 17·804 72·110 0·006 100·000
9 " " ",, 0·390 35·000 12·500 52·104 0·006 100·000
17 " " ,, 0·340 42·200 11 ·056 46·400 0·004 100·000
22 " " 0·300 59·000 8·000 32·697 0·003 100·000
" " ",, 0·150 65·300 5·448 29·100 0·002 100·000
41
52 " " 0·100 70·500 3·000 26·400 Nil 100·000
" " "
58
" " "
Nil 89·000 Nil 11 .ooo I Nil 100·000

The Stopping in the RETURN airway.

I Samples taken.

On completion
3 days after
6
..

of stopping
completion
C02

%
0·350
0·560
0·500
CH4

%
1·800
9·450
26·390
02

%
19·725
16·350
14·550 '
N2

%
78·100
76·240
58·505
co
%
0·025
0·400
0·055
~.
100·000
100·000
100·000
9 " " "
n o-sso 56-511 8·300 34·800 0·009 100·000
17 " " 0·200 78·505 Nil 21 ·290 0·005 100·000
" " ",, Nil 90·000 Nil 10·000 Nil
22 100·000
" " Nil 93·000 Nil 7·000 Nil
52 100·000
" ",, " Nil 95·000 Nil 5·000 Nil
58 I 100·000
" "
(5506) P.T.O.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardif],

3. A gob fire occurs unexpectedly in a district of a mine in which large quantities of firedamp are·
given off. No preparations have been made and there is risk of explosion. What would you do?

4. (a) Sketch and describe a good type of permanent stopping, suitable for sealing off a gob-fire
in a gassy _seam. (b) When and how would you take samples from the pipes for analysis so as to
obtain correct information of the state of the atmosphere in the sealed off district ?

5. Electrically-driven coal-cutting machines and conveyors are being used on a coal face. What
special precautions should be taken in connection with the equipment, and in the working operations
connected therewith, to prevent an ignition of firedamp or coal dust?

6. The workings in a seam of coal at a depth of 300 yards are approaching old workings in the same
seam which are water-logged. A barrier 80 yards in width has to be left against the old workings.
How would you proceed to prove and, if found deficient, how would you strengthen the barrier ?

7. A large fire has broken out in the main intake roadway near the bottom of the downcast shaft
whilst men are in the mine. The mine is very gassy and is ventilated by an exhausting fan. Make
a sketch, assuming your own conditions, and describe what steps you would take to get the men out
safely and extinguish the fire.

Printed by Cardiff Printers Ltd.

 •
• . FOUNDED I 883 • SOUTHERN\ LTP.,, COPYRIGHT
.• TPIE U.M.S.
T. A. ~··

THIS PAPER,
WAS THE 'FIR;ST

fil'lie 'Urn,~ar ~ 8'kJ. · ts SUPPLIED - ON • '

'••
CORRESPONDENCE CONDITIO~ THAT
'MINING SCHOOL IT IS RESERVED
•IN THE WORLD EXCLUSIVELY Fot
INCORPORATED1931 CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR. OWN USE

"''
Test Paper -MB/3
SPECIMEN ANSWERS.
•

.,,
• • EXPLOSIONS, FIRES AND INUNDATIONS .

... •
~. . I. Three seams, A, B, and c, at depths of 300, 450 and 500 yards, respeciively, are being worked
.simulianeously at a colliery. The coal from seam A is wound from an inset in the upcast shaft. The
coal [rom. seams B and C is wound at the downcast shaft. During an afternoon shift, when repairers
· aret11t,/work in all the seams, an explosion occurs in seam C. As manager of the colliery what would
you, ,if!o upon hearing of the occurrence?
•• •
)PROCEDURE AFTER EXPLOSION.
• Assuming a serious explosion to have occurred in one of the main districts of the lowest seam C,
and that I, as manager, was immediately informed, I should:-
• •
(1) Set in motion all pre-arranged plans for such an emergency whereby all officials proceed to
their appointed places and carry out their allotted tasks. Such officials include the engineer,
' electrician, surveyor, surface foreman, store-keeper, lampman and surface telephonist.

(2) Summon the central rescue brigade, members of the colliery rescue teams, and all other
. necessary assistance, including H.M. Inspectors, local colliery managers, workmen's representatives,
doctors and police. "
(3) Instruct the engineer to inspect the winding apparatus and ventilating fan and report thereon ; •
to keep the air compressors running; to cut off the electric current underground; to see that ample
supplies of material are available from the stores (timber, brattice, fire-extinguishers, hose, and so
on) ; to arrange for an ample supply of safety lamps; and to see that the first-aid organisation is
.
fugctioning, •
(4) Arrange for tracings of the affected districts to be supplied by the surveying department.
•
(5) Withdraw all men from the unaffected seams A and B under the supervision of officials.
The men in seam B may be withdrawn in the normal manner via the downcast shaft, it being assumed
that the winding plant and D~C. shaft are unaffected. The men in seam A must be prevented from •
approaching the U~C.shaft (for this will soon be fouled by afterdamp), and must be directed to make
their way to the D.C. shaft where presumably an insetis provided as an emergency second exit .
•
(6) Investigate the conditions in the bottom seam C, first in the vicinity of the D.C. shaft, and
thereafter further inbye.: Withdraw all men from the unaffected districts via the intake airways and
__ .... raise them to the surface without delay. With officials and volunteers, advance towards the affected
• dist4}ictas far as safety permits (as indicated by safety lamps and canaries) and there establish a fresh-

..
air base from which rescue teams can operate.
. ,,. • - •• (7) Confer with the superintendent. of the rescue brigade which should now be on the spot and
ready for action. Consider the probable extent of the explosion and arrange for the despatch of
• Pescue teams, with precise written instructions of where to go and what to attempt.

(8) Concentrate on the rescue of possible survivors in the affected area, coupled with the exting-
•
.
-- uishing of incipient fires and obtaining detailed knowledge of the conditions inbye.
. .
•
..
•

• • (9)
•
Arrange for the transport to the fresh air base of ·all materials likely to be of service in the
• • rescue and recovery work-first-aid equipment, timber, brattice, hose-pipes, etc.-and for the most
urgent repairs to roof supports, doors and so on, that may be accessible.
• The further steps to be taken would depend on the conditions found by the rescue teams under-
ground. It may be that the whole district can quickly be examined and the ventilation restored.
-· .
Conversely, the rescue and recovery work may be arduous, dangerous, and prolonged. •
..
•
'
Assuming a serious explosion, an advisory council should be established, consisting of the manager,
;
\
/:
I
• senior mining engineers, mines inspector, chief officer of the rescue brigade, a representative of the •
'•

,,, .. •'

workmen, and a senior member of the scientific staff. The council would. decide on the general
policy to be adopted, whilst executive wor~ underground would be in the hands of the manager or
• tw.dermanager, district overmen, superintendent of the rescue brigade, and one of H.M. Inspectors. • •
• •
•
•
~I No man must be allowed to enter the mine without special permission from the manager or other
authorised officialand a written record must be kept of eve,y man either entering 1~aving the mine.· er •
• (5506) - . . • - • .
• •
•
•'I .• •,,
'~•
• •
• • .
•
 .. •
.
• . •
•
~
...
.- MB/3
.--------..•
•
Answers on Explosions, Fires and Inundations .
•
A/2 •
~ •
•Meanwhile, every effort must be made to penetrate the affected district and particularly tc. )··

•
, rescue survivors. Relays of rescue teams would be organised ; the ventilation would be advanced
step by step; and this would be followed up by systematic repair work. No alteration should be•
made to the normal direction of the ventilating current unless and until the necessity for this is
determined by theunderground conditions.
[Note. Some students suggest the immediate reversal of the ventilation to get the men out of
.seam A, seeing that the coal from that seam is wound at the U.C. shaft. Such a procedure would be
dangerous. It would re-circulate the afterdamp in seam C, foul the D.C. shaft and the main intake
. _.
in that seam, and so greatly increase the risk of loss of life and render more difficult the work of rescue
and recovery].

•
2. In consequenceof a fire a section of a mine has been sealed by stoppings in the main intake and • •
return airways.
The results of analyses of samples taken from pipes in the stoppings are given in thefollowing tables.
• What do you understand by thesefiguers ? .. !:- .
'\ ,.f
(a) The stopping in the Intake airway.
- ~
Samples taken C02 CH4 02 N2 co •

•
• On completion of stopping
3 days after completion
6
9
17
22.
,,
,,
,.
,,
,.,
,,
,,
"
,,"
,,
%
0 ·120
0·350
0·430
0·390
0·340
0·300
%
0 ·190
4·500
9·650
35·000
42·200
59'.000
20·700
19·300
17·804
12·SOO
11 ·056
8·000
%
78·990
75·845
72 ·llO
52·104
46·400
32·697
% %
Nil
0·005
0·006
0·006
0·004
0·003
%
100·000
100·000
100·000
100·000
100·000
100·000
•

.
••
•

41 ",, ,, 0 ·150 65·300 S·448 29·100 0·002 100·000

" 0·100 70·500 3·000 26·400 Nil 100·000
~ 52 " " "
58 Nil 89·000 Nil 11 ·000 Nil 100·000
" " "
(b) The stopping in the Return airway.

co
'
Samples taken C02

%
CH4

%
02

%
N2

% % %
.
• On completion 'of stopping 0·350 1 ·800 19·72S
16·350
78·100
73·240
0·025
0·400
100·000
100·000
3 days after completion O·S60 9·4SO
6 O·SOO 26·390 14·5SO SS ·SOS· O·OSS 100·000
9 " " " 0·380 56·511 8·300 34·800 0·09 100·000
• " " " 0·200 78·50S Nil 21 ·290 O·OOS 100·000
17
..
•
22 ",, ",, " Nil· 90·000 Nil 10·000 Nil 100·000
52 ,, ,, Nil 93·000 Nil 7·000 Nil 100·000 •
58 " Nil 95··000 Nil 5·000 Nil 100·000
" " "

•
..... __
INTERPRETATION OF
BEHIND STOPPINGS.
ANALYSES FROM . -- I •
•
·)--·
The interpretation of the given analyses •
is facilitated by plotting them in the form of
graphs as shown in the adjoining sketch.
,
~_..-4-~--'-~-'--~--....--....~---~....,..._...~-0%
17 22.
--.... DAYS
• 41 • 52 SB
•
•
...
•
0 3 c; 9 17 22. 52 SS • •
Note carefully that the curves for C02 are 100?= -
plotted to 100 times the vertical scale of the ./ CH4 •
other gases (as shown by the percentage scale r-,

..• r\. ,, / •

•
on the right). The curves for CO are not
plotted, partly to avoid obscuring the other· .
I
r-:
'
~ C9t
I' '$
RETURN
-STOPPING-· • 04;.
curves, and partly because the percenta~es J ~
· 1· ...~ 0•2.;t
of CO are very small. ~~
oz v
!ryG
r--.:_~
NITROGE.N
o~ ·'
•• •
·.
'
r, ; F4RE DYING SLOW FIRE
HEATING EXTINGUISli
E0
•
gURNING DOWN •
• • Graphs of Gas Percentage against Time •

• • ..
• • •
 .• •
• MB/3
• The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. A/3
<-< •

~· A dominating feature of the two graphs is the rapid and continuous rise in the percentage o~
•methane CH4 (indicating a very gassy mine) until the final atmosphere consists almost entirely of
this gas, plus a small percentage of nitrogen.
In interpreting gas analyses, it should be remembered that active fire normally ceases when the
percentage of oxygen falls below 12%, but that slow combustion and evolution of heat, accompanied
by the evolution of C02 and CO, may continue indefinitely with 5% of oxygen, or even, in some cases,
so long as even 1%or2% of oxygen remains in the atmosphere. Thereafter, a dying fire may develop
further activity if more oxygen should leak into the sealed off area.
,

Furthermore, it is usual to consider, not only the actual analyses, but also the C02/02 and C0/02
ratios, i.e., the ratios of the C02 and CO produced in relation to the oxygen absorbed in the process.
Let us therefore calculate these ratios in respect of the analyses at the return stopping on the 3rd
and 9th days.

Third day. (Return stopping).

20·93
'· Oxygen equivalent of 73 ·24% Nitrogen = ~--
79~04
x 73 ·24 19·39%.

Oxygen absorbed = 19 ·39 - 16 ·35 = 3 ·04% ; C02 produced = 0 ·56 -. 0 ·03 0 ·53%~
• 0 ·53 0·400
. •. C02/02 ratio = --.- x 100 = 17 ·4% ; CO /02 ratio = x 100 = 13 ·16%.
3·04 3·04

Ninth day. (Return stopping).

20·93
Oxygen equivalent of 34 ·8% Nitrogen x 34·8 9·21%.
79·04
Oxygen absorbed = 9 ·21 - 8 ·30 = 0 ·91 % ; . C02 produced = 0 ·38 - 0 ·03 = 0 ·35%.
0·35 0·009
. ·. C02/02 ratio = -- x 100 = 38 ·5% ; C0/02 ratio.= -- x 100 = 1 ·0% •
0·91 0·91
~
Of the two ratios referred to, the C0/02 ratio is the most important and it clearly indicates that
the fire is burning actively (incomplete combustion) on the 3rd day, but has died down considerably
by the 9th day. •
Similar conclusions may, in fact, be drawn from a mere inspection of the percentages of C02 and
CO at the two stoppings, without reference to the C0/02 ratios.
• We may summarise the various conclusions to be drawn from the analyses as follows:-
•
(1) Active combustion occurs chiefly during the first six or eight days, as shown by the increase •
in the percentages of C02 and CO, accompanied by the steady fall in the percentage of oxygen, after
which the fire gradually dies down.
(2) Slow heating continues throughout most of the period, as shown by the oxygen, C02 and CO
figures at the intake stopping, although the percentage of oxygen at the return stopping has fallen

• (t
to zero by the 17th day .
(3) Danger of a firedamp explosion occurs between the 3rd and 6th or 7th days, i.e., when the
percentage of CH4 lies within the limits of 5% and 15%, and the percentage of oxygen exceeds about
13%. Thereafter, no such danger exists, partly because the percentage of CH, is too high. and
parzly because the percentage of oxygen is too low.
(4) The seals are reasonably air-tight, for there is no fluctuation in the steady rise of CH4 or in
• n• . the steady fall of the other gases after the 6th day.
"' (5) At the end of the period of 58 days, the fire is totally extinguished, and has virtually been
~o since the 4lst day. It would be unwise, however, to re-open the district at once. A further
-pcriodshould be allowed to elapse, having regard to the size of the district, the nature and extent
of the fire, and the general conditions known to exist underground.
[Note. The! candidate is sometimes asked to give an analysis indicating (a) that a fire has broken
(!I

out, or fb) is increasing, or (e) is decreasing, or (d) is extinguished. Suitable answers are provided
(tby the _inalyses at the return stopping on the 1st day, 3rd day, 9th day, and 22nd day].

,, • A gob fire occurs unexpectedly in a district of a mine in which large quantities of fire-damp
,. are/givenoff. No preparations have been made and there is risk of explosion. What would you do ?
GOB ~IRE IN GASSY SEAM.
If a gob fire occurs in a gassy mine, urfexpectedly or otherwise, the affected area must be sealed (!)

o off without delay and I would proceed as follows, assuming that the risk of explosion has to be
guarded against, but is not imminent :-
(1) Order all workmen out of the mirle at once, except officials and selected men to deal wi~Jl ,,.
tire emergency. <• •

"tl ,1 (2) . S~mmon the r~scu~ brigade and other trained. moo and, inform the divisional inspector and'

.. ...~- representatives of the deputies

<•
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and workmen. '1 a

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MB/3
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A/4.---~-
~-

•--
,, (3) Arrange f<:>r all available materlals required for the stoppings to be brought inbye at once.
including bricks, mortar, 'sandbags, sand, stone ·dust, timber, girders, corrugated steel sheets, air
tubes and brattice cloth.
(4) Stone .. dust heavily all accessible roadways near the fire and in the affected district generally.
(5) Maintairt'the vennlattonIn the affected district so as to dilute the firedamp and reduce
the risk of explosion. ·
(6) Endeavour t9_ isolate the fire by ramming large quantities. of sand or stone dust into the
pack walls in the)p~mediate vidnity. The aim must be to prevent air reaching the actual burning
material, and to d~aip .time for the erection of substantial stoppings further outbye. Rapidity in
this work is essential.
•
(7) Choose sites for substantial permanent stopplngs which must, when completed, not only
prevent access of air to the district, but also be strong enough to resist the force of an explosion. In
an emergency ()(thi,~ .character, 'the s!pppings must be built of whatever materials are immediately
-to hand, but pit+dirt', sand, sandbags, corrugated sheets, steel girders and brickwork may all be
utilised. _The sites of the stoppings should be well outbye, in firm well-supported ground, conveniently
aeeessible for, the' transport' ot.;material and for' subsequent balancing of air pressures on the . outbye
',:f ,,
side. A plug hole shouldl be left through each stopping during construction and the final clo\ing
should be carried out rapidly and simultaneously in .intake .and. return after most of the ., men have left
the mine. After closure, all men should be at once withdrawn.
. •
.•.
•
(8) .Balanee the air pressures on the outbye sid·e of both stoppings to prevent circulation of air
through and around the sealed :;trea.
•
(9) After the lapS:e ;of~ (say, 24 hours, examinethe 'stopplngs and, if found undamaged, take air
salllples from the .sealed off area, through sampling pipes specially left in the stoppings. The procedure
thereafter would 'tlepertd'Jfi theresults of· the analyses. . .
(10) During t!J.~ op:e~atjQJlS:, Ireshair should be kept constantly supplied tothe workmen ; c.onstant
tests must be made with flame lamps and canaries; and samples of air taken at regular intervals
f~r analysis. Rescue apparatus must be worn where necessary, all regulations being fully complied
with. · ·

... (a) Sketch' a:rid describe a good type of permanent stopping, suitable for sealing off a gob fire
in a gassy seam. (b) When and how would you take sam.plesfrom. the pipes for analysis so as to obtain
~orrect information ofthe state of the atmosphere in the sealed off district ? · ,
c. • ' I

• CONSTRUCTION .OF· GOB FIRE STOPPING .

(a) The adjoining sketch· sho~s a good
type of stopping, upwards of 5 yards long,
which can be erected rapidly in an· emergency,
, using materials readily avatlable at a colliery.
The main body of the stopping is built
of sand-bags, interlocked in successive layers
as headers and stretchers, and reinforced at
the inbye end (on. the left) with vertical steel
rails set between roof and floor, and at the
outbye end with corrugated steel sheets, and
•
with horizontal •. girders extending from . side
- .
- to side across the road. Gob Fire Stopping
Whilst the stopping is being built, a passage or· plug hole, 3lft. square, is left right through. ~t
for ventilation purposes. T:t:efloor and sides of the passage are of sand-bags and the roof of corrugated
steel plates. The final seah11:gof the plug hole is carried out rapidly and simultaneously in all the·
stoppmgs. The outbye end is closed by a steel plate securely spragged by one or more steel girders
-
...
..
...

s~t at an angle in the floor.

1'
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·
.• .
.Al!~I!l:<l!iy~ly_, __ ~!1-~ plug ~~~~ _ ~a,y ~~- ~a,:p~:('e_<! !~s>.!11 ~H ft. ~ql!~r~ at_ the i111Jye end to 2! ft. square
at the outbye end, so that the plug may offer more resistance to a possible explosion.
Additional reinforcement during the erection_ ofthe_· stopping may consist of interlaced steeJ
channels wedged between roof and .floor, or from side to side, plus semi-arches set with their convex
arcs facing inbye, These may I;>e backed by steel sI:eets to spread any disruptive force that may be
.~ developed. The arches supportmg the roof are left irrtact .

•
:11
A sampling pipe, !inch diameter, is placed through Ure plug hole to enable the atmosphere behind
the· stopping to be sampled and analysed. The in bye end of the tube should extend some 4 to 6 •
feet from the stopping and be fixed at. about two-thirds of the height of the roadway above road
level. The out bye end should be fitted with a .valve. ,
Later, after the danger period of a possible explosion ~as passed, a brick wall, 18ins. thick or m~
(t

• ~ may be built in frorit of. the stopping to reduce or ellmlnate air leakage. The wall is let well into th~ . •
roof, floor and sides ; the intervening space between waUand stopping is well rammed with sand' \
and stone dusb ; and the outbye face of the wall is coated with a sand and cement wash. , '•
•
 •

The· Universal Mining School, Cardiff.

•
(b) Method of taking samples.
To obtain accurate results, the samples should be taken when the pressure in the sealed-off area
..
is positive, as indicated by a water-gauge connected to the sampling pipe.

Such a positive pressure is mosUikely to exist (i) when the air-pressures on the outbye side of the
intake and return stoppings have been balanced, so preventing in-leakage of air through the intake
stopping; (ii) when firedamp is being evolved in the sealed-off area ; (iii) when the temperature
in the area is rising ; and (iv). when the barometer is. steady or falling.

Conversely, a negative pressure may occur (i) if little gas is being evolved; (ii) if the temperature
iii the sealed off area is falling; or (iii) if the barometer is rising. In such a case, air will leak through
the stopping and samples taken will not be truly representative of the gases inbye.

To take a sample, assuming ·the pressure· to be positive, I should use a glass sampling bottle,
some 6 inches long, and It inches diameter, having a tap at each end and filled with mercury or,
alternatively, with water; I should then:-
"'
(1) Open the valve on the sampling pipe to allow some of the gases behind the stopping to blow out.
'~(2) Close the valve and connect the bottle to the pipe by a short piece of rubber tubing.
(3) Open the valve and also the two taps on the sampling bottle, so allowing the mercury (or
water) to run out into a container, thereafter successively closing the lower tap, the upper tap, and the
valve on the stopping. ·
(4) Finally, disconnect the sampling bottle ..
Alternatively.. an empty sampling bottle may be used, the atmosphere behind the stopping
being allowed to blow through it for two or three minutes and the taps then being closed.
It is possible to obtain a sample when the pressure is negative, by using a small air-pump or
"aspirator" (a. form of bellows) to withdraw gases from the sampling pipe, but the results are not
likely to be so reliable. ·
The date and time of taking the sample, its number, the height of the barometer, the watef-
gauge reading, the site of the stopping, and the name of the person taking the sample, should all be
recorded for future reference.

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}

Electrically-driven coal-cutting machines and conveyors are being used' on a coal face. What
precautions should be taken in connection toith. the equipment, and in the working operations
connected therewith, to prevent an ·ignition of firedamp or coal dust ? :-.

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST EXPLOSION ON MACHINE MINED FACE.

The special precautions required in connection with electrically-driven coal-face machinery,
as distinct from the more general precautions against explosions that are applicable to all collieries
. alike, may be set out as follows :-

(a) Equipment.
(1) All motors and switchgear should be of approved flameproof pattern, so designed and main-
)taint!!d that an explosion within the apparatus cannot be communicated to the atmosphere outside it.
(2) . The motors should be operated by remote control whereby all switching operations in the
,-i,
:power circuits take place at the gate-end box and not at the machine.
(3) Automatic protective devices should be fitted to the switchgear, including over-current
rlleases to open.fhe majn switch in the event of an overload or a fault; earth-contlnutty protection
to prevent the current being switched on unless the earth circuit is complete; and earth leakage
protection to open the switch. in the earliest stages of a fault to earth.
(4) Fl~7dble'cables should have a copper earth screen (or screens) surrounding the power corns
to enable earth-leakage protection to operate at an early stage in a fault, so reducing the fire rislf"."
Connection to the apparatus should be made by means ofllameproof plugs and sockets.
(5) Pliable armoured cables should be used for the conveyors (semi-fixed apparatus) as such
cables are stronger and more robust than.flexible cables, They should.be connected to their apparatus
by flameproof, detachable cable-end boxes. ·
(6)., The coal-cutter jib should be fitted with water sprays or jets to wet or damp the coal scuftings
in the undercut and reduce the formation aad dissemination of coal dust.
(7) All electrical equipment should be regularly examined, tested and maintained by competent
/ electricians. ·
-.P# (8) Fire-fighting appliances, including foam-type extinguishers and sand in buckets, should
be provided in the loading gate and at the coal cutting machine (or other convenient place) so that,
; jf a fire should unfortunately occur, it may be put out indts earliest stages and so reduce the risk "~
. of a subsequent explosion. .
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c•'-~
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Answers on Explosions, Fires and Inundations •

,(b) Working operations.

(1) Adequate ventilation must be constantly maintained and testing for firedamp should be·
regularly carried out by responsible persons. Automatic firedamp detectors should be provided
and used as laid down in regulations.

(2) Reduce the production and dissemination of coal dust at the face and in the conveyor gate
by all the recognised methods; remove accumulations of dustfrom beneath conveyors; install dust-
extractors at loading points; and render the remaining coal dust harmless.

(3) Avoid all causes of frictional heat by the careful alignment of conveyors to prevent their
rubbing against roof supports ; by regular lubrication of rollers, pulleys, and drums; and by careful
examination of machinery to prevent overheated bearings.
•
(4) Avoid damage to cables by laying, suspending, or protecting them so that they are less •
liable to mechanical injury due to falls of roof, shot-firing, or machinery in motion; by not dragging
them about by the machine ; and by coiling them in a figure of eight when not in use. If, however,
..a cable should be damaged, it should bewithdrawn from service at once. Spare cables ready for
immediate use should be kept in reserve.

(5)
. •

Shot-firing should be ,earried out between shifts, and not during the coal-cutting shift when
. '\ (-

'
firedamp is likely to be liberated in maximum quantity.

If all the foregoing precautions are systematically carried out, and if the equipment is properly
maintained, the possibility of an explosion should be remote.

d
0)/6. The workings in a seam of coal at a depth of 300 yards are approaching old workings in the same
seam which are water-logged. A barrier 80 yards in width has to be left against the old workings. How
•
•
would you proceed to prove and, if found deficient, how would you strengthen the barrier?
~
PROVING BARRIER AGAINST WATER.
An imaginary case is illustrated by the adjoining
tic' sketch .
• ff is assumed that ihe line OW represents the supposed
boundary of the old workings (based on all available data);
• that the line LM represents the proposed limit of working
in order to leave a barrier 80 yards wide; and that the
present fac~ine lies along PR, 150 yards from OW •

. From this point, my procedure would be:-

(1) Stop the longwall face PR, in order to avoid the
danger of holing unexpectedly into an old trespass working
or heading, such as F or H, not marked on the plan. Such
trespass headings have been known to be driven as much
as 250 yards further than shown on the old plan. Only
knowledge of local conditions can decide the degree of Proving Barrier against Water
f;
•
•..
risk in the present case and whet.her precautionary
measures should have been taken earlier. - .,. •
(2) Bore a series of holes at intervals along the face PR to a depth of (say) 30 yards,and if nothing
is found amiss; drive a number .of exploratory headings A, B, C, D, and E, 50 yards apart, towards
the line LM, with two advanced boreholes kept at least 25 yards ahead in the face of each heading,"
and flank ·holes at angles. of 22! 0 and 45 °, so that they intersect. Boring would be .carried out by
the Burnside (or similar) apparatus so that water, if tapped, could be brought, immedjately under
~~~ . • ~

(3) Assuming no trespass workings to be located by the boreholes, stop each heading when it
reaches the line LM and prove the barrier itself by extending existing holes and boring new holes
at various angles from each heading, bot necessarily to the full lateral width ofSf) yards. An unbroke;)

. ,,
barrier of solid coal of even half this width would normally be adequate.
holes could be bored to the full length to verify the general accuracy of the line OW •
c
-
Nevertheless, several

(4) Plot the position, direction and length of all the barrier holes on the plan. If it is shown
.,
that the barrier is not deficient, all the holes would be plugged solid with cement and the face advanced e

to line LM•

..
• I'.:
•
 • •
•
• •
.• The Universal M_ining School, Cardiff.
• •
•
• (5) Assuming that two unmarked trespass headings, F and H, have been driven to withirf 20
• _yards of the present face line PR (and such cases are not unknown) it is obvious that they would be,
discovered by the first boreholes from the face at C and D, and the limit line LM would require
immediate adjustment to the line PR. Moreover, the barrier in the neighbourhood of the trespass
workings would be deficient. To strengthen the. barrier, I should:- ,
(6) Plug all existing holes solid with cement.

··- . . •
(7) Bore new holes, and re-bore existing holes to a depth of, say, 15 feet for cementatlon purposes
at a sufficient number of points along PR between Band E .
(8) Fix stand-pipes in the holes and grout them securely into position with cement.
(9) Inject liquid cement under pressure in order to consolidate the barrier and render it imper-
meable. The water pressure to be resisted may be as much as 900 x 0 ·434 = 390lb. per sq. inch
" •
(although probably much less) and cement injections should be carried out at a pressure of 600lbs •
per sq. inch or more. ·
•
(10) Continue boring in 15 feet stages and inject more liquid cement until a thickness of, say,

\··.•. ·. · .· · ·• . . · 40 yards
In onehasactual
been strengthened.
case, the thickness of barrier in front of a heading was found to be only 10 yards"
•
and water was met at a pressure of 175 lbs. per sq. inch. About 150 tons of cement was injected
\ thrcgigh boreholes at a pressure of SOOlbs.per sq. inch and the positio~ was then deemed to be safe.
[Note. It is incorrect to drive headings into the barrier itself, i,,f,., beyond the line LM. The
barrier should be proved by boreholes, and the headings A, B, C, etc., preceded by boreholes, should
only be utilised as a safe method of approach towards the proposed limit of working.

•-
It is permissible to assume the question to mean that the face line has already reached the line
• LM, in which case the barrier would be proved only by boreholes and the suggested headings would •
not be needed. This procedure, however, would in the present case have led to disaster and in any
case it would increase the risk of a deficient barrier being left. It is clearly safer to take precautionary
measures at an earlier stage].
•
7. A large fire has broken out in the main intake roadway near the bottom of the downcast shaft
• whilst men are in the mine. The mine is very gassy and is ventilated by an exhausting fan. Make.fl
sketch, assuming your own conditions, and describe what· steps you would take to get the men out safely
and extinguish the fire.
LARGE FIRE NEAR DOWNCAST SHAFT BOTTOM.
•
[Note. This is a most difficult and perilous situation calling for quick and effective action on
the part of the responsible official if a disaster is to be avoided. •
.Y • It is a maxim in fire-fighting that every fire is a small fire in its earliest "Stages and the time to
tackle it most successfully is before it has developed into a large fire. A bucket of water, or a fire-
extinguisher, may be sufficient to extinguish a fire at the start, whereas all available resources may be •
insufficient if the fire gets out of hand. The fact that a large fire is burning indicates that, for some
reason-inadequate supervision, neglect by responsible persons, or exceptional fire risk-s-this fire
has passed beyond its earlier stages and may soon get out of control unless decisively attacked. •
· The steps to be taken necessarily depend on the layout of the main roadways. We can here

•• •
·merely suggest some main guiding principles, with particularregard to one set of circumstances] .

The conditions assumed in. this answer are indicated

in the adjoining sketch showing the two shafts and three
TO
NORTH
l>ISTf\lC.T
I

i!
t
•mailtdistricts, North, West and South, with their respective
• main intakes in continuous lines, and main returns in
© R~URN

· ... ' - . dotted lines.

• The site of the fire is marked with a cross and is
• si.tuated on the outbye side of the separation doors marked
~-
-
• The steps I would take, assuming myself to be the
manager an~ . ql!i.ck1¥ called to the spot, would be as
• follows:-
• •
•
• • (1) Set in motion the fire-fighting organisation of the
<;t>lliery, whereby officials and staff proceed to their allotted
tasks; e.g., telephone operator· to send messages, store ...
•4''
: •
keeper to arrange. for continuous supply of fire-fighting
materiaJs, engineer to attend to the fan and water supply,
r
I
t ..
•,
I TO
and so on. • I SOUTH
OIHRICT •
Illustrating Fire near D.C. Shaft Bottom
(2) Instruct the electrician to switch ~f electric power from all cables and other apparatus
., · li~ly to be affected by the fire. • •
• · (3) Summon the Central Rescue •
Brigade,
specifying the nature of the danger so that they can ,
•
lllssess its urgency and bring all necessary equipment. • •
••
• • .
• •
•, .• . •
• • \.
... . . .
'•'•
,_ •
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Answers on Explosions, Fires and Inundations
..
' (4) Reduce the fan speed to prevent the rapid flow of smoke and fumes inbye and adjust the ~·

•-
• speed to such a rate that the roadway between the D.C. shaft and the fire is kept ventilated and
accessible for fire-fighting purposes. •
(5) Withdraw men from the vicinity of the U .C. shaft and transfer them to the intake on the
south side of the D.C. shaft via the doors at B.
(6) Telephone inbye to instruct the district officials to bring out all their men. The men may
travel out either by the intakes (if not already too much fouled by smoke) or by the returns, which-
....
ever is safer and more convenient, but the important thing is that, on reaching the vicinity of the
shafts, they should be by-passed to the south side of the D.C. shaft, either direct via road EF (from the
West) or through doors C and D (from the North), or through doors B (from the-South). They can
then be raised to the surface via the D.C. shaft. · ·
The foregoing steps all involve the sending of messages and could be carried out very quickly •
by telephone operators and other personnel, leaving the underground officials and myself free to
organise the actual fire-fighting operations, as follows:- ·
(7) Open the separation doors at A to short-circuit the reduced air-current, with the smoke and
fumes, to the U.C. shaft. Smoke helmets may have to be used for this operation. We must stop
the fumes from going inbye, and reversal of the air would be inadvisable at this stage.
(8) Erect brattiee cloths at the points marked SS, to limit further the inflow of smoke along the
main · in fakes.
(9) Fight the fire from the D.C. side with all fire-fighting personnel and material available,
• especially with water from the mains, for a large open fire requires water under pressure, and plenty
of it, if there is to be any hope of estinguishing it. •
By this time, the Rescue Brigade should have arrived and, being specially trained in fire-fighting
and provided with specialised equipment, they will take charge of further operations, in consultation
• with me. It is presumed that, with their aid, the fire is brought rapidly under control and finally
extinguished.
Other necessary precautions include :-
(10) Careful checking of all men entering or leaving the mine .
• (11) Rescue teams to be ready to assist men who may be overcome by smoke or fumes.
,
•
(12)

(13)
.
First-aid treatment of affected men at the surface.

Plentiful supply of liquid refreshment for the fire-fighters . •

• (14) Constant. testing of the atmosphere by means of lamps and birds, where fire-fighters,
unprotected by breathing apparatus,are working.
• [Notes. (1) If the fire can be caught in its early stages, it is obvious that the elaborate arrange-
\

ments described may not be needed, the important immediate steps being to clear the men from the
returnside and U.C. shaft and short-circuit the smoke and fumes, the fire meanwhile being put out.
by men on the spot.
(2) It would-be inadvisable and possibly dangerous to reverse the.air in such a case, partly because
of the risk of causing a gas explosion, and partly because it would render impossible a direct ~ttacf
on the fire from the D.C. side. The ultimate effects of reversal are difficult to foresee and such a •
procedure is not generally advocated even in a non-gassy mine, unless it represents the only possible
way to save the lives of the men inbye.
•
. . •
(3) If there were no· South District and .no travelling road giving access. to the South side· of the
•
D.C. shaft for the men in the North and West districts, with the result that the men could not re~ch
the D.C. shaft, they could be brought out to point p' in the main returnwhere a brattice cloth coUild
be erected to protect them from smoke flowing through the open separation doors at A. The men •
. ·~·
• •
could remain there temporarily if the fire was being successfully fought .. Alternatively, the doors
,•at A could be closed, so permitting return air to pass outbye to the U.C. shaft- and clear it of smoke.
The men would then be raised at the U.C. shaft. If necessary, but only if circumstances rendered
it unavoidable, the air could be reversed slowly through the open separation door at A until the men •
•-
were out of the mine.
""' (4) If the fire continues to increase, in spite of all efforts to quench it, seals must be erected •on

.. - the outbye and inbye sides, as near the fire as practicable. Every effort, however, would first be.
made to extinguish the fire and maintain unbroken access to the mine.
•
(5) If a fire occurs in one of two parallel intakes, "the problem is simplified inasmuch as the fire
may be completely isolated by seals, the mine then being ventilated and the men withdrawn by the
·

second in take.

., ·• '
.
Finally, we would make it clear that one cannot be dogmatic in a question of this kind, an~th~
.• • details of procedure must necessarily differ in every ca~e]. •
•\
•
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• .• Printed by Cardiff Printers "td.
 • •
•
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• f.OUNOEO I 883 COPYRIGHT !
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.,
THE U.M.S.
THIS PAPEPw •
SkJ.
WAS THE FIRST

6lLrn,~ar ~
IS SUPPLIED ON
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CONDITION THAT •
~~e
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..
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------- ------ --·------

Te.st Paper ED/3

QUESTIO-NS
<-0
EXPLOSIONS, FIRES AND INUNDATIONS. • cl-r1
(J)
..- 1-J
Cl1 ~
I. ~)"Sketch and describe a suitable layout for an "A" type Rescue Station. Give brief details OJO
t:Zz
of (b) its equipment and (c) staffing arrangements. ~Cf)

ti1
2. Give a concise account, with one or more sketches, of the various types of portable fire ex- 0
tinguisher available for use in mines, stating their uses and limitations . ·~

• ,
3. In what ways has mechanisation increased the explosion risk underground? Indicate, briefly,
how these additional dangers may be combatted.
•
4. Describe, concisely, the various purposes for which boring may be carried out underground
with a view to preventing or minimising danger.

5. It has been decided to re-open a large district in which the average concentration of firedamp
.
is estimated to be 75 per cent. Describe the precautions which should be taken (a) generally and
(b) during the pass8:ge of the gas along the roadways and into the atmosphere at the surface.

"6. The workings in an inclined seam are approaching the outcrop wher~ the surface strata are
know~ to be water-logge~. What precautions should be taken? •
l
7. How can dangerous emissions of fired-amp from the wastes of longwall workings be avoided •
otherwise than by solid stowing ?

8. Discuss the additional dangers and difficulties which may arise should the ventilating current •
of a mine be reversed following a fire at or near the downcast shaft bottom.

(5612)

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FOUNDED 1883
TJ&tE U.M.S.
T. A.
•
SOU'I'HERN LTD.,
•
I
COPYRIG T
THIS l'APER.
·L .. • •
WAS THE F1RST IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE
M1NING SCHOOL
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IT IS RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
••

INCORPOAATliD
1931 CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR. OWN USE '

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Test Paper ED/3
SPECIMEN ANSWERS
EXPLOSIONS, FIRES AND INUNDATIONS. •

1. · (a) Sketch and describe a suitable layout for an "A" type Rescue Station. Give brief
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details of (b) its equipment and (c) staffing arrangements.

LAYOUT OF CENTRAL RESCUE STATION.

(a) The. adjoining sketch shows
the ground floor plan. of. a typical
modern central rescue station
lEGTURE
equipped with the Proto apparatus, ROOM
the essential features being :-,- •
(a) Main garage to house the <SALLE RY

rescue vans which are kept fully

066ERVATIOH HAL.L
equipped for any emergency. G.-
MAIN A
(b) Duty Room, provided with mo.'
G~LLERY R
A
adequate telephone. facilities to re- GARAGE 6

l.
GALLERY
E
ceive messages and signalling appara-
tus to despatch rescue personnel OSSEl\VATION HALL.

immediately theirservices are called 6ALL.ER'l

for. •
• (c) Apparatus room, cleaning APPARATUS FIRE
EQUIPMENT
room and oxygen absorbent store, to 11\00N\ STORE
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house all necessary rescue apparatus,
oxygen cylinders, reviving apparatus,
carbon-dioxide absorbent, and safety
lamps, and fitted with equipment for Fig. 1. Central Rescue Station (Not to scale). •
cleaning, testing and repairing.
(d) Training galleries, laid out and fitted to resemble the underground workings of a colliery, each
gallery being U-shaped .and having its own observation hall. Hot and irrespirable air may be
introduced into the· galleries (or to a special hot and humid room) as required for practice purposes.
Escape doors are fitted for use if necessary.
• (e) Dressing room, drying room, and toilet facilities for the use of colliery personnel attending
for training.
(f) Lecture room and gas-testing room for the instruction of colliery rescue teams.
(g) Store rooms, fire-equipment store, and rear garage to house a mobile winder.
• Other accommodation, provided on the. first floor, includes a recreation room, canteen and .
. • kitchen, a .bird room.. a laboratory for checking air and. dust samples, and a board room for formal
committee meetings. The basement is utilised for housing the heating installation, the main electrical
distribution bo'l:rd, and accumulators to provide an emergency lighting service .

• (b) Eq.µipment.
• • ..
The.mlnlmum equipmentto be provided at a central rescue station is laid down in Regulations
Jo which students should refer, but in one case, where the station serves a. wide area, the equipment
includes :- · ·
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60 sets of Proto Compressed oxygen apparatus.
1~ smoke helmets and 6 other sets of tube apparatus.
30 sets of reviving apparatus. •
50. electric safety lamps and 20 flame safety lamps.
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5 motorised rescue vans, fully equipped for service.
1 mobile winder. I
Ambulance equipment, including first-aid boxes.
Birds, of which four (changed dail.1) are kept in constant readiness in a cage,
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•.. {c) Staffing arrangements .
These depend on the size of the station, the minimum being the superintendent and his assistant
and not less than 6 fully trained men. In the case previously referred to, the staff consists of
1 superintendent, 1 assistant superintendent, 2 instructors and 14 corps members. Of these, six men
are on duty during the day shift, seven men on the afternoon shift, and one man on night duty.
' When not engaged on rescue operations, the men attend to the apparatus and equipment and help
with the training of part-time men.

2. . Give. a concise account; with one or more sketches, of the various types of portable fire extin-
" guisher availablefor use in mines, stating their uses and limitations.
PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS.
• In general, fire extinguishers are intended for immediate use when a fire breaks out, in order
to extinguish the fire in its earliest stages. There are five main types, namely (a) Soda-acid, (b)
CO 2-water, (c) Foam, (d) CO 2-gas, and (e) Dry powder extinguishers. The first two act by means
of the cooling and wetting effect of a jet of water which is ejected under pressure. The last thl-ee
smother combustion by excluding oxygen from the fire.

(a) Soda-acid extinguisher.

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This consists of a lead-coated sheet
steel vessel containing 2 gallons of sodium
bi-carbonate solution and about 5 ozs. of
sulphuric acid in a hermetically sealed
• glass bottle. When this is broken by the
plunger, the two chemicals react and
produce CO 2 gas at a pressure sufficient
to project the liquid through a distance
of~O te 40 ft. The chemicals themselves
have no virtue as fire extinguishers. The
,· . , ·. -. soda-acid type is suitable for free-burning
) materials such as coal, timber, or brattlee, (a) SODA-ACI .D (b) C02-WATER (C) FOAM
but it is not suitable for oil fires or electrical
fi'es involving risk of shock., It is not
now in favour for use underground because
of difficulties associated with the acid
•charges.

{b) CO 2-water extinguisher.

• OISCHAR6E
This consists of a copper, or copper- •~....--,,--..,...._TUBE
lined vessel containing water and a small
copper cylinder of carbon dioxide com-
pressed to some 60 atmospheres. When (e) DRY POWD~R (PISTOL TYPE) •
the copper seal of the cylinder is .broken,
the gas pressure expels a jet of water Fig. 2. Portable Fire Extinguishers.
through a distance up to 40 feet. This •
type is suitable for exactly the same purposes as the· soda-acid type but is now preferred to the soda- •
acid type for underground use. It has the advantage that it can be quickly re-charged underground
by fitting a new CO 2 cylinder and fillin~ the container with water. The assembled extinguisher
retains its effectiveness indefinitely. •
·•
[c) Foam extinguisher. •
One type of chemical foam extinguisher consists of an outer container filled . with a solution of

.. sojlium-bicarbonate and a foam-forming agent such as liquorice or. glucose or some paten]; ingredient,
~d an inner container filled with aluminium sulphate. When the inner sealing disc is broken and
the extinguisher inverted, the two solutions mix, producing a large volume of foam (a closely knit"
stream of gaseous bubbles) which is ejected under its own pressure, the length of the jet being about
30 ft. The extinguisher may be refilled at the surface by chemicals supplied in sealed tins by th~
makers, a supply of warm water being required to form the solutions at prescribed strength .

.• _ An alternative type, known as an air-foam extinguisher, consists of an outer container filled

with water and an inner container holding a sealed charge of foam concentrate and propellent ~harge
• of carbon dioxide under pressure. When the latter is released by the plunger, the charge is forced
into the water and the resulting foam is ejected as before. This type can be recharged underground. •
. (,

• ,,. ~Foam extinguishers are specially useful for fires invotving oil or other highly inflammable liquids,
• ~5ff the foam forms a blanket on top ofthe oil which exciudes the air necessary for combustion, bftli '-
i 'they are also suitable for all other free-burning materials. They are not suitable, however, for fires •

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involving electricas risks.

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(d) CO 2-gas extinguisher.
This consists of a charge of 2 to 15 lb. of carbon dioxide (according to size) stored under pressure
in a steel cylinder fitted with a wheel or a lever valve. When the valve is operated, the carbon
dioxide emerges as a mixture of CO 2 gas and .co 2 snow which is particularly Suitable for dealing
with fires involving electrical risks, or with oil fires, or with fires in the undercut. It may, of course,
also be used effectively on ordinary free-burning materials. Disadvantages are that the cylinder
must be recharged at the maker's works: periodical weighing is needed to make sure that the charge
has not ?eell: parti,allr used-j+and the carbon dioxide is rapidly dispersed in a well-ventilated roadway,t
so r:ducmg its effectiveness. r ,,);:v or 'l:'l'f4--,,,_!:.;q,..,. ..., I : s·cn:> .;.'-. 'J<t ~ cls.JN•v7u erfx',,.~ 1-v <t-Ln.:,,
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(e) Dey powder extinguisher. 7 c.J.f JaJ .... -f•<~::. - - cf..5 /- =rr: - «'
This type consists of a special, patent, fire-quenching powder which can be shot out of the
container either by the detonation of a small charge (as in the pistol type) or by means of an expellent
charge of carbon dioxide (as in the larger types in cylindrical containers). Dry powder exttngutshers
.r have a universal application, being suitable for electrical fires, or for oil fires, or for fires involving
conveyor belts or free-burning materials of any kind. They can readily be recharged underground .
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"' '·"· In whatways has mechanisation increased the explosion risk underground? Indicate briefly., ~.
how these additional dangers may be combatted, / .
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EFFECT OF MECHANISATION ON RISK OF EXPLOSION.
Before an explosion can occur, there must be (1) a suitable source of ignition in contapt with •
an inflammable atmosphere (nearly always a firedamp-air mixture) to initiate the explosihn and
(2) a sufficient quantity of firedamp and/or coal dust to propagate the explosion. The question thus
resolves itself into describing the ways in which mechanisation has multiplied the sources of ignition,
and has increased the production of fire-damp and coal dust. Whether or not the actua~ of
explosion has been increased depends on .the extent to which the increased dangers have been counter-
acted by more efficient safety measures. ·

(a) Production of Firedamp.

One of the aims of mechanisation is to increase the bulkeoutput of coal and, by a process of
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concentration, to increase the rate of extraction on a given face. The net result is that a larger ·
volume of gas is given off in a given time and has to be diluted by the ventilation. Furthermore,•
the coal. is more broken up by cutting and shearing operations and dangerous concentrations of gas
may occur (e.g. in the undercut) before it can be swept away by the ventilating air.

On some faces, full mechanisation is not possible because of the increased gas ermssion ; on
others, the rate of advance or the length of face must be reduced. In general, however, a mechanised
layout demands and provides better roads and requires better supervision, and it permits a more
scientific control of the ventilation so that, on balance, the percentage of gas in the air is normally
kept to a safe figure. In cases of unusual difficulty, new techniques such as the cross-measure borehole
system of firedamp drainage may be applied to combat the danger and render possible a still wider
_ appiication of mechanisation processes.

(b) Production of Coal Dust.

This is one of the worst features of mechanisation, on the grounds of both health and the risk
• ~f explosions. The production of. dust in large quantities is an almost inevitable accompaniment'
. ,of the use of coaleutters, cutter-loaders, disc shearers, and other stripping machines, whether or not
explosives are used in addition. The dust thus produced may then be disseminated along. the
roadways, esp.ecially by conveyor transport systems or old rope haulage systems using small tubs. The
problem is i:{.ltensifiooby the concentration of large outputs at one central loading point. '-.,,

To=combat the danger, steps must be taken:-

(i) To prevent or reduce the production of coal. dust at the face its~lf by . such . measures as water
infusion and wet cutting, by the wider application of slow-moving ploughs, by maintaining good
roof control to limit coal degradation, and by careful regulation of shotfiring where this is needed.
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(ii) To prevent the dissemination of coat dust by the careful design of loading and transfer points,
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the, use of water sprays at such points, wind-shielding, the collection of spillage, the removal of dust
'"accumulations beneath conveyors, and the provision of a well-designed haulage system ant\. track, •
7 with large mine cars. - . :<' · ~,

• 4' (iii) To renderthe remaining coal du. st aarmless by a.de.quate an~frequ~nt (litt~ and often) sto~ •' _
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• . ·dusting, coupled with the proper siting of Mone dust barriers to prevent the spreld. of an explosion
• •should one unfortunately occur. •
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Explosions, Fir es and Inundations

t e)Sources. of Ignition.
This is not the place to enumerate all the possible sources of ignition, but only to consider the
particular effect of mechanisation. This involves the use of more electrical power underground,
.especially in the vicinity of the face, with all its attendant risks of sparking and arcing. at motors,
switchgear and cables if a defect occurs. Moreover, far more mechanical work is done on the coal
and in processes of transport with a consequent increase in the development of friction and heat and
in the risk of fire. Electricity and, frictional sparking have both been responsible for many ignitions
of gas in recent years and the tendency of mechanisation is to increase the danger.
The chief means of combatting the danger lies in the careful design of all the apparatus in use;
its proper installation in accordance with good engineering principles; efficient maintenance by
competent persons to ensure that it remains in safe order; and regular inspection. Obvious pre-
cautions with electricity include the use of flameproof equipment, screened trailing cables, and
leakage protective devices. On the mechanical side, strict attention must be paid to the installation
and alignment of face, gate and trunk conveyors and to the elimination of all causes of frictional
heating. At the face, careful attention· must be paid to the choice of a proper cutting horizon, free
of pyritic or quartzitic material, a matter of some difficulty with multi-jib coalcutters and disc
shearers.

( d) Conclusion.
A general consideration of all the factors suggests that, whilst additional risks have undoubtedly
been introduced by mechanisation, there have also been great advances in mining techniques, in
the development of safe apparatus, in the application of safety measures, and in the .training and
" . .education of mining officials, with the result that the explosion hazard has at least been kept in check.
Even this is a considerable achievement in- the circumstances. Constant watchfulness is needed
but it is confidently anticipated that, by still greater efforts in the future, the hazard will be further
reduced, although it can never be entirely eliminated.

""' -.' 4. Describe, concisely, the various purposes for which boring may be carried out underground
ioith. a view to preventing or minimising danger.

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BORING UNDERGROUND TO PREVENT DANGER.
It is proposed-to d=alwith this matter under the headings of (1) Precautions against Inrushes,
(2) Cementation, (3) Water Infusion, (4) Firedamp Drainage, and (5) Roof Bolting.
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(I) Precautions against Inrushes.

Exploratory boreholes are essential for the following purposes:-
(a) To explore the ground ahead and on the flanks of advancing narrow headings when approaching
old water-logged workings in the same seam. Boring should begin at a substantial distance ( 100 yds.
•. or more, depending on the reliability of the old plans) and the holes should be bored at various
angles to form a protective shield of solid coal around the face of the advancing heading.
(b) To drain water from old workings either in the same seam or in an upper seam. Boring ;

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should take place through a valve to control the flow of water when a holing is made.
(c) To locate faults ahead of advancing headings down which water in an upper seam may flow
into the workings of a lower seam. ~~ ..

• "'"-U. • ( d)
To prove the nature of the roof strata by boring vertically upwards when working below.
','~ water-bearing strata and to ascertain the thickness of "cover" between the base of the water-bearing
I t strata and the seam being worked.
(e) To prove the thickness of a coal barrier left against water-logged old workings.

(2) Cementation.
Cementation consists of injecting liquid cement under pressure into weak or. water-bearing
p·.ound through a series of boreholes drilled into the strata. Its purpose is to strengthen=the ground
and/or render it· impermeable to water. Typical applications include :-
(a) To seal off water when shaft sinking or drifting in firm water-bearing ground.
(b) To strengthen existing shaft Iinlngs.
( c) To consolidate the strata around newly constructed or old leaky dams.
(d) To strengthen a d~ficient barrier of coal against old workings.
(e) To plug exploratory boreholes which may form channels for water.
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(3) Wr~er Infusi~. . ·~
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::~ r-r- .<'-fhis consist; of injecting water under pressure intoa coal' seam through holes bored into the l ~·~
,,~¥al, so reduciJ?,gethe _f()rm~E-27 ..and dispersal ?f dust cduring. s1:bseque:it operations. Its prim.":
G.:tmrpose is to saie(prd tlieneattno1-w1n·1riµ:-en·agamst-pne121mo-c-omos1s,----bu-t-i-t-a-lso-reduees-t-he-ha-z-a-Fd~r--:----,-------!-~
of explosion and fire arising from depositions of air-borne dust. -
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The holes may be about 2 in. diam. and about one foot deeper than the depth of daily turnover, -,
and they may be spaced 6 to 12 yds, apart along the face. The injection pressure varies widely
according to the "tightness" of the slips and cleavage planes. The initial static pressure required
may be as low as 50 lb. per sq. inch or as high as 1,000 lb. per sq. inch, or even more, but the pressure
falls rapidly when flow begins, possibly to one-half or one-third of these figures. The quantity of
water per hole also varies widely but is commonly 10 to 20 gallons.
An extension of the process is called pulsed infusion shot-firing which consists of firing an explosive
chargein a borehole filled with water under a static pressure which may exceed 1,000 lb. per sq. inch,
falling possibly to 500 lb. per sq. irtch as infusion proceeds. Advantages include (a) increased safety
against a gas explosion, (b) suppresion of dust and fumes (c) reduction in the number of shots re-
quired, and (d) greater spreading action with less shattering of the coal and less disruption of the
strata. ·

(4) Firedamp Drainage. (Cross-measure borehole system).

For this purpose, holes 2! 'in. diam. and 100 to 200 ft. long are bored upwards into the roof
strata from a ribside gate. The holes are generally parallel to the face and inclined at an angle of
30° from the vertical. They are spaced 25 to 30 yds. apart, the last hole being bored as close to
t1:ie""race as possible, and they are connected to a pipe range leading outbye to the main return, or
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to the surface.
The prime purpose of the system is to drain firedamp fromthe roof strata or an upper seam (and
occ. asion. ally. · f.ro. m. the fl.oor). and. deliver it o.utbye, iiidependentl.y of the normal ventilat.ion. In this
way, the firedamp given off into the waste and thence into the return ventilating air is reduced by an
• amount which is roughly equivalent to that trapped by the boreholes.
of gas in the return air from the district concerned is reduced by 50%.
In many cases, the percentage
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(5) Roof Bolting. . · ~ •

T.·h. is 1.··s .a syst.em.• of. supp. ort, ch.iefly b.ut not e.xc. lusively used in narrow roadways, whereby oles
are bored info the roof beds to a height of S to 8 ft. and steel bolts are inserted of such a design hat
they become wedged securely at the top of the hole by tightening a nut and supporting plate f
level. . The bolts act mainly by binding the immediate roof beds together to form a strong composite
beam which is Self-supporting, but sometimes also by anchoring these beds to a stronger bridging
bed above. In some cases, they completely replace the normal supports; in others, they are used
./' as an additional precaution between the normal supports which may then.J;i~~e ~el)""spaced.
, .. . The advantages of roof bolting include (a) improved roof control, (b) reduced lifting of pavement.
(c) dess restriction of roadway size and more room for operation of machines- and (d) less resistanc'e
to ventilation. The system may also be applied to the support of sides or the prevention of floor
# lifting, or to any special place where extra strengthening is required to ensure safe conditions. •
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S. It has been decided to re-open a large district in which the average concentration of firedamp •
is estimated to be 75 per cent. Describe the precautions which should be taken (a) generally and
(b) during the passage of the gas along the roadways and into the atmosphere at the surface.

RE-OPENING OF DISTRICT FILLED WITH FIREDAMP.

olt is assumed that this large district has been sealed off by stoppings in consequence of a fire
which has got out of control and that there has been a build-up in the percentage of firedamp (and ,,
~ consequent reduction in the percentage of oxygen and other gases) since sealing was complete~ ·
It is assumed, also, that sufficient time has elapsed to enable the area to be safely re-opened. <&\
The safest method of re-opening such a district may be described as "sectionalised recovery" or . )
'''-recovery by stages" whereby men wearing breathing apparatus examine and recover the district, l
.~ection by section, carrying the ventilation forward in the same manner. The necessary steps may
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,·~;:be outlined as follows :--

(a) General .pre~utigns. i_

o (1) Only men engaged on recovery operations to be allowed in the mine and a careful check
kept ort"their movements. ·
(2) Stone dust for 'several hundred yards outbye of the stoppings.
(3) Inspect and repair or renew the water mains up to the stoppings for fire-fighting purposes,
(4) Transport inbye all necessary tools and equipment, including copper hammers and shovels.
(Sp Arrange for telephonic communica.tion between fresh air and surface. ·• - • ·
., (6) Erect an air-tight air-lock of two steel doors on outbyeside of stoppirigs. •
- '{7) Establish a fresh-air base on out by.~.'·~side of air-locks. All work beyond ~"S··. be carr~d on.t •
by rescue teams.. I'. · ~ ~ a
• ,L (8) Broach. one stopping and instruct a.· rescue team .to mak. e .an in. sBe. ction to.· a• ·.sp·.ecified distan ...
'("wli,erea new temporary stopping .is to be ~rected, preferabl··y somC1~0. yds .. beyo1t1··. · .· a slit betwee
• ,intake and return so that the ventilation can be advanced- up tc lhat point. ·( ''·

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Explosions, Fires and Inundations

• (9) Erect a temporary stopping at the chosen site. The stopping should be air-tight but not"
necessarily explosion proof.
( 10) Broach the second stopping and erect a temporary seal in the second road.
(11) Re-establish ventilation as far as the second slit and allow theair to flow until tests at the
original return stopping show that the gas have been removed.
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(12) Move up the air-lock doors and repeat the foregoing procedure as often as may be necessary
to reach the face.

(b) Precautions during passage of gas outbye.

(1) Fence off the return airwayarid allow no one to enter it except rescue men for the purpose
of taking samples for analysis.
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(2) See that all electrical equipment in the return airway is isolated and made dead.
.. _(3) Raise the height of the evasee chimney so that the gas is delivered into the atmosphere at
a sa~ height to prevent ignition by boiler or locomotive fires or other source of ignition and to avoid
, . 'recirculation of upcast air into the downcast shaft.
(4) Fence off the colliery yard from unauthorised persons and prohibit all smoking in the ::r~a.
(5) When re-establishing the ventilation of any section, allow only a limited volume of air (say
5,000 cub. ft. per min.) to flow through the recovered part of the roadways, the balance of the air

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passing direct to the return on the outbye side so as to dilute the firedamp in the return as soon as
possible to a safe figure.
(6). Make certain that the air flowing in the upcast shaft is sufficient, under the worst conditions,
to dilute the firedamp well below the lower limit of inflammability.
maximum was 3·75% of firedamp .
In one case, the prescribed
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• ('!) . Take regular samples of the air at the return stopping and in the fan drift and have them
anal(sed immediately so that a constant check is kept on the conditions and the ventilation readjusted
if n(cessary.

6. The workings in an inclined seam are approaching the outcrop where the surf ace strata· are ,,

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known hr\}_~ Cv';;!:vi·-l~gged. What precautions should be taken ?
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PRECAUTIONS WHEJJ APPROACHING WATER-LOGGED SURFACE STRATA. •
• It is assumed that the conditions are as shown
in the adjoining sketch where an inclined seam S U R F A C. E
AB "outcrops" at the base of the overlying water-
logged strata and the outcrop is thus hidden from
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view. The surface strata may consist of boulder B
sand and gravel, or water-logged peat, of irregular
outline and varying depth, and they constitute
a grave danger if the workings are advanced •
too far to· the rise.
Fig. 3. Working under Water-logged Strata.
It is stated that the surface strata are known
to be water-logge-d, and it is to be inferred that . • f;
....th>- manager already has full information as to their nature, position, thickness and extent. If not,
this information must be obtained forthwith by (a) carrying out a levelling on the surface to fix the
levels above datum of points (say) 100 ft. apart in all directions (i.e. at the corners of squares ofO
~- 100 ft. side) ; (b) boring a sufficient number of holes downwards through the surface strata at the
corners of the squares to ascertain the thickness of the water-bearing ground; and (c) .deduclng r. •
the levels above datum at the base of the''water-logged strata. . , ,/
It is laid down in the Regulations relating to Precautions against Inrushes that (1) when a~>,;, •
working is approaching and is within 150 ft. of water-logged strata of the kind descrµ-ed, no working
···~~all exceed ten feet in width until notice has been sent to the divisional inspector and he-'has notified
•'"' ·that he has no objection (or no objection subject to compliance with certain safety conditions) ; .and«
that (2) no work (other than shaft sinking or driving drifts from the surface, or work ne~s~ry for
the preservation of the mine) shall be carried out within 60 ft., or ten times the maximum height
of the proposed working, except in accordance with Special Regulations for the mine concerneJ. •
It is therefore necessary for the manager, in co-operation witp0ihe surveying department, to •.
. • ... •. keep a careful check on the underground levels in all roadways approaching the danger area so that,
when the thickness of "cover" reaches 150 ft. (as at CD in the sketch) clause (1) of the pre~eeding ,,_
• paragraph is compli_edwith; and that, whe_nthe thickn~ss of "cov~r" reaches 60 ft. (as at ,:E_~}p,@-~ .,.
work)~' stopped, m clause (2) unless permitted by Sf?c1al Regulations. _._,_ . ~
,?·'dther prec~ptions may include :- .,,:,,
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(1) Boring,,viwards froD)wt~~ seam, before and after.the 150 ft. limit CD is reached, to a heig~ \.,.
(?f (say) 60 !~··in·, rder to ascertsm 1he n~ture of :.·'.ihe rocaf strata, with particular reference to tht'#r;? •

. ry J' •· impermeability d e to the p1'esep,~eof (ueds of shale, clay or marl.

11,. "';!!!t:I.' · . i~
"·' .·~' ""
.,
•
t •
 ED/3
The Universal MiningSchool, Cardiff.
~

"" . (2) Careful paclm.g of the goaf outbye of CD to control subsidence and prevent large roof breaks .
...
(3) Partial extratlon only after the 150 ft. limit is reached, with not more than 50% extraction,
subject to the absene of faults.
· . (4} Headings adancing to the rise of CD should be protected by advance and flank boreholes, say -
11; 60 ft. long, in the sam to locate any fault down which water may find its way, or any seepage of
., •"' water which may rerler further advance undesirable. -
(5) Constant suervision in the workings by competent officials to check the widths and height
of working places, ad the position and direction of advance boreholes ; to report on any unusual
occurrence; and tosee that any additional precautions laid down by the divisional inspector, or by
Special Regulationsare censtantly complied with.
[Note.-Seam risingbeneath a water-bearing sandstone in the superincumbent unconformable strata
This differs fron the previous case in that the water-bearing ground is not at the surface but
at a considerable dpth, depending on the thickness of the newer Permian or Triassic strata which
overlie the coalmeaares.
4
~""".ikt such a case.it is still necessary to ascertain the depth of "cover" and the nature of the ground
between the base o the water-bearing strata and the seam being worked but this must be done by
boring vertically upvards from the seam at various points underground; Boring must take place
through a valve so .hat the water, if tapped, may be controlled, and each hole, when :finished with,
must be sealed off .y a sealing plug followed by cementation.
The further pecautions required are similar to those outlined in the foregoing answer, with
special reference tcthe need for (a) exploratory headings protected by boreholes to locate faults,
(b) Pillars of coal, say 20 yds. wide, to be left alongside faults, (c) careful packing, or partial ex-
traction, to control roof subsidence, and (d) restricted working, in accordance with the inspector's
requirements, or wth General or Special Regulations, when the "cover" is 150 ft. or less].

7. How can dangerous emissions of firedamp from the wastes of longioal; workings be ai::-;.;,et'ff
otherwise thai by solid stowing ? ·

~AVOi,DING DANGElOUS EMISSI(hf OF Q,A~. FF.OM WASTE.··

It is laid down n the Mines and Quarries Act that, unless a waste is stopped off in a prescribed
marener or is stowed up, or it is known that the waste contains no inflammable gas fnd no dangerous
concentration of noxous gas, the manager must either (1) ventilate the waste to normal standards,
or· (2) take steps tc minimise dangerous emissions.
If. a waste is solidly stowed, no further precaution is needed apart from ensuring adequate
ventilation on the face itself. If, however, the waste is caved or strip-packed, dangerous accumu-
lations of firedamp may occur within it (especially in the first or second waste next to the return
gate) except in mines where inflammable gas is unknown, and so either the waste must be ventilated
or steps must be taken to prevent dangerous emissions. . ·?

such a waste to normal standards and, in mines liable to

lt is not usually possible to ventilate
spontaneous combustion, it would be dangerous to do so. It thus follows that, in most 'mines, the
"' .... ~y way to comply withthe Act is to minimise dangerous emissions. The qnestionsthen arise, what
is a "dangerous" emission and how may it occur? ·
An emission may be said to be dangerous if it results in a concentration of g is in the genera ..:
body of the air outside the waste of 1!% or over in places where electricity is installed or shot firing
C.:> done, or of 2% in other cases. This, of course, is well below the lower limit of inflammability
~ and represents a good factor of safety.
, Such an emission may occur as a result of (1) a sudden fall in the atmospheric pressure, (2) a
. ,.,., " . r-,eavy fall of roof in the waste, or (3) sudden changes in the ventilating pressure due, for example, to
tlj.:.... .opening :::i.10 closing of ventilation-doors, unless a sufficient area behind the face and within the
..
waste is kepi, clear of accumulations of gas .
In E'.'.'~!:fS where the circulation of an adequate quantity of air along the coal face is insufficient
to prevent a dangerous emission, the additional steps that may be taken include one or more of
the following :-
( f'.) "Perlodle sealing of the whole of the waste edge in a strip-packed face, assuming that sufficient
packing material is available for4his and that . sufficient .man-power is also available to complete
the ·"?rk: within the prescribed cycle of face operations.
· . , (b) _Sealing the width of waste between a pair of strip packs each turnover, (and so on wifh each
. ,,- ~~r ti;-·packs in succession) so forming a stepped pack along the length of the face. -:''his splits :<1p the
· work of sealing over successive shifts.
(c) Driving cross-gates or scourings through the goaf between intake and return : -~Jp_tervals an.'
~t -cting doors near the intake end to permit a limited volume of , ~1- v .. scale tl rr ·..:51f them. Gas ~
vill then tend to ~-iisrate from the goaf into the ccss-gate "nd tf =r ce '.itito the rett :n. .·
 ED/3
Explosions, Fires and Inundations
'A/8 ~~~~~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
(d) Inserting pipes at intervals through the packs
adjacent to the return gate (and the wastes near thereto)
in order to drain gas away continuously from the
wastes into the· return by a process of "controlled
migration." The pipes may be 4 in. diam. and placed
,~41st below roof level at·intervals of 20 to 40 yds. as the
face advances. Any set of pipes in operation should
have a tail pipe extending outbye along the return gate
to deliver the gas to a safe position. The method has
been applied to- sean?-sliable to spontaneous combustion
without self-heating occurring.
(e) Erecting bratttee sheets on the face .at weekends
to divert the air into the waste, accelerate the move-
ment of the gas, and ensure a gas-free area as far back
in the waste as possible.
(f) Erecting wider strip packs, with correspondingly narrower wastes, to mintain the roof in .
an unbroken condition and so reduce the total emission of gas into the waste. Wiere necessary, the
face may be shortened, or the depth of cut reduced, with the same object in viev, .--- .
. (g) Methane drainage by the cross-measure borehole system as already outlind in Answerr-l),
order to tap firedamp from the roof strata (or an upper seam) that would othrwise find its way
through. breaks into the waste. This method has been found to be most effectve under the most
difficult conditions and has a wide field of application in gassy seams. It is alsosuitable in a seam
liable to spontaneous combustion where it is undesirable that air should flow though the waste in
an uncontrolled manner.
[Note.-Complete caving should not be practised unless the natural conditiois and the method
of waste-edge support are such that the roof in the waste falls regularly to a sifficient height and
in a suitably fragmented state so that the goaf is virtually filled with debris.]

8. Discuss the additional dangers and difficulties which may arise should th. ventilating cur-rent
te:.:-:;·:>6j a mine be reversed following a fire at or near the downcast shaft bottom.
REY~RSING THE .AIR-DIFFICULTIES AND DANGERS.
. The immediate dangers arising from a Ilrcnear the DC pit bottom are that (~) growing volumes
of smoke and fumes will be carried jnbye, so imperilling the Iivcs or the men in. tte workings; (2) the
fire will spre.,.,' inl--:·r- "J'"'ng the main intake anc, :ff~ay get out of hand unless effectively fought ;
" (3) smoke and fumes will in due course find their way into the main return and prevent escape_ by
"hat route. ·
The purpose of reversal is . to clear the mine airways of smoke and fumes aid pass them direct
out of the tnine up the original DC shaft, after removal of the men on the outeye side of the fire.
Reversal, if prompt, will' save the lives of men inbye and enable them to escape along the original
return airways to the UC shaft.
The additional dangers and difficulties arising out of reversing the air are :-
~'> ( 1) It will no longer be possible to continue winding at the original DC shaft. This shaft provides
th"' ~i-ickest means of access by fire-fighters to the fire and the latter can be fought most effectively
from the outbye side. "The DC shaft also provides an escape route for rrien in districts situat~d at
the opposi~"'.· side of the shafts. from the fire, or for men who can reach that side by r()~ntla~~Jt
routes. ·c -<. ··
(2) The fire \'llust be fought from the in bye side, via a connecting road from the main return. All
fire-fighting tean '; and equipment must descend via the original UC shaft and fire-fighting operations
-vill' be greatly in peded. The prospects of dealing successfully with the fire will be greatly reduced.
(3) The fire will now spread outbye and may involve the DC shaft itself, in so far as inflammable
materials are present in its vicinity. · "- '•~ . .
(4) In a gassy mine, reversal of the air may cause movement of large bodies'of gas from goavas ,),;:~:'
and old workings on to the main intake airway and thence over the fire, with-consequent ris1.._aj._:~1., '4 •
explosion. . · _ . ·• . .: . c ~~-
(5) In a deep mine, ventilated by an air-screw fan, it is possible that the fan, -funn~ in rt:J'ire_r~,''.f./;
r11ay. be unabl.e to.; develop _sufficie. ~.t. w-g to counterac.t. the natural ventilating p. f..· e·' · ss.·. Ull·.~. · · . ·i· °'..· .' Q·).i'}'~cr.·. ·
and reversal would then be ineff ective. . . . - ~~\-~' .. _
It may be said that, when the air is reversed, all the doors will open (unless latCtte~~~the air:
will short-circuit through the out bye doors so that very little air travels inbye .. This is true, but
even a partial reversal may clear the main return and permit men to travel by that road. . c:.:: ,-.
It is evident that reversal of .the air is fraught with risks which may render it inadvisable. inless
it represei:ts the only ':"ay by1which the lives of _men .i~ danger II}.ay be sav~d. ~ther alter~atives_::.~\~ ,•::!~ ~· . ~
must be given due consideration. It may be possible to isolate the fire, especially if a second, ip'_ake .. · ~
is available ; or themen in bye may be able to escape by a-distant third exit ; or some local adjustlnent~~:
of the ,ventilation'inay be J?OSs~ble which will render reversal unnecessary whilst enabling a &'~fl;;:E~- · t.
attack-ion the fin· . to be mamtamed. .-. . . · · <
T'.._ has beer suggested that further experiments ~~,!-lJ.ld be carried out to test the effect of full-
sc·~~e reversal oi .the air at selected mines so that the step~tto be taken in an emergency may be bar=d
n fuller kr£:::.:.J~~'21:)::'. '\ . .,,"tc, . . . 1 , • , . • . ' .. //

The main .aJ sver t{f;··., !~.~--.'.~~. .: ever'. . j)'. t.o. taj:e. ev.ery po.ssible step to·.· . eh.·m_.•0.nate th.e rl..·sk·
,bJ. em, h_. c w
of a fire occurrir. ~ ; to see t-1'~ .~te-ng rting api~11ances and organisation are :ni,'inta.ned at a high
pitchof effide~: ·; ·and, if .:\··trt; shoulcjunfortunately occur, to tackle and subdt<~.it in its earlies~":
·~:I Lg:~;,~~ _r~· . --- -- - " - · ----· -~-· -· , , - . ; <--
 VOUNDl!D 1883 COPYRIGHT
THE u.M.s.
'T, .A, SOU"rI-IERN I ..trD.~
THIS PAPER
J WAS ·THE FIRST rs SUPPLIEO ON
'!.ORRESPONDENCE
MINING.
.~,IN THE
SCHOOL
WORLD.
~ge G/iniNeuaf ~ &;,Jwcf; CONDITION
IT IS
THAT
RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
YOUR OWN USE
'11'10t>RPOAATeo 1931. CARDIFF (G'r. BRITAIN.)

, STEAM PLANT.

Lesson SP/1.
STEAM BOILERS.

M~1~y types of boiler have been used for steam raising, including Vertical, Lancashire and Water-
tube beilers. Of these, vertical boilers have only a limited application for temporary purposes, or
.wherc sm~Jl quantities of steam are required. .
Laneashlre boilers have been extensively used in Great Britain, being simple and robust in con-
>struction, readily accessible for cleaning, and requiring few replacements or repairs. Moreover, they
have a large water-capacity 'and steam-reserve to meet intermittent demands for steam and they
.. permit the use of a moderately impure feed-water.
'• • w'ater-tube ¥oilers are being increasingly adopted at the larger collieries and especially in con-
nectjpn with power-stations, where large and constant supplies of high-pressure steam are required.
Their advantage-.::.clude safety at high pressures, good water-circulation, and rapid steaming, whilst
they can be built in very large sizes (one unit being equivalent to many Lancashire boilers). On the
<.Jther hand, they require more skilled attention; the feed-water must be pure; and the cost of minor
.repa'!-rs and replacements is relatively high.

THE VERTICAL FIRE-TUBE BOILER.

A good example of this type of fire-tube boiler
.. is the Cochran Patent Vertical Multitubular Boiler,
showrrin fig. 1.
It consists of the following parts:-
(1) Cylindrical shell, with fiat base and hemi-
spherical top, and made of mild steel plates.
. (2) Firebox or furnace, in base of shell, con-
• ·t,aining a cast iron fire-grate supported by brackets .
~3) Combustion-chamber, at back of shell,
I qonnected to the furnace by a short flue-pipe and
fitted with a steel door lined with firebrick.
·: (4) Horizontal fire-tubes, 2l ins. external diam.,
·. made of lap-welded wrought iron and tested internally
• .• •·.by hydraulic pressure to 1,000 lbs. per square inch.
The fire-tubes lead from the combustion chamber to
·the smoke box and sheet-steel chimney.
(5) . The principal fittings include the steam
stop-valve, safety-valve, feed check-valve, blow-off
·. 1:ock; water-gauge, and pressure-gauge.
The path of the flue-gases, as shewn by arrows,
is from the furnace to the combustion chamber, thence
<~,hrough the fire-tubes to the smoke box and chimney.
The water is contained in the shell above the
hemispherical furnace crown and surrounds the fire-
·j1;u bes. It is fed into the boiler by means of a feed-
·~Jump or a steam injector through the feed check-
'1~ralve, and is delivered by a vertical internal feed-pipe
<not shown) to a point on a level with the upper row Fig. 1. Cochran Vertical Boiler.
·.,;~)f fire-tubes. ·
Steam is drawn off through the stop-valve fitted to the top of the boiler, well above water-level.
iA.ccess to. the boiler and tubes is obtained through a man-hole door in the top of the shell, and also.
through the doors fitted to the combustion chamber and smoke-box.
10)
 Steam Boi~lers

The Cochran boiler is made in many sizes, from 3 to 8~ ft. diam., and 7 to 17 ft. high, for pressure
up to 150 lbs. per sq. inch. Coal consumption ranges from about 70 lbs. pe• hour in the smaller
size up to 1,000 lbs. per hour in the largest, assuming skilled attention, good quality coal, and heav
steaming. The weight of water evaporated per lb. of coal may be as much as 8 lbs., but vertica
boilers often receive little attention in practice, and only half this figure is frequently obtained.
THE LANCASHIRE BOILER.
This consists essentially of a horizontal cylindrical
shell with either :flat or c c dished " (i.e. slightly convex
curved) ends, having two *cylindrical :flues or fire-tubes
passing through from end to end. It is mounted on a
brickwork seating so built as to form the bottom and
side flues, as shown in fig. 2. The normal flat-ended
Lancashire boiler is illustrated by a longitudinal section
in fig. 3. ·
The shell is composed of a number of mild steel
rings or belts made truly circular in special bending rolls,
and having an ultimate tensile strength of 28 to 32 tons
per sq. inch. The circumferential seams (around the
boiler) are lap joints, whilst the longitudinal seams
(along the boiler) are butt-joints, with inside and outside
cover-plates. The longitudinal seams are placed in the
crown of the shell above the brickwork of the side flues,
being alternately on opposite sides to avoid a continuous Fig. 2.
line of rivets.
HIGH'STEAM 8:
Lancashire
STl!!:AM
Boiler. Cross-sectional diagram.

-· ••
-- '
LOW-WATER STOl"-VALVB
SAFETY-VALVli1
Ol!!:At>-
WEIGHT
SAFETY-
VALVE:

11'1!~0-
•.IPS:

Fig. 3. Lancashire Boiler. Longitudinal Section.

The thickness of the shell plates may be calculated from the thin-cylinder formula :-
PD
Thickness in inches = t = ----- ; · ( l)
2 f x E
where P gauge pressure in lbs. per sq. inch.
D diameter of shell in inches.
f SAFE tensile strength of the steel in lbs. per sq. inch.
ultimate tensile strength -7- factor of safety (say 5 or 6).
E efficiency of the longitudinal joints, (upwards of 0 ·8 or 80%).
The ultimate tensile strength of mild steel plate is upwards of 62,500 lbs. per sq. inch.
To find diameter of rivets. Let diameter ~ d ins.
A simple rule is :- d 1 ·2 .x yt inches . ; (2)
where t = thickness of shell plates in inches.

Circumferential· joint.
This may be either a single-riveted or a double-riveted lap-joint, depending
on the boiler-diameter and the steam-pressure. The necessary spacing of the rivets
involves somewhat complex calculations which are the concern of the boiler designer. I

In the absence of other data, however, and for the purpose of illustrative sketches,
the various dimensions may be deduced approximatelyfrom the following empirical
(practical) rules, based on the diameter (d) of the rivets as found by formula (2) :-
For a double-riveted lap-joint .(fig. 4.).
Lap of plates sa.
Pitch of rivets (i.e. distance apart in the rows) 3 d.
Back pitch (i.e. distance between rows) 2d.
For a single-riveted lap-joint. Fig. 4.
Lap of plates ,3 d. Double-riveted
Pitch 9.1 r1 L~.n-inint
 SP/1
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~--~~-- ::r-
Longitudinal joint.
This is usually a butt-joint with two cover-plates or straps, and may· be either double-riveted
(i,e. with two rows of rivets at either side of the joint) or - treble-riveted (i.e. with three rows of rivets
at either side of the joint). In boiler work, the thickness of the cover plates is made equal to that of
the shell. In other cases, it may be it.

Treble-riveted butt-joint .
. 'Fig. 5 shows a typical joint of this type, with
two cover-pla.tes of unequal width and with the third
(outer) row of rivets having twice the pitch P of the
two inner rows. In this case :- -

Thickness of each cover plate

= shell thickness t.
Pitch of rivets P 4 d. ·
Back pitch B 2 cl.
Dimension L H- d.
Dimension R 3 ~d. i.ig. 5. Treble-riveted Butt-joint.
Width of inner plate 14 d. to 15 d.
\Vidth of outer plate 10 d.
S~metimes both cover-plates are made of equal width ( = 14 d.) whilst each row of rivets may
also have the same pitch (= 4 d. to 5 d.). When a double-riveted butt-joint is used, the width of
both cover-plates need only be 10 d., the other proportions being similar to those stated .
"\ In a boiler, all riveted joints are "caulked " where the plates overlap, in order to render them_
• w· steam-tight. The caulking process consists in burring down the edges of the plates and impacting
"' • them togethej' with <.1 hammer and a tool somewhat like a chisel, but flat at the end.
Each end-plate is in one piece, having openings cut to receive
the flue-ends' "The front end-plate (fig. 6) is secured by single
riveting to a solid-welded angle-i:-ing to which the shell is also
riveted ; the back end-plate is flanged inwards and single-riveted
to the last shell ring. Both end-plates are further secured by
means of gusset stays (see below).

The furnace-flues consist of a number of rings that are solid- A

welded longitudinally. The first flue ring is connected to the
froiif'end-plate by single-riveting, the end-plate being flanged
outwards. The last flue ring is connected to the rear end-plate
by _single riveting, the ring being flanged for this purpose.
( N ote.-The first flue-ring may be connected to the front end-
Fig. 6.
4 ~UE

Shell and Flue-Joints.

plate in a similar way).

The intermediate flue-joints take the form shown at A in fig. 6, this being called an Adamson
flanged joint. The ends of each pair of adjacent rings are flanged and a strengthening or so-called
caulking ring is inserted between the flanges, which are then single-riveted. The advantages of this
type of joint are that
(a) it is readily caulked to render it steam-tight ;
(b) the rivets are not in contact with flames or corrosive flue-gases ;
(c) strains due to expansion and contraction are minimised.

The last furnace-ring but one is usually tapered, the last ring being parallel at the smaller diameter.
This construction gives more room inside the shell at the rear of the boiler for the purpose of cleaning
and inspection. Sometimes, a section of corrugated flue is inserted in high-pressure boilers to reduce
the stress on the end-plates due to the expansion of the flue-tubes.

Gusset stays or plates (fig. 7) are provided to give strength

to the end-plates and are secured by double angle-irons to the
shell and ends. There are usually seven such stays arranged
radially at each end of the boiler. They prevent the end-plates
being bent outwards under pressure, whilst avoiding excessive
rigidity and permitting a certain " concertina action " to allow
for expansion and contraction with temperature variations, S.IOE VIEW END VIEW

The Dish-ended Lancashire Boiler. Fig. 7. Gussett Stay.

This is similar to the standard flat-ended boiler except that :-

(1) The end-plates are curved slightly outwards, this construction g1vmg greater rigidity and
strength. They are connected to the shell in the same way as the back end-plate of a flat-ended boiler,
but usually with two rows of rivets.
(2) No gusset stays are required to prevent buckling of the end-plates, and the interior of the
boiler is thus more accessible for deaning.
(3) One 'or mote sections of the flue-tubes are corrugated to reduce the stresses placed on the
end-plates.
- _?P/]__ Steam Boilers
4

The disadvantages of the dish-ended boiler are that

(a) repairs cannot be so cheaply and easily executed ;
(b) the capacity of the boiler for a given round space is somewhat reduced ; and
(c) the corrugated flue-tubes require special fire-bars and are awkward to clean, both on the
fire· and the water sides.
Some makers compromise by having a curved end-plate at the front end (so securing rigidity
and strength) and a flat end-plate at the rear of the boiler (so providing for expansion and contraction,
and leaving more room for a superheater in the downtake at the rear). Such a boiler is called a
" uni-dish ' ' boiler.

The furnace.
This is situated in the front part of each flue, and is from
4 to 6 ft. long (depending on size of boiler). Orie method of
construction is shown in fig. 8, although other methods are
sometimes adopted. The firegrate shown is made up of cast
iron bars, there being 8 or 9 such bars placed side by side
in the width of the grate. The ribs are about ! inch thick
at the top and they taper to about j. inch at the bottom. The
depth of the bars is about 2 ins. at the ends and 3 to 4 ins.
at the centre. Single bars may be used instead of the triple
bar illustrated.
Fig. 8. Boiler Fire-bars.
The grate may be set horizontally, or with a slope
towards the 'rear of about 1 inch per foot. The front part,
called the dead-plate, is cast solid and has a ledge on which the front bars rest. The back of the grate is
formed by a similar plate built into the bridgewall or fire-bridge, and the rear bars rest upon this. The
centre of the grate is carried by a cross-bearer which, in the case of a plain flue, has-wide tee-shaped ends
made to fit the sides of the flue, and in the case of a corrugated flue, is provided with a support or cradle c

in the form of ' half a ring made of steel plate shaped to fit one of the corrugations. Clearances are,
left at both ends of the bars to allow for expansion and contraction and the tie-rod sbo:m keeps the
whole assembly in position longitudinally.
To improve combustion-efficiency and enable low-grade fuel to be burned, .various patent forced-
draught furnaces are available, including the Meldrurn, Crosthwaite, Heywood, and so-called" Turbine,,•
furnaces. These differ frorn the plain furnace described chiefly in that a series of blowers, actuated
by steam-jets, are arranged below them at the front end, projecting into the ash-pit. The front of
the furnace and the ash-pit are totally enclosed so that the air, impelled by the jets, can enter only
through the blowers, being then forced through the spaces between the fire-bars and through the
fuel bed.

Hogging of flue-tubes.
This refers to the upward curvature which may occur owing to the upper side of the flue-tube,
just over the fire, being hotter, and therefore expanding more than the lower side. The stresses arising
from such unequal expansion are normally counteracted by the manner of constructing the flue-tubes
and of securing the end-plates, but they are accentuated if the flue-tubes become covered with scale.

Galloway tubes.

These are short, cone-shaped tubes about 9 ins. diam. at the top and
6 ins. diam. at the bottom, which can be arranged alternately to traverse
the fine-tubes both vertically (as at A) and obliquely (as at Band C). The
advantages of· such tubes are that they. strengthen the flue, give greater
heating surface, and cause a better circulation of the water in the lower part
of the boiler. The cost of the boiler, however, is increased, and cleaning is
rendered more difficult. Galloway tubes are not therefore very widely used.

Seating of Lancashire Boiler. Fig. 9. Galloway Tubes.

The boiler is mounted on a brickwork seating, so built as to form the bottom and side flues (fig. 2).
The. brickwork should rest on a raft of reinforced concrete and the. boiler should be set so that its.front
end is about 1-~ ins .. lower than at the back, to ensure that it is properly drained when emptied. The
internal faces of the brick flues should be lined with firebrick and the boiler should be supported on
specially shaped fireclay blocks (shaded black in fig. 2). The top of the side flues should be covered
with shaped fireclay covers.
The heated gases pass along the two internal furnace-flues, then down into the bottom flue and
back along under the bottom of the shell. Near the front end, they divide. passing up to right and
left into the side flues in which they pass back to the rear end of the boiler in contact with the sides of
the shell. They then pass into the main flue leading to the base of the chimney stack. The dimensions
of the brickwork flues are somewhat as follows :-
Downtake at rear : width (without superheater): = 2 ft. ; (with superheater) = 3t ft.
Bottom flue : depth = 2~ to 3 ft. ; width = half diameter of boiler.
Cross flue at front ; width = 3 to 3t ft.
Side flues : top of flue should be not higher than the. level of low-water mark ;
minimum width = 9 ins.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff

Materials required for seating.

The quantity naturally varies with the size of boiler, but considering a range of boilers 30 ft.
long by 8 ft. diam. (a common standard size) the approximate quantities for each boiler may be
estimated somewhat as follows:-
(a) Concrete foundation : 4 tons cement ; 8 tons sand ; 20 tons coarse aggregate ; total 32 tons.
(b) Seating ,blocks and flue covers : about 60 of each in 1 foot lengths.
(c) Firebricks: about 6,000 bricks, size 9" X 41" X 3".
(d) Oommen bricks: (variable) say 18,000 to 20,000 bricks.
(e) Fireclay mortar : (1 : 2 mixture of fireclay and crushed firebrick), 1 ton.
(!) Ordinary l\'Iortar : ( 1 : 3 mixture of lime and ashes), 3 tons.
The joints of the brickwork should be kept as thin as possible. For the firebricks, it is desirable
merely to dip the bricks in fireclay mortar, the latter being mixed to the consistency of paint, so that
there is no appreciable thickness of joint between the bricks. For the common bricks, the mortar
should not exceed ± inch thick. If thick joints are used, the. brickwork will crack when the boiler is
set to work.

Area of Fire-grate, Heating, and Evaporating Surfaces.

@onsider a boiler 30 ft. X 8 ft. with two flue tubes 3! ft. diam .. andfire-grate 6 ft. long.

(a) Grate area. 3! x 6 x 2 tubes = 39 square feet.

(b) Heating surface.

Internal flues (3! x 3 ·1416) X 2 x 30 613 sq. ft.
Bottom flue 4 ft. wide X 30 120
Side flues 4l ft. high X 30 X 2 270
Part" of back end-plate (estimated) 10

Total 1013 sq. ft. = (say) 1,000 sq. ft.

(c) Evaporative surface = area of water surface from which steam evaporates
30 ft. long x 7 ft. wide (approx.) = 210 sq. ft.

Saturated steam and superheated steam.

When steam is heatedin contact with the water from which it is produced, it is called" saturated "
steam. It may be either " dry" or "wet" steam (containing particles of water not yet evaporated
to steam), and its temperature depends only on its pressure. Thus saturated steam at atmospheric
pressure has a temperature of 212° F; steam at 100 lbs. per sq. inch absolute (= 85 lbs. by gauge)
has a temperature of 327 ·8° F; whilst steam at 200 lbs. per sq. inch absolute (= 185 lbs. by gauge)
has a temperature of 381 ·9° F.
Superheated steam, on the other hand, is steam heated out of contact with the water producing it,
to a temperature exceeding that corresponding to its pressure. The extra heat is imparted to the steam
in an appliance known as a superheater, and the degree of superheat given in colliery practice is usually
from 100° to 150° F. Superheated steam has the advantage that it is perfectly dry and the condensation
losses in steam piping and engines are reduced. The possible saving in steam consumption in the engines
using steam is of the order of about 1 % for each 10° F. of superheat.

Superheaters.
When applied to a Lancashire boiler, the
superheater is placed in the downtake at the rear
of the boiler as shown in fig. 10. Its construction
varies, but that shown consists of a series of
vertical weldless wrought-steel U-tubes, of about
1! ins. internal diameter, connected at their
upper ends to two horizontal steel headers of
circular section and 6 to 7 ins. internal diameter.
The tubes, but not the headers, are situated in the
path of the hot gases leaving the internal furnace-
flues. Saturated steam from the boiler, instead of
passing straight from the-stop-valve to the main
steam-pipe range, is led to one end of one of the
headers. This header is blocked at the middle (or
it may be in two portions) so that the steam
must pass through the U-tubes to the other BOTTOM FLUE
header and then back through U-tubes to the
other end of the first header, whence it is
delivered to the steam pipe range, being super- Fig. 10. Arrangement of Superheater.
heated as it passes through the tubes. On a
boiler 8 ft. to 9 ft. in diameter, the number of
tubes is usually thirty.
 Steam Boilers

Principal Fittings of Lancashire Boiler.

The following fittings are placed at the front of the boiler :-
(1) Pressure gauge, having dial graduated to twice the working pressure and designed so that
the pointer is vertical when at the working pressure.
(2) Two water-gauges, to indicate the height of the water in the boiler; the average height of
the water above the flues should be about 10 inches, and the minimum about 4 inches. Each gauge
should be so placed that the water disappears from the glass tubes as soon as it sinks to the low-water
line. ,
(3) Feed-check-valve, for admitting water, fitted with a non-return or back-pressure valve to
prevent the water being forced back to the feed-pump by the steam-pressure, or from one boiler to
another in the same range. The valve is connected to an internal feed-pipe, of cast-iron, perforated
on the upper surface and extending about half the length of the boiler, for effectual distribution of
feed-water.
(4) Blow-off valve or sludge-cock, with elbow pipe, for emptying the boiler, or for blowing out
at intervals the sediment which settles at the bottom.
(5) Man-hole, or mudhole, about 15" x 11 ", with cover.
(6) Two furnace fronts, each comprising a door and frame with ventilating slides. Also two
.
access doors and frames for the side flues.

Mention may also be made here of fusible plugs, one of which may be placed in the crown of each
flue, about 5 feet from the front end. The central part of the plug is filled with soft metal having a
low melting point, e.g., lead, or a lead-tin alloy. The alloy is melted by the fire as soon as the plug
ceases to be covered by water, steam and water thus being allowed to blow off at the hole in the plug
and put
-,
out the fire.
•
The following fittings are placed on top of the shell :-
(1) Dead-weight safety-valve, to prevent the steam-pressure from exceeding a pre-determined
maximum, usually 5 lbs. per sq. inch above the working pressure.
(2) High-steam and low-water safety-valve, with levers, floats and weights, arranged to blow off
in the event of the steam-pressure exceeding the pre-determined limit, or in case the water gets too low.
(3) Manhole, either oval or circular, to give access to the boiler.
(4) Steam stop-valve, or junction-valve, placed in the top of the shell, and provided with a
cast-iron anti-priming pipe, perforated on its upper side.

Priming.
When the boiler is working the surface of the water is in a disturbed state, and the efflux of steam
(if ebullition is too rapid) induces the water-surface to rise and may cause water to flow out with the
steam. This is called "priming.'' The danger is that the water may get into the engine cylinders
and do great. damage, forming an incompressible cushion at the cylinder-end which. may thus be
knocked out by the piston unless c c relief-valves," or " escape valves " are attached to the ends of
each cylinder, as in most large engines. The anti-priming pipe to a large extent prevents water being
carried along with the steam in this manner, a danger which is provided against in locomotive boilers
by the steam-dome. Other precautions include superheating the steam and, in emergency, checking
the fires.

On a standard boiler, 30 ft. long and 8 ft. in Feed-Check-Valve 2V diameter.

diameter, working at 160 lbs. per sq. inch by Blow-off Valve 2"
gauge, the bore of the various valves is usually Steam Stop-valve 7"
as follows :- Dead-weight Safety-Valve 2 :L67 II

High-steam and Low-water Valve 3£"

THE WATER-TUBE BOILER.

There are many varieties of water-tube boiler in use, being chiefly employed in connection with
electric power stations. They are commonly built for higher pressures and of larger evaporative
capacity than the Lancashire boiler, and are more frequently associated with mechanical stokers,
pulverised fuel, superheaters and economisers, with a view to securing maximum efficiency.

The Babcock and Wilcox Boiler.

This is a well-known example of the water-tube boiler, and consists essentially of the following
parts:-
(a) A series of water-tubes inclined at a slope of about 1 in 4.
(b) A mud drum or collector.
(c) A horizontal steam and water drum.
(d) A series· of horizontal super heater tubes.
 The Universal 111ining School, Cardiff S~j_~
7

• Water-tubes•'
Fig. 11. The Babcock and Wilcox Water-tube Boiler.

These are 3 to 4 ins. diam. and made of mild seamless steel (i.e. solid drawn
and weldless). '"' They are grouped in vertical rows or sections, each section
being independent of its neighbour and containing eight or ten tubes. The
latter are staggered (i.e. placed in zig-zag formation) as in fig. 12, so as to
split up the hot furnace gases as much as possible and present the maximum
heating surface. Each zig-zag row of tubes is connected to a sinuous header
or connecting box at each end, the joints being made by expanding the tubes
into holes in the headers accurately drilled to receive them. Opposite each
tube for cleaning purposes is a hand-hole which is closed by a plate securely Fig; 12.
clamped and bolted. The headers are independent of one another and each Arrangement of
of them is connected to the steam and water drum bv means of short tubes Water-tubes.
also expanded into drilled holes. J
(End view).

Mud drum or collector.

This is placed at the lowest point of the water-tubes, below the rear headers, and connected to
each of them by a short tube. It is a wrought-steel box of square section and of a length equal to the
widfh of the boiler. Its purpose is to collect sediment and allow of its convenient removal via a blow-off
pipe and valve fitted to one end of the drum.
Steam and Water drum.
This is made in all sizes up to about 25 ft. long by 4 ft. 6 ins. diam., and is made of mild steel
plates having single-riveted circumferential joints and double-riveted or butt-strapped longitudinal
joints, the end-plates being dished or curved outwards. The drum is maintained ·about half-full of
water.
It is provided with the usual fittings, including safety valve, stop-valve; man-hole door, water-
gauges, pressure gauge, check-feed valve, etc. The larger sizes of boiler (exceeding an evaporative
capacity of about 7,000 lbs. of water per hour) have two, or three, water-drums side by side, inter-
connected by wrought steel cross-pipes.
Superheater.
a
This consists of series of weldless steel tubes 1l ins. diam., bent into U-shape, and connected to
a horizontal wrought steel cross-box at each end. Hand-holes are provided to enable the cross-boxes
and tubes to be cleaned· or repaired when necessary.
Support.
The entire boiler, except the furnace, is suspended from steel girders and columns, quite independ-
ently of the brickwork, thus reducing any strain due to unequal expansion between it and its enclosing
____ walls. __ M_m::.e.QYeL_t_~_bri_cklYQ.Ikill.9-Y~.b-~~:remQ_Yed~and .. .rcpairedwithoirtdistnrbing. the.__boiler.
Furnace.
This is situated under the front end of the water-tubes. Hand-firing is permissible with the
smaller sizes, but in the larger sizes mechanical stoking or pulverised fuel firing is almost universal.
The flow of the hot gases is shown by curved arrows in fig. 11, the gases being deflected among the
tubes by two division-plates, placed at right-angles to the tubes and faced with firebrick on the furnace
side.
Water-circulation.
The water in the boiler flows continuously in one direction (clockwise in fig. 11), the water in
the tubes rising towards their. higher and hotter end and being replaced by cooler water descending
SP/! _ Steam Boilers
8

from the rear of the steam and water drum. Feed-water enters the latter at the front end and is
distributed by an internal feed-pipe extending about one-quarter the length of the drum, the feed-
water thus being delivered in the same direction as that in which the water naturally tends to flow.
Stearn-flow.
Saturated steam from the boiler is drawn off through a horizontal anti-priming pipe, P, and enters
the upper cross-box of the superheater. After being superheated, the steam is collected by the lower
cross-box and is delivered from there to the stop-valve, via another pipe (not visible in the view shown
in fig. 11) which passes outside and around the boiler drum. -
Operation of superheater,
When the boiler is to be started up, the superheater tubes are flooded with water from the drum,
via pipes A and B, the upper control cock C 1 being opened and lower one C 2 - closed. Any steam
formed in the superheater is then returned to the boiler via the anti-priming pipe. \i\Then full steam
pressure has been attained and it is desired to connect the boiler to the main steam range, cock C 1
is closed and cock: C 2 opened. All the water in the superheater is thereby blown out, after which
cock C 2 may be closed and the main stop-valve gently opened. The steam-flow is then as described
in the preceding paragraph.
In more recent practice, the flooding pipes A and B are usually omitted, and the superheater is
provided only with drain-valves. In that event, the drain at the superheater outlet should be left
open whilst raising steam, to permit a circulation of steam through the superheater tubes. This is
sufficient to avoid overheating of the tubes, provided the fire is not forced too rapidly. \Vhe'1 the
desired pressure is reached, the boiler stop-valve should be opened gently_ and then the drain-valve
should be closed.
EVAPORATIVE CAPACITY OF A BOILER.
The evaporative capacity or output of any steam boiler is usually expressed as the weight of
water in lbs. which it will evaporate to steam per hour. This depends on many factors, including the
•
quality of the fuel burned, the rate and efficiency of burning, the area of fire-grate and heating surface,
the skill with which the boiler is fired, the feed-water temperature, the cleanliness 'ofthe internal
heating surfaces and, in general, on the efficiency with which the heat generated is transferred through
the plates to the water.
Note carefully that the evaporation per hour is very little affected by differences of steam pressure,"
because the total heat of the steam ( = sensible heat + latent heat) increases only very slightly with
increase of pressure, and very little more fuel is required to generate high-pressure steam than to generate
low-pressure steam. This is an important point for students to remember.
For purposes of rough calculation only, it may be taken that, under ordinary average conditions:-
(1)
Each lb. of coal of average quality will evaporate 8 lbs. of water at 212° F. into steam at
212° F.
(2) 20 lbs. of coal per sq. ft. of grate area is burned per hour.
The evaporation figures in column (7) of Table 1 relating to Lancashire boilers have been calculated
on the foregoing basis, although actual results in practice vary very widely.
Lancashire boilers.
Table 1 gives details (in round numbers) of several typical sizes of Lancashire boilers, ranging
from St ft. to 9 ft. diam. and 14 ft. to 30 ft. in length. The most usual sizes are 30 ft. by 8 ft. or
8-i ft. The average pressure used at collieries is about 80 lbs. per sq. inch, but pressures up to about
180 lbs. per sq. inch are being increasingly adopted. The maximum pressure for which Lancashire
boilers are designed is about 235 lbs. per sq. inch.
Table. 1. The Lancashire Boiler.
1
(7)

D::~ Le:~th 1 Flue (:iam Grat:4~rea I He~~ing :~io Evaporation

=. __ i_~-- ----~~-----l
lbs. per hour.*
_ _!!_ _!t. ~s_-__ sq. ft. __ \ s~;~]t BS/GA.

~ ~
--7----0- ----- j
~624_ I
--\--_2
~ !
iL
~t ~ 29·7
I ~~g
680
:1-- ~g.
23
4 ~~gg
4800
~ ~ ! ~~g ! ~ - g - ------~rg - ;~~g i - ~~:-~ ~~gr
8 6 :30 II 3 5 40. 0 1050 I 26. 2 Ji, -~-6-40_0 _
9 0 30 3 8 43·0 1120 - 26·0 --- 6900
*[Assuming 20 lbs. of coal per sq. ft. of firegrate and 8 lbs. of water per lb. of coal].
It is stated that, in practice, the average colliery boiler (Lancashire) evaporates only about 6 lbs.
of water per lb. of coal, the latter frequently being of poor quality. On the other hand, good plants,
using good fuel and equipped with economisers and superheaters, evaporate (in practice) about 9 to
9~ lbs. of water per lb. of coal, and burn 28 to 30 lbs. of coal per sq. ft. of fire-grate per hour. Even
higher rates of combustion are occasionally recorded.
Water-tube boilers.
Table 2 gives details (in round numbers) of several typical sizes of Babcock & Wilcox boilers as
used at collieries. The steam pressure - at which such boilers operate is generally in the neighbourhood
of 200 lbs. per sq. inch, but pressures up to 350 lbs. per sq. inch, or even higher, are sometimes used.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff

Table 2. The Babcock and Wilcox Boiler.

:
-, I 1 ·

•
Drurri. Water-tubes. i I
II I

(1) (2) (3) Ii (4) (5) I (6)

I
(7) i (8)
I I Heating Ratio !
Evaporation
Grate area. !
I
Diam. I Length. No. I
I
Length.
l
Surface. HS/GA. i
i
per hour
i
ft. ins. ft. ins. i ft. sq. ft. I sq. ft. lbs.
I i
I !
3 6 -· 24 1 72 I
I
18 30 1619 54 \ 4900
4 0 24 3 90 i 18 39 2000 52 I 6100
4
*3
6
0
24
23
5
10
100
112 I
18
18 I 43
51
:
2255
2531 :
50
o
50
I
i

II
6800
7700
*3 6 24 I 144 18 58 3240 : 56 9900
*4 0 24 3 180 18 76 4020 53 I
I
12300
*4 6 24 5 240 18 106 5346 !
50 I 16000
I
t4 6 24 11 360 i 18 156 8019 51 24500
t4 6 25 2 I 420 I 18 196 i 9273 I 47 I 28000
*[Two steam-and-water drums]. ·1· [Three steam-and-water clrums].

The evaporation t1gures given in column (8) of Table 2 are those given by the makers and are
determined· on the bas~s of about 3 ·lbs. of water per sq. ft. of heating surface. They approximate
more or less closely, however, to about 145 to 160 lbs. of water per sq. ft. of grate-area, corresponding
to 8 lbs. of water per lb. of coal and 18 to 20 lbs. of coal per sq. ft. of grate-area. These figures are
often exceeded in good installations.
It should be clearly understood that very much -larger water-tube boilers are in use at central

• power stations where pressures range from 600to 900 lbs. per sq. inch, or exceptionally 1,500 p.s.i., and
capacities of single units range from 300,.000 to 600,000 lbs. per hour, or even more. Such mammoth
installations, iof course, are outside the scope of .colliery work and need not be further considered here.

CARE AND ·"'MANAGEMENT OF BOILERS.

Feed-water. This should be of good quality in order to prevent deposition of scale upon the
}nternal heating surfaces, and -should be free from oil and grease. The injection of feed-water should
be regulated so as to feed continuously and thus maintain a constant water-level. The blow-off valve
should be opened at least once daily, and oftener if the water contains soluble salts.
Whenever possible, boilers should be supplied with hot feed-water; it is more economical and
subjects the boiler to less severe changes of temperature. The feed-water may be heated by passing
the exhaust steam from non-condensing engines over banks of water-tubes enclosed in a tank, called
a Feed-water Heater ; or by the use of an Injector ; or by means of an Economiser (a nest of tubes
in the main :flue) through which the feed-water is pumped. In all cases where hot feed-water is used,
the feed-pump should be placed so that its working barrel is below the level of the supply water, otherwise
the pump will have difficulty· in " drawing " its water, depending upon the water-temperature and
the height of suction-lift. There is no difficulty in pumping hot water if this precaution is adopted.

Firing by hand. There are three methods of hand-firing, namely (a) alternate, (b) spreading, and
(c) coking. In the alternate system, one side of each furnace is fed at a time. In the spreading system,
coal is fed in small quantities .distributed over the entire fuel-bed. It involves harder work and more
frequent firing than the alternate system, but the air-supply is kept more consistently proportioned
to the coal-supply. The coking system is seldom employed. It consists of piling up fresh coal at the
front of the fire, leaving it there until the volatiles are almost driven off and then pushing it back on
to the fire. It involves more frequent disturbance of the fire and longer periods during which the
furnace doors are open than the two first systems.
The best thickness of the fuel-bed depends upon the character of the coal. and the strength of the
draught, and is found by experience. The more freely the coal burns, the thicker the fire may be.
Irregular firing results in waste of fuel. Thin fires must be used when the draught is poor.

Lagging. All exposed surfaces on boilers and steam pipes should be covered with some .non-
conductor of heat to prevent radiation of heat to the outer air. It is stated that the heat value of 4 to
5 cwt. of coal is lost in a year from every square foot of unlagged surface. The most efficient lagging
materials which are also incombustible include :-
(a) Asbestos fibre or composition.
(b) Plastic Magnesia (85%) mixed with asbestos fibre (15%).
(c) Mineral wool (a fibrous material made from blast-furnace slag).
A good plastic covering for boilers or pipes comprises a first coat of asbestos composition (1 inch),
fQllqvy_esLJ2y__~_l!lL~!'1,!!"~_QLQ!;;i_sjj_~_l!!~g_h~_?ia~:QQ_(!?QeStQ§_:ftQ_~H in~)_L_and finished wiJ1:i_A-1.<!y~_t__Qf_ _
cement mixture which sets hard and may be trowelled to present a smooth surface. The whole is
then varnished, or covered with canvas or wire netting to which a bituminous compound is applied,

• thus excluding' moisture. A cheaper covering (but less efficient) may be made from a mixture of clay
and vegetable fibres, ground up wet in a pug-mill and laid on in several coats about ! inch thick, while
the pipes and boilers are hot, the last coat being tarred over outside.
Boilers in the open are sometimes bricked over as a further protection, but this has the objection
that leakage may continue for a long time beneath it without being seen, and boilers so treated should
be stripped periodically for inspection. The most effective remedy against weather troubles of course,
is to house the boilers in a suitably designed shed or building.
 SPtl
Steam Boilers
10

Law. Certain rules relating to safety and the duties of the boiler attendant are laid down in
Regulations, and students should make a point of looking these up at the first convenient opportunity .
..
Cleaning. All boilers must be cleansed of scale and examined internally at least once every three
months, but more frequent cleansing is often necessary, depending on the quality of feed-water used.
The boiler should not be emptied while the brickwork is hot. The flues must be kept clear of dust,
soot and ashes. If a boiler is to remain out of use for some time, it may (after thorough cleaning)
be kept completely filled with water, except when exposed to frost ; or alternatively it may be emptied,
trays of quick lime (to absorb moisture) being placed in the steam drum, and the boiler closed up.

Examination. A thorough examination and testing must be carried out at least once every
14 months, this usually being done by the Insurance Company's engineer. The search for defects
should include every detail of the boiler and fittings, and of the furnace and setting. All plates, seams
and tubes should be investigated for evidence of distortion, fracture, and corrosion. The tests include
(a) hammer tests, and (b) hydraulic tests. The former consists in tapping all parts of the boiler with
light hammer blows, defects in the material being thereby disclosed. The hydraulic test consists in
filling the boiler with water and pumping up the pressure to about It times the normal working
pressure, in order to test the tightness of the riveted joints.

Corrosion. This may be described as the gradual wearing a\vay of the boiler plates by chemical
action. It may be produced externally by leaks at seams and by drippings from the joints of piping
and other fittings, or by moist ashes in contact with the boiler. Internal corrosion is caused ctiiefly

,
by the chemical reaction between the boiler metal and an acidulated or air-impregnated water, and
partly by electrolytic action which sets up small electric currents and corrodes parts of the boiler
plate, in much the same way as the positive plate is " eaten away " in a primary cell.

Grooving or channelling, This is a weakening of the material caused by expansion and con-
traction of the structure when alternate heating and cooling take place. It often occurs along the
edges of lapped seams,_ a_t _the roui:ided angles of flai:-ges, at gusset-angles. and a~ .other places where.
there is inherent local rigidity causmg undue mechamcal stress to be set up. Groovmg ~~ppears to start
with the formation of minute surface cracks which gradually increase in size and may _lead to fracture
of the plates, especially i·f its effect is accentuated by corrosion acting on metal that is newly exposed
by the grooving action.

EFFICIENCY OF A BOILER.
The efficiencv E of a boiler is the ratio (expressed as a fraction or a percentage) of the heat in the
steam to the hea-t in the fuel.
Heat in the steam generated
Efficiency= E ·= ---------------
Heat value of the fuel burned.

In large po\ver stations, with up-to-date water-tube boilers and close supervision, efficiencies
of the order of 85 or 86% are frequently obtained. In ordinary industrial work, the maximum efficiency
rarely reaches 80%, although this figure has been recorded with both Lancashire and water-tube
boilers.
Tlie average e!ficiency of Lancashire boilers at collieries is less than 60%, i.e. out of every 100 lbs.
of coal supplied to the boiler, less than 60 lbs. are used to produce useful steam, and over 40 lbs. are
wasted in radiation, imperfect combustion, loss in the ashes, heat passing away up the chimney, and
so on. Water-tube boilers usually receive more attention, and their average efficiency is therefore
somewhat higher, ranging between 60% and 80% or thereabouts.

HORSE POWER OF A BOILER.

This is an obsolete and very misleading term, but students sometimes meet it and are puzzled
by it. At one time, more particularly in America, it was assumed that 34 ·5 lbs. of steam were required
per HP. per hour, and the" nominal HP." of a boiler was obtained simply by dividing its evaporative
capacity by 34 ·5. On this basis, the nominal HP: of an ordinary Lancashire boiler might be stated
as 6000 -:- 34 ·5 = say 180 HP.
----Ad=-ually,--0i_cnurse~,-the_HE.~_cle_ll_eJ_o_p_e_d_lly_a_giv_e_n_w_e_igh_t_D_f__s_t_e_am_d_eJ}ends~m_th_e
__typ_JLJlLe.ngin_e . _
using the steam.
Table 3 gives the approximate weight of
steam required by several different types of Table 3.
reciprocating engine per Ind. HP.-hour, and thus, Weight of steam required per Ind. HP. hour
if we know the evaporative capacity of the boiler,
the so-called " HP. of the boiler " may be de- Weight of steam
duced. For example, if the boiler capacity is Type of Engine. in lbs. (approx).
6,000 lbs. per hour, and if this steam be used in
Simple non-condensing ... 30 to 45
non-condensing engines requiring 30 lbs. of steam Compound non-condensing 24to 30
per Ind. HP.-hour, the HP. of the boiler will be Simple condensing 16 to 24
6,000-:- 30 = 200 HP. On the other hand, if the Compound condensing ... 12 to 15
steam be used in compound engines requiring Triple-expansion condensing 10 to 12
15 lbs. per Ind. HP.-hour, the HP. of the boiler
will be 6,000 --;- 15 = 400 HP.
 SP; 1
The Universal Mining School, Cardijf 11

Winding engines are notoriously wasteful of steam, and it is usual to allow 60 to 80 lbs, of steam

• per Shaft (effective) HP.-hour in the case of simple non-condensing double horizontal winding engines,
and 40 to 50 lbs. in the case of compound non-condensing winding engines.

For steam turbines driving electric generators, it may be taken that a high-pressure, condensing
steam turbine driving a 2,500 k W alternator, and utilising high-pressure superheated steam and working
with a " vacuum " of about 28 ·5 ins., requires about 12 ·5 lbs. of steam per kW-hour. Lower figures
down to about 10 lbs. per k:\/V-hour are recorded for very large turbo-alternators, ancl higher figures
(15 to 17lbs.) should be estimated for in the case of 500 lcW or 1,000 kW sets.
A mixed-pressure steam turbine, when utilising low-pressure steam at about 16 lbs. per sq. inch
absolute, and working with a " vacuum " of 28 ·5 ins., requires 30 to 35 lbs. of exhaust steam per
kW-hour.
The foregoing figures should be remembered and may be used when estimating the total weight
of steam (and therefore the boiler capacity) likely to be required for a given duty. In all cases, sufficient
standby boiler plant should be provided to· enable one or more boilers to be off for cleaning or repairs.
Coal consumed at Collieries.
The quantity of coal burned under colliery boilers for power-production purposes naturally varies
wide~r at different collieries depending on (a) the quality of the coal burned, (b) the efficiency of the
installation, and (c) the power load on the colliery for winding, hauling, pumping, ventilation, and
general mechanisation.

•• ..
In Great Britain, however, taking the country as a whole, the proportion of coal consumed at
collieries lies between 5% and 6% of the total saleable output, after making due allowance for the
coal equivalent of the electrical units purchased from the area electricity boards .
•
It is estimated that, if the mining industry in Great Britain were wholly electrified, the total
•power requirements at collieries could be met by a coal consumption at high-efficiency central power
stations of only about 2 ·5~1~ of the total saleable output. This represents a considerable saving of
fuel which will doubtless be reflected by a gradual transition to c c all-electric" collieries as time goes on.

TEST PAPER SP/1.

1. Briefly describe the boiler plant at any colliery 6. Enmneratc fully (a) the merits and (b) the d c-m.er i ts
• with which you are acquainted by stating :--- of the wa.ter-t.u be boiler. as compared wi.th the
(a) Type and number of boilers in use. Lancashire boiler. Comment on each item.
(b) Steam-pressure by gauge.
(c) Dimensions of boilers and areas of fire-grate and 7. Describe (a) the Adamson joint : (h) a fusible plug·
heating surfaces. and (c) the process of caulking. Illustrate by
(d) Approx. average daily coal consumption per sketches.
boiler.
(e) Class of coal burnt and . whether hand-fired or 8. \Vhat should be the thickness of mild steel plate

•
mechanically stoked. for a boiler 8 ft. diam. working at a gauge pressure
(f) \Vhether fitted with superhea.ters . of 150 lbs. per sq. inch ? Assume the SAFE tensile
(g) \Vhat provision (if any) is made for heating the strength f of the material to be 12,500 lbs. per
feed-water. sq. inch and the riveting efficiency E to be 80'X,
(h) Irrterv .. als between internal examinations and (= 0·8).
cleaning. (Look up the regulations re this).
9. Sketch (a) a double-riveted lap joint suitable tor
2. Enumerate (i.e. set out in a numbered list) the the circumferential seams of the boiler in the
main advantages of .the Lancashire boiler for previous question ; ancl (b) a treble-riveted butt-
ordinary colliery purposes. joint suitable for the longitudinal seams. Calculate
the rivet diameter and state the main dimensions
3. \Vhat quantity of wa ter would you expect a Lan- of the joints in inches. Draw to a scale of one-quarter
cashire boiler, 30 ft. x 8 ft., to- evaporate per hour ? full size.
Explain the basis on wh ich yo ur figure is estimated.
10. Wha.t do you understand by the terms (a.) hogging .
4. Sketch and describe how the encl-plates of a fiat- (b) corrosion, (c) grooving, and (d) priming, in
ended Lancashire boiler are secured to the shell, connection with boilers ?
and to the flue-tubes. Include also the gusset stays.
11. (a) Assuming a colliery to produce all its own
power, what, in your opinion, would you consider
5. Sketch and describe the construction and action of a reasonable percentage of the total coal output
any one type of water-tube boiler, showing the to be used for steam-raising purposes ? (b) Upon
course of the gases from the fire to the main flue. what chief factors does this percentage depend ~

Cardiff Printers Ltd •

•
 FO UN OED 1883 COPYRIGHT
THE U.M.S.
"r. A. SOUTHERN LTD.,-
THIS PAPER
WAS ·THE FIRST
IS SUPPLIED OH

fil'~e ~C/M)o£ ~. ~,Jtoof;

CORRESPONDENCE CONDITION THAT
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fN THE WORLD.
EXCLUSIVELY FOR

l~CQAl'ORAT&;O 1931. CARDIFF (G'".r. BRI'l.,AIN.) YOUR OWN USE

STEAM PLANT.

Answers SP/I.
STEAM BOILERS.

1. Briefly describe the boiler plant at any colliery with which ~vou are acquainted by stating :-

• (a) Type and number of boilers in use .

(b) Steam-pressure by gauge.
(c) Dimensions of boilers and areas of fire-grate and heating surfaces.
(d) App1'ox. average daily coal consumption per boiler.
(e) Class of coal burnt and whether hand-fired or mechanically stoked.

..
• (!) Whether fitted with swperheaters .
(~ What provision (if any) is made for heating the feed-water.
(h) Intervals between internal examinations and cleaning. (Look up the Regulations re this).

DESCRIPTIO~ OF BOILER PLANT.

[No specimen answer to this question is required, and students' answers will naturally vary
•according to circumstances. The object of the question is to make students observant, and lead them
to enquire into and become acquainted with actual conditions at their own works or colliery. If a
student is working at an " all-electric " colliery, having no boiler plant, he should endeavour to visit
some neighbouring colliery and obtain a practical insight into the steam-raising arrangements there
made.]
•
2. Enumerate (i.e. set out in a numbered list) the main advantages of the Lancashire boiler for
ordinary colliery purposes.

MERITS OF LANCASHIRE BOILER.

(1) It is simple in construction, and easy to understand .

• (2) . It is readily accessible for cleaning.

(3) It has a large water-capacity and steam reserve, so that it can successfully cope with sudden
demands for steam and fluctuations in load, e.g. during the winding shift.
(4) It may be fed with relatively impure water, compared with a water-tube
large number of small-diameter tubes are liable to become choked.
boiler, where the

(5) Few repairs are required.

(6) Less skilled attention is required, compared with water-tube boilers.
Equally with water-tube boilers, it may be fitted with superheaters and economisers, and its
efficiency is high when properly supervised, fired, and maintained.

3. What quantity of water would you expect a Lancashire boiler, ~~Oft. x 8 ft. to evaporate per hour ?
Explain the basis on which your figure is estimated.

EVAPORATION PER HOUR.

•
The quantity of water evaporated per hour depends on a number of factors, but assuming (a) a
fire-grate area of 38 sq. ft., (b) a consumption of 20 lbs. of good coal per sq. ft. of fire-grate, (c) an
evaporation of 8 lbs. of water per lb. of coal, and (d) regular steaming.
The hourly evaporation = 38 sq. ft. x 20 lbs. x 8 = 6,080 lbs.
On the other hand, with coal of poor quality and an evaporation of 6 lbs. of water per lb. of coal,
the hourly evaporation would only be 4,560 lbs., whilst with forced draught and an increased combus-
tion-rate, the hourly evaporation may reach 9,000 lbs.

(5110)
SP/1
Stearn Boilers
A)~ .
-L Sketch and describe hate' the end-plates of a [lat-ended Lancashire boiler arc secured to the shell,

•
and to the flue tubes. I nclude also the gusset stays.

SECURING END-PLATES TO SHELL.

[Note. The required sketches and description should be similar to those gi\·en on Page 3 of the
Lesson (figs. 6 and 7) to which students are referred.]

S. Sketch. and describe· the construction and action of an.v one ~v/Jc of ieater-tube !J:Jt'!er, showing
the course of the gases [rorn the [ire to the main. [lue. .

STIRLING WATER-TUBE BOILER.

The adjoining simplified sketch illus-
trates the essentials of one type of Tri-drum
Stirling Boiler, with superheater, economiser
and pulverised fuel equipment. (Alter-
natively, the boiler may be fitted with ,.a
chain-grate stoker). The course of the
furnace gases is indicated by the dotted
arrows.

Boiler drums. The boiler illustrated

has *three cylindrical steel drums, C, D,
and E, 3~ or 4 ft. diam. and 12 to 20 ft.
·long. They are placed transversely across
the boiler, the two at the top (C and E)
being steam and 'Water drums, and the
..
lower one (D) being a so-called mud drum.
They are supported by a steel framework
filled in with brickwork. Both the water
and the steam. space of C and E are con-
nected horizontally by slightly curved mild Tri-drum Stirling. Boiler.
steel tubes. (All tubes shown by single lines).

Water-tubes. The three boiler drums are inter-connected by banks of water-tubes inclined steeply
to promote rapid water circulation. The water-tubes (shown by single lines in the sketch) are about
3;}; ins. diam., the front tubes sloping at about 35° from the vertical and the rear tubes at about 20°.
They are bent to enter the drums radially, thus enhancing their strength and resilience to resist
expansion stresses. The furnace gases are directed between the banks of tubes by fire-brick baffles
(shown shaded).

Superheater. This is placed behind the front bank of tubes, and it comprises a series of steel
tubes 1 ~ins. diam. connected to cross-boxes or headers at their upper ends. (Sometimes the superheater
is inverted and therefore self-draining, with the cross-boxes at the lower end). The exit from the
superheater is controlled by the main stop-valve.

Economiser.. In the case illustrated, this is built up of two cross drums A and B with connecting
tubes (like the boiler) and it is placed behind the boiler, in the path of the furnace gases as they leave
the furnace casing. (Alternatively, the economiser may be merelya nest of water-tubes, inter-connected
at top and bottom by horizontal pipes or headers).

Water-circulation. The feed-water is pumped to the lower economiser drum A and rises to B,
being heated in the process. From Bit passes via a feed-pipe and feed-check valve, V, to a distribution
box placed inside the rearboiler drum C and extending about half the length of the drum (mid-way
between its two ends). From this box, the water passes down the middle tubes to the rear portion of
drum D, this being divided by a partition which causes the water to pass up the end tubes to drum C
again (outside the distribution box). The further course of the water is from drum C to the forward
compartment of drum D ; thence to the front drum E, back to the rear drum c, down to the :front
of drum D, and so on in a clockwise direction (viewing this particular sketch).

steam-rlow.. Most of the steam is formed in the front bank of inclined tubes and passes over
from the steam space of drum E to that of drum C via the upper cross-tubes, being ejected downwards
to shed suspended water, if any. Thence, the steam passes via an anti-priming pipe from the top of
drum C to the superheater and, after circulating therein, it is delivered to the main steam range.
Sometimes, the saturated steam from drum C is delivered to an auxiliary steam drum mounted above
the boiler itself, whilst the superheated steam may be delivered to another similar drum, these auxiliary
drums serving as receivers to ensure a steady supply of steam, e.g. for· winding engines.

*[Note. Some Stirling boilers are fitted with five boiler drums, three at the top and two below.
In the sketch, the two drums A and B, on the right belong to the economiser. The general
design is subject to considerable modification in practice, according to the requirements
of the site.]
 SP/1
The Universal 1\1 ining School, Cardiff
A/3

Furnace. The boiler shown is fired by pulverised fuel, arranged on the unit system (i.e. one
complete set of equipment for each boiler). Raw coal of suitable dryness and size (less than 1 inch
cube down to dust) is fed by a conveyor or an elevator into a bin or hopper and thence to a pulverising
mill. Here, the coal is ground to an almost impalpable powder, being then forced (together with the
air required for combustion) by a motor-driven fan to the nozzle or burners. The latter may be placed
either at the top or in the front wall of the combustion chamber. ,

The combustion chamber is of large capacity to ensure efficient combustion of the fuel and also
deposition of the ash. It is stated that 1 cub. ft. of combustion space should be provided per lb. of
pulverised coat burned per hour. The furnace walls may be made of highly refractory fire-brick to
resist the intense heat, or they may be of special water-cooled construction, incorporating nests of
water-tubes which are connected into the boiler-circulation system, so lengthening the life of the walls
and increasing the boiler efficiency. The walls may also have cavities from which hot air is drawn
for injection with the fuel, this pre-heated air increasing the efficiency of combustion.
The pulverised fuel system is flexible and can deal adequately with sudden and variable demands
for steam. It compares favourably with mechanical stokers so far as efficiency and labour-saving
are concerned, and can handle low-grade fuel of high ash-content.
The Stirling boiler is essentially a high-duty boiler, and is often favoured for electric power station
work. Its evaporative capacity depends on its size but ranges normally between 12,000 and 50,000 lbs.
per h~ir. Much larger boilers are made to special design.

• G. Enumerate full_)! (a) the merits, and (b) the demerits of the water-tube boiler, as com-pared with
the Lancashire boiler, Comment on each item.

• •(a) MERITS 'OF WATER-TUBE

(1) GreMar safety.
BOILER.
It is much safer than the Lancashire boiler, especially at high pressures.
The steam and water drum (or drums) is not exposed to the fiercest heat of the fire, and the tubes,
being weldless and of small diameter, are immensely strong. If collapse of one or more of the tubes
~)ccurs, the danger is not so great as that following the collapse ofa furnace tube in a Lancashire boiler.

(2) Better water circulation. The vV.T. boiler has a well-defined system of water circulation,
enabling a high furnace temperature to be used and preventing overheating of the tubes in contact
with the furnace gases.

(3) Quicker steam-raising. The· ratio of the heating surface to the grate area in a water-tube
boiler is about 50 to I, as compared with about 25 to 1 in a Lancashire boiler. Steam can be raised
in a much shorter time, about one-quarter of that required for the Lancashire boiler.

(4) Less floor space. Less space is required for a given evaporative capacity and \V.T. boilers
may be built in much larger units having many times the evaporative capacity of the Lancashire boiler.

• (5) More readily arranged for mechanical stoking or pulverised fuel. Water-tube boilers have a
large furnace volume which enables mechanical stokers to be conveniently installed and efficiently
worked, resulting in great labour-saving, especially in a large installation.
fuel ftring can be readily arranged.
Alternatively, pulverised-

(6) Favourable first cost. A water-tube boiler of large capacity (say 40,000 lbs. per hour)
including all auxiliaries, requires a smaller capital outlay than a Lancashire boiler plant of similar
capacity.

(7) Higher efficiency. The efficiency of a water-tube boiler tends to be greater than that of a
Lancashire boiler, its design giving better water circulation, greater heating surface, and quicker
transfer of heat.

(b) DEMERITS OF WATER-TUBE BOILER.

(1) Maintenance. More skilled attention is required.

(2) Cost of upkeep. Wear and tear is considerable, and the cleaning and replacement of water-
tubes may become a costly item.

(3) Feed-water. Clean feed-water is essential in order to prevent scale forming in the tubes and
blocking them.

(4) Steam-reserve. This is not so large as in the Lancashire boiler.

It will be seen that water-tube boilers can be compressed into a small space for a maximum of
power and are very suitable for use in large installations where a constant supply of steam is required
and an adequate staff is available to supervise the boilers and maintain them in good order.
SP/1
A4
Steam Boilers

7. Describe (a) the Adamson joint; (b) a fusible plug; and (c) the process of caulking, Illustrate
by sketches.

BOILER DETAILS.
(a) The Adamson joint.
The flue-tube sections of a Lancashire boiler are usually connected together circumferentially
by this joint, the tubes being flanged outwards at their ends and single riveted, a strengthening ring
having been inserted between the flanges. This forms a very strong joint which, however, yields
slightly when expansion and contraction occur, thus avoiding too great a strain onvthe end-plates.
(For sketch, see fig. 3 of Lesson).

(b) Fusible plug.

This is placed in the crown of each flue, above the furnace, as a
safeguard against the water being too low in the boiler. The plug
contains an alloy of low melting point which runs out when overheated,
so enabling the steam to blow off and extinguish the fire.

(c) Caulking.
This is a process by which a riveted joint is made steam-tight,
the overlapping plate being burred down by a blunt tool as shown in
the sketch. Some engineers prefer the process known as fullering in
which a blunter tool is used, because caulking, if badly
done, may cause indenting of the plates and may open
up the plates between the extreme edge and the rivet-
heads. In both processes, it is an advantage if the
plates when made are planed with a slight bevel, as
0 •
shown.
CAULKING FULLERING
• :, ;t, ~

8. What should be the thickness of mild steel plate for a boiler 8 ft. diam. working at a gauge pressure
of 150 lbs. per sq. inch ? Assume the safe tensile strength f of the material to be 12,500 lbs.-pe;.?
sq. inch. and the rioeting efficiency E to be 80% ( = 0 · 8).

THICKNESS OF BOILER PLATE.

By the usual thin cylinder formula :-
PD 150 x 96 •
Thickness of shell plates = t = --- 0·72 say ! inch.
2f x E 2 x 12500 x 0·8

9. Sketch (a). a double-riveted lap-joint suitable for the circumferential seams of the boiler in the
previous question, and (b) a treble-riveted butt-joint suitable for the longitudinal seams. Calculate
the rivet diameter and state the main dimensions of the joints in inches, Draw to a scale of one-
quarter full size.

RIVETED JOINTS. (For sketches, see Figs. 4 and 5 of Lesson).

The first step is to calculate the diameter of the rivets.
Rivet diameter = d = 1 ·2yt = 1 ·2 x y0·75 = 1 ·2 x 0·866 = say 1 inch rivets.

(a} Circumferential joint. The sketch may be similar to fig. 4 of the lesson to which refer.
Lap of plates = 5 ins. ; Pitch of rivets = 3 ins. ; Back pitch = 2 ins.
(l,j Longitudinal joint. The sketch may be similar to fig. 5 of the lesson to which refer.
Thickness of cover plates = shell thickness · = 0 · 75 inch ;
Width of inside cover-plate = 14 ins. or rather more; outside = 10 ins.
'Pit~lL ()f rivets = 4 )ns. ; ]3a9l{ pitch = 2)ns. ; R = 3 ins. L = g ins.

Note re scale drawings.

(1) The scale must be clearly stated, in this case one-quarter full size.
(2) Main dimensions should be shown. These must be the actual full-size dimensions, never
the reduced scale dimensions.
[Note. We here take the opportunity of sketching, without
reference to any particular size of boiler, the arrangement of the
plates and rivets where a longitudinal seam meets a circumferential
one, both cover-plates or straps being of the same width. It will
be seen that the outer strap projects over the lap joint, but that
the inner one is cut off short and abuts against the inside shell
ring.] Junction of longitudinal and
circumferential seams.
 SP/ 1
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
A/s
10. What do you understand by the terms (a) hogging, (b) corrosion, (c) grooving, and (d) pr£,rning,
in connection with boilers ?

BOILER TROUBLES.
(a) Hogging.
This refers to the upward curvature of the furnace tubes in a Lancashire boiler due to the intense
heat of the fire causing the upper portion of the tubes to expand more than the lower. A similar
effect may be noticed with the water-tubes of a water-tube boiler, especially when their inner surfaces
are covered w.lth scale, and it may cause leakages to occur where the tubes join the headers. Hogging
is not serious unless excessive, and it may usually be minimised by keeping the heating surfaces dean.
(b) Corrosion.
Corrosion may be described as the gradual wearing away of the plates due to chemical action"
External corrosion may occur owing to leakage at the seams being neglected; or the plates being:
in contact with such substances as wet ashes, lime, etc. ; or the seating and flues not being properly-
drained; or rain falling on the shell from a leaky roof.
Internal corrosion is caused by the use of feed-water containing injurious salts and acids, either
in its original composition or liberated by chemical action resulting from the presence of entrained
gases, or oil and grease; and it may be counteracted by neutralising the acid properties of the feed-
wates, by removing entrained gases, and by reducing mechanical stresses to a minimum by good
design. Two chief forms of corrosion may be noticed :--

•
(i) Smooth wasting of the plates, a condition difficult to detect, except by drilling the plates
at doubtful points to ascertain their thickness, the holes being subsequently tapped and plugged.
(ii) Pitting, which may be of either an isolated, or a honeycombed, or a confluent nature. Isolated
. . pittings are .rarely dangerous, but in serious cases may penetrate the plates. Honeycomb pittings
consist of a group of isolated pittings close together and are therefore more dangerous. Confluent
-pitting, ne~i to smooth wasting, may cause serious weakening of the boiler. Pitting is often found
at the top of fhe furnace-rings and at the water-level of the shell-plates.
(c) Grooving or channelling.
• This causes cracks to appear in the plates with the ultimate possibihty of complete fracture. It
is chiefly mechanical in origin and arises from excessive rigidity in the plates, stays, etc., setting up
abnormal stresses in the material. It occurs chiefly at the roots of flanges, at gusset-angles, and at
the junction of the end-plates and furnace tubes of a Lancashire boiler, and in any place where undue
mechanical stress occurs with alternating expansion and contraction. In bad cases, especially where
grooving and corrosion act-in conjunction, fracture of the plates may occur.
•
(d) Priming.
This is an agitated state of ebullition in which bubbles of steam, instead of separating from the
water, carry with them into the steam space an undue quantity of water. It is caused by urging the
fires, or by the presence of finely divided particles of solid matter in the water due to the use of impure
or chemically treated feed-water ; or by the action of greasy matter in the boiler.
Priming is dangerous because the water may be carried over to the engine and form an incom-
pressible obstruction at the cylinder-end, thus causing damage to the engine ; and because it will
cause a deposit of scale in the steam mains. It may be prevented by checking the fires ; by the use
of an efficient anti-priming pipe ; and by suitable treatment of feed-water after expert chemical
analysis. The evil effects of priming can be evaded by superheating the steam after it leaves the boiler.

11. (a) Assuming a colliery to produce all its own power, what, in your op,inion, would ;vou consider
a reasonable percentage of the total coal output to be used for steam-raising purposes ? (b) t.fpon
what chief factors does this percentage depend ?

PERCENTAGE OF OUTPUT REQUIRED FOR BOILERS.

(a) I consider that about 5% of the output is a reasonable average percentage to be applied to
power-producing purposes at a colliery. Some large collieries, efficiently managed and favourably
situated, use only 2% or 3% ; others, e.g. with abnormal pumping loads, use 7% or 8~/~ or even more.
(b) The chief factors governing the quantity of coal consumed are :-
(1) The steam requirements of the colliery. This, in its turn, depends on the winding, hauling,
arid pumping loads, and the degree to which the colliery is mechanised. If the demand. for power is
large, a greater proportion of the coal output will be required for power-producing purposes than at
a colliery· where the demand is small. Much depends on the depth of the colliery, its extent, the
inclination of the seams, the amount of water met with, and so on, These are all variable factors which
govern the load on the boiler plant, no matter whether the steam is used in steam turbines to produce
electricity, or directly in steam engines to drive fans, winders or air-compressors.
(2) The quality of coal burned. It is obvious that a larger quantity of poor-quality coal or
slack or washery refuse will be required than if good-quality coal is used.
(3) The efficiency of the boilers and other steam plant. This depends on the type of boilers
and other plant in use, whether modern or antiquated, and whether properly worked, maintained.
and supervised. High-efficiency plant will use less coal than plant in which steam and fuel are allowed
to run to waste.
Car diff Pi-inters Ltd.
 FbUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT
THE U1M.S.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD ... -,
THIS PAPER
WAS ·THE FIRST
IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING
IN THE
SCHOOi.
WORLD.
fil'fic ~~af ·~ £,Jwof; CONDITION
IT IS
'EXCLUSIVELY
THAT
RESERVE'D
FOR
l)IOOR PO RATED 1 931. CARDIFF (G'T'. BRI'l ...AIN.) YOUR OWN USE

STEAM PLANT

Lesson SP/2.
STEAM BOILER FITTINGS AND ACCESSORIES.
The principal fittings of a boiler are :-
(1) Steam stop-valve. (4) Pressure-gauge. (7) High-steam and low-

• . .
(2) Feed check-valve .
(3) Blow-off cock.

Steam stop-valve (also called a junction or crown valve).

(5) Water-gauges.
(6) Safety-valves.

This controls the flow of steam from the boiler to the engine or engines.
(8)
water safety-valve.
Manhole-doors.

There is also usually a stop-valve on the steam-pipe close to each engine .

•
A typical screw-down stop-valve is shown in fig. 1. It consists of a cast
iron or cast steel body and cover, with inlet and outlet branches ; a valve and
seating (commonly 7 ins. diam.) of bronze, or, for high pressures and super-
heated steam, of special nickel alloy; and a handwheel and screw, with
supporting pillars and nut-bridge of mild steel. The valve spindle works
through a stuffing-box packed with rings of asbestos or other suitable material.
The "lift" of the valve (L) to give full opening to steam need never exceed
one-quarter of its diameter (D), because then the area of the annular opening
around the edge, between the valve and its seat, will be equal to the cross-
sectional area of the valve.
Fig. 1.
This is shown mathematically as follows :- Steam Stop-valve.

x x
I Area of opening around edge circumference lift= 3·1416 D X L (a)
Area of valve (diameter) 2
x 0·7854 = 0·7854 x n2 ••••••••••••••••••••• (b)

Equating (a) and (b), we have 3·1416 x D x L = 0·7854 x D2,

Hence the Lift of valve= L = 0·7854 D2-;- 3·1416 D = D ~ 4•.................................... (1)

Feed check-valve.

This enables the feed-water to be admitted to the boiler when desired,

whilst automatically preventing the return of . water from the boiler when
the feed-pump stops.
The feed check-valve shown in fig. 2 is similar in general construction
to a stop-valve, but it differs from the latter in that the valve is loose on the
valve-spindle. A usual size is 2l ins. diameter.

\,Vhen the yalve is n~l~~!S~Q_py turning the handwheel, only the spindle
rises and- 'the 'valve remains on its seating until lifted by the pressure of
the feed-water. If, then, the feed-pump stops, the pressure on the boiler
side of the valve immediately forces the valve back on to its seat, so pre-
venting the boiler water entering the feed system. The hand-wheel controls
the amount of lift of the valve, and also enables the valve to be closed Fig. 2.
when desired. · Feed check-valve.

(4710)
 SP;2
~ Steam Boiler Fittings and .A:tcessories

Blow-off cock or valve (also called a sludge cock).

This is fitted to the cast-steel blow-off elbow pipe connected to the lowest part of the boiler so
that the boiler may be emptied or a little water blown off when necessary. Regular nlowing-off for
brief periods once or twice daily, or oftener, is needed
to remove accumulated mud or sediment or to reduce
the degree of concentration of salts in solution.
Fig. 3 shows a simple type of rotary cock or plug.
The housing H is of cast steel and the conical plug P
is of bronze or gunmetal packed with asbestos. The
plug is open at the bottom, thus changing the direction
of ft.owby 90 ·degrees. The diameter of the opening
is about 2 ins. The plug has a square top which is
turned by means of a box-key, and a guard or pro-
jection on the key, passing through a corresponding
slot S in the gland-cover, C, prevents its removal
before the cock is properly closed. This is a very
necessary precaution, as leakage in such a place may
easily escape observation.
Fig. 4 shows a parallel-slide straight-through
blow-off valve which is less likely to stick than a
rotary cock. The two gunmetal valve-faces are
pressed apart by an internal spring to ensure close Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
contact with the valve-seating. The valve is opened Blow-off Cock. Blow-on Valve.
or closed by a rack and pinion, the latter having a squared end on its horizontal spindle to receive
a box-key with guard.
Pressure-gauge.
Fig. 5 shows the construction of the Bourdon steam pressure-gauge.
It consists of a phosphor-bronze or steel tube, T, which is oval in section.
. .

End A is fixed and communicates with the boiler. The other (free) end B
is closed and is linked to a rack which gears with the pinion-wheel P on
the pointer spindle.
When the steam pressure increases, the tube tends to straighten, so
•
actuating the link-motion and causing the pointer to indicate the pressure
on a suitably graduated dial. The pressure so indicated is known as the
gauge pressure and is the pressure of the steam above atmospheric pressure.
The range of the gauge is usually double the working pressure so that,
under operating conditions, the pointer is near the mid-point of the scale.
The pipe connecting the gauge to the boiler is made irn the form of a
U-tube or siphon in which water collects automatically by condensation.
Steam is thus prevented from entering the gauge-tube and impairing its
accuracy by overheating, and the pressure is transmitted indirectly to the Fig. 5.
tube through the column of water. Pressure Guage.
Water-level gauge. F (FLANGE)
Two glass water-level gauges are usually fitted to the
front of the boiler (one to act as a check on the other)
to indicate the height of the water in the boiler. The upper
end of each is connected with the boiler above the highest
allowable water-level, and the lower end below the lowest
water-level, the total visible portion of glass being some
eighteen inches long.
Fig. 6 shows, partly in section, the construction of one
type of water-gauge. It consists of the gauge-glass, G,
having an internal diameter of about ! inch, and fitting
into the two cocks, A, and B. The cocks are made of
gunmetal with asbestos-packed plugs. Each cock has a
flange, F, which is riveted to the boiler, and a spigot S,
which fits into a hole in the boiler, the rivets and spigot
being caulked to ensure a tight joint .. The stuffing-boxes,
D D, which receive the gauge-glass are packed with
cone-shaped rubber washers. A draln-eoek, C, connected
to a drain pipe which leads to a safe place, is fitted at -the
bottom of the gauge to carry away waste water or accumu-
lated sediment. · \
Testing of the gauges should be carried out from time B (C.OC.t<)
to time to see that all the passages are clear. This is done
by first opening the drain-cock C to test both the steam c
and the water passages; then shutting the steam-cock A DRAIN
so as to test the water passage only; and afterwards
shutting the water-cock B. and opening the steam-cock A Fig. 6.-Water-level Gauge.
to test the steam passage only. (Tu,,o elevations at right-angles).
Finally, the drain-cock C is closed and the water-cock B opened again, when the water should
rise in a lively manner to its previous level in the glass. Sluggish movement would indicate
choking and danger.
 SP/2
The Unioersal Mining School, Cardiff
3

As a protection against the escape of water· if the.gauge-glass breaks (due to· sudden changes in
temperature, or fittings out of alignment) the cock Bis fitted with a self-closing ball-valve, V. This
normally rests open by gravity, but the sudden rush of water which occurs when the glass breaks lifts
the ball and automatically seals the opening to the glass. A similar valve may also be fitted to the
copk A to prevent the escape of steam. The two cocks may then be closed safely to enable a new glass
to be fitted.
Further protection against injury to the attendant is afforded by fitting a strong glass guard or
protector fixed in gunmetal frames and surrounding the gauge-glass.

Safety-valves. ·"
The function of a safety-valve is to permit steam to escape freely. when the pressure exceeds a
pre-determined maximum. Every large boiler should be provided with two safety valves, the minimum
combined area of which may be found from the following rule:-

c
Minimum aggregate area in square inches = A = H x ........................... ' ..... (2)
p + 15

where H . = area of heating surface in square feet ;

P = gauge pressure in lbs. per sq. inch.
C = 1 ·1 for water-tube boilers and 1 ·25 for other types of boiler.

•• Safety valves may be divided into three chief types:-

(1)
(2,
Dead-weight safety-valve
~ever-and-weight safety-valve
} for stationary boilers.

(3) Spring-loaded safety-valve-for locomotive, marine and portable boilers.

The dead-weight valve has the advantage of great stability and is not easily tampered with,
but it is heavy and cumbersome and not very accessible for overhaul or repair. The lever-and-weight
valve is lighter and easier of access, but it is more easily tampered with and a small change in the·
weight has a disproportionate effect on the valve. The spring-loaded valve dispenses with ponderous
weights and can readily be tested for sticking, but a disadvantage is that, as the valve lifts, the spring-
pressure increases and the boiler pressure must also increase to keep the valve fully open.

Dead-weight safety-valve.
This consists of a vertical cast iron or cast steel steam-tube (fig. 7)
bolted to a wrought-steel stand-pipe on top of the boiler and surmounted
by a gunmetal or nickel alloy valve and seat (shown solid black).
Loosely encircling the steam tube is a cast-iron carrier, on which a
number of circular weights are placed to hold down the valve on its seat.
The carrier has openings at the top for the escape of steam. The valve is
connected to it by a bolt and nut passing through a cross-piece or rib cast
solid with the carrier, the cross-piece being at right-angles to the plane
of the paper and shown only in section.
The lift of the valve should be one quarter of its diameter and is
limited by set-screws which prevent the carrier rising beyond the shoulder
on the steam-tube. The number of weights used must be such that the
combined weight of the valve,. carrier, and weights will permit steam to
blow off at 5 lbs. per sq. inch· above the normal working pressure, P .. The
total weight in lbs. must thus be equal to (P. +5) lbs. per sq. inch mul-
tiplied by the area of the valve in square inches.
The. outer casing prevents anyone tampering with the weights and
is sometimes padlocked in position. The tray collects any slight leakage Fig. 7.
of water from the valve. Dead-weight Safety-Valve.
It should be noted that the load on a valve is always applied at a point below the rim or seat
which supports it; this prevents the valve canting over when displaced.

Lever-and-weight safety-valve.
In this type (fig. 8) a lever is interposed between the
weight Wand the valve so as to reduce the weight required.

•
iliii; The lever turns around a fulcrum formed by knife-edges,
and it is fitted with a pointed stud which bears centrally
upon the valve. The valve rises, allowing steam to escape,
whenever the moment of the steam pressure (acting in an
anti-clockwise direction around the fulcrum in the sketch)
exceeds the sum of the moments of the valve, the tlever, Fig. 8.
and the weight {acting in a clockwise direction). Lever-and-weight Safety Valve.
 Steam Boiler Fittings and Accessories
L
Spring-loaded safety-valve.
Spring-loaded valves are used on locomotive, marine, and portable
boilers. One type, known as the Ramsbottom Valve is shown in fig. 9.
It consists of two separate valves and seatings, V1 and V2 having one
lever L bearing on the two valves. Each valve has four cruciform ribs s
below it (one being seen in fig. 9) to guide its movement. The lever
is held down by a spring S placed between the valves, the tension being
adjustable by the nuts, N. To test whether the valves are free in their
seatings, the driver can relieve the spring-pressure from each valve
separately, by .pressing the lever arm upwards or downwards. '!
~~~ . --....&G::<::<"..:.:;J

Fig. 9.
High-steam and low-water safety-valve. Spring-loaded Safety-Valve.
This is a combined form of valve (fig. 10) designed to blow off when the steam pressure is too high
or the water level too low. It consists of an outer body A secured to a stand-pipe on the boiler shell
and carrying a main valve seat on which rests an outer high-pressure valve D. This valve is attached to
an upper spindle S by a cage Rand cotter T,
and it is enclosed by the bonnet, U•. Valve D
is held down on its seat, partly by the external
lever and weight, and partly by an inner
valve C (resting on a seat within the main
valve) from which is suspended the lower
spindle B · and the oval cheese-weights O. wi:.iGHT

When the pressure exceeds the blow-off

pressure, the main valve D, carrying the
inner valve C with it, is raised from its seat
against the external lever and weight and
the internal weights, 0.
The inner valve C, however, may be
raised independently of the outer valve D
by. the vitreous earthenware float, G. This
is suspended by rod K from an internal lever
pivoted at Eon the bracket F (secured to the
boiler shell next to the stand-pipe), and it is
almost balanced by the cast iron circular
cheese-weights Q (on the left). The lower Fig. 10.
extension of spindle B passes freely through High-steam and low-water Safety-valve.
a central hole in the internal lever.
When the water falls too low, the float G sinks, raising the weights Q and causing a knife-edge
on the upper side of the internal lever to engage with the adjusting nuts Hand J, screwed to spindle B.
This spindle is thereby raised, so opening the inner valve to the escape of steam. The sketch shows
the mechanism as it is positioned when the water is at working level.

Manholes.
Every boiler sh()1Jldbe fitted with suitable 111ar1holes,
mud-holes,· and sight-holes to facilitate inspection and
cleaning. Fig. 11 shows a raised circular external iµ~p:Q.Ql!'
as frequently used on the top. of large Lancashire boilers,
It comprises a mouth-piece M, (usually 16 or 17 inches
internal diameter and ! or i inch thick) with strengthening Fig. 11.
Circular External Manhole.
ring, R, and a door or cover C, all made of mild steel pressed
into form and afterwards annealed. The mouthpiece is
attached to the crown or shell, S, of the boiler by a double
row of rivets, and the strengthening ring by three rows.
The upper flange of the mouthpiece is machined to re-
ceive the steel coyer (1 inch or 1-! ins. thick) which is
secured by sixteen 1 inch bolts and nuts, and is fitted with
a lifting eye. Thin jointing material of asbestos com-
position _i_$ placed bet1,Ve~-~'l_I!!QUt!:_ipiece and cover'.
Fig. 12 shows an oval internal manhole which takes
up less room than the previous type and is used where
space is more limited. The oval shape, of course, is essential
to enable the internal cover to be inserted. The usual
size of the hole is 15 X 11 ins. clear, and, when the.manhole
is placed on the cylindrical shell, the longer diameter should
be around the boiler. The complete manhole comprises a
flanged strengthening ring, R, curved and double-riveted
to fit the boiler plate S, and machined flat so as to form a
faced joint with the door D. The latter is secured by stout
',
~,~~ ' ,.
//
/
mild steel cross-bars, BB, held in position by two bolts
, <, - - ..: .!-I!~~ - / ~ . .
and nuts, and the joint is further sealed by the insertion ~~~~~~~~~~~-
Fig. 12.
of a lead ring or of asbestos jointing material. Oval Internal Manhole.
 SP/2
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
5

FEED-WATER PUMPS AND INJECTORS.

The feed-water may be forced into a boiler against the pressure of the steam by (a) a recipro-
cating pump, or (b) a turbine pump, or (c) an injector.

Reciprocating pumps.
These may be of the crank-and-flywheel type, usually arranged vertically, and either single or
double-acting; or of the direct-driven double-acting type, arranged horizontally, and either single or
duplex. A duplex pump is simply two single pumps arranged side by side, the valve of one being
operated by the piston rod of the other. Their action is exactly the same as that of an ordinary
mine pump and need not be further considered here.
The capacity of a boiler feed-pump should be ample-two or three times the evaporative capacity
of the boilers which it serves-so that it may work at slow speed on normal duty and be capable of
being speeded up in emergency. The discharging end of the feed-pipe in the boiler should be about
low-water level and, as far as possible, the pump should be arranged to work regularly and continuously,
rather than intermittently.
To prevent the pressure in the feed-pipe from rising dangerously high in the event of the feed-
check valve on the boiler being closed when the pump is working, a relief-valve should be fitted to
the feed-pipe near to the pump. The load on the relief-valve should be slightly in excess of the boiler
pressure.
When pumping hot water, the pump will cease to function if steam is formed in the suction pipe
due to the pressure within the pipe being too low, i.e. if the suction lift is too great. The maximum
permissible lift is shown by the following figures:-

•• Temperature of feed-water
Maximum height of suction lift...
For hj,gher water-temperatures,
100°F.
15 ft.
120°F.
11 ft.
140°F.
8 ft.
160°F.
5 ft.
the pump should be placed on a level with the water, or slightly
below it.

Turbine pumps.
These are used chiefly in the larger boiler plants, especially at electric power stations. They
may be single-stage or multi-stage pumps (depending on the boiler pressure) driven either by electric
motors, or by small steam turbines; and running at speeds up to about 7,000 r.p.m. Among their
advantages may be mentioned:-
(1) Compact construction, requiring little ground-space.
(2) Continuous easy flow of water, without shock.
(3) No dangerous rise of pressure can possibly take place, even if the feed-check valves on the
boilers are closed, for the pressure developed by a turbine pump depends only on its speed. The
latter is maintained more or less constant either by using a constant-speed motor, or by means of a
centrifugal governor on turbine-driven sets.
(4) The feed to each boller may be regulated from zero to maximum by adjustment of the feed-
check valve, without any alteration being required at the pump itself.

Injectors.
Injectors are chiefly used on locomotives, vertical boilers, and other small boiler plants, or as a
standby for feed pumps on larger plants. They cannot be used, however, if the initial temperature
of the feed-water approaches about 140°F, as where the water comes from a surface condenser, and
they are not so reliable or so convenient as a feed pump for supplying a range of boilers.

Live-steam injector.
. . 1 e of t h e Injector
The prmc1p . . . 1·11.us t. rate d m
is !ti
. fi g. 13 , STEAM\. CHAM&ER
WATER A
the essential parts being the steam nozzle N; the con- · '---...: DE~Y~~Y
vergent combining tube C, and the divergent delivery C. - D
:J
pipe D.
Live steam from the boiler is admitted to th.e nozzle N,
the flow being controlled by a coned plug, P. When
NOZZLE N
FEE~ATER tl
~
o~fOVERFLOW
l=-==-: =. T.=:-.:...=-=:-:JsucT10H
starting, only a small amount of steam is admitted so that IF-=---=--= =-=-==J TANK
it shall have a free passage through the injector, without Fig. 13.
throttling. It thus entrains the air in the water-chamber A Principle of Injector.
and carries it forward, so causing a partial vacuum in A,
which allows the feed-water to r isc from the suction-tank T. Thereafter, the vacuum in A is main-
tained by· the continuous condensation of the steam, and the steam-admission may be increased to
any desired extent.
The. jet of steam, in condensing, unites with the feed-water in the combining tube C, imparting
. its velocity energy to the water and forcing the combined stream into the delivery pipe D. Here, the
diverging pipe reduces the velocity of flow and transforms the kinetic or velocity energy into pressure
energy, enabling the water to errter the boiler against the boiler pressure. The overflow O is a break
in the pipe through which excess water or steam may escape when starting, before the pressure has
been built up to open the feed-check valve.
 Steam Boiler Fittings and Accessories

Fig. 14 illustrates the actual construction of the Giffard live-steam

injector, the various parts being clearly indicated by the references on STEAM
the sketch. REGULATOR

To start the injector, open the water regulator fully and slightly
open the steam regulator until water issues from the overflow. The
steam regulator may then be fully opened, the supply of water being
reduced (if necessary) until there is no overflow of either water or steam.
To ensure satisfactory working:-
(a) The injector should be supplied with dry steam direct from the
boiler by an independent pipe.
(b) All joints in the suction and delivery pipes should be as air-tight
as possible.
( c) The. delivery pipe and the nozzles should be cleaned out periodicall Y
to remove scale, dirt, or sediment. co~~~tG
(d) The inlet water-temperature must not exceed about 140°F, or so
much water is required to condense the steam that the latter fails to give
the necessary velocity energy to the water and the injector ceases to
work. The colder the water is at the inlet, the more easily is the steam
condensed, and the more certain is the action of the injector.
TOt BOILER
The ratio of water to steam may be found when we know the rise Fig. 14.
in temperature of the feed-water as it passes through the injector and
· Live Stean Injector.
is given approximately by the expression:-
H-t2
Ratio of water to steam = --- · (3)
t2-t1
Where.H' total heat of steam at boiler pressure (average 1190 BThUs)
- t2 final feed-water temperature (say 190°F)
t1 initial feed-water temperature (say 90°F).
Using the bracketed figures as an example, the ratio of water to steam would be 1000--:-100 = 10,
but it may range in practice from about 8 to 13 lbs. of water per lb. of steam.
If a boiler is fitted with a feed-heater or an economiser, this is placed on the discharge side of the
injector so that the latter forces the feed-water through the heater on its way to the boiler.
Exhaust-steam injector.
This utilises the exhaust steam from non-condensing engines (i.e. steam at just a.bo ve atmospheric
pressure) and differs from a live-steam injector in several respects :- ·
(1) The exhaust-steam nozzle has a wider bore. . ..
(2) A supplementary live-steam nozzle is provided. •rr ·:rfJt;
(3) The feed water must flow into the injector from above, instea -nf being drawn into it from
below.
( 4) The initial temperature of the water should not exceed 70 °F.
As shown in fig. 15, exhaust steam enters the top flange (controlled
by a valve) and passes through the steam nozzle N, joining the inlet
water in a· so-called draught-tube E. A by-pass B delivers a second
jet of exhaust steam at the lower end of E and imparts additional
kinetic energy to the moving stream of water and steam as it passes
through the combining tube C. The. water then flows into the discharge
nozzle P, and from there to the boiler through the delivery pipe D.
An overflow valve is fitted at 0. The quantity of feed-water entering
the injector is regulated by a handle which raises or lowers the nozzle
N and thus varies the surrounding area between the end of the nozzle
and the draught-tube E. The live steam inlet is provided for use
when exhaust steam is not available.
Such an injector is capable of delivering against a pressure of
120 lbs. per square inch. For higher pressures (up to 250 lbs. per
sq. inch) a supplementary jet of live steam is introduced through an
additional nozzle fitted to the live-steam opening.
Automatic -tnjectors.
These are also called " self-acting " or " restarting " injectors,
because they start up themselves if stopped in their action by jolting,
as on a locomotive, or otherwise, and they do not require the steam-
supply to be reduced as previously described.
In an automatic injector, the combining tube C is split longi-
tudinally for rather more than half its length, one side being rigid
and the other hinged at the top, so forming a flap which hangs Fig. 15.
vertically open when the injector is not at work. In this way, a free Exhaust-steam Injector.
passage for steam is provided which · enables the necessary initial
vacuum to be formed or re-created. Thereupon, the hinged flap closes, and remains closed as long as
the vacuum is maintained.
 SP/2
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff 7

FEED-WATER· HEATERS AND ECONOMISERS.

A feed-water heater utilises the waste heat in the exhaust steam
from non-condensing engines to heat the feed-water, a common form
being shown in fig. 16. It consists of a vessel containing a number of
brass or copper tubes arranged vertically and expanded into headers
at each end. Exhaust steam passes around the tubes, entering at the STEAM
OUTLET
bottom and leaving at the. top. The feed water is pumped through
TUBES
the tubes, leaving finally at the bottom, where the steam-temperature
is greatest. Auxiliary fittings may include drain valve, inspection
doors, water gauge, pressure gauge, thermometers, and oil separator.
The heater should be covered with insulating material, e.g. hair felt
a
protected by planished steel casing (i.e. of thin polished sheet steel).
The saving effected is about 1 % for each l0°F. rise in feed-water
temperature.
Economisers.
An economiser is placed in the main flue · between boilers . and
chimney and heats the feed water by utilising the waste heat in the
flue gases.
Fig. 17 shows a typical arrangement of two Lancashire boilers Feed-water Heater.
with. economiser. The path of the flue-gases is shown by arrows, but Fig. 16.
the economiser may be isolated for inspection or cleaning by dosing the two dampers shown open,
and opening the one shown closed, the flue-gases then passing direct to the chimney.

•
The economiser itself consists simply of banks of vertical cast iron tubes, 9 to 13 ft.
long and 4t ins. external diameter, arranged in
parallel rows and Inter-connected at top and
bottom by horizontal pipes or headers. Water
is pumped through the tubes in the opposite
TO SUPERHEATE.tL...+.,
-
TO Ml>IN STEAM PIPE

EC.Ol'IOM I SI: R

direction fo the flow of the gases (contra-flow)

so that the water leaves the economiser at the
hottest point. The outside of each tube is
kept free from sooty and tarry matter by scrapers
which travel slowly up and down, being actuated
by gearing fixed on top of the economiser . ~,.. •... . . ··-~ . '
.

chamber. The deposits fall into a pit from

which they are periodically removed.
SIPE FLUE
The fittings on the economiser should
include (a) safety-valve, (b) pressure-gauge BOTTOM FLUE
(c) blow-off cock, and (d) inlet and outlet water
thermometers. An escape or relief valve and a
non-return shutdown stop-valve should also be
SIDE F~VE
fitted between the boiler feed-pumps and the
economiser. BOTTOM FLUE.
The water capacity, i.e. the combined
volume of the tubes, should be at least equal SIDE FLUE
to about one hour's evaporation of the plant.
PLAN
An easy rule to find the number of 9 ft. tubes TO CHIMNE'f
required is to divide the hourly evaporation Fig. 17.
in lbs. by 62t. Thus a boiler evaporating Arrangement of two Lancashire Boilers showing brick-
6,000 lbs. per hour requires 6,000 -:-- 62-! = 96
work flues and position of Economiser and Superheater.
tubes.
An economiser should be fed with water at not less than 100°F. A lower temperature results in
condensation of moisture on the outside of the tubes, causing corrosion and also caking of soot, and
preventing the scrapers from working. The water may be pre-heated to the required inlet tempera-
ture by passing it through an exhaust-steam feed-water heater; or a circulator may be used which
automatically draws hot water from the top branch-pipe of the economiser and mixes it with the
entering feed.
The saving effected depends on the increase in the feed-water temperature, and this depends on
the flue-gas temperature before and after the economiser. In Lancashire boilers, the initial flue-gas
temperature (before the economiser) may be as high as 650°F. In water-tube boilers, it is generally
lower, about 450°F. In both cases, the final gas-temperature (after the economiser) should be 300°
to 350°F. The final temperature of the water ranges between 200°F. and 300°F, being higher with
Lancashire boilers than with water-tube boilers. An approximate rule is to allow about 1% saving
in fuel for each 10°F. rise in feed-water temperature.
The advantages of an economiser may he summarised :-
(1) Reduced fuel consumption for given steaming capacity.
(2) Large reserve of hot water available to. meet a sudden demand for power.
(3) More uniform rate of steaming maintained.
(4) Reduced stresses on the boiler due to smaller temperature-variations.
(5) Much scale is deposited in the economiser instead of in the boiler whence it is more
difficult to remove. The scale is. soft in character and the economiser may be cleaned
without stopping the boiler plant.
 Steam Boiler Fittings and Accessories

FEED-WATER TREATMENT.
The impurities in boiler feed-water vary greatly with the source of supply, but they may include
any or all of the following:- ·
(1) Suspended matter, e.g. clay, sand (silica), or other inorganic mineral matter. These are
removable by passing the water through settling ponds, or by filtration.
(2) · Dissolved matter, causing either:-
(a) Temporary hardness, due to the bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium ;
or (b) Permanent hardness. due chiefly to calcium sulphate;
or (c) Excessive concentration of dissolved solids, e.g., the various salts of sodium.
(a) Entrained gases, e.g. oxygen and C02•
(4) Oil and grease, introduced by the condensed steam (condensate) from condensers
The effects of impure feed-water may be :-
(1) Deposition of scale, or of films of oil and grease, causing inefficient heat transmission and
waste of fuel, overheating of plates, and excessive strains on the boiler structure.
(2) Internal corrosion, caused by the presence, or creation by chemical reaction, of mineral acids
within the boiler; e.g. by the action of oil and grease which splits up into acid and glycerine, the acid
attacking the plates ; or by the action of entrained oxygen and C02. c:

(3) Excessive foaming or priming due to the presence of grease, or excessive concentration of
dissolved salts of sodium. Such salts do not form scale, nor are they corrosive, but undue concentra-
tion should be avoided by frequent blowing-off.
Hardness of water.
Water is said to be "hard" when it contains dissolved impurities which render it difficult to
produce a lather with soap, a heavy curdy precipitate being produced instead. H hard water is
evaporated, as in a boiler, some of the impurities are deposited, forming a "fur" or "scule" which
must be periodically removed. Incrustation to the· amount of i inch is said to cause a· loss of about ,
25% in the efficiency of heat-transmission.
Hardness is usually stated in "degrees Clark," and the degree of hardness of a sample of water
is ascertained by measuring the volume of a standard soap solution which is. required to produce a
permanent lather, and comparing this volume with that required when using distilled water. One
degree of hardness on Clark's scale is equivalent to 1grain of calcium bicarbonate per imperialgallon,*
and if we divide the hardness in degrees by 7, we obtain the pounds of scale-forming matter which
will be formed from every 1,000 gallons evaporated. Water of 15 degrees hardness is moderately
hard, and of 30 degrees, very hard.
It is usual to consider two kinds of hardness, namely:-
(1) Temporary hardness, so-called because it can be almost entirely removed by boiling. It
is caused by the presence of the bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, Ca (HC03)2 and Mg (HC03}2
in solution, and these are precipitated as plain carbonates, Ca C03 (limestone or chalk) and Mg C03,
so forming a scale, when the C02 is driven off by heat.
(2) Permanent hardness, so-called because it cannot be entirely removed by boiling. It is caused
by the presence in solution of the sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates of calcium and magnesium, and sul-
phate of iron. Of these, the chief scale-forming impurity is calcium sulphate, Ca S04 (gypsum) which
forms a dense, hard, scale. The others are more soluble, but they are liable to decompose within the
boiler, producing acids which cause corrosion and a residue which may be deposited as scale. Per-
manent hardness requires chemical treatment for its complete removal.
Remedial measures.
The steps taken to deal with impure feed-water depend on the nature of the water and the size
of the plant, and they include:-
(1) Periodical blowing-off to remove accumulated sediment and reduce the concentration of
dissolved sodium salts.
(2) Regular removal of scale by laying-off the boiler for internal cleaning and examination.
(3) Use of surface condensers from which the condensate is returned to the boiler, the small
loss due to wastage being made good from the town supply, or from other source of clean water.
Precautions must be taken, of course, toremove oil from the exhaust steam before it enters the con-
densers, or from the feed water before it enters the boilers. · ·-
(4) Pre-heating the water in a feed-water heater or an economiser, much of the scale then being
precipitated as a relatively soft or flocculent deposit in the heater-tubes.
(5) Chemical treatment within the boiler by means of "boiler-compounds" which precipitate
the impurities without scale being formed. This increases the density of the water, and frequent
blowing-off and cleaning out are essential. The process is not recommended and may cause damage
to the boiler unless based on expert analysis.

'°'[Note. One degree of hardness is sometimes taken as 1 part by weight of calcium bicarbonate in
100,000 parts. If the hardness is expressed in this way, it may be converted to degrees
Clark by multiplying by 0·7.]
 SP/2
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
9

(6) Chemical treatment outside the boiler in a water-sottenlng plant. This is the most satisfactory
method.
The lime and soda (or precipitation) process of water softening.
This is the most widely used process for treating boiler feed-water, the lime removing the tem-
porary hardness and the soda removing the permanent hardness. The plant includes:-
(a) Tanks containing the correct reagents.
(b) Apparatus for introducing the reagents in the correct proportions.
(c) A chamber in which the chemical reactions take place.
(d) A filter bed of wood fibre or of sand and pebbles to remove precipitated matte. ,
The lime = calcium hydrate, CA(OH)2 = slaked lime or milk of lime.
The soda = sodium carbonate N a2C03 = washing· soda or soda ash.
The chemical reactions involved are shown typically by the two following equations;
(1) Calcium bicarbonate Calcium hydrate Calcium Carbonate Water
Ca (HC03)2
(soluble)
+ Ca (OH)2
(lime)
2 Ca C03
(preci pi ta ted)
+ 2H20.

(2) Calcium sulphate Sodium carbonate Calcium carbonate Sodium sulphate

Ca S04
(soluble)
+ Na2 C03
(soda)
CaC03
(precipitated)
+ Na2 S04
(soluble)
It should be noted that, whilst most of the impurities are precipitated, some soluble sodium salts

• are formed and remain in the water, so entering the boiler.

centration is prevented by frequent use of the blow-off cock.
Feed water for high-pressure boilers.
Such salts are harmless if undue con-

After tre~tment with lime and soda, there remains in the water a certain residual hardness which
. is detrimental to high-pressure water-tube boilers. Such hardness may be removed by the addition
of sodium phosphate, Na3 HP04, which converts the hardening calcium salts into a non-adherent
· sludge of calcium phosphate, Ca3 (P04)2• The latter may be discharged from the boiler by periodical
blowing-off.
The base-exchange or zeollte method.
This is used in certain industries-textile, dyeing, laundries, hotels, etc.-where water of zero
hardness (no hardness) is essential.
A "zeolite" is a complex natural mineral compound, called hydrated sodium aluminium silicate
and sold under trade names such as Permutit and Kenzelite. It has a rather formidable chemical
formula, namely Na2 Al2 Si2 08 xH2 0, but it is usual to simplify this to Na2Y, where Y represents
all the constituents after Na2 (sodium).
When hard water is passed through a vessel containing N a2 Y, the hardening calcium and magnesium
promptly replace the Na2 in the compound and remain behind in the vessel. The liberated Na2
forms soluble and non-hardening sodium salts which pass out with the softened water.
When all the Na2 has been used up .in this way, it may be replaced simply by passing a strong
solution of ordinary common salt, NaCl, through the vessel. The Na2Y is thereby restored or
" regenerated," and the freed calcium and magnesium form soluble chlorides which are washed away.
The apparatus should be flushed out with water and is then ready for use again.
The foregoing process is not usually suitable for boiler-feed purposes because soluble sodium
salts, equal in quantity to the original hard~ning ~a~ts,remain_i~ the S?ftened wate.r, as distinct from
the lime and soda process where most of the irnpuri ties are precipitated m the softenmg plant. Exces-
sive concentration of sodium salts would therefore occur. A dual system may be employed, however,
whereby the temporary hardness is removed by lime treatment and softening is completed by the
zeolite method.
Removal of oil.
Oil or grease in exhaust steam or in feed-water may be suspended in the form of relatively large
globules, or it may form an emulsion in which the particles are of microscopical dimensions. In
the former case, the globules may be removed by passing the steam through an oil separator, a vessel
fitted with baffles against which .the steam impinges, the oil being deposited and drained away; or
by passing the feed-water th:oug~ ~ filtering medium of wood fibre and 9uar~z sand.
If the oil forms an emulsion, it is necessary first to coagulate the particles m order to render them
filterable. This m(ly be done chemically by t.reatment with sulphate of alumina (to cause coagulation)
and sodium carbonate (to neutralise the acidity resulting from the alumina). Final purification is
ensured by filtration as before.

COMBUSTION OF FUEL~
The principal combustible constituents in anY:f1;1el are ca~bon and hydrogen, an~ in coal there is
usually a small quantity of sulphur, The remammg constituents are oxyg~n, mtroge:r:, and a~h.
An average bituminous coal contams about 80% carbon and 5% hydrogen, whilst anthracite contams
over 90% carbon and less than 4% hydrogen.
 SP/2
10
Steam Boiler Fittings and Accessories

The ignition temperature of coal various from about 700°F. to 925°F. and the maximum flame
temperature is about 4000°F. A faint red furnace has a temperature of about 1000°F., and a dazzling
white furnace 2,800°F. The temperature of the flue gases at the base of the chimney ranges between
300°F. and 650°F.

Composition of air.
For all questions on combustion, atmospheric air may be taken as consisting of 23 parts by weight
of oxygen and 77 parts of nitrogen. Hence the weight of air = 100 :...;-.. 23
= 4 ·35 times the weight of
oxygen it contains. The volume of 1 lb. of air at atmospheric pressure and 62°F. is about 13 cub. ft.

Air required for combustion.

When a fuel burns completely, the carbon, hydrogen, and sulphur combine chemically with the
oxygen of the air to form carbon dioxide (C02) water (H20), and sulphur dioxide (S02) respectively.
If insufficient air is present, the combustion is incomplete and carbon monoxide (CO)is formed instead
of C02.
For complete combustion r-s-
I lb. of carbon requires 2·67 lbs. of oxygen and produces 3·67 lbs. of C02•
1 lb. of hydrogen 8·00 lbs. 9 lbs. of H20.
1 lb. of sulphur 1 ·00 lb. 2 lbs. of S02.
For incomplete combustion :-
1 lb. of carbon requires l ·33 lbs. of oxygen and produces 2·33 lbs. of CO.
Example (1). A sample of coal has the following composition by weight: C, 80%; H, 5%; 0, 8%;
S, 1 ·25% ; N, l ·2% ; and ash, 4·55%. How much air would theoretically be required to ensure
complete combustion ?
Answer. Oxygen required for carbon 0·80 x 2·67 2·1360 lb.
hydrogen 0·05 x 8·00 0·4000 lb.
sulphur 0·0125 x 1 ·0 0·0125 lb.

,, ,, per lb. of coal 2·5485 lb.

Deduct oxygen present in coal 0·0800 lb.

Oxygen to be supplied from the air 2·4685 lb.

Air required per lb. of this coal = 2·4685 x 4·35 10·74 lb.
We thus see that coal of average quality theoretically requires 10 or 12 lbs. of air (130 to 156
cub. ft.) per lb. of coal to ensure perfect combustion. In practice, it is necessary to use 25% to 70%
more air than the theoretical minimum, an average figure being about 50% more. If too much excess
air is supplied, the furnace temperature is reduced and the efficiency of heat transmission diminished.
If too little air is supplied, imperfect combustion takes place and fewer heat units are liberated.
The efficiency of combustion may be gauged from the percentages of C02 and CO in the flue gases.
Theoretically, with perfect combustion and just the right amount of air, the percentage of C02 should
be 18% or 19% and that of CO nil. In practice, in efficient plants, the percentage of C02 is 12% to
14%, whilst that of CO is 0·1 % to 0·2%. In an inefficient plant, the C02 percentage may fall to
6% or 7%, or the CO may exceed 1 %- C02 and CO recorders are now available which automatic-
ally take samples of the flue gases up to 20 times an hour; analyse them, and register the percentage
of C02 and CO on a revolving chart.

PRODUCTIONOF DRAUGHT.
Three systems of producing draught may be noticed, namely, natural, mechanical, and steam-
jet draught.
The draught is usually measured in inches of water-gauge, and it varies with the nature of the
fuel, the thickness of the fires and the type of boiler. Fine coal or slack of low-volatile content requires
a higher w-g. than average bituminous coal. Lancashire boilers with their long tortuous flues, require
a higher w-g. than water-tube boilers whose large commodious furnaces offer less resistance to the
air and furnace gases. In practice, the w-g, usually ranges between 0·5 and 1·5 ins. w-g., rising excep-
tionally to 2 ins. w.g.

Natural or chimney draught.

The draught produced by a chimney depends on (a) its height, H, in feet, and (b) the difference
of temperature between inside and outside, and it may be calculated from the formula :---'
T-t H
Water-gauge in inches = X - .................................•................. · ( 4)
459 +T 68
When T mean temperature of chimney gases in degrees F.
t external air . temperature in degrees F.
H height of chimney in feet (commonly 75 to 175 feet).
68 feet of air column approximately equivalent to 1 inch w-g.
 SP/2
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff ·
11

It is obvious from formula (4) that the higher the chimney and the hotter the gases, the greater
is the draught. Now a high chimney is costly, whilst hot gasesimply waste of heat. Hence, natural
draught is both costly and inefficient. Moreover, it is irregular, varying with the seasons, and it
cannot be readily controlled to suit different fuels or rates of combustion.

Mechanical draught.
This is produced by a small, totally enclosed, multi-bladed fan, which is driven by either an
electric motor, or a high-speed steam engine, or a steam turbine. A steam drive is generally pre-
ferred, being independent of other machinery and suited to the hot dusty atmosphere often associated
with a boiler fan. The consumption of steam is about 1 % to 3% of the steam production of the plant.
The power required is about 6 HP. per Lancashire boiler, 30 ft. by 8 ft., and about 3 HP. for a water-
tube boiler of similar capacity.
Apart from the low cost of mechanical draught and the ease with which it can be controlled, it
is especially suitable where small coal or slack of poor quality is to be burned; where a high rate of
combustion is desired ; where mechanical stokers are in use (for fhese increase the resistance to be
overcome) ; and where economisers are installed (for they reduce the flue-gas temperature and the
effectiveness of natural draught).
There are three chief methods of applying mechanical draught:-
tl) Induced draught (fig. 18a) in which the flue-gases are led via
a by-pass from the main flue to the fan-inlet and are discharged into the
chimney. This method is generally adopted for existing boilers where
space allows, for it does not require any alteration to existing ash-pits
or fire-doors.
(2) Forced draught (fig. 18b), in which air is delivered under pressure
to a closed ash-pit (or to a main duct extending along the front of the
boilers) and is directed upwards through the fuel bed. The method gives Fig. 18a.
good contro.,_oi the fire and is particularly applicable when burning low-
Induced Draught.
• grade coal or where mechanical stokers are used, but it has the dis-
advantage that it creates a positive pressure in the furnace, so causing
• leakages outwards through faulty brickwork and requiring the use of an
automatic device for closing off the draught before the fire-doors are
opened.
(3) Balanced draught. This is a combination of forced and induced
draught so arranged that the forced draught is just sufficient (0·3 to 0·5
inch w-g) to overcome the resistence of the fuel bed, whilst the induced
draught pulls the air through the boiler. The pressure above the fire
is maintained at atmospheric pressure, or slightly less. In some cases, Fig. 18b.
a balanced draught condition may be produced by limited forced draught Forced Draught.
in conjunction with chimney draught.
Steam-jet draught.
This is a system of forced draught and is very commonly installed on Lancashire boilers to increase
the rate of comf:mstion or enable low-~rade fu~l to be burned. The steam jets are easy to operate,
and.they are said to prevent. ~h~ adhesion <;>f clmker to ~he bar~, so facilitating cleaning of the grate.
Vanous patent. furnaces utilising steam Jets are available, mcluding the Meldrum, Crosthwaite
Heywood, and so-called "Turbine" furnaces. These differ chiefly in the number of blowers used
and in the constru~tion of the fire-bars ;-n?- the di~tributi~n of the air through them. The quantity of
steam used by the jets averages about 6 /6 m practice, but rs about half this in the more efficient plants.
The Meldrum Furnace· is shown in
fig. 19. It comprises the furnace front
with blowers, BB, firing and ash-pit
doors, dead-plate and crown arch, fire-
bars and fire-bridge. The entire front
is air-tight both above and below grate
level, the only entrance for air being
through the blowers.
The blowers BB (two per flue) are of
cast-iron and project well forward into
the ash-pit. Each carries at its mouth
FRONT ELEVATION SECTION AL SIDE ELEVATION
a small gunmetal steam nozzle to which
steam is admitted from two auxiliary Fig. 19.
steam pipes SS . connected . to a con'.'.
The Meldrum Steam-jet Porced-draught Furnace.
venient point on the boiler and led
through the side flues (as shown dotted) so as to superheat and dry the steam. The steam jets are
controlled by the valves VV and impel the air through the blowers as shown by the arrows.
The firebars are narrow and interlocking, with narrow air-spaces between, so permitting the
finest dust fuels to be used. To prevent smoke, a thin stream of secondary air may be admitted
above the fire at the front through a valve on the dead-plate, whilst, with very smoky fuels further
secondary air, controlled by a special damper, may be passed through the fire-bridge. The secondary
air mixes with the unburnt gases from the fire and ensures more complete combustion.
 SP/2
~ Steam Boiler Fittings and Accessories
·~~~~~~~~~_c_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

MECHANICAL STOKERS.
Mechanical stokers are used for the following purposes :-
( 1) To eliminate hand-labour and reduce working costs.
(2) To enable low-grade fuel to be burned. ·
(3) To increase the rate of combustion and the evaporative capacity of the plant.
(4) To increase the boiler efficiency by regular feeding of the fuel, by maintaining a constant
high furnace temperature, and by ensuring complete combustion.
They are, however, costly to instal and require close supervision. Some form of forced draught
is also usually necessary.
Mechanical stokers are more readily applied to water-tube boilers because these have a large
furnace volume where the stoker can be conveniently installed. Fig. 20 shows a ehain~grate stoker as
applied to a Babcock and Wilcox boiler. The
travelling grate consists of an endless chain of
short cast iron bars linked together and running t"'"'
t:rj
on angle irons and rollers, and driven by a U)
U)
revolving drum at the front end. Each stoker 0
~
is provided with its own totally enclosed electric :::::! z
motor of about 1 HP. which rotates the driving s U)
shaft through a short chain drive and variable 1-tj

speed gearing. t::5

Coal .is fed from overhead into the hopper
z
shown, whence it is delivered to the chain and
spread over the whole width of the grate, the
thickness of the fuel-bed being regulated by a
4
vertically lifting fire-door at the discharge
of the hopper.
The chain grate moves forward at a rate
which will ensure complete combustion of the .
fuel by the time it reaches the rear end of the Fig. 20.
grate," the rate of travel being from 5 to 15 feet Chain-grate Stoker.
per hour, depending on the nature of the fuel and the intensity of the draught. The fine ash falls
through the bars near the rear end and clinker is carried over the. rear end, both clases of refuse being
delivered into hoppers below the stoker or on to a moving conveyor. If a breakdown should occur,
hand-firing may be resorted to, as the fire-door extends across the whole width of the grate. The
complete stoker may be wi t hdrawn clear of the boiler when desired.
The stoker may operate with natural draught alone, the front being left open and the passage
from the air-duct closed by a damper; or the stoker may be totally enclosed as shown, air under a
pressure of 0·25 to 1 ·5 inch w-g. then being delivered by a forcing fan into the air-duct and then to
the under-side of the grate, afterwards traversing the fire. The balanced draught thus obtained by
the combination of natural and forced draught is suitable for burning small coal or dust or coke-
breeze, or when a high rate of duty is required.

TEST PAPER SP/2.

1. Sketch and describe (a) a steam stop valve, and
(b) one other type of valve used on a boiler.
· 2. (a) By what various means may feed-water be
forced into a boiler against the steam pressure?
(b). Sketch and describe one such device for
this purpose.
3. (a) Sketch and describe a gauge glass and fittings
for showing the level of water in a boiler.
(b) If you found that the water level in a
Lancashire boiler had fallen dangerously low,
what would you do ?
4. Describe the construction and action of a fuel
economiser, explaining its function and the
results that may be expected from its use.
5. Describe carefully the work of cleaning a Lancashire
boiler from the time when it ceases to supply
steam to the time when it recommences to
supply steam.
6. (a) What do you understand by the terms "tem-
porary hardness " and " permanent hardness"
as applied to feed water, and what ingredients
cause each type of hardness ? (b) Describe
any 'water-softening plant or process with
which you are acquainted.
7. (a) How is oil liable to be introduced into a boiler,
and (b) what dangers result from its presence ?
(c) How may it be prevented from reaching
the boiler?
8. A brick chimney is 150 ft. high and the mean
temperature of the chimney gases is 550°F.
Calculate the draught at the base of the
chimney, assuming the outside air-tempera-
ture to be 60°F.
9. (a) The percentage composition. of a sample of
coal is 89% carbon, 3 ·1 % hydrogen, and 3%
oxygen. Calculate the minimum weight of
air required for the complete combustion of
1 lb. of this coal. (b) Bow much might
actually be required in practice ?
10. (a) Sketch and describe some·type of mechanical
stoker. (b) Enumerate the advantages and
disadvantages of such apparatus.
11. (a) What is the purpose of an automatic steam-
trap ? (b) Sketch and describe one type of
such trap with which you are acquainted.
12. In arranging the steam boiler plant at a modern
colliery, enumerate the chief appliances you
would in sta.l to. ensure the greatest economy
in fuel consumption, briefly commenting on
each item.

Prin ted by Cardiff Pria ters Ltd

 FOUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT
THE U.M.S. T. A. SOl.ITHERN LTD ...
THIS PAf>ER
WAS -THE FIRST

SJwot;
IS SUPPLIED ON

fil'lie ~~at~
CORRESPONDENCE
CONDITION TH"T
MINING SCHOOL
IT rs RESERVE·o
IN THE WORLD.
·EXCLUSIVELY FOR
h<eORl>ORAT"P 1981. CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USE

I
STEAM PLANT
Answers SP/2.
STEAM BOILER FITTINGS AND ACCESSORIES.
1. Sketch and describe (a) a steam stop-valve, and (b) one other type of valve used on a boiler.
BOILER VALVES.
(a) Hopkinson Ferranti Steam Stop-Valve.
The adjoining sketch shows a well-known type of stop-valve whose
special feature is the convergent-divergent shape of the steam-passage
throngh the valve, the area of the throat being only about one quarter
of the area of the steam-pipe.
The purpose of the convergent passage is to increase the velocity
energy of the steam at the expense of the pressure energy, in accordance
with the theorem of Bernoulllr which states that, when a fluid flows
through a smooth tube of varying cross-section, the sum of the pressure
and kinetic energies is constant at each point in the pipe, no matter how
• the sectional area may vary. It follows that the pressure at the throat
is a miriimftm (the velocity at that point being a maximum) and the
• effort required" to open and close' the valve is greatly reduced. There-
after, neglecting the small loss due to friction and eddying, the original
• pressure energy of ·the steam is restored by the divergent passage, in
which the velocity is progressively reduced. Such a valve is much
Hopkinson-Ferranti Valve.
smaller in overall dimensions than an equivalent full-bore type, whilst
it passes an amount of steam equal to the full carrying capacity of the
pipes to which it is connected.
The valve casing is of cast steel; the pillars and nut-bridge of mild steel; and the valve seats
and discs of" Pl~t:J?-_?:g}," a special nickel alloy which resists high temperature and the effects of super-
heated steam. '-Tlie valve discs are pressed outwards against their 'seatings by an internal spring
and they are free to rotate on their axes so that they slide upon their seats in a manner which cleans
the faces and prevents their being cut and scored by grit.
(b) Reducing valve.
A reducing valve is required when the boilers in a range do not all generate steam at the same
pressure; or when some engines are designed to work at a pressure lower than the boiler pressure.
The adjoining sketch shows a Mason Reducing Valve, the
essential parts comprising main valve, auxiliary valve, piston,
dashpot, rubber diaphragm, and three springs.
High-pressure steam is admitted via the inlet and low-pressure
steam is delivered via the outlet. The pressure of the steam de-
liyered is regulated by turning the screw at the top which varies
the compression of the upper spiral spring Sv the degree of com-
pression being proportionate to the steam pressure at the outlet
side. The spring presses downwards upon the diaphragm which,
in its turn, opens the auxiliary valve, so permitting high-pressure
steam to pass via port P (shown dotted) to the underside of the.
piston. The latter then rises, so opening the main valve and
allowing steam to flow through to the outlet. The piston is fitted
with a dashpot which fills with condensed steam and prevents
chattering or pounding.
If the pressure on the outlet side rises too high, the steam,
acting through port X, forces up the diaphragm against the pressure
of spring S1 and the auxiliary valve closes, owing to the upward
pull of . spring . S2• . The p~~t?n thereupol1 des~ends ; . . the 111ain
valve closes under the. irntrrence of the· inlet - steam-pressure and ...
spring S3 ; and the outlet pressure falls to a point which enables
the auxiliary valve to be opened again and the whole process to be
repeated.
In practice, assuming a uniform supply of steam to be re-
quired, a state of balance exists, whereby the main valve is just Mason Reducing Valve.
kept sufficiently open to maintain an almost constant predetermined
reduced pressure at the outlet.

(4710)
 SP/2
Steam Boiler Fittings and Accessories
~/2
2. (a) By what various means may feed-water be forced into a boiler against the steam-pressure?
(b) Sketch. and describe one such device for this purpose.

FEED-WATER ARRANGEMENTS.
(a) Feed-water may be forced into a boiler against the steam-pressure by means of (a) injectors,
or (b) reciprocating pumps, or (c) turbine pumps. Injectors may be worked either by live steam or
by exhaust steam, and are chiefly used on small plants or as a standby. Reciprocating pumps have
wide use in collieries and industry generally. Turbine pumps are used chiefly in power stations. In
all cases, the feed-water enters the boiler through a feed-pipe extending into the water space and the
supply is controlled by a feed-check valve which automatically prevents water being forced back
from the boiler into the feed-pipe line.
(b) Duplex reciprocating Pump, Outside Centre-packed Ram Type.
A,-.-.
i
DELIVERY
I

The above sectional elevation illustrates one type of steam-driven reciprocating ram or plunger
pump suitable for boiler-feeding against high pressures. It is a duplex pump, consisting of two similar
direct-driven pumps placed side by side, the steam slide-valve V of one pump receiving its reciprocating
motion from the oscillating arm L, coupled to the piston-rod of the opposite cylinder. Each pump is
double-acting and is fitted with four valves, (two delivery and two suction valves) of the vertical
lifting type. Each ram or plunger is connected directly to the piston-rod of the corresponding stearn-
cylinder and works through two centrally placed outside-packed stuffing boxes into two water-cylinders.
This construction enables leakage to be detected at once and remedied easily, whilst the quadruple
action of the valves of both pumps ensures smooth delivery. An air-vessel may be fitted if desired.
Materials of construction are :-,--casingsof cast iron; piston rods of steel; stuffing boxes, pump--
valves and valve-seats of brass or gunmetal.
[Note.-Pumps of this type are suitable also for any mine service where the duty is heavy and the
water carries sand or grit. Piston-type pumps are suitable for lower pressures].

3. (a) Sketch and describe a gauge glass. arid fittings for showing the level of water in a boiler.
(b) If you found that the water level in a Lancashire boiler had fallen dangerously low, what
would you do ?

WATER LEVEL GAUGE AND DANGEROUS CONDITIONS.

(a) See fig. 6 of Lesson and accompanying description.
(b) If the water had fallen dangerously low, due possibly to a defect in the feed system, I would:-
(1) Close the dampers to prevent access of air to the fires.
(2) Open the fire-doors and examine the furnace crowns. If these are red-hot or bulged, close
the doors and withdraw from the vicinity, warning others to do so, for a serious accident
ts irnrntncnt. If-the-furnace crowns are· apparently undamaged r-e-
(3) Damp down the fires with wet ashes or dirt, or wet slack coal.
(4) Closethe steam stop valve to prevent steam entering the boiler from others in the range.
(5) Warn everybody in vicinity of possible danger.
(6) Report the circumstances to the engineer in charge.
The foregoing procedure is safer than immediately drawing the fires, for this would ternpora.rily
increase the heat generated and so increase the danger. As soon as possible, a thorough examination
should be made to locate and rectify the trouble before the boiler is put back into service.
 SP/2
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
A/3

4. Describe the construction and action of a fuel economiser, explaining its function and the
results that may be expected· from its use.

FUEL ECONOMISER.
The function of an economiser is to heat boiler feed-water in a vessel apart from the boiler by
means of the heat from waste flue-gases, thus saving fuel. The water enters the economiser at about
100°F. and leaves at 200°F. to 300°F, depending on the flue-gas temperature. The saving in fuel is
estimated at about 1 % for each 10°F. rise in feed-water temperature. Other advantages include :-1
(1) Large reserve of hot water to meet sudden demands for steam.
(2) Reduced stresses on boilers due to expansion and contraction.
(3) Less scale in boilers due to previous deposition of impurities in economiser tubes.

Green's Economiser.
This consists of vertical cast iron tubes, 4f ins. diam. and
9 to 13 ft. long, made up into sections 4, 6, 8, or IO tubes in
width and connected at top and bottom by cross-headers. The
sections are erected in parallel and are themselves connected at
top and bottom . by horizontal branch-pipes placed outside the
brickwork enclosing the sections. The outside of each vertical
tube is kept free from soot by scrapers which travel slowly up
and down, the scrapers being worked by chains and pulleys
connected to gearing placed on top of the economiser-chamber.
The gearing includes a two-way clutch and trip-lever which
automatically reverses the motion of the scrapers when in their
top and bottom positions. The power necessary may be supplied
• by belting from a shaft, or by a small steam engine, or by an
electric motor. The fittings include a safety-valve, pressure-
gauge, blow~o~ cock, and thermometers. The economiser may
•be isolated by dampers from the main flue when required.
The feed-water passes through the economiser in a direction
•opposite to the flow of the flue-gases. It enters via the bottom
branch-pipe at the end nearest the chimney and, after passing
upwards through the tubes, it leaves via the upper branch-pipe
at the end nearest the boilers. The capacity of the economiser, Green's Economiser.
to give maximum efficiency, should be such that it empties (Cross Section).
itself once every hour. ·

5. Describe carefully the work of cleaning a Lancashire boiler from the time when it ceases to
supply steam to the time when it recommences to supply steam.

CLEANING A LANCASHIRE BOILER.

When a boiler requires to be cleaned, the following steps are necessary r-s-
(a) Laying-off the boiler.
I Close the dampers ; shut off the feed-pump ; close the junction-valve and lock it in position to
isolate. the boiler from others in the range ; and draw the fires. Then aJlowthe boiler to stand one, two,
or three days, as found convenient, until it and the surrounding brickwork have cooled down. Now
ease the safety-valve (and keep it open) to release any remaining pressure in the boiler and to permit
air to enter, and empty the boiler by opening the blow-off cock. Finally, close the blow-off cock,
open the manholes and mudholes, and ensure that the boiler is well ventilated with fresh air.
(b) Cleaning the boiler.
Before entering the boiler, place a "DANGER" board near the junction valve to prevent its
being interfered with. The cleaning process involves:-
(i) Removal of scale from all internal surfaces, with special regard to the roots of flanges, internal
feed-pipe, water-gauge passages and the anti-priming pipe.
(ii) Removal of oil or grease (if any) by washing down with water containing soda.
(iii) Removal of soot, dust and ashes from the flues, and repair of brickwork where necessary.
(iv}"Washing out the boiler with fresh water to remove loose deposits brought down during
cleaning.
(v) Examination of shell-plates, flue-tubes, gusset-plates, and rivets for defects, e:g. corrosion
. or grbgvj:r1g,_ a.:rici . of all ftti:i!lg§toensure Jliatthey.~rejn goodorder;,
(c) Re-starting the boiler.
First make sure that all parts have been correctly replaced, and examine the feed-pump, valves,
and all connections. Fill up the boiler to its proper working level and relight the fires. Raise steam
gradually over a period of 8 to 12 hours until the pressure exceeds that in the main range by about
5 lbs. per sq. inch. Observe and test the water-gauges and test the safety-valve. Finally open
the steam stop-valve slowly so as to equalise the pressures on both sides, after which the boiler can
be safely brought on to load.
 SP/2
A/4 Steam Boiler Fittings and Accessories

6. (a) TVhat do you understand by the terms" temporary hardness" and" permanent hardness,"
as applied to feed water, and what ingredients cause each type of hardness? (b) Describe any
water-softening plant or process with which you are acquainted. .

HARDNESS OF FEED-WATER.
(a) Water is said to be "hard " when it cannot readily form a lather with soap.
(1) Temporary hardness is so-called because it can be almost entirely removed by boiling, the
precipitated compounds forming a fairly soft scale. It is caused by the bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium, Ca(HC03)2 and Mg (HC03)2•
(2) Permanent hardness is that which remains after the temporary hardness has been removed,
the impurities not being precipitated by boiling at atmospheric pressure, although they may be pre-
cipitated under the conditions existing in a steam-boiler, then forming a hard, dense scale, difficult
to remove. Permanent hardness is caused chiefly by calcium sulphate, CaS04, but the chlorides and
nitrates of calcium and magnesium also contribute to the hardness, being also responsible for corrosion
within the boiler.

(b) The Kennicott Water-softening Plant.

This utilises the lime and soda process in which the lime, Ca(OH)2, reduces the soluble bicarbonates
to insoluble carbonates, whilst the soda, Na2C03, reduces the soluble calcium and other salts to
insoluble compounds, the insoluble material being precipitated as a sludge within the softening plant.
Soluble sodium salts remain in the water and their concentration in the boiler is kept down by periodical
blowing-off.
The plant consists of a large cylindrical steel plate settling
tank, with downtake-tube and filter-bed, surmounted by a
chamber containing a chemical-tank, a regulating tank, a
dividing box, and a water-wheel. The chemical tank contains
the required quantity of chemicals (mixed with water) for a
ay's supply.
Hard water enters at the top .and passes over the water-
wheel, flowing thence via a chute into the central downtake-tube.
The water-wheel operates, through bevel gearing, a four-bladed
agitator in the chemical tank and a series of agitators in the
downtake tube, so ensuring thorough admixture of the water
and the chemicals.
A small proportion of the incoming hard water is bye-passed
to the dividing-box and thence, at some pre-determined rate
controlled by an adjustable' slide, to the regulating tank. The
latter is at first empty and contains a float which rises as the
tank gradually fills. The float is connected by a chain and
pulleys to the free end of a pivoted overflow pipe (termed a
c c lift-pipe ") in the chemical-tank, so that the overflow level
is determined by the position of the float. The chemicals are SETTLING TANK
thus delivered to the downtake-tube at the same rate as the
regulating tank fills with water, i.e. at a rate which is correctly
proportioned to the quantity of hard water entering the plant.
Both water and chemicals now pass together down the
downt.ake-t ube to the bottom of the settling tank where most
of the hardening salts are precipitated. The softened water Kennicott Water-Softening Plant.
then rises slowly upwards, the last traces of suspended matter
(Diagram).
being removed by the filter-bed (wood-wool closely packed
between perforated steel plates).

7. (a)' How is oil liable to be introduced into a boiler, and (b) what dangers resuitfrom its
presence? (c) How may it be prevented from reaching the boiler?

OIL_IN ~EEE~l}.=W_~'.f~_R. -··-

(a) Source of oil. Oil is liable to enter a boiler when the exhaust steam from. reciprocating
engines, impregnated with oil from cylinder and valve lubrication, is condensed and returned to the
boiler with the feed-water.
(b) The dangers resulting from the presence of oil are:-
(i) overheating and bulging of the plates, with risk of collapse.
(ii) corrosion due to the formation of acids by chemical reaction.
(iii) excessive foaming or priming.
It is said that a film of grease one-hundredth of an inch thick offers resistance to the passage
of heat equal to a steel plate IO inches thick. In otherwords, grease offers 1000 times the_resistanc.e~----
of steel to the passage of heat.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff

(c) Removal. Oil consisting of small globules in suspension may be removed by passing the
exhaust steam through an oil separator, a vessel fitted with baffles; or by passing the condensed
steam through a filtering medium of cocoanut mats, wood-fibre, and sand. But if the oil forms an
intimate emulsion, chemical treatment with sulphate of alumina and sodium carbonate is necessary
to coagulate the particles which can then be removed by filtration.

8. A brick chimney is 150 ft. high, and the 1ftean temperature of the chimney-gases is 550°F.
Calculate the draught at the base of the chimney, assuming the outside air temperature to be 60°F.
NATURAL DRAUGHT.
T-t H 550 - 60 150
Water-gauge = x x
459 +T 68, 459 + 550 68
490 150 73500
x 1 ·07 inch w-g,
1009 68 68612

9. (a) The percentage composition of'a sample of coal is 89% carbon, 3· 1 % hydrogen, and 3%
oxygen. Calculate the minimum weight of air required for the complete combustion of 1 lb. of
this coal. (b) How much might actually be required in practice ?

AIR REQUIRED FOR COMBUSTION.

(a) Theoretically :-
1 lb. of carbon requires 2 ·67 lb. of oxygen for complete combustion.
1 lb. of hydrogen· requires 8·00 lbs. of oxygen for complete combustion.
Now each 1 lb. of fuel contains 0·89 lb. carbon, 0·031 hydrogen, and 0•03 lb. oxygen.
- Jience oxygen required for carbon = 0·89 x 2·67 = 2·376 lb.
hydrogen = 0·031 x 8 0·248 lb.

,, ,, per lb. of coal 2·624 lb.

Deduct oxygen already present in the coal 0·030 lb.
Oxygen to be supplied from the air 2·594 Ib.:
Air theoretically required per lb. of this coal = 2 ·594 x 4 ·35 = 11 ·28 lb.
(b) In Practice.
As it is impossible to ensure that all the air will come into effective contact with the fuel particles,
it is necessary in practice to increase the quantity of air passing through the furnace. The amount
of excess air varies in different cases, bu-tit may be provisionally estimated as 50% above the theoretical
minimum. It follows that the amount of air actually required will be 11 ·28 x 1 ·5 = 17 lbs. of air,
or about 220 cub. ft of air per lb. of this coal.

10. (a) Sketch and describe some type of mechanical stoker. (b) Enumerate the advantages
and disadvantages of such apparatus.
MECHANICAL STOKER FOR LANCASHIRE BOILER.
[Note; Having described a chain-grate stoker for water-tube boilers in Lesson SP/2, we here take
the opportunity of dealing with the application of mechanical stokers to Lancashire boilers and
of illustrating one well-known type.
Mechanical stokers for Lancashire boilers may be divided into two main types, (a) the sprinkling
stoker, and (b) the coking stoker. In either case, the fuel is fed into a hopper holding about 3 cwt.
of coal and placed just above and in front of the furnace. From there it is delivered at regular intervals
and in suitable quantities to the firebars.
In the sprinkling stoker, the fuel is spread evenly along the grate, the sprinkling mechanism
(in the Meldrum stoker) consisting of a revolving measurer and a two-vane distributor driven through
totally enclosed gearing by a small electric motor or steam engine. The distributor is at the front
of the grate and throws the fuel towards the back, its throw being controlled by a deflector plate.
The firebars may be fixed, moving, or hand-rocking. Fixed firebars are used for anthracite or
coke breeze, or where time can be afforded for cleaning the grates. Moving firebars are used for
bituminous coal and where a uniform supply of steam is required over long periods, the bars being
given a reciprocating motion which propels the fuel bed towards the back of the grate and delivers
ashes .and-elinkers-over-the - end.----Hand,,r_ocking_ bars . are_ used with_V~IYctl'hy_flle!s_'Y:!iic!_i _}!!_~~~_little
clinker. ---
In the coking stoker, the fuel is fed by a ram on to the front portion only of reciprocating grate-bars,
the volatiles being there driven off and consumed over the incandescent bed in the interior of the
furnace. The coked fuel is then gradually moved to the back of the grate and so into the ash-pit
as combustion is completed.
In both cases, it is usual to employ steam-jet draught in order to obtain maximum advantage
from mechanical firing, especially when low-grade fuel is used.]
SP/2
A/6
Steam Boiler Fittings and Accessories

(a) The Coking Stoker.

The adjoining sketch shows .the essentials of the
Meldrum Koker Stoker, as applied to a Lancashire boiler,
and suitable for use with bituminous or tarry coals.
The fuel is supplied to the hopper H, mounted above
each furnace-flue at the front of the boiler, and is fed on
to the dead-plate and thence to the firebars by a sector-
shaped ram, R, whose arc of travel and rate of feed can be
varied. When necessary, the boiler may be hand-fired
through door D.
The firebars have an undulating surface and are of the
moving type, being given a reciprocating motion (resembling
that of a shaker-conveyor) by a series of cams mounted on
a clutch-controlled shaft running along the boiler-front.
The several cams are disposed at various angles around the
shaft so that adjacent bars are reciprocated at different
times. The fuel bed is thus gradually moved towards the
back of the grate, whilst the ash falls between the bars and
the clinker is delivered over the end, whence they can be
raked out through door E.
The ram R and the cam-shaft are actuated through
totally enclosed dust-tight gearing, mounted at the side Meldrum Koker Stoker.
of the boiler-front and driven by a step-pulley and belting
from a small engine or motor.
Steam-jets, A, (two to each furnace) are provided to supply forced draught below and through
the fuel-bed, whilst auxiliary steam-jets B supply air under pressure to cool the hollow stoker-fronts
and prevent flame within the furnace from blowing back.

(b) Advantages of mechanical stokers.

(I) Labour-costs are reduced. ( c) Disadvantages.
(2) Large boiler units may be fired efficiently. (1) First cost, and cost of operation and main-
(3) Combustion is more complete, due to tenance, must be offset against any saving
regular feeding at a rate suited to the effected, and skilled supervision is needed
class of fuel burned. if a net gain is t? be realised.
(4) Low-grade fuel may be used.
(5) Evaporative capacity of boiler is in-
creased. (2) Constant high furnace - temperature
(6) Total enclosure results in a cleaner demands greater attention to the boiler
boiler-house ·and prevents Inrush ·of air, itself, and all heating surfaces must be
such as often occurs with hand-firing. kept clear of scale and grease if damage
(7) smoke-productton reduced, is to be avoided.
Mechanical stokers are essential for large units exceeding about 10,000 lbs. of steam per hour,
for these cannot be fired efficiently by hand. They are more suited to the commodious furnaces of
water-tube boilers than to the narrow furnaces of Lancashire boilers in which also the heating surfaces
are undesirably near to the fuel bed.

11. (a) What is the purpose of an automatic steam-trap ? (b) Sketch and describe one type of
such trap with which you are acquainted.
OUTLET
AUTOMATIC STEAM-TRAP.
(a) The purpose of an automatic steam-trap (which
might more fittingly be called a " water trap ") is to drain
off water of condensation from a steam pipe-range and eject
the water automatically at intervals. Such traps should be
placed at depressions in the range, __wh~rn tJ1~ water_natur-
ally tends to collect ; at bends in the pipes ; ancfa1So' ne-ar--
the engines using the steam.
(b) The bucket-type of steam-trap is shown in the
adjoining sketch. It consists essentially of :-
(i) An outer cast iron casing with inlet and outlet
branches.
(ii) A floating copper bucket secured to a bronze
central guide G, which surrounds the vertical
discharge-stem.
(iii) Va.Iveand seating at bottom of discharge-stem. Hopkinson Bucket-type Steam-trap.
 SP/2
The Universal ]}fining· School, Cardiff
1J7
Action of trap. Condensed water drains from the pipe-range through a small .connecting pipe and
accumulates in the outer casing, so causing the copper bucket to float and keep the valve closed.
When the water reaches the level of the top of the bucket, it flows over into the bucket and this
gradually sinks. The valve, however, remains closed owing to the internal pressure un,til the under-
side of the float has lowered sufficiently to strike the collar at the· bottom end of the valve. As soon
as this occurs, the valve opens and the water in the float is ejected through the discharge-stem (as
indicated by arrows) by the pressure of the steam upon its surface.
When the float is empty, it regains its buoyancy and is assisted to rise quickly by a reserve supply
of water which flows from the trough T through the hole E and replenishes the supply in the bottom of
the casing. The upward movement of the float closes the valve sharply and the action is then repeated
when more water flows into the trap and sinks the bucket.
An air-valve is fitted at the top to enable air to be liberated from the trap after a " shut-down 11

of· the system. A drain-plugat· the bottom enables the casing to be emptied or cleaned out when
desired.
A
[Nate. A steam-drieror separator is used to intercept moisture ·that is
carried in suspension by the steam, and it should be carefully distinguished from
a steam-trap. One type of separator, shown in the sketch, consists of a two-piece
casting containing a central.outlet-pipe surrounded by a spiral baffle-plate. Wet
steam enters at A and acquires a rapid rotary motion as it descends. The centri-
fugal forces thus set up fling the heavier particles of water to the sides of the
casing whilst the lighter gaseous steam is drawn off in a dry condition through the
central pipe. The water flows to the bottom of the casing, B, whence it can be
drained away through the pipe P, preferably through the medium of an automatic
steam-trap. A gauge-glass is usually fitted to show the amount of water present].
Steam-Drier or
Separator .

12.
•!,_,,,arranging the steamboiler plant a_t a modern collie:y, enu_merate the chief appliances you
would instal to ensure the greatest economy in fuel-consumption, briefly commenting on each item.
• ECONOMYIN FUEL-CONSUMPTION.
To ensure maximum. economy in fuel-consumption, I should instal :-
(a) Water-tubeboilers. These have a higher efficiency than Lancashire boilers; better water-
circulation; greater heating surface; and larger furnace-volume to accommodate mechanical stokers
or burn pulverised fuel. Being made in large units, they lead to greater concentration of plant and
better supervision.
(b) Mechanical stokers or pulverised fuel equipment. In either case, unsaleable coal of poor
quality and high ash content may be .us~d; less smoke (repr~senting waste) is produced; cold air
leakages through furnace-doors are elirninated.; pre-heated air may be used; and complete com-
bustion of the fuel may be ensured.
(c) Fan-draught. This may be either forced, induced or balanced and is more economical than
either natural or steam-jet draught. It enables the air-supply to be finely adjusted to suit the nature
of the fuel and the load on the boilers. ~
(d) Superheaters. By utilising some of the furnace heat to superheat and dry the steam, con-
densation losses in the pipe-line and engines are reduced and fuel is thereby saved.
(e) . Economiser. This utilises the waste heat in the flue-gases to pre-heat the feed-water, before
it enters the boiler, and is commonly used in conjunction with an exhaust-steam feed-water heater
which further economises in fuel. The saving in fuel is of the order of 1 % for each 10°F. rise in feed-
water temperature. ,
(f) Water-softeningplant. The purpose of this is to remove from the feed-water those dissolved
11
impurities which would otherwise be deposited as a "scale or incrustation (chiefly carbonate of
lime) on the internal surfaces of the water-tubes. Such a scale is a bad conductor of heat and would
lead to waste of fuel. Oil in the feed-water has a similar effect and should be removed.
(g) Insulationcovering. All exposed parts of boilers and steam-pipes should be covered with an
adequate thickness of heat-insulating material (e.g. plastic magnesia and asbestos) to reduce radiation
losses.
(h) Measuring apparatus. These include (i) draught-gauges, (ii) coal, water, and steam-meters,
(iii) thermometers to indicate water and flue-gas temperatures, and (iv) C02 and CO recorders. By
their aid, the engineer is kept constantly informed of the performance of the plant and can take any
remedial measures that may be necessary.
(i) Maintenance. All items of plant must be maintained in good order; brickwork and seatings
kept in good repair ; all flues clear of soot, dust, a.nd. Cl.slles ; . al~heC:l:_~i!l-K~~I_fac~.LG1~~1L;__ and_.alLjoints~---·~~-
~~~-steam-tig-h-t,-·--Eaeh--boiler-i-ntu-rnshou-Id- -be-·taict o-ff-fot -tliofougli~examination and overhaul.
[Note. This question, of course, is a very wide one and only a brief summary is possible in an
exam. answer. Only the boiler-plant arid auxiliaries have been mentioned, but economy in steam
(and therefore fuel) is· equally dependent on efficient utilisation of the steam. This involves the
installation of high-efficiency compound condensing engines or mixed-pressure steam-turbines, whereby
the maximum amount of heat-energy in the steam is converted into useful work, either directly, or
through the medium of electric generators].
Printed by Cardiff Printers Ltd.
 SP~).
--·-

~~dwol,
1

fil'Jk ~
COPYRIGHT (U_ ~':."\~pp; IN 18831 INC. 1931, T.HE. U.M.s.

•
FOUNDED

T. A SOUTHERN. LTc. ~ WASTHEs'6~~;~~~~E::~o~g~~gE MINING

(GT. BRITAIN)
THIS PAPER IS SUPPLIED ON CONDITION THAT IT IS RESERVED EXCLUSIVELY FOR YOUR OWN USE

STEAM PLANT

Lesson SP/3
THE STEAM ENGINE
The· essential parts of a simple, reciprocating, single-cylinder, horizontal, slide -valve
engide , are shown in fig. 1 .
The engine consists of a close-fitting steam-tight piston X, which is made to move to and fro

••
(reciprocate) inside a cylinder B, the latter being securely supported on a concrete foundation To r :

. the. piston is attached a piston -rod H which 'passes through the inner end of the cylinder and is
rendered steam-tight by a stuffing-box and glanqK. The outer end of the cylinder is dosed by a
cylinder -cover D. secured to the cylinder by bolts and nuts and made steam -ttght by a joint -
• .packing of asbestos-sheeting, asbestos-twine, graphite paste, or lead wire .
On the iYlinder (usually on the side, but shown on the top for explanatory purposes) there is
provided a housing cal.led the valve -chest or steam -chest which is closed by a cover S and
"conta.ins the slide .Jval'VeV. This is shaped somewhat like a hollow box with projecting ends, the
lower· face befog-accurately machined so as.rto be steam-tight on the valve -port face F of the
"cylinder , Two curved passages or ports P1 and P2 lead from this face to either end of the cylinder·
and act alternately as steam-admission and exhaust ports. A third port ~,js permanently open
either to the. atmosphere, or to a condenser, and is placed in communication with each end of the
cylmderalternate ly by means of the valve.
~rs
J R

•• Fig. .i .

The valve V is moved to and fro by the eccentric-rod

Slide -valve Engine (Dia~ra ;11),

R which is secured to the valve -

spindle N by the· joint .I. The position of the valve on its spindle may be adjusted by means of the
double nuts shown: In its turn, the eccentric rod R is secured (as will presently be described) to an
eccentric -strap encircling cin eccentric -sheave. In fig. 1 , the lower point C represents the
centre of the sheave and it. is· the movement of this point about the shaft-centre 0 that determines.
the movement of rod R ~
The piston-rod H, at .the end remote from the piston, is attached to the crosshead L which
moves in slides or guide -bars G cast integral with· or sometimes bolted to, the frame of the
engine. The crosshead is attached to the cormectfng -rod M whose purpose is to convert the
reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion of a flywheel (or other revolving part) by
means of the crank -pin A, the crank T, and the crank -shaft 0.
The engine thus briefly described is called a single -cylinder engine or merely a "single
engine," and may be used for driving a small fan, or a pump, or a coal-screening plant. Usually.
_ however.,__as __ in i.hau ling .and windingcenginesv-and=in--a'ir-oerapresses-s-, a-t-win---cylinder-engine'

•
(commonly called a "double engine," or a "coupled engine") is used. This simply consists of
two single engines placed side by side and having their cranks at right-angles to each other, so
that when one is on dead -cenrre (i.e. with the piston at the end of its stroke, as in fig. 1), the
other has its piston in the middle of its stroke, exerting the maximum turning· moment or torque
on the crank-shaft. A double engine, unlike a single engine, is thus able to start from any posit ion ,
In both cases alike, i.e. single and twin-cylinder, the engine is nearly always double -acrlng ,
i.e. the steam pressure is effective in both strokes of the piston in each revolution. It follows that
the number of effective strokes per cylinder = R.P.M. x 2, and this should always be
assumed in steam-engine calculations unless it is specifically given that the· engine is "single-
acting ."
4802.
__ SI~?- The Steam ·Engine
2

So rnerf rnee , two, three, or four cylinders, of gradually increasing size, are placed side by
side, the steam passing progressively through each. Such engines are called compound, triple

•
or quadruple expansion engines, according to the number of cylinders. A tandem compound
engine is one in wh ich the two cylinders are in line and are connected to the same crank.
Vertical Engines.
These have a shorter stroke and run at higher rotational speeds than
horizontal engines. They tend to be more efficient and are much used for fans,
a.ir-cornpressors, and electric generators. They have the advantage of
occupying a smaller floor space, the Beliiss and Morcom engine being a typical
example.
As shown in fig. 2 the mechanism is completely enclosed in a. box-shaped
crank-case C, bolted to a hollow bed carrying the main bearings. The
cylinder is separated from the crank-case by a lantern -piece L wh ich carries
the cross-head guides and two stuffing boxes. Access doors are provided in
both crank-case and Iarrtern-rriece . The valve -che st is fitted to the side of
the cylinder and the valve i~ worked by eccentrics in the usual vvay. The
engine is usually compound, or triple expansion, with the respective cylinders
mounted side by side , and coupled to a single shaft. A 11 bearings are force -
lubricated, the base of the engine forming an oil-well from which a small Fig. 2.
Enclosed Vertical
pump delivers oil via pipes and channels to, all parts requiring lubrication. Engine. •
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF STEAM ENGINE.
Cylinder. This is made of hard, close-grained, cast iron, a material which is cheap and easy to
cast and possesses the necessary strength and rigidity. Cast iron also forms a smooth surface offering
little friction to the rnoving piston.
The general shape and construction of the cylinder have already been described in connection
with fig. 1 . Other points to note are that the . ports should be as short as possible to reduce
the clearance volume, but as large in area as possible to prevent
"wiredrawing'' (i .c. the loss of steam-pressure caused by
restricted passages).
Sometimes, the cylinder is fitted w ith a renewable liner of
•
• •
east iron, the space between liner and cy l inder-c-termed a steam -
jacket--being filled w i th steam from the boiler to keep the
cy lirider-wa.lls hot and m in im ise condensation losses.
Cylinder relief -cocks (fig. 3) are fitted to enable water to
be drained away from. the cylinder, especially before starting the
engine after it has been shut down for some tirne. Fig. 3. Ref i ef Cocks.

Cylinder escape -valves are often fit ted on the cylinder-cover to prevent the
latter being burst off by the piston in the event of water (which is incompressible)
being occasionally present in the cylinder, e.g. due to priming in the boiler. A
suitable valve is shown in fig. 4, this being a simple conical spring -loaded lift -
valve. The spring-pressure can be adjusted by loosening the lock-nut at the top

·-
and raising or lowering the screwed bush wh ich takes the thrust of the spring.
Fig. 4.
Escape Valve.
Piston. This is usually of cast iron (but sometimes, in large engines, F:.
of cast steel for strength and lightness). It is made a slack fit for the
cylinder but is rendered steam -rtg'ht by means of cast iron or g un rnet.al
packing rings (RR, fig. 5) known as Ramsbottom spring -rfnga .. These
fit into grooves on the piston and press outwards against the cylinder face.
To enable them to be " sprung" into position, a diagonal cut is made in
each ring, the various cuts being spaced equidistantly around the piston to
minimise leakage. On large pistons the split rings are not" sprung" into
position but are held laterally in place by a removable flat ring (secured
to the piston by studs and nuts) termed a junk ring. In such a case, only
one wider packing ring, pressed outwards by springs, may be used, or
alternatively, two or more packing rings spaced by solid separating rings
-of smaller diameter .
_ -~Jkfi?__ Pi~tQ!}_~.!oci_i?_E""l__ad~-~1Tli~--~-~~elJ()_:_~t)_!_()_O·'!§_~Q_~~!"-~El_,__ama!_~~j_~~-- ----~--~- . _5·---·- -····--- __
which is. tough
.
and ductile . when . heat-treated,
. . . . .
and.
is capable of resisting p· 1st on wit_Fhi~t-11ree sprung . -
alternating tensile and con1press1ve stresses. It may be secured to the on rings and showing
piston (fig. 5) by being tapered to fit a conical-hole in the piston. The attachment of Piston-rod.

••
extreme encl is turned down parallel and threaded to receive a nut N which
is screwed down tightly and secured by the split -pin P. The piston-rod is sometimes also provided
with a shoulder, as in the sketch, but this is often omitted and it is, perhaps, preferable to do so.
The diameter, d, of the piston -rod must be proportioned to the cylinder-diameter, D, and
nrnst be such that:-·
Area of piston-rod x f = area of cylinder x P .
wh.ere f = safe stress of steel (say 5 ,000 lbs. per sq. inch)
and P = maximum effective steam,.press~re in lbs. per sq. inch .
.· p
Hence (d2 x 0·7&54) x f = (D2 x 0·7854) x P, and Diam. of piston-rod= d =-= D x v' f ...... (1)
 SP/8
The Universal JV!ining School, Cardiff.
---- ----------~---------------------

Stuffing -box and gland. PACKIN·G

To ensure that the piston-rod works steam-tight in the c

front cylinder-end (C in fig. G) a stuffing-box, with flange, is
cast integral- with the cylinder, and the annular space sur-
rounding the piston-rod is fi lled with packing material. The
latter is held in position by the gland G which is tightened
bv the stud-bolts S and nuts N. To reduce wear of the
p istorr-rod , both the hole in the cylinder-end and the gland G
have a lining of brass or gunmetal (L and B) which can
easily be replaced when worn.
Fig. 6 . Stuffing - box and gland .
Packing materials _include (a) soft packing, suitable for low-pressure steam and comprising
rings of yarn, hemp, canvas, or asbestos impregnated with graphite; (b) sernf -metallic packing,
comprising e ifher alternate rings of soft packing and white metal alloy, or soft packing interwoven
with strands of metal: and (c) metallic packing, suitable for the highest pressures and superheated
steam.
Metallic Packing.
One form of this is shown in fig. 7 . It consists
essentially of two bronze packing rings PR, made
in ~grriental-block sections for ease of assembly.
Each ring consists of four segments , 1 , 2, 3 and 4 ,
shown to a reduced scale in fig. 7 (a). The two seg-
ments, 1 and 2, almost embrace the shaft and arc

• •
lined with white metal, as at Pin fig. 7 (b). The two
segments, 3 _and 4 do not quite touch the shaft and
are unlined. These segments of the adjoining ring are
• shown at R in fig. 7 (b) . The rings PR are pressed
tight again~ the p iston-rod by four circular coiled-
steel springs ~S, wrapped around the periphery, and
• they are held in position longitudinally
springs placed within the cast iron channel-ring C
by coiled

•which bears against the cylinder-end. The springs

react against the bronze retaining ring L , which is
an easy fit on the piston-rod, and they tighten the
blocks PR against the two cast iron rings B and J
which are held in position by the gland-cover. The
rings Band J form a ball-joint and so permit slight
angular movement of the piston-rod, and of the
• packing rings, without loss of steam-tightness. The
cover is secured to the stuffing-box by six studs (not
shown) and the joint is sealed by rings of copper wire (b)
(shown by black dots). An oil-connection is provided
-at the top of the cover and a drainage hole at the Fig. 7. The L'a.nca s t er- Metallic Packing.
bottom.

•
Crosshead.
This may be of cast iron, cast steel, or wrought
steel. It forms the connection between the piston
and connecting rods and, by running on fixed ELEVATION
;

guide-bars,- or between trunk-guides, it keeps the

piston and piston -rod moving in a straight line
in spite of the oblique th:rust and pull of the connect-
ing rod. It ensures tha~he piston shall work truly
in the cylinder, so reducing wear of the stuffing-box
and gland.·
Fig. 8 shows a built -up crosshead suitable for
use with trunk-guides bored to cylindrical form. The GU.OGEON
body has flat faces at top and bottom and these carry
replaceable curved hollow shoes or slippers with
(PIN
white-metal faces to take the wear and - facilitate
renewal. The piston rod, P, is secured by being
slightly tapered and inserted in a conical hole wherev
it is held firmly by a tapered cotter. The gudgeon
or crosshead-pin G is a forged steel shaft which
transmits the thrust to the connecting rod. The P_L'AN
gudgeon has a con ica.lTiead which fits iri one of the

•
:Fig. 8. Crosshead.
coned bosses of the crosshead and it is firmly held in
position, partly by a key, and partly by retaining (Part-sectional Plan« and Elevations).
nuts which bear against a tapered split collar fitting
the other coned boss. -
Connecting Rod.
This is of forged steel and must be designed to resist bending forces as we 11 as alternating thrust
and pull. The section of the rod is usually circular, having its greatest diameter near the centre of
its length and tapering to either end, or else gradually increasing in diameter from the small end (at
the crosshead) to .the big end (at the crank-pin). The length should be not less than about 2!
times the piston -stroke in order to reduce the bearing pressure on the guides.
 The Steam Engine
4 -----------·--·---······--·-·-·-··-·---··----

The small end of the connecting rod (with the type of crosshead shown in fig. 8) is forged and
bored out to form a solid eye which fits inside the crosshead bosses and encircles the gudgeon pin.

•
It is lined with an easily replaceable brass bush to reduce wear on the pin. In other designs of
-crosshead , where the -gudgeon pin is much longer and extends to some distance on either side, the
small end of the connecting rod is forked so as to embrace the crosshead. It may then be secured to
the gudgeon pin in a manner similar to that about to be descr ibed
for the big end. COTTER
WITH
The big end of the connecting rod must be so designed as to SET-SCREW
render possible its assembly on the crank-pin, a common method
being shown in fig. 9. · The brass or gunmetal bush (shown
black) around the crank-pin is split in halves and these are kept
tight against the fiat end of the connecting rod by a U-shaped
strap which is secured to the rod by a gib and cotter. The gib
prevents the strap opening outwards when the engine is running,
whilst the cotter enables wear of the bush to be taken up, after
filing the faces of the two bush-halves to a.Ilow them to close. The :Fig. 9.
Connecting rod--Crank-pin end.
cotter is itself held in position by a set-screw.
Crank.
The crank converts the reciprocating motion of the piston
into the rotary motion of the crank-shaft. One form.of over lrurig
crank is shown in fig. 10. It consists of an arm or web A of
forged steel, bored at B to receive the crank-shaft S, and at B1
to receive the crank -prn P. Both shaft and pin are either forced
in by hydraulic pressure or arc ''shrunk'' into place (by heating
and expanding the web to receive both shaft and pin, followed by
cooling and contraction to grip them) , and they are further secured
by a steel key, or a dowel pin, to prevent rotation.
may also be riveted over for additional security.
The crank-pin
Fig . .110. Overhtvig
The radius of the crank is the distance BB1 from the centre of the shaft to~the centre of the
crank-pin ; it is half the piston -stroke. The whole piston-stroke is thus equal to the diameter or
the crank-pin circle (sometimes called the" fhrow " of the crank).
crank.
• •
Bearings.
The rotating parts of the machine are supported by
"bearings" designed to offer as little friction as possible.
A typical crank-shaft bearing, known as a pedestal
bearing or plurnmer block is shown in fig. 11 . It
consists of a cast iron body with a cap or keep secured by
bolts and nuts. Both body and cap arc lined with
replaceable c c steps," or '' brasses'' made in halves and
together forming a bush in which the shaft revolves. BODY
Dowel pins are let into the body and cap, engaging with
shallow holes in the brasses to prevent them from turning.
That part of the shaft which is in contact with the brasses,
known as the Journal, is usually shouldered to prevent

•
-endwise movement of the shaft. Fig. 11. Pedestal bearing.
To reduce friction and prevent wear of the steel shaft (which is more difficult and costly to
replace) the bushes are made of softer metal, either brass or bronze. Alternatively, they may
be of cast iron, brass or bronze, forming a shell or housing which is lined with white metal. Brass
is an alloy of copper and zinc (about 65'/-6 and 35c;/o) and is suitable for moderate loads and speeds.
Br-orrze is an alloy of copper and tin (about 90~/;, and l0~1:i) with some lead, zinc and phosphorus ,
and is used for heavier duties.
White metal is an alloy of lead, tin, copper and antimony in widely varying proportions.
Lead-base alloys (for light duties) contain up to 75% lead. The more expensive tin-base alloys
(for heavy duties) are called Babbitt metals and contain up to ~}0% tin.
To make a white metal lining, the metal is melted and poufed into a mould in which the two
halves of the shell have been placed, around a suitable matrix. When this has been removed, after
coo ling , the white metal is left adhering to the inner surfaces of the shell or housing, the latter being
grooved with dove-tailed recesses or keyways to provide a firm anchorage. In all cases, the bushes
should afterwards be fitted to the journal by hand, being scraped carefully until uniform contact is
obtained over an arc of about 120° and along the whole length of the bearing. A pigment is applied
to the journal so that the points of contact with the bearing can readily be found and scraped. When ·
-in use the bearing surfaces must be kept properly lubricated, and channels or grooves are provided
on the bushes to distribute the oil along them.
Lubricators.

•
The chief parts of a steam engine requiring lubrica- ~;i:<:zzz::tz:z;?:ZZ~
t ion are the crank-shaft bearings, the crank-pin, the
gudgeon-pin, the· crosshead-guides, the eccentric-strap,
and the valve-rod guides. All these parts are commonly
lubricated by some form of drip -feed oiler, wh ich
permits a small quantity of oil to be fed regularly to the
moving parts. A few simple types of lubricator are shown
in fig. 12..
(a) The Siphon Lubricator consists of a small brass
oil-box or reservoir containing oil and fitted with a cotton. (a.)
wick which dips into. the oil and also extends to a lower
SIPHON NEEDLE STAUFFER
level down a pipe leading to the bearing surfaces. The
wick is removed when the engine is stopped. FhL 12. Types of Lubricator.
 SP/3
The Universal 11Iining School, Cardiff. 5

(b) Lteuvatn 's Needle Lubricator consists of a glass vessel fi lled with oil, closed by a wooden
plug and inverted. A "needle" fits freely in the plug and rests on the shaft. When the latter is
in motion, the "needle" is vibrated, so permitting oil to trickle down , The device ceases to function

•
when the shaft is stationary .
(c) The Stauffer Lubricator is a box filled with grease andJfitted with a cap which can be
screwed down as required, so pressing the grease on to the bearing. It can work in an inverted
position and is suitable for low-speed work in dirty and dusty situations.

Crank -pin lubrication.

Fig. 13 shows a method of lubricating an engine crank-pin
by centrifugal action. Oil from a siphon lubricator L, mounted
in some convenient stationary position, is fed down· an inclined
tube, T, into an annular ring C, which is secured to the shaft and
-crank-web , and revolves with them, the open side being clear of
the tube T. The oil is whirled round in the ring and passes
thence to the crank-pin bushes via a pipe P connected to an oil-
-channe l bored in the crank-web and pin. A similar method may
be applied to an overhung crank.
Fig. 13.
"Cylinder lubrication. Lubrication of Crank-pin.
Lubrication of the cylinder, piston, and slide-valve may be

•
effected by admitting oil in small, regular quantities, either to
the steam-chest or to the steam-supply pipe, and against the
pressure of the steam, by means of a device called a sight -feed x :=:::tJJ:::D=======~.
lubricator, shown . diagrammatically in fig. 14. It consists
• • -essent ial ly of three interconnected vessels, an oil -vessel (A), a
glass tube .(B) filled with water and forming the "sight-feed,'·
and a corrderrse r (C), filled with water and communicating with
l ~TEAM
Pl PE
U)l\IOatSEJt

FIL.UNG
VALVE)
"-
C
WATt:R

· the steam pipe. When valves D, E, and F are opened , the .-/. OlL jC'
VESSEL
steam-pressures at inlet X and outlet Y, and therefore on the
•.apparatus as a whole, are automatically . balanced and water p
from the condenser descends by gravity down pipe P entering
the bottom of the oil-vessel A and gradually displacing the oil.
The latter then flows down the small central tube into the vessel
B , where it can be seen r ising drop by drop through the water,
the rate of flow being controlled by valve F. When enough oil
has collected at the top of B, it is forced (by the head of water in
l
the condenser) through a non-return valve .into the steam pipe Fig. 14 .
. and thence is carried by the steam to the engine. Sight-feed Lubricator.

Eccentric.
An eccentric is used when a very srnall to-and-fro motion is to be
-derived from a revolving shaft. It consists of a circular cast iron disc or

•
s.he.ave D keyed to the shaft S in such a way that the sheave -centre C is
" eccentric" to the shaft -centre S. When the shaft revolves, centre C
-dcscribes a circle (dotted) whose radius is equal to CS, termed the
eccentricity of the eccentric. Encircling the sheave is a cast iron hoop or
ring P called the eccentric strap to which is attached the eccentric rod R.
Lateral movement of the strap is prevented by a wide groove being turned
in its inner bearing surface , thus. forming two flanges which fit into steps
turned at each side of the sheave. For ease in assembly , the sheave is often
made, and the strap is always made in two halves secured by bolts. .\ Fig. 15.
small oil -cup 0 is· cast solid with the strap whilst the latter is also often Eccentric Sheave
and Strap.
lined with white metal. t
The rotation of the shaft and sheave within the surrounding strap gives a reciprocating
motion to the strap and to the rod R, and thence to the valve which it is desired to operate.
'The travel of a valve fixed to rod R is equal to twice the eccentricity CS .

. ACTION OF STEAM .ENGINE.

When the engine stop-valve is opened, steam at a pressure somewhat below boiler pressure is
admitted to one end of the cy linder (say the left in fig. 16) andpresses Ql1 the left-hand side of the
piston, pushing it to the right. The steam pressure is measured by a pressure-gauge and may be
-expressed either as gauge pressure or as
absolute pressure. . ' '

Absolute pressure of steam= gauge pressure + at rnos pherfc pressure (2)

Thus, if the gauge pressure at the engine stop-valve is 120 lbs. per sq. inch, the initial steam
pressure in the cylinder is 120 + 15 = 135 lbs. per sq. inch absolute.

Meanwb i le , steam from the previous stroke is being exhausted from the cylinder at the opposite
.side of the piston. This steam exerts a more or less constant back-pressure resisting the steam
.pr-esaur-e , and depending in value on whether the engine is condensing or non-condensing.
 SP/~)
(-)
The Steam Engine

A non -corrderrsf rrg engine is oric in which the exhaust steam passes directly to the atmosphere ..
In this case the back -pressure is at least 15 lbs. per sq. inch absolute, and may exceed 20 lbs.

•
per sq. inch absolute with a long exhaust pipe and a quick-running engine.
A condensing engine is one in which the exhaust steam passes to a chamber called a" condenser"
where it is cooled and re-converted to water, thus forming a so-called partial vacuum. The degree
of vacuum depends on the efficiency of the condensing plant, but, wit lir-eciprocat ing engines, it is
generally about 24 to 26 ins. of mercury, equivalent to about 12 or 1 ~i lbs. per sq. inch below
atmospheric pressure == 2 to 3 lbs . per sq. inch abso lut.e (above zero). It thus fol lows that the
back -pressure is. reduced to 2 . or ~) lbs. per sq. inch absolute, plus some al Iowanc« for the
resistance of the exhaust pipe := a total of 5 lbs. per sq. inch absolute (upwards).
It will now be clear that the effective pressure actuating the piston even at the beginning of
the stroke is not the boiler pressure, nor the engine stop-valve pressure. but is equal to the
difference between the absolute pressures at opposite sides of the piston. In other words:----
Effective pressure = Absolute
0 pressure of steam -- back -pressure (3)

In the cases given, at the beginning of the stroke

effective pressure = ms -- 2(J ...:.._ 115 lbs. per sq. inch (Kon-condensing engine).
= ms -- 5 = 130 lbs. per sq. inch (Condensing engine) .
•
Note carefully that we have so far only considered the initial effective pressure whereas th«
power developed by an engine obviously depends on the mean effective pressure (M.E.P .) , and it

•
is the M .E .P. that must be used in power calculations. The mean value depe uds on a number of
factors, but chiefly on the point of cut-off and the extent to which the steam is used expansively.
In pract ice , the M .E .P. is obtained from indicator diagrams, although its theoret ical value can be
calculated when all the data are known. For the moment it is sufficient to note that:--
Mean effective pressure (lVLE.P .) = the average value of the varying effective P.ressures ... (4)

In a non -exparrstve engine, steam at full pressure is admitted during the gn~ater part of the.
piston-stroke, and the M.E.P. can be assumed to be only slightly below the initial effective
pressure. Such an engine, however, is very wasteful, for a cylinderful of high-pressure steam is-
exhausted at each stroke, although still capable of doing useful work. Its use is only justified
when it is imperative to have the full power of an engine at one 's disposal, as in a winding
engine accelerating a heavy load from rest, or a locomotive drawing a train up a steep gradient.
In an expansive engine, steam at full pressure is admitted during on ly a part of the piston-
stroke. It is then cut off entirely and the rcrna.inder of the stroke is performed 'by the expansive
force of the steam already in the cylinder. During expansion, the steam-pressure falls progressively,
more or less in accordance with Boyle's Law; and thus the M .E .P. is considerably below the
initial effective pressure (often less than half) .
In mining exam. problems, it sometimes happens that the power of an engine has to be
estimated· from its cylinder dimensions, but the only information given about the steam pressure
is the initial gauge pressure at the stop-valve, nothing being said about the point of cut-off. In
such a case, it is wrong to use the gauge pressure as the M .E .P., and the candidate is expected to·

•
assume some reasonable lower value, without entering into abstruse calculations. Purely as a
rough approximation, it may be taken as reasonable to assume the M .E.P. to be about two- .
thirds of the initial gauge pressure (for a non-condensing engine) and about three-quarters of the
initial' gauge pressure (for a condensing engine). These figures assume a cut-off at about one-half
stroke, and they can be var ied either up or down to suit later or earlier cut-offs.
The economy of expansive working may be realised from the fact that, if steam be cut off at
one-fifth stroke, the ''ratio of expansion." thus being 5, less than half the weight of steam and of
fuel is required to do a given amount of work than if the engine is worked non-expansively. In
short, the greater the number of expansions (within limits) the greater is the economy in steam.
On the other hand, the size of the cylinders and .the first cost of the engine must be increased to·
develop a given power and, for maximum overall economy, a balance must be struck between first
cost and running cost.
The advantage of using high -pressure steam does not lie in the high pressure itself, but in
the fact that it enables maxirrmm advantage to be taken of the expansive properties of the
steam.
· · Iiidicatea Hofi,-epower.
The Incl. HP. of an engine is the power developed by the steam in the cylinder and may be
ca.lculated as follows:-
Let P the mean effective pressure (JVI.E.P.) in lbs. per sq. inch.

•
L length of stroke in feet
A Area of piston in sq. inches.
N number of effective strokes per min. = r.p.m. x 2 (assumed double-acting).
Then force actuating piston P X A lbs.
Distance per minute L X N feet .
Work per cylinder per minute P X L x. A x N foot.-Ibs .
PLAN
And Indicated HP. (per cylinder) = -.-~-· (5)
:33 ,000
 The Universal A1inZ:ngSchool, Cardiff _?~!'.? __
7

Brake Horsepower.
This is the horsepower output of the engine, i.e. the HP. developed at the crank -s.haft . It
is always less than the Ind. HP. because of frictional losses in the engine, and its value depends
·OJl the mechanica I effic ie ncv of the engine (commonly 80°;,, to 90') 11).

-Cr ank -effort.

It is clear that, when the crank is at
right-angles to the connecting rod, as
shown in fig. 16, the· effective force acting
on the crank-pin and tending to turn the
shaft is a maximum. When the engine
is on dead centre (as in fig. l) the effective
force is nil. The power developed at the
-crarik-shaft , however, depends on the Fig. 16. Diagram of Stean1 E.ngine.
rnea.n value of the crank-effort.

Consider one complete revolution of the crank from H, during which time the piston moves
from one end of the cylinder to the other and back again. The force on the piston and also the
.crank-j-ffort vary continually, but, by the "principle of work" and neglecting intermediate friction
losses i-s-
Work done on crank-pin in one rev. work done en piston in one rev .
Mean force on \.. Circumf. of Mean force
crarik-p in J
)< { crank circle
\..
J { on piston } x stroke >< '2.

- or F x ?TL PA x 2L
•
2 P..:\L 2 PA PA
Hence, rhe~ force on crank-pin F (1·636 PA lbs. (G)
7TL 3· 1416 l •5708

• If a haulage or winding drum be connected direct to the crank-shaft. the avl~rage pull exerted
by the rope will depend on the radius R of the drum compared with the radius r of the crank.
/\gain neglecting losses, it may be calculated from the expression t-s-

_:\lean pull on rope x 2 7T R = rneari force on crank-pin 2 77 r ,

crank-radius
Ht-nce , mean pull C>n rope in lbs. mean force on crank-pin m lbs. --·-·--------··--- ... (7)
drum - radius

To ensure an approximately unifonn turning rrio rrrerrt or torque on the crank-shaft,

i .c-. to counteract the great variation in crank-effort during each revolution, we may use either
(a) a twin engine, having the two cranks at right-angles so that one is exerting the maximum
torque wheri the other is on dead centre, or (b) a flywheel, or (c) both combined.

Flywheel.
A flywheel is a large heavy-rimrn.ed whee I (some flywheels weigh several tons) fitted to the
-crank-shaft. By reason of its mass, it tends to resist all changes of speed and to maintain
uniform motion of the moving parts of the engine during each revolution in sp itc of the continual
variations in the crank-effort.

When the crank -effort is greatest and the eng ine tends to run faster, the flywheel opposes
this tendency by taking unto itself, and storing up as kinetic energy, part of the surplus power,
-of the engine. In doing so, its own speed increases slightly. When the crank -effort is least and
the engine tends to run slower, the flywheel opposes this tendency also, and yields up some of its
store of energy, compelling the engine to maintain its speed. In doing so, its own speed decreases
slightly. This slight variation (a few per cent.) in the speed of the flywheel is unavoidable and
essential to its function.

A flywheel is most necessary with a single -cylinder engine, which rnu st be carried over
the dead -centres, and with machines whose load is very variable, such as punching and shearing
____ !_!l.<.Ls;hines, circular saws, etc. Many winding, hauling, and fan engines have no flywheel because
the heavy revolvmg parts, such as-arums, too'ffieCl-WJJ:eeis~fans, etc~-serve-tl1e--sa:rn-e-pu1]Tose-.----~----

• The function of a flywheel should be carefully distinguished from that of a governor.

-eng ine from" racing" and possibly causing serious damage if the load should happen to be removed
.altogether, e.g. by the breaking of a driving belt. The flywheel, on the other hand, does not
control the steam supply and cannot alter the total work done. It rnere lv forms a reservoir in
wh ich excess energy may be temporarily stored, only to be given up again: and this interchange
A
-go ver no r is a device which so adjusts the steam -supply as to ensure an al mo st constant speed
-of rotation no matter how the load on the engine may vary. In particular, it prevents an

takes place twice in every revolution. Whereas a governor compensates for variable load, a
.fiywhee l compensates for variable crank -effort.
 SP/a
The Stearn Engine
8

THE SLIDE-VALVE.
Valves and their actuating mechanism must be provided:-
(a) To admit steam to the cylinder.
(b) To cut off the steam after the piston has completed part of its stroke.
(c) To release the steam from the cylinder and enable it to escape to the atmosphere or to a
condenser.
A fourth object is :-
( d) To produce a "cushioning" effect by closing the exhaust port just before the end of
each stroke and thereby entrapping a certain amount of steam in the cylinder.

Elementary form of valve.

Fig. 17 (a) shows the simplest but quite unpractical form of slide -valve in which the edges
of the valve have exactly the same width as the steam -ports. The piston being at the end of
its stroke, the valve is exactly in mid-position covering both steam-ports. The crank AO is
horizontal and the cent re C of the eccentric-sheave so placed that the angle AOC is a right-angle.

After one -quar-te r revolution in the direction of the arrow, OC will be horizontal, the valve
will have moved to its extreme right position; the left-hand port will be fully open to stearrt , the
right-hand port fully ·open to exhaust, and the piston will have completed half a stroke to the right
and will be in the middle of the cylinder;

After one -half revolution, the valve will again be in the position shown, and the piston at
the right-hand end of the cylinder. Careful study of these movements reveals two defects:--
(1) Stearn is admitted during the whole of each stroke. •
(2) The steam and exhaust ports are not opened until just after the piston b:gibs its return
journey, instead of just before.

It is clear that if the valve could be arranged to uncover the ports before the end of each ,
stroke, (1) the reversal of the piston would be assisted by the cushioning effect of the newly
admitted steam, and (2) the opening of the opposite port to exhaust would ensure a quick release
of the steam from behind the piston and reduce the back-pressure acting against it. These objects.
are achieved by adding "Tap" to the valve and by giving it "lead," as shown in figs 17 (b) and (c).

Lap and lead .

The lap of a slide -valve is the distance by which it .....A . f c
L--~·1: · ,
overlaps beyond the steam-ports when the valve is in the
middle of its stroke. The amount S in fig. 17 (b) by which
it over laps the outside edges is called the outside or steam.
(0..) r:;------•\1
-•-rl.--.\r.--•
I~ \I
· J.:o·
lap, and the amount Eby which it overlaps the inside edges
is called the inside' or exhaust lap.

The lead of a slide valve is the amount by which the

steam-port is open to steam when the piston is at the
beginning of its stroke, i .e , when the engine is on dead-
centre, ( = .xy in fig. 17 (c)). The lead varies in different
engines but may be taken on the average as about one-
eighth of the width of the port. The lead to exhaust is
a Iways greater than the lead to steam-admission, being
effected by reducing the exhaust lap compared with the
steam lap.

Angle of advance.
A comparison of figs. 17 (a) and (c) shows that, although
the piston in each case is at the extreme left of the cylinder
and the crank in line with the piston-rod, yet the position
of the. valve is very different in the two cases. For whereas
..

·
to the right by an amount equal to the outside lap and
the lead. This has been effected by moving the eccentric- . \
1·
3.!__(~J the valve is . in· .mid-positio_n_,_aL~c-)_iLhas-heen-IU.o'\7'ed-~·----'11--..-==.:*tllViiill••
( e)

centre C further round on the crank-shaft through an angle

termed the angle of advance of the eccentric, i.e. the
angle by which AOC in fig. 17 (c) exceeds one right-angle.

The travel of the valve, from end to end of its stroke,

must be increased when outside lap is added to it, in order
to ensure full opening of the ports to steam. The total
movement is twice· the distance moved by the valve on each
side of its middle position and is equal . to 2 x (outside
lap + width of port) . This must also be twice the
eccentricity of the eccentric = the diameter of the dotted
circles in fig. 17. Fig. 17. Slide -valve Diagrams.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff --~~/~
9
Cycle of operattons,
Figs. 17 (c) to (g) together show the relative movements and positions of the valve and piston
during one-half of a revolution (one complete stroke of the piston).
(c) Beginning of stroke. Piston at end of cylinder and moving to right; left-hand port open
to steam; right-hand port open to exhaust; crank-pin A rotating clockwise; valve moving to the
right.
(d) End of one -sixth revolution. Piston at about k stroke; line OC horizontal; valve in
extreme right position and about to move to the left as rotation continues.
(e) End of one -third revolution. Piston at about g stroke and moving to right; left-hand
ste3:m port closed and :ralve mo":ing ft~rther to left; right-hand port ~till open to e xha.ust but being
rapidly closed. The piston contmues its movemen t under the expansive force of the steam.
(f) Between one -third and half revolution Piston has completed about fifteen-sixteenths
of stroke ; . valve in mid-position; right-hand steam-port well closed; steam in r .h. end of cylinder
being compressed; l .h. port about to open to exhaust.
(g) End of half revolution. Piston at end of stroke to right; valve moving to left; r .h .
port open to steam; Lh. port open to exhaust; crank and eccentric (AOC) diametrically opposite
to fag~ 1 7 {c) .

The foregoing refers to a valve in which the outside lap is equal to the width of steam-port, and
. where the angle AOC is about 120°, the angle of advance being about 30°. Such corid it ions cause
the steam to be cut off at about ! stroke An earlier cut -off may be obtained by :--
ii'•!i!!>,.i··· (a) Increasing the outside lap and also the angle of advance.
~®i)"f
I or (b) Reducing the travel of the valve by means of a link motion.
or (c) •Adopting a special form of valve.

R'EVERSAL OF STEAM ENGINES.

• The direction in which an engine runs is governed by the position of the eccentric-centre C in
relation to the crank. When the parts are arranged as in fig. 17 (c), the direction of rotation is
clockwise. If, however, centre C .were moved clockwise around the 'shaft about 120° and then
"'''·fixed (whilst the crank remained stationary) then the crank wou ld rotate in an anti -clockwise
direction.
In some small engines, the eccentric sheave is secured to the shaft by a set-screw instead of
being permanently keyed to the shaft, and, when reversal is required, the set-screw is loosened and
the sheave rotated to the desired position. The usual method, however, is to use two eccentrics,
one for each direction of rotation, the desired eccentric being coupled to the valve by a system of
levers and rods known as a '' link motion.''

Stephenson's Link Motion.

This consists of two eccentrics, E1 and E2,
keyed to the shaft and connected by their respective
straps and rods to opposite ends of the curved
slotted link CS (which is convex towards the
cylinder) . This ·link may be moved either up or
down by means of rod R, fastened to the lower end
of the link and to one arm of the bent lever BL.
The latter is operated by· a reversing handle RH
and rod S. Eccentric E1 drives the engine in a
clockwise direction (arrow A1), whilst eccentric E2
drives it in an anti-clockwise direction (arrow A2). Fig. 18. Stephenson's Link l\tlotion.

Eccentric E1 is put into action by moving handle RH to the right, so raising the link CS until
the lower eccentric rod is in line with pin P in its square block, along which the link slides freely.
'J'() this pin is attached the forked end of the valve-rod VR and the valve thus comes under the
influence of eccentric E1 and is operated by it. Meanwhile, the upper eccentric-rod merely rocks
the upper end of the link without affecting the valve.

Reversal of the engine is effected by moving handle RH to the left, so lowering the link CS
until the valve is actuated by the upper eccentric-rod.
~~--------~-------------·-------~--·-·----
When the handle RH is in mid-position, a:l:recti<:nT;-----
the-engine'\V!TI-ii-0{-noJ:..maTlyrunln-eTflier
for the valve is affected equally by both eccentrics. T'he travel of the valve is then very small and
the maximum possible opening of the ports is only equal to the " lead," being usually much less.

In intermediate positions of the handle, the travel of the valve is reduced below normal
and the steam_ is cut off at an earlier point in the stroke.

The link motion is thus a simple means of altering the point of cut -off and so varying the
ratio of expansion of steam in the cylinder, thereby adjusting the power of the engine to the load
carried. To reduce the travel of the valve, however, as a means of varying the expansion, shifts
the points of compression and release, and the efficiency of the engine is thereby reduced.
 SP/3
The Steam Engine
10

TEST PAPER SP/3.

1 . (a) Describe concisely how steam is distributed 8. (a) What is a tail-rod? (b) What are the advan-
in the cylinder of an engine by a slide- tages and disadvantages of using it?
val ve and eccentric. . (b) Make a neat
drawing of the cylinder, showing ports, 9. A steam engine has two cylinders, each 24 ins.
valve, and piston, to illustrate the point diam. x 48 ins. stroke, and runs at 46
of cu+-off wh i ch is. at three-quarter stroke. r .p .m . The gauge pressure. at the engine
Indicate by a rro ws the directions in which stop-valve is 77 Ibs , per sq. incb. The
the valve and the piston are travelling. engine exhausts to atmosphere Estimate
the probable Ind. H.P. of this engine,
2. In connection wit.h a steam engine, state briefly choosing a reasonable value for the M .E .P.
how steam-tightness is ensured (a) between
piston and cylinder-wall, (b) around the 10. A piston has a diameter of 24 ins.; M.E.P. is
piston-rocl where it passes through the 30 lbs. per sq. inch; stroke3 I t . Calculate
cylinder cover, ancl (c) at the joint between (a) total effective force on piston in tons;
the cylinder and the end covers. (b) work per revolution in ft .-lbs.; (c) mean r
ltj
crank-effort in lbs.; (cl) mean pull in lbs. (f)
;;. Jn connection with a slide-valve worked by an on a rope which is coiled on an 8 ft. diam. (f)

eccentric, describe, with sketches, what is drum keyed to the same shaft. Neglect 0
meant by the term (a) lap, (b) lead, and friction arid piston rod .. ~C/) z
(c) angle of advance. Explain what effect 0 (f)
they have on the worlci ng of the engine. 11. A single cylinder engine, having a 14 inch ~ '"1j
cylinder and a 24 inch stroke, ilid.1cates -(.:3

.l
4. SI.:ctch and describe an eccentric as used in steam 100 H.P. when the M.E.P. is 25 lbs. per
engines and explain its action, sq. inch. At what speed (r.p.m.) is the z
engine running?
5. A single-cylinder engine has a slide-valve driven
12. What must be the cylinder diameters of a twin-
bv an· eccentric whi ch is secured to the
cylinder engine of 250 Ind. H.P. ru nn i ng
crank-shaft by a set-screw. The engine
at 100 r.p.m. if the stroke is twice the
refuses to go, and it is found that the set-
screw has worked loose and the eccentric
cylinder diameter and the M .E .P.
40 lbs. per sq. inch (see below).
is
• l
has shifted. Describe how you would
proceed to set the eccentric in its correct 13. Compare cast-iron and mild st'eel pipes wi t.h
position. regard to their su i ta.bfl ity for conveying
air or steam under pressure.
6. Dcscri be a. form of link motion for reversing a
steam engine. Illustrate your answer by 14. In conducting steam through a long range oJi
a neat ske tch . pipes, what precautions would you adopt
to get the best efficiency at the engine
7. Descr i be briefly the object of a flywhoe I and ex- using the steam and to reduce the risk of
p lain how it differs Irorn that 0£ a governor. breakdown ? ·

(Note re Ques. 12. Jn this problem, let d '"c' diameter of cylinder in i nches , then A""' d2 x_ 0·78:14 sq. ins.:
2cl
and L 12 feet; Insert these values of A and L in the usual HP. formula, so finding a value for d3, and hence
•
for d).

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Answers SP/~
THE STEAM ENGINE
• 1. (a). Describe concisely how steam is distributed, in the cylinder of an engine, by a slide-
valve and eccentric. (b). Make a neat drawing of the cylinder, showing ports, valve, and piston ,
to illustrate the point of cut-off which is at three-quarter stroke. Indicate by arrows the directions
in which the valve and the piston are travelli"'!g.

ENGINE CYLINDER AND STEAM DISTRIBUTION.

(a) The admission of steam to the cylinder, and its exhaust from the cylinder, are controlled
by the sfide -vafve which travels to and, fro on the face of the cylinder-ports and is actuated by
an eccentric, keyed to the crank-shaft and revolving with it.
Admission of steam first occurs just before the piston reaches the end of each stroke, the
•valve at that momentuncovering the steam-port by an amount known as the "lead." Thereafter,
the valve moves in such a way as to open the steam-port fully, afterwards reversing its motion so
as to close the port and cut off the steam-supply at some pre-determined point in the stroke, known
as-the point of cut -off The piston is then actuated by the expansive force of the steam until the
valve , continuing its movement, uncovers the steam-port to exhaust, so releasing the steam from
the cylinder in readiness for the next stroke of the piston.
Meanwhile, the opposite cylinder-port has been open to exhaust to reduce the back-pressure
acting against the reverse side of the piston. This port is closed, however, by the valve before the
end of the stroke so as to entrap and compress the remaining steam, thereby producing a cushioning
effect.
Admission, cut-off , release, and cushioning are thus the four chief events that occur in the cycle.
(b) Cut -off at Three -quarter Stroke.
This is shown in the adjoining sketch. As
indicated by the arrows, the piston is moving to
the right and has completed about ! of its stroke.
The valve is moving to the left and has just
closed the left-hand steam-port, so cutting off the
steam supply. The right-hand port is still open to
exhaust but it will be· closed rapidly as the· valve
moves further to the left.
The relative positions of the crank and
eccentric are shown by the diagram on the right
(not to scale). The crank is rotating clockwise and Illustrating Cut-off at Three-quarter Stroke.
has completed about l revolution. The dotted·
circle represents the path of the eccentric-centre C and the maximum travel of the valve is equal
to the diameter of this circle. The angle AOC represents the angular advance of the eccentric
plus one right -angle .

2. In connection with a steam engine, state briefly how steam-tightness is ensured (a) between
piston and cylinder-wall, (b) around the piston-rod where it passes through the cylinder-cover, .
. ·--- --~·---- . -~.~~---and'--("CJ-a. Hhr:-joint-b-etwB-en~t1w-cyZin7ieranWt1te ena-covers .

PREVENTION OF STEAM -LEAKAGE.

Leakage of steam may be prevented as follows:-
(a) Between. piston and cylinder -wafbs-e-by means of cast-iron or gunmetal spring
rings which fit into grooves turned in the outer periphery of the piston and which press outwards
against the inner walls of the cylinder.
(b) Where the piston -r-od enters the cyltnder=--by means of a stuffing-box and gland.
The box contains suitable packing material, commonly compressed asbestos impregnated with
graphite for low and medium pressures, or some form of metallic ..packing for high-pressure and
superheated steam.
4802
_SP/3
Answers on The Steam Engine
A/2
------·----·-----·-------------,.·

(c) Between the cylinder and the end-covers-by means of a securely bolted joint with
a joint -packtng which may be a sheet of asbestos, or a compound of asbestos and paper pulp, or
graphite paste, or lead wire turned around the facing of the cylinder to the required number of turns.
[Note . At an examination, the answer should include suitable sketches, accompanied by
further descriptive details, as already given in Lesson SP /3 .]

3. In connection with a slide-valve moved by an eccentric', describe, with sketches, what is meant
by the terms (a) lap, (b) lead, and (c) angle of advance. Explain what effect they have on the
working of the engine.

DEFINITION OF TERMS.
(For sketches, see figs. 17 (b) and (c) of the Lesson).
(a) The lap of a slide -valve is the amount by which the valve overlaps the edges of the
steam ports when the valve is in mid -position.
The effects of outside or steam lap are :-
(1) The travel of the valve must be increased.
(2) The eccentric must be moved forward on the shaft.
(3) Steam is thus cut off earlier in the stroke to produce expansive working. •
The effect of ·inside or exhaust lap is :-
(1) The release of steam to exhaust is delayed.

•
(2) Ear lier cushioning is· produced by closing the exhaust port before the piston has
completed its stroke.
(b) The lead of a slide -valve is the amountby which the steam port is open to steam when the
piston is at the beginning of its stroke. I ts effect is to admit steam in readiness for the next stroke •
of the piston, thereby ensuring a smooth reversal and preventing violent jars on the csank-pin .
(c) The angle of advance of an eccentric is the angle by which it is in advance of the crank,
minus one right-angle. Its effect is to cause the four chief events (admission, cut-off, release, and
cushioning) to occur earlier and, in conjunction with outside lap, it enables expansive working to be
a~~~d. . •

4. Sketch and describe an eccentric as used in steam engines, and explain its action.

ECCENTRIC.
(For sketch, see fig. 15 of Lesson SP /3) .
An eccentric is a mechanical contrivance on the crank-shaft of an engine. It consists of an
eccentric sheave which is keyed to the shaft and an eccentric strap which is a working fit on the
sheave.
The sheave is a circular cast· iron wheel or disc through which a hole, displaced from the
sheave-centre by an amount termed the eccentricity, is bored to fit the shaft.
The strap is made in two halves, securely bolted together and connected to an eccentric rod.
Steps are turned on its inner surface to fit corresponding steps on the sheave so as to prevent lateral
movement. The eccentric rod, in its turn, is connected to the valve-rod, usually through an
assembly of links, termed a" link motion."
When the shaft and sheave revolve, they impart a reciprocating

·
motion to the strap and
to the rods connected to it, so regulating the movement of the slide-valve and opening or closing
the steam ports at definite required instants..
The travel of the valve is equal to twice the eccentricity of the eccentric, except in so far as
the movement of the valve is additionally controlled by a link motion interposed between the
•
-eccentr ic and the valve.

5. A single-cylinder engine has a slide-valve driven by an eccentric which is secured to the crank-
shaft by a set-screw. The engine refuses to g.o, and it is found that the set-screw has worked loose
and the eccentric has shifted , Describe how you would proceed to re-set the eccentric in its correct
position.

SETTING AN ECCENTRIC.
~-~(.Note. The following references are to fig~~ 17b and 17c of Lesson SPL3).
To set the eccentric, I should proceed as follows t->-
(1) See that the engine stop -valve is closed and take the cover off the valve-chest.
(2) Place the engine on one dead -cenrre (by turning the engine-flywheel) so that the piston-
rod, connecting rod, and crank are all in one straight line, as in fig. 1 .
(3) Rotate the eccentric -sheave (which is free to move on the crank-shaft) until it is 90°
ahead of· the crank, as in fig. 10b.
(4) Place the valve exactly in mid -position (fig. lOb) by means of the adjusting nuts upon
its spindle.
(5) Rotate the eccentric -sheave through the "angle of advance" until the valve has un-
-covered the steam port by an amount equal to the. desired '' lead.''
(6) Fix the eccentric -sheave to the shaft in this position by tightening the set-screw.
(7) Place the engine . on its other dead -centre and see whether the valve still has the
required "lead." If not, make any necessary adjustment until the " lead" is the same at both ends.
(8) Finally replace the cover and. give the engine a trial run.
 _SP@_
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
A/3

6. Describe a form of link motion for reversing a steam engine. Illustrate your answer by a
neat sketch.

WALSCHAERTS REVERSING GEAR.

The accompanying sketch illustrates the essential features of the Walschaerts Valve gear
which has almost superseded the Stephenson Link Motion in America and on the more recent British
express locomotives. It has an advantage over the Stephenson gear in that it utilises only a single
-eccentrtc (or its equivalent, a small crank) and thus takes up less room on the driving shaft.
In the Walschaerts gear, two
·separate movements are imparted to aoo ro REVERsiNe.
the valve, one by the eccentric E and the LE v ER
-other - by the combination lever CL.
The eccentric actuates the eccentric
rod ER which is attached to a projection
.at the bottom of the curved slotted link
L (concave towards the cylinder). The
link L oscillates around the fixed fulcrum
F and- is fitted with a sliding block B to
whi~ is attached the radius rod R.
"When the block is at one end of the link L
{as shown), the rocking of the link imparts
.a to-and-fro motion to the radius rod R
(equal to twice the eccentricity of the Walschaerts Valve Gear.
-eccentric) and thence to the valve-rod.
The eccentric, however, has no angular advance, i .e . the angle AOC- is' 90°. Hence the
valve would be exactly in mid-position when the engine is on dead-centre, instead of being open
to lead. 1•0 remedy this, the radius rod R is pivoted at D to the combination lever CL. The
latter is attached, at its lower end K to a link driven from:the engine-crosshead, and at its upper
end H to the valve-rod. The two arms of CL (namely KD and HD) are so proportioned that, when
• the lower end K moves through a distance equal to the stroke of the piston, the upper end H moves
through a distance equal to 2a, where a = lap + lead. This movement is superimposed on that
.given by the eccentric so that the combined effects give the correct travel to the valve and, when
the piston is at the end of its stroke (as shown) the valve is displaced so as to give the correct lead.
»rr To reverse the engine, the block B is pulled up to the top of link L by means of rods connected
to the reversing lever. .
When the block B is in "mid -gear ," i.e. at the centre of link L, the valve-rod receives no
motion from the eccentric, but it has a travel equal to twice the lap + lead ( = 2a) due to the
.. combination lever.
In intermediate positions of the block B, the travel of the valve is less than the full travel
and steam is cut off at an earlier point in each stroke. In this way, the amount of steam
admitted to the cylinder, and the degree of expansion, may be adjusted by the driver to the amount
-of work to be done.

7. Describe briefly the object of a flywheel and explain hots it differs from that of a governor.

FLYWHEEL AND GOVERNOR.

The object of a flywheel is to reduce the periodic variations in speed that occur during
each revolution owing to the continual variations in the turning effort of the crank. By reason of
its mass and velocity, the flywheel carries the engine over its dead-centres and maintains more
nearly uniform motion of the moving parts. It acts by slightly increasing in speed (so storing up
kinetic energy) when the turning effect is greatest, and by slightly decreasing in speed (so giving
- up energy to the shaft) when the turning effect is least.
The object of a governor _is to maintain an approximately constant speed of rotation
during long periods and under all loads. It acts directly .on the steam supply, adjusting it to
suit the amount .of work to be done. It is especially necessary to prevent the engine from developing
an excessive speed if the load should be greatly reduced.
It will be seen that both the flywheel and the governor tend to produce "steady running" of
.an engine, but in quite different ways and under different conditions. ·

8. (a) What is a tail-rod? (b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of its use?

.~~~-~_:IAIL~ROD · ---~
(a) A tail-rod is a stout steel rod attached to the piston of a horizontal steam engine and
forming, in effect, a backward continuation of th.e piston -tod. It passes through a stuffing-box
and gland in the rear cylinder-cover and is additionally supported by having a guide-block attached
- to its ·end and sliding on guide-bars.
(b) The advantages of a tail-rod are:-
(1) It helps to support the piston (which is very heavy, in a large engine) so reducing the
·wear of the cylinder-lining and preventing undue leakage of steam past the piston.
(2) It ensures smoother running by maintaining the reciprocating parts in proper alignment
·with the axis of the cylinder. _ "
(3) It is accessible for examination and can be more easily lubricated, adjusted, and
.renewed when worn, than the piston-rings and cylinder-liner.
 - ?!:_L~- Answers on The Steam Engine
A/4
--'--------------------------------·-----·-····--·---·--···-···- ----------·-····--·----···--····•

The disadvantages of a tail-rod are:-

(1) It requires additional floor space to be provided.
(2) It increases the weight of the reciprocating parts
(3) It reduces the power of the engine because the effective area on one side of the piston is
reduced by an amount equal to the sectional area of the tail-rod.
(4) It requires an extra stuffing -box and gland, this being an additional source of steam--
leakage and increasing the cost of maintenance and renewals.
It will be seen that the advantages and disadvantages are more or less evenly balanced and most
steam engines, even large ones, are now made-without a ta.il-rod ,

9. A steam engine has two cylinders, each 24 ins. diam. x 48 ins. stroke, and runs at 46 r.p.m ..
The gauge pressure at the engine stop-valve is 77 lbs. per sq. inch. The engine exhausts to atmos-
phere. Estimate the probable Ind. H.P. of this engine, choosing a reasonable value for the
M.E.P.

INDICATED HORSE -POWER.

The initial absolute pressure is 77 + 15 . 92 lbs. per sq. inch and, as the engine is non.-
condensing, the back-pressure will be about 20 lbs. per sq. inch absolute. Thus, the initial effecs ive
pressure == 92 - 20 · 72 lbs. per sq. inch and the mean effective pressure will be m:uchless than
this. For the purpose of t.his answer, the M .E .P. is assumed as 50 lbs. per sq. inch ( = about two-
thirds of the initial gauge pressure). It is also assumed that the engine is double -acttng (as is usual).
Hence P 50 lbs. per sq. inch ; A = 242 x O· 7854 = 452· 4 sq. ins.
L = 48 ins. = 4 ft. ; N = 46 r.p.m.· X 2 · = 92 (double-acting) .
PLAN 50 x 4 x 452· 4 x 92 x 2
.·. Indicated HP = ---- x 2 cyls = = 504· 5 = (say) 500,.HP.
33000 33000

10. A piston has a diameter of 24 ins.; M .E .P. is 30 lbs. per sq. inch; stroke 3 ft.
Calculate (a) total effective force on piston in tons; (b) work per revolution in ft .-lbs.;.
(c) mean crank-effort in lbs.; (d) mean pull in lbs. on a rope which is coiled on an 8 ft.· diam.
drum keyed to the same shaj t. Neglect friction and pis ton rod,

CRANK-EFFORT AND PULL ON ROPE.

(a) Area of piston = A = 24 x 24 x O· 7854 = 452· 4 sq. ins. ; M .E .P. = P = 30 lbs. per sq. inch ..
E Total effective force on piston= PA= 30 x 452·4 = 13572 lbs. = 6 tons (approx.)
s (b) Work per rev. (two strokes)= PAL x 2 = 13572 x 3 x 2 81,432 ft. -Ibs ,
s Work done per revolution 81 ,432 ft. lbs.
(c) Mean Crank effort = ----------- = 8,640 lbs.
s Circ. of crank-pin circle 3· 1416 x 3 ft.
n (Or, crank effort = o· 636 PA = O· 636 x 13 ,572 = 8,632 lbs.)
a crank radius 1 •5
(d) Mean pull on rope= 8,640 lbs. x = 8640 x = 3,240 lbs.
tc drum radius 4
tl [Note. If this engine were fitted with reduction gearing, so that the drum revolved at
fewer revolutions per minute than the crank-shaft, the theoretical pull on the rope would be
tl greater than 3 ,240 lbs. , namely 3 ,240 X gear ratio. In practice the actual pull would be less than.
e< the theoretical pull, depending on the mechanical efficiency of the engine and gearing(= say 75%)].

11. A single cylinder engine, having a 14 inch cylinder and a 24 inch stroke , indicates 100 H.P ..
when the M .E .P. is 25 lbs. per sq. inch. At what speed (r.p.m.) is the engine running?

CALCULATION OF ENGI;NE R.P.M.

s: It is given that P = 25 lbs. per sq. inch ; L = 24 ins. = 2 feet.
A= 142 x 0·7854 = 154 sq. ins; N r.p.m. x 2 (double-acting)
Now Ind. H.P. x 33,000 = P x L x Ax Nr---~-
:. 100 x 33,000 = 25 X 2 X 154 X (r.p.m. X 2)
100 x 33 ,000 33 ,000 1 ,500
: . Speed of eugtne = 214 R.P.M.
ah 25 x 2 x 154 x 2 154 7

its 12,.. What must be the cylinder diameters of a twin-cylinder engine of 250 Ind. H.P. running
at.100 r .p .m. if the stroke is twice the cylinder diameter and the M .E .P. is 40 lbs. per sq. inch ?
CO'
CALCULATION OF CYLINDER DIAMETER.
2d
req It is given that P 40 lbs . per sq . inch ; L 2d ins. = - feet;
12
A (d2 x o· 7854) sq. ins.; N r.p.m. x 2 = 200.
 __§P/3
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
· · ···-·· -----··- A/5 .

40 x 2d x (d2 x 0•7854) x 200

Hence, Ind. H.P.= 250 X 2 cylinders.
12 x 33,000
250 x 12 x 33,000
And, by transposition, d3 = --------------·· = ~3,940(approx .)
40 x 2 x 0•7854 x 200 x 2
.'. Diameter of cylinder= 3 v'3,940 = 15·8 = 16 ins. (approx.).

13. Compare cast-iron and mild steel pipes with regard to their suitability for conveying air or
steam under pressure .

CAST IRON VERSUS MILD STEEL FOR PIPES.

Of these two materials, mild steel is to· be preferred for conveying either air or steam under
pressure, and it is essential for high-pressures or for superheated steam. The pipes may be solid-
drawn up to 8 or 10 ins. diam. , but the usual practice, except for very high pressures, is to bend the
steel plate to the circular form, the longitudinal joint then being lap-welded.
~mong the advantages of mild steel may be mentioned:-
( 1) Higher tenstle arrengrh (up to 30 tons per sq. inch as against 7 to 12 tons per sq. inch
for cast iron) . _
(2) Smaller weight for given strength (ease of transportation, an important factor under-
ground).
(3) Greater ductility (can be bent where necessary for awkward situations).
(4) Less liable to fracture (unlike cast iron, which is a brittle material, easily broken by
suflden shock) .
(5) Mor; hornogeneous in structure and therefore more reliable and uniform in strength
than cast iron .
• The ad-vantages of cast iron are that it is easily manufactured and has a low first cost. It has
therefore been much used for low-pressure pipe-work in spite of its low tensile strength, brittleness
and rigidity. It is also readily cast in moulds of intricate shape and is in extensive use for
elbow bends, T-pieces and valve-bodies. Where steam-pressures exceed 160 lbs. per sq. inch,
however, and in all cases for superheated steam, it is usual to employ cast steel for such purposes.
~
14. Jn conducting steam through a long range of pipes, what precautions would you adopt to
get the best efficiency at the engine using the steam and to reduce the risk of breakdowns?

LAYOUT OF STEAM PIPE.;.RANGE.

\.
To reduce the risk of breakdown, I should :-
(1) Use material of guaranteed quality, preferably mild steel, which is stronger and more
reliable than cast iron, and less Iiable to fracture.
(2) Install pipes of adequate thickness to resist the steam pressure, with a good margin of
safety.
(3) Securely support the pipes on brick pillars or steel frames placed at frequent intervals
to prevent sagging and strain on the joints.
(4) Make good joints to eliminate leakage, the flanges being fixed to the pipes and secured by
bolts, and the joint-rings being of compressed asbestos fibre.
(5) InstalJ telescopic expansion-joints at intervals (say every 60 ft.) or alternatively bends
of large radius, to take up strains due to expansion and contraction.
(6) Lay the pipe -r ange on an even gradient so as to prevent the accumulation of water of
condensation in low-lying places, with its attendant risk of" water-hammer" action.*
(7) Install automatic steam -traps, where necessary, to eject any accumulated water.
(8) Inspect the range at frequent intervals to ensure that all parts arc properly maintained.
To ensure efficiency, I should:-
(9) Install pipes of sufficient diameter to ensure that the steam-velocity does not exceed about
5 ,000 to 6 ~000ft. per min., so limiting the pressure-drop due to friction. .
(10) Cover the pipes with insulating material (e.g. asbestos and magnesia, some 2 ins. thick,
.. - ..... -----i-n-eithe.r-plast-iG-Qr-moulded.-fonn--and-pr.otected_from_the weatherIry canvas _.impregnated with.a, __
bituminous compound) so as to reduce heat losses due to radiation.
(11) Use superheated steam, where possible, so that the steam may enter the cylinder in a
dry condition. ' , 1
*[Note. The term "water -harnrner " here refers to the violent blow given by the water in a
steam-pipe wheri it is carried along at a high velocity by the steam. In such a case, the water,
being. incompressible, behaves as a rigid projectile and, if it strikes a bend in the pipe, or the
cylinder end-cover, it may fracture the affected part and endanger persons nearby , due to escaping
steam.]
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•
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STEAM PLANT.

Lesson SP/4.
STEAM ENGINES AND THEIR ACCESSORIES.

Cylinder Condensation Losses. One of the chief causes of inefficiency of ordinary reciprocating
steam engines is that high-pressure steam (at a correspondingly high temperature) is admitted to a
cylinder whose internal surfaces have just been in contact with low-pressure exhaust steam (at a
correspondingly low temperature) and the result is that some of the newly-admitted steam is immediately
condensed, more live steam rushing in to take its place. During the return (i.e. exhaust) stroke, the
condensed water re-evaporates at the lower pressure and passes out of the cylinder into the atmosphere

• or the condenser, as the case may be. This represents a continual and irrecoverable loss of heat-energy
(and therefore of fuel), the loss being greater, the greater the difference of temperature between the
live steam and the exhaust steam. In the case of steam admitted at a· pressure of 200 lbs. per sq. in.
absolute (temp .. 382°F.) and exhausted at 3 lbs. absolute (142°F.) the range of temperature is about
382 - 142 = '240 °F,, and it is evident that the loss of energy (and waste of fuel) is likely to be con-
siderable. In fact, the loss due to cylinder condensation may be anything from 10% to 50% of the
whole steam consumed, according to the relative effects of the various factors involved. It is important,
tperefore, that the loss should be minimised as far as possible.

Methods of reducing losses due to Cylinder Condensation.

Apart from lagging the steam-cylinders, pipes, ete., with non-conducting material to reduce heat
lost by radiation, and steam-jacketing the cylinder with Ii earn to increase the mean temperature
of the cylinder-walls, there are· three chief methods of cing condensation losses and thereby
increasing the efficiency of a steam engine, namely (a} using compounded cylinders, (b) using super-
heated steam, and (e) adopting high-speed (quick-revolution) ·engines.

COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES.

A compound engine is one which has two (or more) cylinders of different sizes, arranged in such

•
a way that the steam from the boiler enters first the (smaller) high-pressure cylinder where it is partly
expanded ; and, at the end of the stroke, the same steam is admitted to the (larger) low-pressure
cylinder (or cylinders, in turn, if there are more than one), where its expansion is completed. The
steam is then discharged into the atmosphere or into a condenser, as the case may be. The cylinders
and pistons of compound engines may be arranged in various ways:-
(a) Tandem compound engine, in which the two cylinders are in line, i.e. end to end; their pistons
driving the same crank.
(b) Cross-compound or coupled compound engine, in which the two cylinders are side-by-side
(either horizontally or vertically) and their two pistons are connected respectively to two cranks
keyed at right-angles to one another on the same crank-shaft, as in a simple twin cylinder (or" double")
engine.
(c) Twin compound or double compound engine which is simply a pair of tandem compound engines
coupled together by being connected to two cranks at right-angles on the same shaft.
(d) Triple-expansion engine, which is used for very high pressures, the steam being expanded in
three successive cylinders which are placed side-by-side. The three cranks, one for each piston, are
keyed at an angle of 120 ° to one another on tlie same shaft.

Advantages of compound engines.

----------------'---------~-----'--------------------
The benefits to be obtained from cornpound.lng--the-cyHnd.ers--o:Can- ei1gine-are Two:. .fofa_: tirst,
reduced cylinder condensation; and secondly, better distribution of 'the working stresses.
Less condensation will take place because the range of temperature between the initial temperature
of the steam and its final or exhaust temperature is divided more or less equally between the two,
three, or more cylinders, with the result that the mean temperature of each cylinder more nearly
approximates to the temperature of the steam admitted to that cylinder.

(5011)
 SP/4
2 Steam Engines and their Accessories.

Moreover, the re-evaporated steam that is formed in the high-pressure cylinder during the exhaust
stroke of that cylinder passes on as steam to do useful work in the succeeding cylinder or cylinders
instead of being exhausted to the atmosphere or to the condenser (and therefore wasted) as in the case
of a single-cylinder engine. The net effect is that more work is done by a given weight of steam, and
less steam (and t.herefore less fuel) is required to do a given amount of work.
A matter of equal, if not greater, importance, however, is the fact that high-pressure steam may
be economically used in a compound engine without causing the excessive strains that would occur in
a single-cylinder engine, where there is a great disparity between the initial and final pressures.
It is evident that all working parts of any engine must be sufficiently strong to withstand the
maximum stresses, and if a large range of expansion takes place in a single cylinder, the initial
(maximum) stress is so much greater than the mean stress that the necessary strength, weight, and
cost of the cylinder itself, and of the piston, piston-rod, connecting rod, crank-pin, crank-shaft, and
other working parts, become excessive compared to the power exerted. In addition, the force applied
to the piston varies greatly during the stroke, and the turning effort on the crank-pin is excessively
variable, necessitating a very heavy flywheel to attempt to regulate the speed. When expansion is
achieved in two or more cylinders, however, the strains are more equally distributed among the cylinders,
the working parts need not be so massive, and smooth even running of the engine is attained.

Compound engines are preferable where the ratio of expansion exceeds about 5. Thus, if the
initial pressure is 90 lbs. absolute, and if the steam is to be utilised in a condensing engine expanding
to a final pressure of 10 lbs. absolute, then the ratio of expansion is 90 --;- 10 = 9, and a compound
engine is desirable. If, however, the engine is non-condensing, and the final pressure is to be 20 lbs.
absolute, then the ratio of expansion is 90 --;- 20 = 4f, and a single-cylinder engine (or a twin cylinder
or " double" engine, i.e. two single cylinders each using steam independently) would be sufficient.
It will thus be seen that compound cylinders should be employed for all condensing engines where
the boiler pressure exceeds about 75 lbs. by gauge (90 lbs. absolute).

Compound engines are particularly preferable for continuous duty or for long runs, ·such as driving
fans, endless-rope haulages, pumps, air-compressors, and electric generators. They are less suitable
for engines that are frequently started and stopped, 'such as winding engines, the great majority of
which are double horizontal non-condensing engines. Even for winding, however, where high steam-
pressure is available and heavy loads are to be raised from deep shafts, compound engines have been
frequently installed, although· nowadays electric winders are generally preferred.

,Cylinder-sizesof a compound engine.

When determining the relative diameters of the high-pressure and low-pressure cylinders for any
given circumstances, it is necessary to remember that, with given initial and final pressures, the volume
and weight of steam exhausted by the low-pressure cylinder during each stroke is the same, whether
the steam is admitted direct to that cylinder and expanded there only, or whether it has previously
been expanded in one, two, or more cylinders. It is therefore evident that the low-pressure cylinder
should be as large as that of a single-cylinder engine using the same quantity of steam, expandingit
to the same final pressure, and doing the whole of the work. The remaining (high-pressure) cylinder
or cylinders may then be so proportioned as to equalise the range of temperatures and the initial stresses
as much as possible, and to ensure that the total work done is divided as equally as possible among
the several cylinders.
These requirements are somewhat contradictory, and a compromise between them is usually
necessary; Speaking generally, the internal volume of the high-pressure cylinder (and, therefore, the
area of the high-pressure piston) varies from one-third to one-quarter of the volume (or the area} of
the low-pressure cylinder, in the case of compound condensing engines; and from one-half to one-third
in the case of non-condensing engines. The piston-areas of triple-expansion engines are frequently
in the ratio of about 1, 2!, and 7f. These figures are average and approximate figures only, and would
require adjustment in detail for any particular case.

Indicated H;P. of a compound engine.

In cases where the M.E.P. (mean effective pressure) in each cylinder is given or known, the
Ind. HP. is most conveniently found by calculating vthe HP. of each cylinder separately and adding
the two results together.

SUPERHEATED STEAM.

Superheated steam is steam that has been heated to a higher temperature than that corresponding
to its pressure. It is then clearly in a dry condition, and its temperature may be reduced to an extent
corresponding to the amount of superheat without any condensation taking place.
It is evident that the use of superheated steam minimises cylinder condensation and thereby
increases the efficiency of an engine. The possible saving in steam (and fuel) consumption is of the
order of about 1 % for each 10 ° F. superheat, and the amount C1f superheat commonly given is about
100°F. to 150°F., or sometimes higher:
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.

In reciprocating engines, reduced condensation takes place not only because the temperature may
fall without water being formed, but also because the cylinder-walls are drier, and condensation takes

•
place less easily on a dry surface than on a wet surface. It is said also that less leakage of steam takes
place between the valves and the face of the steam ports when the steam is superheated, and this again
contributes towards economy in steam.
A further advantage of superheated steam is that;. owing to its greater elasticity and the absence
of water particles, the rate of flow through pipes can be increased to about 100 ft. to 150 ft. per second,
as compared with about 75 ft. per sec. when using saturated steam. The size and weight of steam-pipe
ranges can thus be reduced, and, therefore, also their cost.
In steam turbines, condensation losses do not occur to the extent that they do in reciprocating
engines, because the flow of steam is uni-directional, hut it is nevertheless most desirable to deliver
superheated steam to the first stage of high-pressure turbines so as to reduce the losses due to fluid-
friction on the blades of the turbine-wheels. With wet steam, these losses are considerable and greatly
reduce the efficiency of the turbine. ·

Precautions necessary with superheated steam.

Highly superheated steam has a detrimental effect upon the working parts of engines with which
it comes in contact, unless they have been designed to work with high degrees of superheat.
. cyiinders must be made of hard close-grained cast iron to prevent " scoring" of their working
surface. All bends, tee-pieces, and valve-bodiesmust be made of cast steel instead of cast iron. Turbine-
blades must be made of nickel-steel, nickel-chromium steel, or other special alloy, and such materials
must also take the place of alloys of copper (e.g. brass or gunmetal) wherever copper alloys would
otherwise be used, because they are cut or eroded by superheated steam. For such important parts
as valves and valve-seats, manufacturers generally have their own special patent steels (usually a
nickel-steel alloy), and amongst them may be mentioned " M agnam " and " Plainam,"
Special r~ard must be paid to the type of lubricant used in the engine-cylinders. The oil must
be a highly refined mineral oil having a high flash-point (not less than 550 °F.) and must not be liable
to form a carbonised deposit which will tend to dog or jam the piston. Because of the dryness of
superheated steam, it is necessary to increase the supply of oil for internal lubrication (though not
profusely) if excessive wear of the cylinder, piston-rings, and gland-packing is to be avoided.

QUICK-REVOLUTION VERTICAL ENGINES.

An engine in which a short stroke is compensated for by an increased number of revs. per min.
is often termed a "high-speed" (vertical) engine, although its piston-speed may be little different
from that of a "low-speed" (horizontal) engine having a longer stroke. Such a vertical engine would
be more fittingly described, however, as a quick-revolution or short-stroke engine because it is the
revolutions per minute that are increased and not necessarily the piston-speed. Engines of this type
-of which the Belliss and Morcom engine is a well-known example-have won considerable popularity.,
their principal advantages being as follows :-
(a) The engine is smaller for a given power, and thus less space is taken up and smaller foundations
are necessary. The total cost is correspondingly reduced.
(b) More uniform torque or turning effort is exerted on the crank-shaft.
I (c) High shaft-speed renders the engine suitable for the direct driving of electric generators,
high-speed fans, and air-compressors.
(d) Cylinder condensation is reduced because the mean temperature of the cylinder-walls is
increased compared with the long-stroke engine, this being due to reduction of. the heat-exchange
between the cylinder-walls and the steam as a result of the increased speed of rotation.

STEAM ENGINE GOVERNORS.

The purpose of a governor, as its name implies, is to "govern" or regulate a steam engine so
that an almost constant speed of rotation is maintained in spite of any fluctuation, within limits, of
the load or the boiler pressure. This purpose is fulfilled by regulating the supply of steam to the engine
so as to vary the power in direct ratio to the load, and the governor does this in the only way possible,
i.e. by varying the pressure of steam in the engine-cylinder. There are two methods, however, by which
this may be effected. · ·
(1) By throttling or varying the area of passage for the steam in the main steam-pipe, so reducing
the weight of steam passing to the engine and, by" wiredrawing" it, reducing also its initial pressure,
--the po:lritoCcuf--Oif-remaining consfa:iif~-~-~~~~~---~-~-~·-·-~··~~-~~·-~--··~~~~-~~~~-~~~~~~~~~-~~--··
(2) By variable expansion, i.e. causing the steam admission-valve to cut off the steam-supply
to the cylinder at an earlier or later point in the stroke, according. to the diminution or increase of
load on the engine. This method is the more economical because the steam is always admitted at its
full pressl1:re,allowing maximum advantage to be taken of its expansive properties.

The action of the governor will be understood from fig. 1. overleaf which is an Illustrafion of a
simple loaded governor, similar to that invented by James Watt.
 Steam Engines and their Accessories.

The governor.
The main spindle S in fig 1 is driven by bevel gearing (or belting) from the engine and, as it
revolves, it carries round with it the balls, BB, jointed to the arms, AA, which are themselves jointed
to the upper end of the spindle. The lower pair of arms, CC, are jointed
also to the balls (though, in many instances, they are jointed
to the arms; AA, close to the balls) and at their lower ends the arms, CC,
are jointed to the sleeve, D, which is free to slide up and down on the
spindle. When the engine is started, the governor-spindle, S, rotates and
gradually increases in speed until the centrifugal force generated by the
rotating balls is sufficient to raise the sleeve, D, -and the weight, W,
along the spindle, S.
The original Watt governor had no weight, W, superimposed upon D
the sleeve; and was· suitable only for low-speed engines. The addition
of the weight (or its equivalent, a strong spring) enables the governor
to be used for high-speed engines.
In a well designed governor, the maximum upward movement of
the sleeve and weight results from an increase in speed of about two to
five per cent above normal, and this movement must be utilised to cut
off steam from the engine entirely, so as to prevent it racing and possibly
damaging the moving parts, if the load should, by any chance, be
entirely removed.
When "throttling" is the method adopted for controlling the Fig. 1.
admission of steam.vthe throttle-valve is coupled to the sleeve, D, by a Loaded Governor.
system of cranks and levers, and the upward movement of the sleeve
gradually closes the throttle valve.
Fig. 1, however, shows how the governor can be used to control the admission of steam by varying
the travel of a slide valve, piston valve, or, more usually, a variable-expansion valve. The sleeve, D,
is jointed to the arm, R, which is pivoted on the fixed point, F. Any upward movement of the sleeve
raises the arrn.i R, the link, L, and the valve-rod, VR. The latter is connected at one end (norshown)
to the valve or valves of the engine, and at the other end it is pinned to the block, K, which slides in:
the curved slotted link, CS.. This is pivoted at P and is reciprocated by the eccentric rod, ER.
. It is clear that when the block takes up a higher position in the slot the travel of the valve-rod
and valve is thereby reduced and the steam is cut off at an earlier point in the stroke. When the block
is in its highest position near the pivot, P, the movement of the valve-rod is almost nil, and no steam
at all is admitted to the cylinder. The principle is similar to that of the Stephenson Link Motion, the
difference being that the "linking up" is effected automatically instead of by hand.
THE STEAM INDICATOR.
This is an instrument for making an indicator diagram, which gives an almost complete record
of the behaviour of the steam in a cylinder throughout the whole of the stroke of the piston. The
diagram shows clearly the precise points of steam-admission, cut-off, compression, and release, and
thus enables any defects in the construction, action, or setting of the valves to be discovered. The
diagram shows also the pressure of the steam throughout the stroke, and thus the mean effective pressure
may easily be ascertained and, when the speed and size of the piston are also known, the indicated

•
horse-power may readily be calculated.
The Crosby Standard Steam Indicator.
This consists of a cylinder, C, containing a piston, P, which is kept down by the coiled spring, S.
The lower end of the cylinder is placed in communication with one end of the steam engine-cylinder
by means of a suitable connecting pipe fitted with a tap or cock, T. When the tap is open, the steam
raises the piston, P, to an extent depending on the steam-pressure and the resistance of the spring.
The upper side of the piston is always subject to atmospheric pressure only, small holes being bored in
the upper portion of the cylinder to ensure this.
The piston-rod, R, is connected through parallel-
motion links to the arm, A, which carries a pencil at its
extreme end ; and the pencil exactly traces the vertical D
movement of the piston magnified four to six times upon a
card, mounted on the drum, D.
It is clear that, if the drum remains stationary, the
pencil will trace only a vertical line upon the indicator-
-card~:----but--the-~drum~ts--mad-e-tu·--revolve-- (near1y·one -
revolution) by means of a cord or string, B, coiled around
its lower end and connected through reducing mechanism
to the engine-crosshead. As the cord, however; can only
rotate the drum when it is in tension, the drum revolves
in the reverse direction (during the return stroke of the
engine-piston) under the influence of a spring, L, coiled
inside the drum. The indicator-card thus partakes of
the horizontal motion of the engine-piston on a reduced
scale, and this horizontal motion, together with the
vertical movement of the pencil, results in the drawing
or a closed figure known as the Indtcator diagram. Fig. 2. Crosby Steam Indicator.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.

Indicator cards are usually about 3 inches high, and 5 to 7 inches long, and the diagrams are from
1-! ins. x 3 ins. to 2-! ins. x · 5 ins., the larger sizes being used for low-speed engines.

•
The strength of spring fitted in the indicator-cylinder depends on the steam-pressure used and on
the height of diagram required, and is marked upon each spring in the form of a fraction. Thus a
spring marked 2b- will cause the indicator-pencil to move vertically upwards i"o inch for each 1 lb. per
sq. in. steam-pressure. If, for example, the maximum steam pressure is 50 lbs. per sq. inch, the diagram
will be 2!- inches high ; but if the same spring be used with a steam-pressure of 100 lbs. per sq. inch,
a diagram 5 ins. high is registered and a stronger spring is called for, say -/-cy, in which case the diagram
will be 2 ins. high. Similarly with higher pressures still, a stronger spring will be necessary to keep the
diagram within normal dimensions. It is obvious that, when measuring the diagram to ascertain the
mean effective pressure, the proper scale must be used, corresponding to the strength of the spring in
each case.
Theoretical Indicator Diagrams.
y z y

0 x
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Theoretical Indicator Diagrams for Non-expansive Engines.

• In fig. 3, let OX represent the stroke of the piston (and incidentally the cylinder-volume swept
by the piston) to any convenient scale ; and OY the line of absolute pressures, also to scale. The line
AL is the atmospheric line, drawn at 15 lbs. per sq. inch above the zero line OX. Then if steam is
admitted to a cylinder at an absolute pressure of OY lbs. during the whole of a piston-stroke having
a length OX, andJf the back-pressure is nil, the area OYZX represents the theoretical amount of work
done during the stroke. Such perfect utilisation of the available energy is never realised in practice,
of course.
Fig. 4 is the theoretical diagram of work for a non-eondensing engine (i.e, an engine which exhausts
to the atmosphere at a pressure of 17 to 20 lbs. per sq. inch absolute) where the effect of the back-
pressure is, as it were, to remove the lower part of the rectangle OYZXup to the line PQ-(say) 17 lbs.
persq, inch. The work done by the same cylinderful of steam as before is represented by the shaded
area PYZQ.
Fig. 5 is the theoretical diagram for a condensing engine which exhausts to a condenser where the
steam is condensed and the backpressure is reduced to about 3 lbs. per sq. inch absolute. In this case,
the amount of work done approaches the theoretical maximum as shown by the shaded area RYZS.
Expansive working.
In fig. 6, let the line OX again represent the stroke of the piston, and OY the absolute pressure
-(say) 100 lbs. per sq. inch above zero. Assuming that steam is admitted during one-quarter of the
stroke and is then cut off, the piston will have moved from 0 to a, and there will be a quarter of a
cylinderful of steam at a pressure of 100 lbs. The theoretical work done up to this point by the steam

• is represented by the area OYda,

The steam will now expand approximately in accordance
with Boyle's Law, which states that the product of the
absolute pressure and . volume of a given weight of gas is
constant when the temperature is . constant. The word
" approximately " is used advisedly because Boyle's Law is
only strictly accurate in the case of a perfect gas. Steam, how-
100
y
~--~
d.

ever, is not a perfect gas and, moreover, the temperature in

the cylinder does not remain constant; but, for the present
purpose, it may be assumed that Boyle's Law holds good;
the. discrepancy in any case will not be serious.
When the piston arrives at half-stroke (marked b) the
volume of steam will be twice the original volume and the o
pressure will be half the original pressure, namely 100 -:- 2 0 a b c x
= 50 lbs. This enables us to fix the point e. Similarly at Fig •. 6.
! stroke, the volume is trebled, and the pressure is 100 -:- _3 Theoretical Diagram for Expansive ·Engine.
= 33! lbs. ; and at the end of the stroke, the volume is
quadrupled, and the pressure 100 -:- 4 = 25 lbs. These considerations enable the points f and g to be
fixed, . and a neat curve~drawn_th~~.B"h def~_I~EI"~::i~Ets aEEEQ_Xim(l.telyJ::h~-~~-~!i_v~chaEKe_~i_I!_volu!lle _
- -- and -absofote pressure of the expanding steam in the cylinder.

•
The shaded area adgX represents the theoretical work done during expansion, and this is the
additional work done by one-quarter of a cylinderful of steam expanded from 100 lbs. absolute to 25 lbs •
absolute, assuming the back-pressure to be nil.
[The curve defg is known as a rectangular hyperbola, and is such that the rectangle whose diagonal
would be Od, and the dotted rectangles Oe, Of, and Og are all equal in area. It is also known as an
isothermal curve, i.e. the curve formed to illustrate the relationship of the volume and pressure of a
gas at equal or constant temperatures.]
 SP;4
Steam Engines and their Accessories.
6

The practical m~thod of evaluating an area such as OYdgX in fig. 6 will be described presently,
but, in the case of the theoretical diagram depicted, where the curve defg is hyperbolic, the shaded area
adgX bears a .defini te relationship to the unshaded area OYda.
Thus if area during admission (shown unshaded) = OYda = 1
Vol. of steam at end of stroke
and if the ratio of expansion (i.e. ) = R
Vol. of steam at point of cut-off
Then area during expansion (shown shaded) = adgX = hyperbolic log. R
and total area = 1 + hyp. log. R (1)
Let us calculate, for example, the relative area of the shaded Table 1. Hyperbolic or
portion of fig. 6, knowing that R (the ratio of expansion) is 4. From Napierian Logarithms.
a Table of hyperbolic logarithms, it is found that hyp. log. 4 = 1 ·386 ;
therefore, the shaded area is 1 ·386 times the unshaded area, and the Number \ Log.
total area = 1 + 1 ·386 = 2 ·386 times the· unshaded area.
___ Rl 1i- O _
In other words, by cutting off steam at 1- stroke, nearly Ii- times as
much work is done during expansion as during admission, and the total 2 I ·6931
work done by a given weight of steam is nearly 2! times that done 3 II I ·0986
without expansion. This is tantamount to saying that, when steam is 4 1 ·3863
cut off at f- stroke, less than half as much fuel is. burnt to do a given 5 I I ·6094
amount of work than if the engine is worked non-expansively. By 6 ll 1 ·7©18
7 1 ·9459
increasing the ratio of expansion (within limits) the saving of fuel can 8 2·0794
be still further increased. 9 I' 2 ·1972
[Note.-The hy.perbolic logarithm of any number 10 2~3026
= common logarithm x 2 ·3026.]
Actual Indicator Diagrams.
8 B D
0

A
'(
AL )( AL
N ZERO PRE.SSVP<E p

Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9.

Diagram for Non-condensing Dlagram for Condensing Mid--ordinates for Estimation
(slide-valve) Engine. Engine. of M.E.P.
Fig. 7 shows a typical well shaped indicator diagram as obtained from an expansive llon-condensing
engine. The line AL is the atmospheric line, i.e. the line drawn by the indicator-pencil when the
steam-cock is closed and the indicator-piston - is exposed on both sides to atmospheric pressure only.
Assume that the engine-piston is about to move from left to right, and that the steam-cock to the
indicator-cylinder has just been opened. The indicator piston (and pencil) will rise quickly and trace
the admission line AB, the height of the point B above AL indicating the maximum initial gauge pressure
of the steam available at the engine-s-usuallyseveral lbs. per sq. inch below boiler pressure.
As the engine-piston moves to the right, the pencil traces the steam line BD, a line which, under
ideal conditions, would be perfectly horizontal, but which usually falls to a greater or less degree owing
to the effects of " wiredrawing " (i.e. the. diminution of pressure as the steam passes through the
steam-ports behind the quickly receding piston). D is the point of cut-off, a point which is fairly definite
with Corliss or with Drop-valve trip-gear, but which is somewhat indeterminate in the case of slide-
valve engines. DE is the expansion curve traced by the pencil as the piston moves further to the right
under the expansive force of the steam, the pressure falling gradually during the process.
E is the point of release, the exhaust-port being opened just before the completion of the stroke
so as to empty the cylinder of steam in readiness for the return stroke. The steam-pressure thereafter
falls rapidly, as shown by the exhaust curve EX, until it reaches the pressure represented by the height
of the point x above the atmospheric line, commonly about 17 to 20 lbs. per sq. inch absolute ; i.e.
about 3 to 5 lbs. above atmospheric pressure.
In a condensing engine (see fig. 8) the depth of the point X below the line AL shows the pressure
existing in the cylinder during the return stroke in terms of lbs. per sq. inch below atmospheric pressure.
~ - - ~--- --~~~~~~~h~~~and~~~ha~k-pres~re~e~edd~~thereturnstrokeof thepiston,
Y being the point where the exhaust valve is closed so as to entrap all steam-remain.ing-inThecy!maer _
and clearance spaces for the purpose of cushioning the piston. YA is the compression curve, indicating
the gradual rise of pressure due .part ly to this. cushioning and partly to the admission of fresh steam
resulting from the early opening of the admission valve· before the piston has quite completed its
stroke-an opening known as the " lead " of the valve. ·
It will be evident that a diagram like Fig. 7 or Fig. 8 only indicates the conditions at one side of
the steam-engine piston during one revolution, and that, in order to make a complete examination of
a double-acting engine, the indicator must now be connected to the other end of the same cylinder
and a second diagram obtained. In a well-balanced engine-i.e. one which does the same amount 0f
work during the forward and backward strokes-the two diagrams will be as nearly as possible-the
same shape.
 _SP/4 _
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. 7

Measurement of Mean Effective Pressure from an Indicator Diagram. (Fig. 9).

The. effective pressure upon the piston at any point during the stroke = the difference between
the absolute pressures at each side of the piston. During the forward stroke of the piston (see fig. 9)
the absolute pressure on one side of the piston at any moment is represented by the height of the line
BDX above the line of zero pressure NP ; and during the return stroke, it is represented by the height
of the line XYA. The mean differencebetween these two absolute pressures is clearly the mean effective
pressure (M.E.P.) acting upon the piston during each stroke, and it is represented by the average vertical
height enclosed between the lines BDX and XYA. It is, therefore, only necessary to determine the
average height of the diagram itself, using the appropriate scale, in order to ascertain the mean effective
pressure. A similar calculation must be made from the diagram given by the other end of the cylinder,
and the sum of the mean pressures thus obtained must be divided by two.
The method. of mean ordinates is usually adopted for ascertaining the mean height of the diagram.
The procedure is as ·follows :-
(1) Draw two lines (NB and PM fig. 9) at right-angles to the atmospheric line and touching the
diagram at its extreme ends.
(2) Divide the space between these two lines into 10 equal parts by erecting 9 ordinates (shown
firm) and erect mid-ordinates (shown dotted in fig. 9) in the middle of each part so formed.
(3J Measure the height of each mid-ordinate to the correct scale (depending upon the strength
of the spring used in the indicator) ; add all these heights together and divide by 10; .i.e. by the
number of mid-ordinates erected. The result will be the mean effective pressure (M.E.P.).

•
Estimation of Mean Effective Pressure from given data. Table 2. Theoretical Mean
Absolute Pressures.
If the initial absolute pressure and the ratio of expansion
(or the point of cut-off) be known, the theoretical mean absolute Mean absolute
pressure in tpe cylinder may be ascertained by reference to Ratio of I Point of pressure when
Table 2, which is.based on the assumption that the steam expands Expansion.I cut-off. initial pressure
according to Boyle's law and that the effects of clearance are I = l.

neglected. 2 I ],_

t
2 0·85
• Thereafter, the theoretical mean effective pressure may be 3 0·70
ascertained by deducting the back-pressure acting against the 4 I -!- 0·60
piston. The actual mean effective pressure will, however, be less 5 I
I
.J
5
I
0·52
than this because the expansion curve on actual indicator diagrams 6 tr 0·47
always falls below 'the isothermal curve, and the actual area of 7 i
I
l
-7~
I
l 0·42
the diagram is always less than the theoretical area. It is, there- 8 I J" 0·39
fore, necessary to introduce a constant known as the diagram 9
8

-n·1 II 0·36
factor. 10 I 1
10 i 0·33

Area of actual diagram actual mean pressure

Diagram factor -
Area of theoretical diagram theoretical mean pressure
This factor varies from about 0 ·6 to 0 ·95, being higher in simple, well-jacketed, slow-rotational-speed

• engines, and lower in compound and triple-expansion engines .

If the M.A.P. factors in the third column of Table 2 are not available, the theoretical mean effective
pressure may be calculated direct from the formula
1 + hyp. log. R
Theoretical M.E.P. = p x ------- -
R
back-pressure.. : : (2)

where p = initial absolute pressure: R = ratio of expansion.

The result so found must, of course, be multiplied by the diagram factor as already explained, to obtain
the actual M.E.P.
Example. Steam at 85 lbs. per sq. in. by gauge is admitted to a cylinder and is cut off at .g. stroke.
What is the M.E.P., assuming a back-pressure of 3 lbs. per sq. in. and 'a diagram
factor of 0 ·8 ? ·
Answer. Ratio of Expansion = 5, and (from Table 2) M.A.P. factor = O ·52.
Initial absolute pressure - 85 + 15 = 100 lbs. per sq. inch .
.......M._~al!_~_bs~lu~_PEe?~~r:(:! ._!Q9 ..2<'..Q ·,5g_ .. __ §.~ !Q~~-P£!L~g._ffi.f.h. .__ .
Theoretical· mean effective pressure = 52 - 3 = 49 lbs. per sq. inch.
Actual mean effective pressure = 49 x O ·8 = · 39 ·2 lbs. per sq. in.
[Alternatively
1 + 1 ·6094
Theoretical M.E.P. 100 x - 3 = 100 X 0 ·52 - 3 = 52 - 3 = 49 lbs. per sq. in.]
5
 SP/4
Steam Engines and their Accessories.
8

TEST PAPER SP/4.

1. (a) What are the advantages of " high-speed '' 5. A double horizontal, double-acting, engine is
(short-stroke) vertical engines compared with long- required to develop 750 Ind. HP. at a speed of 100
stroke horizontal engines ? r.p.m. The boiler-gauge pressure is 100 lb. per sq.
(b) Briefly describe one type of " high-speed " engine inch and steam is to be cut off at -l stroke. Determine
with which you are acquainted. the diam. of the cylinders and the length of stroke
req1:1ired,if the back-pressure amount to 21 lbs. per
2. (a) What is meant by superheated steam, and (b) sq. mch absolute and the length of stroke is twice the
what are the advantages of using it ? (c) In what diam. of the cylinder. Assume a diagram factor of
way must the design and working of steam plant be 0 ·8 and a fall of 5 lbs. per sq. inch between boiler
modified when superheated steam is used ? and engine.
3. A cross-compound engine has two cylinders 20 ins.
and 36 ins. diam. with 36 ins. stroke. The indicator 6. One steam engine may give 1 Ind. HP.-hour for 30
diagrams show mean effective pressures of 26 lbs. lbs. of steam, whilst another .does the same work
per sq. in. and 8 lbs. per sq. inch in the respective using only 11 lbs. of steam. What a.re the probable
cylinders. What is the Tnd. HP. of the engine at causes of this difference in efficiency ?
100 r.p.m. ? .
7. Describe and illustrate by means of a simple sketch
4. A single cylinder engine (double-acting) with a piston the principle of the steam indicator. What inform-
24 ins. diam. and 36 ins. stroke was working at ation may be deduced from an indicator diagram ?
100 r.p.m. Indicator diagrams were taken with a lo
spring, and their mean heights for the two ends of
the cylinder were 1 ·24 and 1 ·32 ins . respectively.
What Ind. HP. was the engine developing ? . •

Cardifi Pr inters Ltd .

•
 FOUNDED. 1883 COPYRIGHT
THE U,M.S. T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.~
THIS PAPER
WAS ·THE FIRS'T
IS SUPPLli::D ON
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING
IN THE
SCHOOL
WORLD.
fil'Jie "lfu,~at.~ ~,d'wof CONDITION
IT 1$
THAT
RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
l).aCCRl>DRAT~P 1931. CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USE

STEAM· PLANT.
Ansvvers SP/4.
STEAM ENGINES AND THEIR ACCESSORIES
1. (a) What are tlu;. advantages of " high-speed" (short-stroke) vertical engines compared with long-
stroke horizontal engines ? (b) Briefly describe one type of high-speed engine with which you
are acquainted.

QUICK-REVOLUTION ENGINES.
(a) The chief advantages of a high-speed (quick-revolution) vertical engine are :~
(1) It is smaller and takes up much less room than a horizontal engine ofsimilar power. The cost

•
of the engine itself and of the engine-house and foundations is thereby reduced .
(2) Electric generators and small-diameter fans normally run at high speed (revs. per min.) and
a vertical engine may be direct-coupled to them, thus eliminating the cost of gearing, and saving the
space required for such gearing and the losses due to it.
(3) There is-a gain in steam economy owing to the reduction in cylinder condensation consequent
upon the maintenance of a higher mean temperature of the cylinder-walls. ·
• (4) The engine gives a more even turning movement to the shaft, thus avoiding the necessity for
a very heavy flywheel.
(b) The Belliss and Morcom Engine is a well-known type of quick-revolution vertical engine, the
principal features of which may be enumerated as follows:-
(1) Apart from small engines (below 75 HP.) which may be single-cylinder engines, the B. and M.
Engine is either a twin-cylinder non-compound engine or a twin-cylinder compound engine or a triple-
expansion engine.
(2) It is fitted with piston slide-valves operated by an eccentric or e~centrics from the crank-shaft.
(3) The speed ranges from about 200 to 750 revs. per min., the lower figure applying to a triple-
expansion engine of about 2,500 HP. and the higher figure to a single-cylinder engine of about 10 HP.
A 500 kilowatt electric generating set runs usually at about 300 r.p.m.
(4) All working parts are totally enclosed, thus preventing access of dirt or dust and reducing the
attention required.
(5). All bearings are force ...lubricated, and the interior of the base of the engine forms an oil-well
or sump into which drains all oil escaping from the bearings. Immersed in the oil is a small pump
whose plunger is worked from a pin on the slide-valve eccentric strap. The pump draws its oil supply
through a fine wire-gauze strainer and discharges it at a pressure of 10 to 20 lbs. per sq. inch through
a specially arranged system of oil-pipes and channels which lead to all parts requiring lubrication.
Only a small quantity of" make-up" oil needs to be added from time to time to maintain the supply
in the oil sump.
(6) A governor is fitted directly to the shaft and thus rotates at the same speed as the engine.
In some types the speed is regulated by throttling only, and in others by a combination of throttling
and variable expansion.

2. (a) What is meant by superheated steam and (b) what are the advantages of using it? (c) In
what way must the design and working of steam plant be modified when superheated steam is used?

SUPERHEATED STEAM.
- (a) Superheated steam is steam which, when no-longer in contact -with water (i.e. after it has
left the boiler) has had additional heat imparted to it, thus raising its temperature beyond that of

•
saturated steam at the same pressure .
(b) The advantages of superheated steam are that it is dry and its temperature can be reduced
to an extent corresponding to the amount of superheat without any condensation taking place. It
may thus be delivered at the engine in a dry condition (provided the pipe range is efficiently insulated),
and, if the degree of superheat is sufficiently high, the steam may remain dry until the point of cut-off.

(5011)
 SP/4
Steam Engines and their Accessories
--- _:~-:§]2 ------·-·-·-----
Hence initial condensation of the steam is avoided or reduced and the whole of the steam is available
to do efficient work on the piston. The drier the steam, the more work is done per pound ~f steam
passing through the cylinder. On the average, the saving in steam consumption is between 15 to 25
per cent.

(c) Modifications required. When superheated steam is used, the engine-cylinder must be made
of hard close-grained cast iron: metallic packing or patent composite packing should be used for
all stuffing boxes: all pipe-bends, tee-pieces, and valve-bodies must be of cast steel instead of cast
iron: and all valves and valve-seats must be made of some nickel-steel alloy instead of bronze or
gunmetal. Only a pure mineral oil of high flash-point (550 °F. upwards) must be used as a cylinder-
lubricant. Turbine-blades must be made of nickel-steel or other special alloy, and casings of cast steel.

3. A cross-compound engine has two cylinders 20 ins. and 36 ins. diam. with 36 ins. stroke -. The
indicator diagrams show mean effective pressures of 26 lbs. per sq. in. and 8 lbs. per sq. in. in the
respective cylinders. What is the Ind. HP. of the engine at 100 r.p.m.?

HP. OF COMPOUND ENGINE.

•
PLAN 26 x 3 x (202 x 0 ·7854) x (100 x 2)
Ind. HP. of high- 148 ·5 HP.
pressure cylinder 33,000 33,000
PLAN 8 x 3 x (36 2 x 0 ·7854) x (100 x 2)
Ind. HP. of low- 148 ·1 IfP.
pressure cylinder 33,000 33,000
Total Indicated HP. 296 ·6 HP.
•

, 4. A single-cylinder engine (double-acting) with a piston 24 ins. in diam. and 36 ins. stroke w~
working at 100 r.p.m. Indicator diagrams were taken with a 4<o spring, and their mean heights
for the two ends of the cylinder were 1 ·24 and 1 ·32 ins. respectively. What Ind. HP. was the
engine. developing ? .·

HP. OF SINGLE-CYLINDER ENGINE.

Each inch of diagram height represents 40 lbs. per sq. inch.
Average pressure from one end 1 ·24 X 40 - 49 ·6 lbs. per sq. inch.
Average pressure from other end 1 ·32 x 40 - 52 ·8 lbs. per sq. inch .
. ·. Mean effective pressure (49 ·6 +
52 ·8) --:-- 2 = 51 ·2 .lbs. per sq. inch.
PLAN 51 ·2 x 3 x (24 2 x 0 ·7854) x (200)
Ind. HP. = 421 ·3 HP.
33,000 33,000

5. A double horizontal, double-acting, engine is required to develop 750 Ind. HP .. at a speed of IOO
r.p.m. The boiler-gauge pressure is 100 lb. per sq. inch and steam is to be cut off at t stroke.
Determine the diam. of the cylinders and the length of stroke required, if the back-pressure amounts
\\
0_
, to 21 lbs. per sq. inch absolute and the length of stroke is twice the diam. of the cylinder. Assume
a diagram factor of 0 ·8 and a fall of 5 lbs. per sq. inch between boiler and engine.

TO CALCULATE SIZE OF ENGINE.

pressure at engine stop valve = (100
Initialabsolute +
15) - 5 = 110 lbs. per sq. inch.
1 +
hyp. log. R 1 1 ·0986 +
Theoretical M.A.P. = p x ------- = 110 x =llOxO ·7=77 lbs. per sq. in.
R 3
TheoreticalM.E.P. :-- 77--,-- back-pressure = 77 - 21 = 56 lbs. per sq. inch.
Actual M~E~P~·-allowing-fordiagram factor == 56 x o-s ~ {say) 45 lbs.']>er sq. inch.
2d
Let d = diam. of each cylinder in ins. Then A = d 2 x 0 ·7854 sq. ins. and L = .:': ft.
12
PLAN 45 x 2d x ( d 2 x 0 ·7854) x 200
Hence Ind. HP. x 2 cyls. and 750 x · 2 cyls,
33,000 12 x 33,000
750 x 12 x 33,000
It follows that d a = 10,500
45. x 2 x 0 ·7854 x 400
And diameter of each cylinder = d = 3 y 10500 = 22 ins. ; length of stroke = 44 ins.
 SP/4
The Universal Mining School, Cardijf. -A./3
6. One steam engine may give 1 Ind. HP-hour for 30 lbs. of steam, whilst another does the same

• work using only 11 lbs. of steam. What are the probable causes of this difference in efficiency?

CAUSES OF DIFFERENCE OF EFFICIENCY BETWEEN ENGINES.

Such a large difference in steam consumption implies a difference in type between these two engines,
It is evident that an engine using only 11 lbs. of steam per Ind. HP.-hour is either a compound-condensing
engine, or a triple-expansion condensing engine, whereas the engine using 30 lbs. of steam is only a
simple non-condensing engine.
A compound engine uses less steam for a given amount of work because the range of temperature
in each cylinder is smaller and the losses due to cylinder condensation are reduced.

Further, the use of a condenser for the exhaust steam reduces the back-pressure acting against
the piston and this r_esults in more work being obtained from a given weight of steam.
Finally, the steam can be cut off at an earlier point in each stroke and this permits a greater degree
of expansive working.
~bsidiary factors are that the engine using 11 lbs. of steam per Ind. HP.-hour may be supplied
with superheated steam at a higher initial pressure; it may be lagged more efficiently with heat-
insulating material; and it may be better designed and maintained generally, adequate attention being
given to valves, drain-cocks, piston, and packing-glands, so reducing losses due to steam leakage .

• 7. Describe and illustrate by means of a simple sketch, the principle of the steam indicator.
.
inf 01-mation may be deduced from an indicator diagram ?

THE STEAM INDICATOR.

What

Briefly, the steam indicator comprises a small cylinder, C, in

which there is a piston, P, whose vertical position is regulated by the
steam-pressure existing in the engine-cylinder, counter-balanced by
a spiral spring, S. The cylinder, C, is screwed into a socket on the engine-
cylirider and the tap, T, enables steam to be admitted to the indicator
when desired. The vertical movement of piston P is transferred via a
piston-rod to the pencil, B, which thus traces a line upon. the indicator
card, A. This card is normally mounted on a drum pivoted vertically
but is here shown, for simplicity, ina horizontal slide or frame, F, which
is alternately drawn to right and left by the reciprocating motion of
the engine-crosshead opposed by the weight, W, their motion being
transmitted to the frame via a flexible cord as at K. The vertical
movement of pencil B combined with the horizontal (or rotary)

•
movement of the card results in a closed figure being drawn, known as
the indicator diagram. · Principle of the Steam
Indicator
An indicator diagram gives a reliable record of the distribution of steam in an engine-cylinder
at any inst ant during the stroke. In particular, it tells us :-
(1) The pressure existing at either side of the piston at any moment.
(2) The effective pressure actuating the piston at any moment.
From this we may calculate
(3) The mean effective pressure on the piston throughout the stroke.
(4) The indicated horsepower of the engine.

In addition, the diagram gives full information as to the points of cut-off, release, and compression,
and enables us to discover any defect in the setting of the valves, or any leakage of steam past the
piston or through the valves.

CARDIFF PRI)ITERS LTD'

 SP/S

• FOUNDED

WAS
THE
THE
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING
iN THE
U.M.S.

SCHOOL
WORLD.
1883;.

FIRST
•r.
fil'K~~~af ~
A. SOUTHERN LTD.4t

~Jwof,
COPYRIGHT

IS

IT
THIS PAPER
SUPPLIED
CONDITION
IS
EXCLUSIVELY
O~·
THAT
RESERVEC>
FOR
INCORPORATED 1931. CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN USE

• STEAM PLANT

• •
Lesson SP/S
HEAT AND STEAM CALCULATIONS

(1) The Temperature of a Body may be defined as" the relative degree ofhotness " of the body;
or as "the thermal state of the body considered with reference to its power of communicating heat
to other bodies." Thus, if one body gives up heat to another, we say that its temperature is higher
than that of the body which receives the heat. Transfer of heat always takes place from the body
at higher temperature to the body at lower temperature, irrespective of the relative sizes of the
bodies involved.
There are two thermometer scales in general use in Great Britain, namely the Centigrade Scale·
and the Fahrenheit Scale. On the C scale, the freezing point of water is marked as 0° C and the boiling
point as 100° C; with an interval of 100° C between them. On the F scale, these points are marked
as 32° F and 212°F respectively, with an interval of 180° F between them. These two points, namely

•
the freezing and boiling points o~ water, are termed the" fixed" points on each scale .
, It will be seen that a Centigrade degree is 9/5 or 1 ·8 times a Fahrenheit degree and this ratio·
should be carefully remembered. Heat and steam calculations may be carried out in either C or F
units and students should be familiar with· both.
(2) Quantity of Heat. The quantity of heat in a body depends on three things : (a) .its temperature,
(b) its mass or weight, and (c) the kind of material of which the body is made. Water is capable of
absorbing more heat per unit mass per degree rise in temperature than any other substance.

(3) Units. of Heat. There are four different units of heat in quite common use, namely :-
(a) The British Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 lb. of water through l ° F at standard atmospheric pressure.
(b) The Centigrade Heat Unit (C.H.U.) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 lb. of water through 1 ° C at standard atmospheric pressure. It is sometimes called
the pound-calorie and is equivalent to I B.Th.U. x l ·8.
(c) The Gramme Calorie, or simply the calorie, is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gramme of water by 1 ° C. One B.Th.U. is equivalent to 252 calories,.
and one C.H.U. is equivalent to 453·6 calories.
(d) The Kilo-calorie, or simply the large calorie, is equivalent to 1000 gramme calories.
Of these units, only the first two need be further considered here. In passing, we may mention
that the "Therm " used by gas engineers is equivalent to 100,000 B.Th.U.

(4) The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. Heat and energy are mutually convertible and the
ratio of mechanical energy to heat is constant. This statement is known as the First Law of
Thermodynamics. Experiments by Dr. Joule and others have shown that, in terms of en~rgy,
1 B.Th.U. is equivalent to 778 ft. lbs., and 1 C.H.U. is equivalent to 1,400 ft. lbs.
(4705.)'
 SP/5
Heat and Steam Calculations.
2
----------- --~--------------------------------
(5) The Specific Heat of a Substance may be shortly defined as the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance through 1 °. Thus the specific heat of water"
is taken as 1, and that of air (at constant pressure) 0 ·238 ; wrought iron is 0·113 ; copper 0 ·095 ~
1eao.0·031; and mercury 0·033. That is to say, 1 B.Th.U. will raise the temperature of 1 lb. of water
'through 1 o F, and 1 C.H.lJ. through 1 o C, but it only requires 0·238, 0·113, 0·095, 0·031, and 0·033
of these units of heat to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of air, iron, copper, lead and mercury respectively
-through 1 ° F or 1 ° C.

The specific heat of a substance varies according to whether it is in the solid, liquid, or gaseous
·state. For example, the specific heat of water is 1, but that of dry saturated steam is less than half,
being 0·37 at constant volume, and 0·48 at constant pressure. The specific heat of superheated
steam varies from 0 ·48 to 0 ·75 according to its temperature. The specific heat of ice is about 0 ·5.

When any substance is heated so as to cause a change of temperature:-

Quantity of heat required = Mass x specific heat x rise in temp. = w x s x t . . . ..... ( l)

Example 1. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 100 lbs. of copper from 35° C
to 150°C?
•
Answer. Heat required = 100 x 0·095 x 115 = 1092·5 C.H.U. = 1966·5 B.Th.U.

. (6) The Specific Heat of a Gas at Constant Volume is the ratio of the heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb. of the gas one degree, when the volume of the gas is maintained constant, as
-cornpared with the quantity of heat required by 1 lb. of water. In this case, the gas cannot expand
and the heat applied is all spent on increasing its temperature and pressure.

(7) The Specific Heat of a Gas at Constant Pressure is a similar ratio to (6) except that the pressure
is kept constant and the gas expands as its temperature rises. The heat is, therefore, expended partly
in increasing the temperature and partly in overcoming whatever pressure is resisting the expansion of"
the gas. Hence, part of the heat is spent, not on increasing temperature, but on doing work. It
follows that the specific heat at constant pressure is always greater than at constant volume.

(8) The Heat Capacity of a Body is simply the product of its weight multiplied by its specific
.heat, and it represents the weight of water which would take up as much heat as the body for the same
rise in temperature. It is sornetimes called the "water equivalent" of the body.

(9) Expansion and Contraction. When a rod of metal is heated, it increases in length by an
amount which depends on (a) the kind of metal, (b) the rise in temperature, and (c) its original length
when cold. Conversely, when the rod is cooled, it decreases in length by a similar amount.

Let us suppose we had a rod 500 ins. long, which increases in length to 501 ins. when the
-temperature is increased by 100° C. Then the total increase in length is 1 inch on an original length
-of 500 ins., or 0 ·002 inch on an original length of 1 inch, whilst the increase of length per degree C
per inch of length will only be 0 ·00002 inch. To this fraction, we give the name" coefficient of linear
-expansion," defined shortly as "the increase in length COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR EXPANSION.
per unit of original length for each degree of tempera-
ture rise." Material Per °C. Pet °F.

Cast Iron 0·0000110

I 0•0000061
Some typical values. of the coefficient of linear Steel .. 0•0000119 0•0000066
-expansion for different materials are given in the Copper .. 0•0000172 0·0000096
adjoining Table. Mercury .. 0•0000600 0•0000333
Water .. 0·0001586 0·0000881
I

Let L and L1 = original and final lengths ; t = rise in temperature : and o: ---:- coefficient of linear
-expansion. ·
Increase of length L1-:- L
Then, Coefficient of expansion = a = ------------- .............. (2)
Original length X rise in temp. L x t
'!
Increase in length = original length x coefficient x rise in temp. = L x a x t (3)

Final length = L +L a t = L (1 + a t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 4)

·(*Note-.The specific heat of water is not strictly constant at all temperatures, being slightly less than 1 at :n·5°C,
and rising gradually to more than I in both directions from this temperature. But the value of 1 can be
taken as accurate enough for all ordinary purpose s.)
 SP/5
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
3

Example 2. What amount of expansion will take place in a steel steam pipe 120 ft. long when the
te.mperature is raised from 50°F to 350° F, assuming 1Y. = 0 ·0000066 per °F ?

Answer. Increase in length = L x 1Y. x t = 120 x 0·0000066 x 300 = 0·2376 ft. = 2·85 ins.
When areas are involved, the coefficient of area or superficial expansion may be taken as twice the
linear coefficient. ".'hen volumes are involved, the coefficient of cubical expansion may be taken as.
three times the linear coefficient.

(10) Sensible and Latent Heat. When heat is applied to a body, it may either raise its tempera-
ture, or cause it to change its physical state.
(a) Sensible heat is that heat which, when applied to a body, causes a change of temperature·
in the body. It may be calculated by formula (1) given earlier in the lesson.
(b) Latent heat is that heat which must be imparted to a body to bring about a change of state'
(i.e., from solid to liquid, or liquid to gas) without change ()f temperature.

(11) The Latent Heat of Fusion is the quantity of heat which must be applied to unit mass of a
solid to change it to the liquid state, the temperature remaining unaltered. For example, ·to change
1 lb. of ice at 0° C''irrto 1 lb. of water at 0° C requires an expenditure of 80 C.B.U. or.144 B.Th.U., and
this "latent" or "hidden " heat will be given up when the water is again allowed to freeze.

(12) The Latent Beat of Vaporisation is the quantity of heat which must be applied to unit mass
of a liquid to change it to the gaseous state, the temperature remaining unaltered. To convert 1 lb.
of water at 212° F into steam at 212° F requires an expenditure of 970·6 B.Th.U. or 539·22 C.H.U~
Note carefully that these figures only apply to steam at standard atmospheric pressure.

PROPERTIES OF STEAM.
(13) The term "properties " in this connection refers to all those measurable quantities which
enter into calculations relating to steam and are utilised by users and designers of steam plant. Such
properties include (a) the pressure of the steam, (b) its temperature, (c) the sensible. heat applied to
the water, (d) the latent heat, (e) the total heat in the steam, (f) the weight per cubic foot, and (g) the
volume per lb. of steam. All these properties are embodied in Stearn Tables, of which Tables 1 and
2 are abridged examples.

(14) Let us consider first how steam is produced, be-

ginning with water at 32° F or 0° C.
Heat is applied to the water so raising its temperature
to the evaporation temperature or boiling point. The heat
so applied is therefore sensible heat.
At the boiling point, further heat is added to the water,
so converting it to steam at the same temperature. It is-
therefore latent heat. During evaporation the steam con-
tains particles of water in suspension and is, therefcre, known
as wet steam. Eventually, however, when sufficient latent 0°C
heat has been supplied, a point is reached when no particles oR·-t-~~~~-'-~~~~~~~-
32oF TIME--
of moisture remain in the steam and the latter is then called
dry saturated steam. If further heat be added at this stage, Fig. 1. Production of Steam.
steam becomes superheated and its temperature again rises.

(15) At this~point, it is necessary to consider what we mean by the boiling point of a liquid.
The boiling point of a liquid may be defined as that temperature at which
the pressure of its vapour exactly balances the pressure on. its surface.
At standard atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water is 100° C or 212° F, but, when the
pressure is reduced, as at the
top of a mountain, or in a condenser, or in the suction pipe of a pump,
the water will boil at a lower
temperature. Conversely, 'when the pressure is increased, as in a boiler,
the water must be raised to a higher temperature before it will ''boil." There is· only one specific
boiling point temperature at a given pressure and this temperature is called the " saturation " or
" evaporation " temperature at that pressure. The steam at that temperature is called "saturated
steam" and we have seen that it may be either wet or dry steam.

(16) Steam Tables. We are now in a position to set out abridged Tables of Steam Properties
and to comment further on the various figures given therein. Table 1 gives the figures based on
Fahrenheit Units, and Table 2 those based on Centigrade Units.
 SP/5
Heat and Steam Calculations
4

TABLE 1. PROPERTIES OF DRY SATURATED STEAM. FAHRENHEIT UNITS.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) I (7)

I II
Absolute Temp. of Heat in Latent Total I Weight Volume
Pressure: Steam. the Water Heat. Heat. I per Cub. Ft. i per lb.
lbs. per Degs. F. from 32°F. B.Th.U. (3) ·+ (4) lb. i cub. ft.
sq. inch. B.Th.U.
\ I I
0·5 79·6 47·6 1048·5 1096·1 0·0016 643·0
I·O
2·0
101·7
126·1
69·7
94•0
1036· 1
1022·2
I 1105·8
1116·2
0·0030
0•0058
II 334·0
178·7
3·0 141·5 109·4 1013·2
I 1122·6 0·0085 i 118·7
~ . I
4·0 153·0 121·0 1006•7 1127·7 0·0111 90·6
j
5·0 162·3 130•2 1001·6 1131·8 0·0136 73•5
10·0 193·2 161·3 982·5 1143·8 0·0261 I 38·42
14•7 212·0 180•1 970·6 1150·7 0·0373 26·80
15·0 . 213·0 181·2 970•0 1151·2 0·0381 i 26·28
I

' 20·0 228•0 196·3 960·4 1156·7 0·0498 I 20·09

. 50·0 281·0 250•2 924·6 1174·8 0·1175 ! 8·52
100·0 327·8 298•5 889'.7 1188·2 0·2258 4·43
150•0 358·4 330·6 864•5 1195· 1 0·3320 I 3·02
200·0 381·8 355•5 844·0 1199·5 0·437 I 2·29
250·0 401·0 376·1 826·0 1202· 1 0·541 1•84
500•0 467·0 449·6 755•8 1205·4 1•08 I 0·96
I I
i

Attention is directed to the following points relating to the foregoing Table:-

Column (1) shows the absolute pressure of the steam in lbs. per sq. inch above zero.pressure.
It
must be remembered that the pressure gauge on a boiler registers only the pressure of the steam above
atmospheric pressure, and so the gauge pressure must be converted to absolute pressure before the
data given in Table 1 can be applied. The Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure.
The atmospheric pressure is 14 ·7 lbs. per sq. inch, but is commonly taken as 15 lbs. per sq. inch in
-ordinary calculations.

Column (2) shows the saturation temperature (t) of the steam in degrees F, corresponding to the
absolute pressure named in column (1). Note that the temperature rises with increasing pressure
(though not in the same ratio) and that saturated steam can only have one particular temperature
at a given pressure.

Column (3) shows the sensible heat (h) that must be applied to each lb. of waterat 32° F to raise
it to the saturation temperature. In problems, if the feed water is above 32°F, we must adjust the
sensible heat figures in Column (3) to make allowance for the heat already in the water. Note also
that the sensible heat increases as the pressure increases because the water has to be raised to a higher
temperature before it will boil. ·

Column (4) shows the latent heat (I) of the steam at different pressures. Note carefully that
'tbe latent heat decreases as the pressure increases.

Column (5) shows the Total Heat (H) of the steam reckoned from water at 32°F. It is simply
the sum of the sensible and latent heats and the figures must be adjusted, as before, if the feed water
·is at a higher temperature than 32°F. Note that, although the total heat increases somewhat with
rise of pressure, the increase is not so great as might be expected and very little more heat is required
to generate a given weight of high-pressure steam than to generate the same weight of low-pressure
steam. On the other hand, the available energy. in high-pressure steam is capable of being much
-more efficiently utilised. Much more work can beobtained from it than from low-pressure steam-
much more than is represented by the extra weight of coal consumed in producing it. Hence the
-economy of high steam pressures.

Column (6) shows the weight in lbs. of a cub. ft. of steam at the pressures given.

Column (7) shows the -volume-in cub. ft. of 1 lb. of steam at tile corresponcllng pressures. - It is
-called the specific volume of the steam. The figures are merely the reciprocals of those in column (6).
Note the very high values at low steam pressures .
. Example 3. What is the heat required to convert 25 lbs. of water at 32°F into steam at 100 lbs. per
sq. in. absolute pressure ?
. Answer. From Table 1, the total heat per lb. is 1188·2 B.Th.U .
:. Heat required for 25 lbs. = 1188·2 x 25 - 29,705 B.Th.U.
Example 4 •. What amount of heat would be required i:n Exarnple 3 if the feed-water ·temperature
were 70°F?
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
5

Answer. Total heat from 32°F 1188·2 B.Th.U.

Deduct heat in feed water = 70 - 32 38·0 B.Th.U.

•
Total heat from 70°F 1150 ·2 B.Th.U .

Heat required for 25 lbs. = 1150 ·2 x 25 28,755 B.Th.U.

TABLE 2. PROPERTIES OF DRY SATURATED STEAM. CENTIGRADE UNITS.

The adjoining Table
I
I
gives the figures corres- ( 1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
--------
ponding to Table 1, but Abs. Boiling Sensible I Latent Total
expressed in Centigrade
I
I
Pressure. Temp. Heat h. Heat L. Heat H.
Units and omitting
columns (6) and (7) which
lbs. per sq. in. Degs. C. C.H.U.
I C.I-LU.
I
C.H.U.
·-
are exactly the same in
0·5 26•42 26·45 I 582·50 608•95
1·0 38•74 38•74 575·60 614•34
both cases. The Table 2·0 52·27 52•22 I 567·89 620·ll
I
is applied in exactly the. 3·0 60·83 60·78 562·89 623·67
same way and must be 4•0 67·23 67·20 559·29 I 626·49
5·0 72·38 72·36 i 556·24 628•60
used. instead of Table 1 10·0 89'58 89•61 Ii 545·82 635·43
whenever the tempera- 14•7 IOO·OO 100·06 I
I 539·22 639·28
tures are expressed in 15·0 100·57 100·65 I 538·9 639·5
centigrade degrees or 20·0 108•87 109·05 I 533·6 642·6
50·0 138·3 139·0 513·8 652•8
whenever the question
asks for results in C.H. U.
100•0 164·4 165·8 494·3 I 660·1
150·0
200·0
181 ·3
194·3
183·7
197·5
''
II
480·3
468·9
I 664·0
666•4
250·0
500·0
204·9
241·7
209·0
249•8
I 459·2
419·9
I
I
668·2
669·7
I I

(17) Quality of steam. By the "quality" of steam is meant whether it is wet saturated steam,
dry saturated steam, or superheated steam. All the figures given in Steam Tables refer only to dry
steam at the saturation temperature, i.e., at the temperature corresponding to its pressure.
In many cases, however, the steam at saturation temperature is wet steam containing particles of
moisture in suspension, not yet converted to steam. Such steam contains the· whole of the sensible
heat .corresponding to its temperature and pressure, but only a portion of the latent heat, depending
on the proportion of the steam which is dry, i.e., on the " dryness fraetton," as it is termed. If this
fraction is, say :x =.= 0·9 then only 0 ·9 of the latent heat would be present, and, in general:-
The total heat ·of wet steam == h + :xL ( 5)
Example 5. What is the total heat of 1 lb. of wet steam at 200 lbs. per sq. inch absolute if the dryness
fraction is 0·88. Give the answer in C.H.U.
Answer. Total heat=: h + xL - 197·5 + (0·88 x 468·9) = 610·1 C.H.U.

(18) Superheated Steam. The total heat of superheated steam is equal to the total heat H of
dry saturated steam, as given in the Steam Table, plus the additional heat supplied to the steam to
raise its temperature. The amount of this extra heat is given by the expression r-s-
Heat supplied during superheating = w x Cp x (t2 - t1) •••••••••• (6)
Where w = wt. of steam in lbs._: Cp = specific heat of steam at constant pressure ;
t2 = final temperature of superheated steam; t1 = evaporation temperature.
Example 6. Find the total amount of heat required to generate 1 lb. of steam at ~00 lbs. per sq. inch
absolute superheated to 300°C from water at 80°C. Take Cp = 0 ·5.

Answer. Temp. of dry saturated steam at 200 lbs. per sq. inch = 194 ·3°C.
Degrees of superheat = t2 - t1 = 300 - 194·3 = 105·7°C.
Total heat of dry saturated steam (from Table 2) 666·40 C.H.U.
Heat supplied during superheating = 105·7 x 0 ·5 52 .SS

Total heat from 0°C 719·25 C.H.U.

Deduct heat in feed water 80·00

Total heat required 639·25

(19) Where no Steam Tables are available, the latent heat and the total heat of dry saturated
steam at any given: evaporation temperature t°F may be found approximately from the following
formulae, deduced from Regnault's experiments :-
Latent Heat of Steam 1,114·4 - 0·7 t B.Th.U (7)
Total Heat of Steam l_,082·4 + 0·3 t B.Th.U ..................• (8)
 SP/5
Heat and Steam Calculations
6

BOILER PERFORMANCE.
The performance of a boiler may be estimated by the weight of water evaporated to steam per
lb. of fuel burned. Let us consider some of the principal factors involved.
(20) The Calorific Value of a. Fuel. This rs TABLE 3.
the total quantity of heat, expressed in B.Th.V. or CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS.
or in C.H.U., given out by 1 lb. of the fuel, supposing
perfect combustion · to have taken place. The
calorific value may be determined experimentally
Fuel. I B.Th.U.
per lb.
C.H.U.
per lb.
by means of a calorimeter, or bv calculation from Anthracite .. .. 15,000 8,330
the known chemical analysis. The figures given Bituminous Coal .. 14,400 I 8,000
for coal in Table 3 apply to large clean coal, but Lignite .. .. 12,500 6,940
the fuelburned under boilers often consists of small Coke .. .. .. 13,000 7,200
or dirty coal, slack or dross, with a correspondingly Wood .(dry) .. .. 8,000
I 4,440
lower calorific value.
Petroleum .. .. 20,000 I 11,100
Hydrogen . . . .1 62,000 34,400
Carbon (burnt to C02) 14,600 8,110
(21) The Evaporative Power of a Fuel. This Carbon (burnt to CO) 4,400 2,440
is the weight (in lbs.) of water at 212°F or 100°C
which would be converted into steam at the same
I
temperature by the complete combustion of 1 lb. of the fuel. In other words:-
Calorific Value of Fuel.
Evaporative Power of a Fuel = ------------------ ... -. (9)
Latent Heat of Stearn at Atmospheric pressure
Example 7. What is the evaporative power of 1 lb. of good coal having a calorific value of 14,000
B.Th.U. per lb.?
Answer. Evaporative power = 14,000 --:-- 970 ·6 = 14 ·4 lbs.
This is the theoretical quantity of water at 212°F that would be converted to steam at 212°F
in a perfect boiler, assuming no heat losses. In practice, of course, no such result could possibly be
realised. About 10 or 11 lbs. of water evaporated "from and at 212°F" per lb. of fuel buj'nt must be
regarded as an exceptionally high figure which may be obtained in super-power station work, where
close supervision and regular steaming result in very high efficiency, but, in ordinary mining practice,
a good average result is about 8 lbs. of water per lb. of fuel. In many cases, where coal of poor quality
is used, the quantity of water evaporated. is nearer 6 lbs. of water per 1b. of fuel.
(22) Equivalent Evaporation from and at 212°F (100°C). This is a term in common use when
comparing the evaporative capacities of two or more boilers burning the same kind of fuel, but working
under entirely different conditions as to feed-water temperature and steam pressure or superheat.
A boiler is judged and compared with other boilers, not by the weight of water W which it actually
evaporates per lb. of fuel burnt, but by the weight of water it is capable of evaporating, supposing
the temperature of both the water and the steam to be 212°F. This is a standard which provides a
definite basis of comparison between boilers, however different their feed-water temperatures and
steam pressures.
Example 8. During an 8-hour test, a boiler burns 6,500 lbs of coal and evaporates 48,000 lbs. of
water at a temperature of 150°F into steam at 185 lbs. per sq. inch gauge pressure.
What is the equivalent evaporation from and at 212°F ?
Answer.-Weight of water actually evaporated per lb. of fuel= W = 48,000 --:-- 6,500 = 7·38 lbs.
Total heat in 1 lb. of steam at 200 lbs. absolute, reckoning from 32°F 1199·5 B.Th.U.
Deduct heat in feed water = 150 - 32 118·0

Heat actually supplied to 1 lb. of steam 1081·5

But, if the water and steam had both been at 212°F, only the latent heat of steam at atmospheric
pressure, namely 970 ·6 B.Th.U. would have been required per lb. of water and more water than W
. 1081·5 .
would have been evaporated, namely --- == 1 ·114 times as much water. Hence:-
970·6
1081·5
Equivalent evaporation 7·38 x 8 ·22 lbs. of water per lb. of fuel,
970·6
Total heat supplied to the steam.
=WX . ..... (10)
· Latent 'heat of. steam at atmospheric pressure.
EFFICIENCY OF STEAM PLANT.
(23) In general terms, the Work done in a given time output
efficiencv of anv x 100%
machine. ~ Energy supplied in the same time input
In a complete steam engine plant, however, the transformation of the heat from the fuel burned
under the boiler into useful work done by the engine takes place in a number of stages, and it is frequently
necessary to determine, not only the overall efficiency, but also the efficiency of each stage. In general
the following efficiencies require to be considered:-
(a) Thermal efficiency of boiler. (c) Mechanical efficiency of engine.
(b) Thermal efficiency of engine. (d) Overall thermal efficiency of boiler and engine.
 ~··

SP/5
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
7

(24) Thermal Efficiency of Boiler. This is measured by the ratio between the heat in the steam
generated per lb. of fuel (above the temperature of the feed water entering the economiser) and the

•
gross calorific value of the fuel itself. In other words:-
Heat producing steam per lb. of fuel
Thermal efficiency of a. boiler ............ (11)
Calorific value of fuel.
Example 9. What is the thermal efficiency of the boiler referred to in Example (8), assuming the
calorific value of the coal to be 14,000 B.Th.U. per lb.
Answerv-=The total heat units transferred to the 7 ·38 lbs. of steam evaporated =----= 7 ·38 x 1081·5
B.Th.U.
7 ·38 x 1081·5
· Efficiency of boiler = = 0·57 = 57%.
14,000
In practice, boiler efficiencies range from below 50% ·to about 86%, the losses being due partly
to heat passing to waste up the chimney; partly to heat in unburnt fuel passing to the ash-pit ; and
partly to heat-radiation.
(25) Thermal Efficiency of a Reciprocating Engine. This is measured by the ratio between (a)
the work done on the piston by the steam in a given time, and (b) the heat in the steam supplied to
the engine by the boiler in the same time. Hence :-
Work done on piston by steam
Thermal . Efficiency of Engine = .....•.. (12)

•
Energy in the steam supplied
The numerator of the fraction is obtained from the Indicated HP, but to obtain the denominator
requires a comprehensive test of the installation. It is necessary to measure the weight of steam
supplied to the engine in a given time and the total heat per lb. of steam above that contained in 1 lb.
of water at t'he exhaust temperature and then to convert thcquarrtity of heat so obtained to ft.-lbs.
per minute. Irr practice, the thermal efficiency of a reciprocating steam engine rarely exceeds 20%,
the remainder of the heat being wasted in the exhaust steam, in cylinder condensation, and in radiation.
(26) Carnot Efficiency. No matter how "perfect "a steam enginern.ay be, it is totally impossible
for a thermal efficiency approaching 100% ever to be realised. The maximum possible theoretical
T1-T2
thermal efficiency (never attained) can be shown to be ---- where T1 = the initial absolute
-: . T1
temperature of the live steam, and T2 = the final absolute temperature of the exhaust steam. Thus.
if an engine uses steam at 200 lbs. per sq. inch absolute, having a temperature of about 382°F =
382 + 459 = 841° absolute, and rejects it at 3 lbs. per sq. inch absolute, the temperature then being
about 142°F = 601° absolute, its maximum theoretical thermal efficiency (in this particular case)
841 - 601
would be E = = about 30%.
841
This is known as the Carnot Efficiency, and it thus appears that when heat is transformed into work;
there is always an unavoidable loss of about 70%> of the heat, when working . between the limits of
temperature normally used in reciprocating steam engines.
(27) Mechanical Efficiency of a Reciprocating Engine. This is the ratio between (a) the useful
work done, and (b) the energy supplied to the piston by the steam in the same time. Hence:-
Useful, Effective, or Brake HP
Mechanical Efficiency of Engine = .... (13)
Indicated HP
It is this ratio that is commonly referred to simply as " the efficiency of an engine," but sufficient
has been 'Said to show how indefinite the word "efficiency" can be, unless it is more closely defined.
Mechanical efficiencies vary greatly, being very low under light load, but rising to as much as 90%
or more in some cases, when the engine is running at normal full load. The loss of energy is due
to its being dissipated in overcoming the friction of the moving parts.
(28) Overall Thermal Efficiency of a Complete Steam Plant. This is given by the ratio between
(a) the heat equivalent of the useful work done, and (b)the heat-energy liberated from the fuel supplied
to the boiler. It is equal to the product of the three efficiencies previously mentioned. Thus, if the
boiler efficiency is 60%,. the thermal efficiency of the engine 15%, and the mechanical efficiency 80%,
t)ie overall thermal efficiency will be 0 ·60 x 0·15 x 0 ·80 = 0 ·072 :-- 7 ·2% in this particular case.
-------~~(2_9_).T_he Efficienc~ of a Steam Turl>_ine.~ Th~HE_oLa_turbine-:ca.ru:i.ot-b@~i-nQ.iGat@fl.~1-iI{'e-t-l'tat-----
of a reciprocating engine, and thus the total work done by the steam cannot. readily be determined.
The overall thermal efficiency of a turbine, however, can be expressed either as (a) the ratio of the
heat equivalent of the Brake HP of the turbine to the heat energy in the steam supplied, or (b) in the
case of a turbo-generator, the ratio of the heat equivalent of the electrical energy· generated to the
heat energy in the steam supplied. In either case, the thermal efficiency so found can be compared
with that of a reciprocating engine, provided that the same basis (either brake HP or electrical output)
is taken in both cases.
The brake HP of a turbine can be measured by ttestirig with a special brake, or by measuring the
electrical output of a generator driven by the turbine and making an allowance for the losses in the
generator.
 SP/5
Heat and Steam Calculations.
8

The overall thermal efficiency of small turbines (say about 500 KW output) .is approximately
the same as that of reciprocating engines of similar output, but larger turbines (exceeding about 1,000
KW) give much better results. In the case of very large high-pressure turbines (say, 5,000 K'W'upwards,
using steam at 350 lbs. per sq. inch or more, superheated to, say, 750°F) overall thermal efficiencies
of 30°/0 or more have been realised.

(30) The Efficiency Ratio. As it .is impossible for the thermal efficiency of a steam engine ever
to reach'100°/0, no matter how" perfect" the engine may be, it is customary to compare the thermal
efficiency of an actual engine or turbine, not with an unattainable perfection of 100%, but with the
calculated thermal efficiency of a corresponding theoretical standard steam engine working through a
given cycle between the same temperature and pressure ]imits as the actual engine to be compared.
The particular cycle usually chosen is that known as the Rankine Cycle.
It is beyond the scope of this Lesson to describe the details of this cycle, or the method of calculating
the theoretical thermal efficiency of an engine working through it, and the student who desires fo pursue
the matter further is referred to books on Thermodynamics. It is sufficient to note that the Rankine
Efficiency (i.e., the thermal efficiency of a theoretical engine working through the Rankine Cycle)
is somewhat less than the Carnot Efficiency previously mentioned and it therefore represents an
efficiency more nearly attainable by actual prime :inovers. The efficiency ratio itself is then given by
the expression :-
Thermal Efficiency of Actual Engine
Efficiency Ratio = ................ (14)
Thermal Efficiency of Standard Engine
Thus, if the actual thermal efficiency of an engine is 20%, and the Rankine Efficiency of a
corresponding standard engine is, say, 25%, the efficiency ratio would be 20 -:- 25 = 0·8 = 80%. A
knowledge of this ratio enables the designer to know at once how near he has approached to the
maximum thermal efficiency possible with the particular steam conditions under which the engine
is working.
(31) Coal Consumption. The theoretical amount of energy in. l lb. of average coal having a
calorific value of 14,000 B.Th.U. = 14,000 X 778 = 10,892,000 ft. lbs. Now l HP = 33,000 ft. lbs.
per minute -- 33,000 X 60 =nearly two million ft. lbs. per hour. If, therefore, all the available energy
1 in the coal could be converted without loss into mechanical work, 1 lb. of this coal per hour would "
perform 10,892,000 -:- 2,000,000 = nearly 5! effective HP. In other words, if a boiler and engine
could utilisethe heat of such coal without loss, they would require rather less than~ lb. of coal per
brake HP - hour.
In practice, the minimum consumption of coal for reciprocating engines is. about 1 lb. of coal per
Indicated HP - hour (and, of course, more coal per brake HP =hour) and this represents an overall
thermal efficiency of about 20%, a figure which agrees with what has been said earlier. With large
steam turbines, the coal consumption will be somewhat Iess than 1 lb. of coal per HP~ hour.
Summarised briefly, the principal heat losses in a steam plant comprise (a) heat lost in the boiler
flue gases; (b) loss by unburnt fuel and by radiation; and (c) unused heat passing off in the exhaust
steam or in the water from the condenser. These losses may be reduced by good design and main-
tenance, but they can never be wholly avoided.

TEST PAPER SP/5~.

1. Give concise definitions of (a) British Thermal 5. Water is fed into a boiler at a temperature of
Unit, and (b) Centigrade Heat Unit. (c) 180°F and is converted to dry steam at 135
Calculate the number of B.Th.U. required to lbs. per sq. inch by gauge : 9 lbs. of water are
raise the temperature of 120 gallons of water converted into steam for each lb. of coal con-
from 60°F to l40°F and (d) the number of sumed, the coal having a calorific value of
C.H.U. required to produce 100 lbs. of dry 15,000 B.Th.U. per lb. Calculate the
saturated ste arn at 150 lbs. per sq. inch efficiency of the boiler.
absolute -from feed water at 30°C. 6. One boiler (a) produces, per lb. of fuel; 9 lbs.
2. A boiler has been supplied with feed water at the of dry steam at 250 lbs. per sq. inch absolute
rate of 270 gallons per hour and at a tempera- from feed water. at 62°F ; and another boiler
ture of 60°F. Afeed-waterheaterisintroduced (b) produces per lb. of the same fuel, 10 lbs. of
which raises the temperature of the water to dry steam at 100 lbs. per sq. inch absolute from
160°F .. What saving, in tons of fuel per week feed water at l 10°F. Compare the perform-
of 7 days, each of 24 hours, will this effect ances of the· two boilers on the basis of their
if I lb. of coal gives out 9,000 B.Th.U's in· equivalent evaporative capacities.
effective heat? . 7. One pound -of steam when tested was found to
~~~~~~~s-. -ta]-Befine-tl1e-~:&:f>i=e~ss-i011~G0effiGien.t-af-linea,,___ ~_cna.tain 600 C.H.U. reckoning from 0°C~. ~T=h~e'------
expansion." (b) Calculate the increase in pressure of the steam was 500 lbs. per sq. inch
length in inches of a 6 ft , steel rule when the absolute. What was the condition or quality
temperature is .raise d from· 60°F to 200°F. of the steam ?
Take the co-efficient of expansion as 0·0000066 S, A boiler having a fire grate surface of 50 sq. ft.
per· degree F. generates 9,000 lb. of dry steam per hour at
4. Define the terms (a) sensible heat, (b) Iaterrt an absolute pressure of 250 lbs. per sq. inch
heat, (c) total heat, and (d) dryness fraction, from feed water at 60°C. If the efficiency
in relation to steam. (e) Calculate the of the boiler is 0·78, find the quantity of coal
number of C.H.U. required to generate 500 lbs. burned per sq. foot of grate surface per hour.
of wet steam, dryness fraction 0·8, at .150 Calorific value of coal, 7,700 C.H.U. per lb.
lbs. per sq. inch absolute, from feed water
at 62°C.
 SP/5·

A/1

FOUNDED 1883. COPYRIGHT

"I". A. ·SOUTHERN LTD.~
THE U.M.S. THIS PAPER
WAS THE FIRST IS SUPPLIED Ollf·
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING
iN THE
SCHOOL
WORLD.
fil'Ke~euaf ~ ~Jwof, CONDITION
IT IS
EXCLUSIVELY
THAT
'RESERVEC>
FOR
IHCORPOR1.TED 1931.. CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN USE.

STEAM PLANT
Ans~ers SP/5
HEAT AND STEAM CALCULATIONS

1. Give concise definitions of (a) British. Thermal Unit, and (b) Centigrade Heat Unit. (c)

• Calculate the number of B.Th.U. required to raise the temperature of 120 gallons of water from 60°F
to 140°F and (d) the number of C.H.U. required to produce 100 lbs. of dry saturated steam at 150 lbs.
per sq. inch absolute from feed water at 30°C.
HEAT UN\TS.
(a) The Br.i.tish Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.) may be defined as the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 lb. of water through one degree Fahrenheit (or 1~0 part of the heat required to .
• raise 1 lb. of water from 32°F to 212°F) at standard atmospheric pressure. It is equivalent to 778 ft.
lbs. of energy.
(b) The Centigrade Heat Unit (C.H.U.) or pound-calorie is the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 lb. of water through one degree Centigrade (or 1~0 part of the amount of heat
required to raise 1 lb. of water from 0°C to 100°C) at standard atmospheric pressure. It is equivalent
to 1·8 B.Th.U. and to 1,400 ft. lbs. of energy. ·
(c) Heat required to raise 120 gallons of water through 80°F = Mass x Spec. Ht. x rise in temp.
= 120 galls. X 10 lbs. in a gallon x 1 x 80 degrees F = 1,200 X 80 = 96,000 B.Th.U ..
(d) Heat required to produce 100 lbs. of dry steam at 150 lbs. per sq. inch absolute.
Total heat in lb. of dry steam (from Tables). 664 ·O C.H.U.
Deduct heat in the feed water above 0°F 30·0

Heat supplied per lb. of steam 634·0

it · Heat required for 100 lbs. of steam 63,400 C.H. U.

2. A boiler has been supplied with feed water at the rate of270 gallons per hour and at a temperature
of60°F. A feed-water heater is introduced which raises the temperature of the water to 160°F. What
saving, in tons of fuel per week of 7 days, each of 24 hours, will this effect, if 1 lb. of coal gives out
9,000 B.Th.U's in effective heat?
ECONOMY OF FEED WATER HEATER.
Heat units saved per lb. of feed water = 160 - 60 = 100 B.Th.U.
Heat units saved per week = 100 X 270 galls. x 10 lbs. X 24 hrs. X 7 days.
100 x 270 x 10 x 24 x 7
:. Coal saved per week -------------- tons = 2 ·25 tons.
9000 x 2240

3. (a) Define the expression " coefficient of linear expansion." (b) Calculate the increase in
length in inches of a 6 ft. steel rule when the temperature is raised from 60°.F to 200°F. Take the
coefficient of expansion as 0 ·0000066 per degree F.
COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION.
(a) When a body is 'heated, it expands by a fixed amount for each degree rise in temperature
and the "coefficient of linear expansion" is a constant which expresses the increase in length per
unit of original length for each degree of temperature rise. In other words:-
Increase of length L1 - L
Coefficient of expansion
Original length X rise in temp. L X t
(b) Increase in length of 6 ft. rule original length x coefficient x rise in temp.
72 ins. x 0 ·0000066 x 140 = 0 ·066528 inch.
(4705)
 SP/5
Answers on Heat and Steam Calculations.
A/2

4. Define the terms (a) sensible heat, (b) latent heat, (c). total heat, and (d) dryness fraction, in

•
relation to steam. (e) Calculate the number of C.H.U. required to generate 500 lbs. of wet steam,
dryness fraction 0·8, at 150 lbs. per sq inch absolute, from feed water at 62°C.
PROPERTIES OF STEAM.
(a) Sensible heat (h) may be defined, in general, as heat which produces a rise in temperature when
supplied to a body and, in relation to steam, it refers more specifically to the heat that must be supplied
to 1 lb. of water to raise it to the boiling point or saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure.
It is also sometimes called the " liquid heat." or the "·heat in the water." Furthermore, the heat
supplied to the dry steam. itself after completion of evaporation is properly described as "sensible
heat " because it raises the temperature of the steam to form superheated steam.
(b) Latent heat (L) may be. defined, in general, as heat which produces a change of state, from
solid to liquid, or liquid to gas, without change of temperature, In relation to steam, it refers to the
amount of heat required to evaporate 1 lb. of water at the saturation temperature to steam at the
same temperature.
(c) The total heat of steam (H) is the sum of the sensible and latent heats = h + L and it is
sometimes called the " total heat of evaporation." H, however, the steam is superheated, the total
heat = h + L + Cp {t2 - ti), where Cp is the specific heat of the steam, and t2 - t1 is the rise in
temperature, i.e. the degrees of superheat.
(d) The dryness fraction is a term applied to "wet " steam which contains particles of moisture
not yet converted to steam because they have not received the requisite amount of latent heat. T4e
dryness fraction, x, represents that proportion of each lb. of water which has actually been converted
to dry steam. Hence :-
Latent heat supplied.
Dryness fraction = :X: =
Latent heat of dry steam.
(e) Heat required to produce 500 lbs; of wet steam at 150 lbs. per sq. inch abselute,
Sensible heat per lb. of water from 0°C = 183 ·7 C.H.U~
Latent heat per lb. = 0·8 X 480 <~ 384 ·2

Total heat of wet steam from 0°C ·----, 567·9

Deduct heat in feed water at 62°C 62·0

Heat supplied per lb. of water 505·9

Heat required for 500 lbs. of steam = 505 ·9 x 500 ----, 252,950 C.H.U.

5. Water is fed into a boiler at a tem.perature of 180°F and is converted to dry steam at 135 lbs.
per sq. inch by gauge: 9 lbs. of toater are converted into steam for each lb. of coal consumed, the coal
hauing' a calorific value of 15,000 B. Th. U. per lb. Calculate the efficiency of the boiler.
:BOILER EFFICIENCY.
Absolute pressure = 135 + 15 = 150 lbs. per sq. inch.
Total heat per lb. of steam from 32°F = 1195·1 B.Th.U.
Deduct heat in feed water =...: 180 - 32 = 148·0

Heat required per lb. of steam 1047·1

Heat required by 9 lbs. of water = 9 x 1047 ·1 9423 ·9 B.Th.U. ,; heat in 1 lb. of coal
15,000 B.Th.U.
Heat m steam 9423·9
Efficiency of boiler 0·628 62·8%
Heat supplied in coal 15,000

6. One boiler (a) produces, per lb. of fuel, 9 lbs. of dry steam at 250 lbs. per sq. inch absolute from
feed water at 62° F; and another boiler (b) -produccs.per 'lb. of the same fuel, 10 lbs. of dry steam at
100 lbs. per sq. inch absolute from feed water at 110° F. Compare the performances of the two boilers
on the basis of their equiualent evaporative capacities.
EQUIVALENT EVAPORATIVE CAPACITIES OF BOILERS .
. Boiler (a). Total heat per lb. of dry steam at 250 lbs. per sq. inch 1202·1 B.Th.U.
Deduct heat in feed water 62 - 32 30·0
Total heat from 62°F 1172·1

1172·1
Equivalent evaporation from and at 212'1' = 9 x -.--- ~ 10 ·87 lb.
970·6
 SP/5
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
A/3

Boiler (b). Total heat per lb. of dry steam at 100 lbs. per sq. inch 1188·2 B.Th.U.
Deduct heat in feed water = 110 - 32 78·0

Total heat from ll0°F 1110·2

1110 ·2
Equivalent evaporation from and at 212°F 10 x --- = 11-44 lb.
970·6
It is thus evident that boiler (b) is more efficient than boiler (a) in the ratio 11 ·44 10·87
1 ·05 or by about 5%.

7. One pound of steam when tested was found to contain 600 C.H.U. reckoning from 0°C. The
pressure of the steam was 500 lbs. per sq. inch absolute. What was the condition or quality of the
steam?
QUALITY OF STEAM.
The total heat of dry saturated steam at 500 lbs. per sq. inch absolute is 669·7 C.H.U. The
steam in the question contains only 600 C.H.U. and it must, therefore, bewet steam. Such steam
contains the whole of the· sensible heat, but only part of the latent heat of dry steam.
Total heat present in the wet steam 600·0 C.H.U.
Sensible heat at 500 lbs. per sq. inch absolute 249 ·8

•
Latent heat present in steam 350·2 C.H.U .

Latent heat supplied 350·2

Dryness fraction of steam = 0·834.
Latent heat of dry steam 419·9
[Alternatively. Total heat of dry steam 669·7 C.H.U.
Total heat in the wet steam 600 ·O

Deficiency of latent heat . 69·7

Deficiency of latent heat 69·7

Wetness fraction of steam 0·166.
Latent heat of dry steam 419·9
Dryness fraction of steam 1 ·000 - 0·166 = 0·834.]

8. A boiler having a fire grate surface of 50 sq. ft. generates 9,000 lbs. of dry steam per hour at
an absolute pressure of 250 lbs. per sq. inch from feed water at 60°C. If the efficiency of the boiler
is 0·78, find the quantity of coal burned per sq. foot of grate surface per hour. Calorific ualue of
coal, 7,700 C.H.U. per lb.
FUEL CONSUMPTION OF BOILER.

•
Total heat of steam at 250 lbs. absolute 668·2 C.H.U .
Deduct heat in the feed water 60·0

Heat required per lb. of steam 608·2

Heat required for 9,000 lbs. of steam = 608·2 X 9,000 = 5,473,800 C.H.U.
Weight of coal required at 7,700 C.H.U. per lb. = 710·9 lbs., assuming perfect combustion.
' 100
But the boiler efficiency is only 78%. Hence, weight of coal used = 710 ·9 X - = 911 ·4 lbs.
78
Quantity of coal per square foot of grate area = 91 l ·4 -:- 50 = 18-23 lbs.
 SP/7
-1-

FOUNDED 1883.
THE U.M.S.
T. A. SOUTI-IERN LTDc." COPYRIGHT.
THIS PAPER

•
WAS THE FIRST

fil'lie'Urn,euar ~
ia SUPPLIED ON·
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING
IN THE
SCHOOL
WORLD.
~,Jwof, CONDITION
IT IS
THAT
RESERVE[)·
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
INCORPORATED 1931; CARDIFJ:i... (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN USE.

STEAM PLANT.

Lesson SP/7
THE STEAM TURBINE. ·

• The steam turbine to-day holds a very important place in all branches of engineering,
especially in connection with large electric generating sets and, to a less extent, as the prime
mover for turbo-air-compressors, centrifugal and turbine pumps, and power station auxiliaries
such as bojlsr fans, rotary air-pumps, and condensate. extraction pumps.
Technically, a steam turbine is a very simple mechanism, consisting essentially of blades-
fixed on the periphery of'cliscs or wheels which are free to rotate rapidly. The rest of the
-macb ine serves merely to maintain the blades in their correct relative positions, to conduct
the steam suitably to and from them, and to transmit their turning effort to the shaft.
Practically, the design and manufacture of a complete steam turbine plant, commencing
with the boilers and ending with the condenser and its auxiliaries, calls for the highest skill
and long experience, if the most efficient results are to be obtained.
The Principle of' the Steam Turbine.
If steam be allowed to expand in a nozzle or passage without doing external work, its
pressure and temperature will fall and the heat energy so liberated will be transformed without
appreciable loss into kinetic or velocity energy. In the steam turbine, the velocity energy so
generated acts upon a series of curved vanes or blades, mounted 9n the periphery of a wheel
(or series of wheels, discs, or drums) with the result that the energy is transferred to the vanes.
and causes rapid rotation of the wheels. It will be noted that the energy of tbe stea!in is
utilised. in its kinetic f'orm, whereas in reciprocating engines the steam acts directly by its
static pressure upon a piston. The manner in which this kinetic energy is made available and
utilised determines the class to which the turbine belongs.
CLASSIFICATION OF. STEAM TURBINES
Turbines are commonly referred to as either (a) impulse turbines or (b) reaction turbines.
An impulse turbine is one in which the steam. expands and attains a high v«.~focity
in fixed nozzles or guide-passages. The jet of high-speed steam then strikes or impinges
upon the vanes or blades of the revolving element or rotor and causes the latter to rotate in
the same direction as the entering steam. No fall of pressure or increase of velocity takes place
between the moving blades. Examples of this class of turbine are the De Laval, Rateau, ,Zoelly, and
Curtis turbines.
A pure reaction turbine is one in which the steam expands and attains a high
velocity in moving nozzles or between moving blades only, and not at all in stationary·
nozzles or guide-passages. This is illustrated by the diagram fig. 1, where
steam is led along a hollow spindle to a pipe pivoted thereon and having
a right-angled nozzle at each end. It is obvious that the reaction of the
steam issuing from the nozzles will propel the pipe in the direction of the
curved arrow, i.e. in a direction opposite to that of the issuing steam. No
existing turbine, however, works on purely reactive principles, although the
1·~
·
A-">
Parsons turbine is commonly spoken of as a "reaction" turbine. In this l~
o'-"
turbine, the fall of pressure and expansion of steam, accompanied by ~
increase of velocity, occur between both fixed and movingblades, and the tvttil.LS
impulse and reaction effects are inextricably bound up together, both . . h
· h · . . · Fig. 1 Diagram s ow-
p 1aymg t err part. ing reaction effect.

(4710)
SP/7
-2- -T'he Steam Turbine.

Table 1. Theoretical Velocity attained by Steam during Expansion

Table 1 shows the theoretical velo- ! Theoretical- Theoretical

city attained by steam when expanded Absolute l Velocity into Velocity vacuum
into a
of 28"
Pressure: Atmosphere:
from given absolute pressures to lower mercury:
pressures. Note that even steam at
atmospheric pressure escaping into a
lbs. per sq. inch
I
ft. per sec. ft. per sec.
--
h

partial vacuum attains a very high

velocity, and it is this fact that enables 10 I! - 2677
exhaust steam at about 16 to 19 lbs. 15 -- 2900
per sq. inch absolute to be efficiently 30 1602 3263
\
utilised for driving steam turbines. -Lt 50 2108 3510
explains also the desirability o:f m.ain- 100 2645 3804
t:aining a high vacuum in the oom- 150 I 2900 3893
denser so that advantage may be 200 3075 4100
taken of the kinetic energy made avail- 250 32(')7 4190
able in the final stages of expansion. I
It is found, in the case of a high-pressure condensing turbine, that an increase of vacuum-_
from 25 to 26 ins. results in a saving of steam consumption of 4o/0 ; an increase from 26 to 27
ins. results in a saving of 5 % ; and an increase from 27 to 28 ins. results in a saving of 6 % ; a
total saving of 15°/0 by increasing the vacuum from 25 to 28 ins. Moreover, the same amo~nt
0£ heat is converted. to useful -work by a given weight 0£ steam at 16 lbs. per sq. i:qch .
absQlute expanded to 28·5 inches o:f vacuum, as by the same weight of' steam at:
170 lbs. per sq. inch expanded to atmospheric pressure. No further comrnerrtis needed
to emphasize the serious waste of energy that accompanies the use of non-condensing reciprocat--
ing engines which exhaust their steam to the atmosphere.
Table 2. Volumes 0£ Stea:rn at Low Pressures
Table 2 shows the great increase in
the volume of a given weight of steam Absolute pressure I VacuurnIn ins. Volume of 1 lb.
as it approaches a perfect vacuum, and lbs. per sq. in. of mercury of~t~m
~~~~~~~-:~--.I.~~~~~~1
it is evident from this that very small
decreases of pressure result in large in-
creases in the velocity of the expanding 0·26 29·40 1220
steam. In fact, the volume of steam 0·36 29·19 869·5
with a_ 29 inch vacuum is nearly four 0·45 28·99 699·3
times that of steam with a 26 inch 0·50 28·90 632·9
vacuum. This explains why itis not 0·69 28·51 469·5
possible to work re.dprocatirig en- 0·94 28·00 349·6
gines with a vacuum higher than 1·42 27·03 237·5
about 26 inches, the reason being 1·68 26·50 201·6
that the low-pressure cylinder and ports 1·93 26·00 177·6
cannot be made large enough to accorn-
rnoda te the large volume of steam at higher vacua. The difficulty is to get the steam out of".
the cylinder with sufficient speed to ensure that the back-pressure acting against the piston is
as low (or nearly so) as the actual pressure existing in the condenser. _A further difficulty' arises
from the greatly increased cylinder condensation that results when live steam is admitted to a
cylinder that has just been in communication with a condenser at very low pressure and tem-
perature. These considerations do not apply to the turbine, where the steam-flow is. unidirec-
tional, where the low-pressure end can be amply designed to· accommodate the increased
volume of steam, and where it is possible to provide a very large opening through which the
steam can pass away without resistance to the condenser.
ACTION OF STEAM TURBINES
The De Laval Im.pulse Turbine (invented in 1883) is the simplest form of impulse
turbine having only one wheel, on the periphery of which are mounted a series 0£
_curved blades, vanes, or buckets (fig. 2).
Stearn is introduced through stationary convergent-
divergent nozzles and impinges on the blades at a very high
velocity, so causing rapid rotation of the wheel. Note the
manner in which - the steam strikes the blades and escapes
almost immediately at the opposite side, the general direction
of the steam through the wheel being axial, i.e. parallel to
the turbine-shaft.
The-reason for the use d ~(:):r:lvergent-divergent :r:l<:)~~1~; i;
as follo_ws :~The ~team in the pipe supplying a nozzle is at
approximately bmler-pressure, but this falls to atmospheric
pressure (or condenser pressure, if a condenser is used) by the
time the steam has left the nozzle. As the steam passes through
the nozzle, it expands, but the increase ef volume due to fall of
pressure is r:t first much less than the increase ef oelocity due to Fig. 2. Del.iavai I:mpulse-
tr-ansforrnation of pressure energy into kinetic energy. A Wheel a:nd Nozzles
given weight of steam at this higher velocity does not therefore
require such a large passage to accommodate it, and the throat of the nozzle is accordingly
constricted slightly. As the pressure falls further, however, a stage is reached where the expansion·
of the steam becomes more rapid than the increase of velocity, and so it is necessary to increase progres- ·
sively the area of the nozzle to accommodate a given weight of steam flowing per second.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
SP/7
-3-

It has been found that, if the final pressure of steam at the discharge side of a nozzle is
· greater than 58% of the initial pressure, maximum discharge of steam is obtained by using
a convergent nozzle. Conversely, if the final pressure is less than 58% of the initial pressure (as
in the case of the De Laval turbine) the nozzle must first converge arid then diverge to give the
most efficient results. Such a nozzle is called a convergent-divergent nozzle, or sometimes

•
:·an " expanding " nozzle .
Fig. 3 (a) shows the manner in which the blades are
. dovetailed into the rim of the wheel. Fig 3 ( b) shows a
.cross-section of several blades; and fig. 3 ( c) is a perspective
view of one blade. Fig. 4 ~hows diagrammatically the
position of the nozzles, relative· to the blades, and the varia-
. tion of pressure and absolute velocity (i.e. velocity relative
·to fixed objects) from the time the steam enters the .nozzles
until it leaves the blades. The pressure and velocity lines
are purely diagramrp.atic and are not drawn to scale.
It will be seen that the steam enters the nozzles at high (a)
·pressure arid low absolute velocity and, having been (c)
reduced from boiler-pressure to condenser-pressure within
the nozzles, its volume is thereby greatly increased and it
emerges at a high absolute velocity, ranging from 3,000 to
IJIJIJI] (b)
4,000 ft. per second.
The fall of absolute velocity as the steam passes between Fig •. 3 De Laval Turbine Blades
the blades is due to the work done by the steam in trans-
ferring part of its kinetic energy to the blades while chang-
ing its direction, and is shown by the descending portion of

• the dotted velocity line. No expansion of steam takes place

-between the blades of the rotating wheel, and there is no
drop in pressure between the two sides of the wheel. As the
inlet and, outlet areas between .the blades are equal and
.as the volume ef steam is constant, the velocity of the steam,
relative to the blades, is also constant, although as already
pointed out, there is a fall in the absolute velocity. The
• steam-pressure within the turbine casing is always at .or
near condenser-pressure and the steam escapes to the
-coridenser immediately after passing axially through the
blades. Little or no end-thrust is set up and no thrust
'bear ings are.. required. /NI.ET
STEAM-
PRES5URE
Table 3. The De Laval Turbine '
\

Horsepower
developed
I Dia. ?fwheel
ins.
(2)
Revs. per
minute
(3)
Speed of Vanes:
ft. per Sec.
(4)
_J t!!...-r:!~- - _,.
VE.LOC!TY
I
I
\ Jitf..11?.I!:!!~!.l
VELOCITY
/"/NAL STEAM-
PRESSURE:
(1)
I I
-
5 - 4 30,000 515
15 6 24,000 620
30 8·9 20,000 773 Fig. 4. Pressure-Velocity Diagrani
50 11·75 16,400 846 for De Laval Steam Turbine
100 19·75 13,000 1116
300 I 29·)3 . ~.. 10,600 1365
450 I 29·53 10,600 1365
600 II 37-40 9,500 1548
I I I
-
Table 3 gives certain data concerning the DeLaual Turbine. The high figures in column
(3) arise from the fact that the whole o:f the available kinetic energy o:f.the expanded
steam is ti;-ansf"erred to, a single set of' blades. Such high speeds are quite unsuitable for
the direct driving of most machinery, and gearing must, therefore, be introduced between the
turbine and; the driven machine. Double helical gearing is usually adopted, the gear-wheels
being made of solid steel and the speed reduction being of the order of about 10 to 1. _ The
De Laval ,turbine is not of great importance in miriing work, the other types about to be described
being more suitable for high powers and having the advantage of r-urrnirrg at reasonably low
speeds, usually about 3,000 r.p.m.
'The. Rateau and the .ZoeUy l:rnpulse Turbines
These two types, introduced about 1898, are similar in prrnciple and may be considered
.as a number of De Laval impulse-wheels in series. Several wheels are mounted within
a single casing upon a common shaft and are separated from one another by solid discs or
diaphragms in which, at intervals around the periphery, are a series of nozzles, or tapered
, passages formed by guide-vanes conducting the - steam from one set of blades to the next.
 The Steam Turbine.

Fig. 5 shows the general arrange-

ment; together with a pressure-velocity
diagram. The nozzles, in this case, are
of the simple convergent type. Steam
at high pressure enters the first set of
nozzles and partially expands with con-
sequent increase in absolute velocity. It
then enters the first row of moving blades
in which the pressure and the relative
velocity remain unchanged, whilst the
absolute velocity is reduced by reason of
the work done upon the blades. The
steam then enters the second row of
nozzles and is again partially expanded
and increased in absolute velocity ready to
enter the second row of moving blades,
and so on. ·
The gradual reduction in the pressure
of the steam, and its gradual expansion as
: ~

it passes through the several stages, results I ~

I
in steam-velocities ranging from 1,000 to I
I
'' I I
I
I
2,000 ft. per second (i ,e. they are. lower I I I I
\ I
than in the De Laval) and enables the \
I
I
I ''FINAL
I I '
Rateau and the ,Zoelly types to be run I
at co:mnparatively low rotational I I V.§f:~f.!7Y
speeds and to be direct-coupled to other
machines. £XHAUST

•
PRESSURE
As the fall of pressure is divided into
stages, such turbines are said to be
pressure-cmm.pounded. The number of Fig. 5. Pressure-Velocity Diagram for
steps or stages usually varies from about Rateau or Zoelly Turbin~s e e

four to fifteen, being largely determined by N =Stationary diaphragms and nozzfes

the range of expansion and by the per- B =Blades mounted on periphery of revolving wheels
missible peripheral velocity of the wheels.
This velocity does not usually exceed
650 ft. per second.

The Curds I:n::11.pulse

Turbine
This was introduced in 1900 and is similar
to the two just described, except that only 4 to
6 stages are used, and each wheel is, so to
speak, a corn pound-wheel having two (or
more) rows of blades (marked B in fig. 6)
.separa.ted from each other by a hollow space or
annulus. Fitting into the annulus between
adjoining sets of moving blades are stationary
blades fixed to the interior of the turbine-casing
and exactly similar to the moving blades, but
-cur'ved in the reverse direction. The· steam
passes from stage to stage through nozzles or
tapered passages, N, in the diaphragms so that
each complete stage consists of' one· set of
nozzles and a compound-wheel.
The steam attains high absolute velocity in
the nozzles and a portion of this is abstracted by
impulse upon the first row of rnovirig blades.
No fall of velocity occurs in the stationary blades,
whose function is merely to guide the steam on
to the second row of moving blades, where a
further fall of absolute velocity takes place.
The provision of two (or more) sets of blades on
each wheel i n conjunction with one (or more)
sets of fixed guide-blades, S, allows of a larger
·fall of pressure at one set ofriozzles than in the
Rateau or the ,Zoelly turbines, and thus a s:rnaUer
nunmber of wheels is required for a given
total pressure-drop,, whilst a low peripheral
speed can still be maintained. Fig.6. Pressure-Velocity Diagram for Curtis
The Curtis turbine is said to be pres- Turbine
sure-velodty~co:im.pounded because the pres- N=Nozzles
.sure-fall is divided into stages (as in the Rateau B =Moving blades
S =Stationary blades
and the ,Zoelly types) and because each stage
takes up the absolute velocity by successively
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
SP/7
-5-

passing the steam through two or more rows of blades without fall of pressure. The efficiency
of this arrangement is not so high as that of the pressure-compounded turbine, and if efficiency
was the only consideration, com.pound wheels (or Curtis, or uelocity-compounded, or so-called
velocity wheels) would not be employed; but they econom.~se in space and cost, and are fre-
quently employed even in the Rateau and the ZoeU.y types of turbine in the first
stage of expansion only, in order to obtain a large drop of pressure and temperature in the
first nozzles, thereby reducing the stresses upon the turbine-casing.
The nozzles of a simple velocity-compounded impulse turbine (i.e. having only one set
of nozzles and one irnpulse-wheel carrying its several rows of blades) would be of the convergent-
divergent type, but where several stages are used (i.e. the machine is 'both velocit y-corn-
pounded and pressure-compounded) then convergent nozzles are adopted, as in fig. 6. In
the first few stages of an impulse turbine (of any type) it is usual to have" partial" admission,
i.e., the steam is admitted through nozzles which only extend around a part of the circumference.
In the later stages, there is complete or " all round " admission.
"TIre Parsons Reaction Turbine
The first Parsons turbine was constructed by the Hon .. Charles Parsons at Gateshead-on-
Tyne in the year 1884. It was direct-co~pled to an electric. generator and developed about
7! kW. running at 18,000 r.p.m. It was non-condensing, the steam-pressure being 6'0 lbs.
per sq. inch and the steam-consumption 200 lbs. per: kW-hour.·, Many turbines have since been
built with an output of 50,000 kW. and even more, the steam-consumption being as low as
10 lbs. per kW-hour. The great strides that have taken place in turbine engineering need no
further comment.
Fig, 7 is a purely diagrammatic
drawing . to illustrate the principle of
the Parsons "reaction" turbine. It con-

•
sists of one rotor or drum on the peri-
phery of which are attached a number
of rows or rings of blades which revolve
with the drurn, Secured to the interior
of the casing ar~ rings of fixed blades
which fit between the rings of moving
blades, so that there are moving and
•fixed blades alternately from end
to end of the turbine. The moving
blades are exactly similar to the fixed
blades, but are oppositely directed.
Steam is admitted around the whole
circumference at the inlet end, so that M F M f M
there is what is termed "all-round INLET
admission." STEAM
PRE~~URE
The fixed blades correspond to, /
and fulfil the same purpose as, the \ / \ FINAL
nozzles described in connection with '\, /
'IVELOCITV
impulse tur bines, i.e. the steam is re- 1

duced in pressure and increased in INITIAL /

-;·
velocity as it passes between the blades. VELOCITY EXHAUST
·The passages between the moving ' PRESSURE
blades are also tapered· or conver-
_ gent (therein differing from impulse-
blades) and. the stea:rn loses pres- Fig. 7. Pressure-Velocity Diagram for Parsons
Reaction Turbine
sure an_d e:x.p~nds as it passes be-
tween them. The velocity of the F =Fixed guide- blades
steam, relative to the moving blades, is thus M =Moving blades
'greater at the outlet side of each set of
moving blades than at the inlet side.. so as to permit the passage of the increased volume of
.stearn. The absolute velocity of the steam, however, as shown by the dotted velocity-line in
fig. 7, is less at the outlet side than at the, inlet side, in spite of the expansion that has taken
place, because the fall in velocity due to the transference of kinetic energy is greater than the
increase of velocity due to expansion of the steam, except near the outlet side of the blades.
The pressure-curve in fig . .7 shows how the fall of pressure takes place smoothly and contiriuously,
the velocity of the steam being always kept at a relatively low figure. The number of rows of
moving blades is usually much greater than in impulse turbines, so that the fall in pressure
from row to row is less and the velocity of the steam is less, being of the order of 300 to 700 ft.
per second. The power transmitted to the shaft by each row is therefore less, and blades of
much smaller cross-section than in impulse turbines may be employed.
In a Parsons turbine, the- driving torque on the shaft is produced partly· by the impulse
derived from the steam jets issuing from the fixed guide-blades, and partly by the reaction
of the jets leaving the revolving blades because.. owing to the convergence of the passages, the
steam is accelerated as it passes through the revolving blades, and because the steam is diverted
in a direction almost directly opposite to the line of motion of the blades. This effect is not
-eritirely absent even from impulse turbines, but is much less pronounced in them because no
expansion of steam takes place between the moving blades.
SP/7
-6- The Steam Turbine.

As the volume of the steam increases in passing from the high to the low-pressure end of
the turbine, it is necessary to increase the area of the passages, and this is effected by increasing
the blade-heights from row to row and by increasing the diameter of the rotor. in .iriter'vals or
·stages. Usually, the rotor is divided into three, and sometimes four, sections, though only two
are shown in fig. 7. In impulse turbines, on the other hand, the blade-heights and the diameter

•
of the rotating wheels and fixed casing usually increase gradually towards the low-pressure
end (see fig. 8). ·
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF STEAM TURBINES
Both impulse and reaction turbines alike may be employed m several different ways :~
(1) High-pressure Condensing Steam Turbines
In this type, high-pressure steam is admitted to the turbine direct from the boilers, and
the exhaust-steam passes direct to the condensing plant, the vacuum in the condenser being
usually of the order of 27 to 29 inches.
In a turbo-generator of 2,500 kW. capacity, the weight of steam required may be taken as
approximately 12·5 Ib s, per kW-hour. As 1 kW-hour is approximately equal to 1! hp.-hours,
this is equivalent to about 9·5 lbs. per effective hpv-hour, and (assuming an overall efficiency
-of 80% for the turbine and generator) to about 7·5 lbs. per indicated Irp.vhour ofa corresponding
reciprocating engine. This, of course, is a much better performance than has ever been obtained
with reciprocating engines, in which the minimum weight of steam required is about 10 lbs.
per ind. hp.-hour.
It should be noted that the horseoower of a turbine cannot be " indicated " in the same
way as that of a reciprocating engine, ibut the actual effective power developed may be ascer-
tained by testing with a brake, or by measuring the electrical output of a generator driven by
the turbine and making an allowance for the efficiency of the generator.
The steam consumption of very large turbines has been reduced ·to as little as 10 lbs. per

•
kW-hour; whilst that of a turbo-generator of about 1,000 kW. output may be taken as about
15 lbs. per kW-hour. AUthe figures given refer only to tur bo-pl ants running at fullload with
high efficiency, and larger steam, consumptions are frequently met with in practice. For
outputs of less than about 1,000 kW., the steam consumption of turbines, with commercial
designs, is not less than that of high efficiency reciprocating sets, and the Iattervare frequently
installed instead of turbines in such cases.
(2) E.xhaust.;.steam Condensing Steam Turbines
In this type, exhaust-steam at a pressure of about 16 to 19 lbs. per sq. inch from none
condensing reciprocating engines, working more or less continuously, is admitted to the turbine,
and the steam from the latter passes direct to a condenser. Where necessary, a steam-accumu-
lator is inserted between the reciprocating engines and the turbine to equalise the fluctuation
of steam supply. The weight of exhaust-steam required is usually of the order of 30 to 35
lbs. per kW-hour.
Such turbines are rarely installed at collieries because a sufficiently constant and adequate
exhaust-steam supply is rarely available. throughout the 24 hours. It is desirable that an oil-
separator be placed in the steam-pipe leading to the turbine so as to prevent oil-Iadcn steam
-enter ing the turbine casing. The interior of a turbine requires no lubrication whatever, and
its. exhaust steam is thus oil-free, which is a great advantage when the condensate from the
-corideriser is used for boiler-feed purposes. It is highly important that· the vacuum in the
condenser shall be as perfect as possible with exhaust-steam turbines, owing to the
low initial pressure and the limited range of expansion. An addition of 1 inch ofvacuum from
28 to 29 ins. adds about 14% to the power of an exhaust-steam turbine for a given weight of
steam.
(3) Mixed-pressure Condensing Steam Turbines
A mixed-pressure turbine consists of two parts, a high-pressure and a low-pressure part.
Primarily, the turbine is used as an exhaust-steam turbine (see above)" with steam from
non-condensing reciprocating engines supplied to its low~pres~ure part, while the high-pressure
wheel runs round idly in steam oflow density. When the supply of exhaust-steam is insuffi-
ciein:.tto cope -with the load, high-pressure steam is fed to the high-pressure part,
whence it passes into the low-pressure part of the turbine, and there joins the other low-pressure
steam. If, at any time, no exhaust-steam whatever is available, the turbirie runs purely as a
high-pressure condensing turbine.
The view is generally taken that a high-pressure turbine is preferable to a mixed-pressure
tur bine if the low-pressure steam available from reciprocatirig-engiries is not more than sufficient
'to do at least half the load. Where steam plants are of small dimensions and are widely separated
from one another, mixed-pressure steam turbines offer no advaritage., and the use of condensers,
to existing engines, or the heating of boiler feed-water by the exhaust-steam are preferable
alrer natives.. Where suitable conditions exist for the installation of such turbines, however,
arid where· the~whole of the exhaust-steam is efficiently utilised, the· useful work done by the
steam may be almost doubled and electrical energy produced at a very cheap rate. In nearly
all cases, a steam-accumulator is necessary to equalise as far as possible. the fluctuations of the
exhaust-steam supply. Special governing mechanism is provided to regulate the admission
of high-pressure steam according to the sufficiency, or otherwise, of the low-pressure steam
available. ·
At collieries, the principal low-pressure steam supply is provided by the intermittent
exhaust from the winding engine and, to a less degree, by that from air-compressors and some-
 SP/7
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. -7-

times fan engines. The winding engine is a prolific steam-user, requiring about60 to 80 lbs.
of steam per effective (or shaft) hpv-hour, and a mixed-pressure turbine forms a valuable means
whereby the energy in the exhaust-steam may be recovered.
(4) Back-pressure Steam. Turbines
This type is merely a high-pressure turbine without condensing plant, the steam being
exhausted against a back-pressure of 25 to 40 lbs. per sq. inch absolute, and being then utilised
for heating purposes. The steam consumption is of the order of 45 to 50 lbs. per kW-hour.
(5) Pass-out, Reducing, or Bleed.er Turbines
This type is a high-pressure condensing steam turbine in which arrangements are made
for drawing off steam at some intermediate stage for heating purposes. Such a turbine may
run with all the steam passing through to the condenser, when no heating steam is required,
it then having all the features and advantages of a high-pressure condensing turbine; or with
all the steam passing out at the intermediate stage, it being then similar to a back-pressure
turbine; or in any way between these two extremes. Neither this type, nor the back-pressure
type, has a wide field of usefulness at collieries.
CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM TURBINES
There are so many varieties of steam turbines, 'and they differ so much in their design
and in their mechanical details, that it is only possible here to indicate, in general terms, the
main features of a typical mixed-pressure condensing turbiJ?e o:fthe i:rnpulse type.
Fig. 8 shows the arrangement of a mixed-pressure turbine having an output of 1,250·
B.H.P. (= about 930 kW.). The high-pressure section (shown on the left) consists of two·
wheels, the first being ~·velocity-compounded impulse-'W"heel having two rows of blades,
and the other being a single h:n.pulse-wheel. It is a full-admission machine, and . high-
pressure steam is admitted to the steam belt or passage and passes successively through the
two wheels before entering the low-pressure section of the turbine. The latter consists of"

• five single impulse-wheels to which low-pressure steam is admitted either from the last
high-pressure wheel or through the Lp. inlet between the high-pressure and low-pressure
sections. After passing through the low-pressure wheels, the steam is exhausted to the con-
denser throqga the wide opening shown. Each wheel is made from a solid steel forging and
is pressed on to the shaft, being held in position by sunk keys. On the periphery of the wheels
are mounted the blades, which are made of phosphor-bronze or (for superheated steam) of
nickel-steel (5% nickel) or stainless steel, and are provided with a fork or tongue for attaching
tt> the wheels to which they are securely fixed by counter-sunk rivets .

•
~--..-or'
fI I. 1-

d 11
--·I EXHAU IT TO
l..f . CONDtSER
i I
I L
ctiJ~~L PUMP
Fig~ 8. Sectional View of Mixed-pressure Turbine ·

The casing enclosing thewheels is cast in four sections which are bolted together circum-

•
ferentially and horizontally so that the two upper sections may conveniently be removed (by
means of the two lifting eyes shown) for inspection. The two left-hand sections, in which are
cast the h.p. steam belt and Lp, steam inlet, are in contact with high-pressure steam and are
made of cast steel; the two right-hand sections, which are only in contact with steam at a
low temperature and pressure, are made of cast iron. The casing is made with internal
recesses to receive the fixed diaphragms which are made of cast iron or cast steel and have·
steel guide-vanes (forming tapered nozzles) secured to them.
SP/7
-g- The Steam Turbine.

The sha:ft is :made of carbon-steel or nickel-steel and is supported by two cast iron
bearings lined with white. :metal, . their housings being each ·provided with a horizontal
joint and a lifting eye, so that the top can be taken off for inspection. Nea.r the end of the
shaft (at the left) is a thrust-headng designed to prevent lateral movement of the rotor towards

•
the low-pressure end should any unbalanced lateral forces be set up. Just to the right of the
thrust-bearing is a worm and worm-wheel by which the tachometer (speed indicator), governing
mechanism, and oil-pump are driven. The oil-pump is contained within the casing shown
suspended below the worm-wheel. All bear ings are lubricated by. oil under pressure.
Where the shaft passes through the turbine casing, sealing glands of the fabyri:nth•type
are provided to prevent steam leakage to,vards the bearings, and to prevent access of
air to the interior of the casing, an event which would impair the vacuum .. Each gland is
formed by a steel sleeve secured to the shaft and provided with a large number . of thin rings
with knife-edges. The holes in the stationary casing are fitted with cylindrical steel boxes,
which also have a large number of internal rings with knife-edges, intermeshing, but not in
contact,. with the rings on the shaft-sleeve. Owing to the knife-edges of the labyrinth rings
practically touching the opposite portion of the gland, and to the great number of labyrinths,
steam or air. leakage is reduced to the minimum. Both the h.p. and 1.p. glands are supplied
direct with high-pressure steam, and the small quantity of steam which unavoidably creeps
along the glands towards the bearings is led away to atmosphere via the vertical vent-pipes
provided. If the leakage of steam becomes excessive, it may be by-passed· to the exhaust end
of the turbine.
The supply of steam to the turbine is controlled in the following manner:-
( 1) Two hand-operated main stop-valves are provided, one for shutting off or admitting
high-pressure steam from the boilers, and the other, low-pressure steam from the reci-
2~_
procating engines or the accumulator. These valves rnust be opened first when starting
-
•
up. The high-pressure valve can also be closed automatically by emergency trip-gear.
(2) Two throttle-valves are
fitted, one controlling, the high-pressure supply and the other
the low-pressure supply. Normally, only the low ... pressure throttle-valve is open; but
when the pressure falls owing to the supply of exhaust-steam being insufficient for the
load, the high-pressure valve is automatically opened and the low-pressure val~e partially
or totally closed by means of a patent governing mechanism which is•regulated solely
by the changes in: the pressure of the exhaust-steam. supply. ·
(3) The speed of the turbine is maintained almost constant by a :m.ain centrifugal•
governor which opens both throttle-valves when the load increases, and vice-versa.
( 4) If the main governor fails to operate for any reason, thus causing the speed of the turbine
to rise above normal running speed, an ei:n.ergency governor mounted on the end
of the turbine-shaft conies into action. at about 10°/0 above no:rn.11.a'l running
speed. This governor closes the high-pressure stop-valve, opens a vacuum-breaker
attached to the turbine exhaust outlet (so admitting air to the turbine) and doses both
throttle-valves. The action is entirely independent of the main speed-governor and
reduces the danger of disruption due to excessive speed.
A high-pressure condensing steam turbine is constructed in a similar manner to a
mixed-pressure turbine, except that no provision is made for the admission of low-pressure
steam, and the wheels are spaced more-or-less equidistantly from end to end. The supply of.
steam is controlled by (a) a main stop-valve arranged to be closed by hand or by emergency
tripping mechanism; ( b) one or more throttle-valves whose amount of opening is regulated by
the speed governor; and (c) an emergency governor which closes the stop-valve and the throttle-
valves.
The normal all-round speed o:f tp.rbines up to about 12,000 k\'\1. output is 3,000
r.p.m., though higher speeds are sometimes adopted in smaller sizes, below about 2,000 kW.
The principal types of machinery that can be driven direct at this high speed are turbo-·
alternators, fans, turbo-blowers, and turbo-air-compressors. Direct current electric generators
are almost invariably driven through speed-reduction gearing because, owing to· difficulties
in commutation, this class of machine cannot be designed for the high speeds possible in the
case of alternators (alternating-current generators). The speed-reduction is usually obtained
by means of double helical gearing and is of the order of 5 or 7 to 1.

TEST PAPER SP/7

L Enumerate the main advantages of steam turbines
compared with reciprocating steam engines for
-· ~~~'ViIJ.~ ~~~':'.~.z:ic_~~-n~r_fl_t<?_r_s~--
. 2. What are the principal features that. distinguish
impulse turbines from so-called reaction turbines ?
3. (a) What degree of vacuum would you aim at
obtaining in. connection with a steam turbine,
and· why ? ( b) What factors limit the maximum
degree of vacuum ·advisable in a steam turbine
plant?
4. At a large colliery, there are two winding engines,
one winding 240 tons per hour from 580 yards;
the other winding a similar tonnage from 540
yards. The steam-driven fan produces 300,000
cubic ft. of air per minute with a w-g of 4 ins.
Estimate the weight of exhaust steam likely to be
available and the power in kW of a mixed-
pressure turbine that could be installed to utilise
. the exhaust steam from these engines.
5. Outline a scheme for a complete economical
st earn power plant to·provide for a steady load of
_ 1,000 kW during the morning shift and a load of
- soo--kw during th~e other two shifKc_Do not deal ·
with the electrical equipment.
6. (a) In a test in a colliery generating station it was
found when firing with coal of a calorific value of
13,650 B.Th U per lb. that 1 kW-hour was
delivered to the switchboard for every 1 ·24 n.. of
coal burnt on the grate. Determine the overall
efficiency of the station. ( b) Enumerate briefly
the various sources of Iossof energy from the boiler
grate to the switchboard and· draw up· on a per-
centage basis an approximate statement giving
percentage losses.
 SP/7
A/l

FOUNDED 1883. COPYRIGHT.

THE U.M.S,
T~ A. SOUTHERN LTD • .,
THIS PAPER
WAS THE FIRST

fil'&~ CUw,~at ~ $,Jwof,

1s- SUPPLIED ON'
CORRESPONDENCE

•
CONDITION THAT
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IT l·S RESERVE!>·
IN IHE WORLD •
EXCLUSIVELY FOR.
I NCORPORATEO 1 931. CARDI~"" (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN USE.

STEAM PLANT

Answers SP /7
THE STEAM TURBINE
1. Enumerate the main advantages of steam turbines compared with reciprocating steam engines for driving
electric generators.
ADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINES:

• (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Almost unif'orm turning motion or torque on the shaft.
Vibration
Turbines
almost eliminated as there are no unbalanced parts.
can be built in very large power units.
Mini:tpurn space occupie_d and foundations are less massive and costly.
Low steani consumption
Low-pressure exhaust
per kW -hour, especially in sizes exceeding 1,000 kW.
steam from reciprocating engines . can be efii.cien.tly
utilised.
(7) No internal lubrication. required and the exhaust steam, being uncontaminated
with oil, may be condensed and used as feed-water without further treatment.
(8) No danger £rom. exposed moving parts.
(9) Less attention is required on the part of the shif't-engineer.

2. What are the principal features that distinguish impulse turbines from so_-called reaction turbines ?
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IMPULSE AND REACTION TURBINES
(a) Impulse turbines
(1) The whole of the desired fall of pressure and increase in velocity o:fthe steam..
takes place in a series of fixed nozzles and not at all between the blades of the rotating
wheels. The high-velocity steam impinges on the blades and transfers part of its kinetic energy
to them, so causing the wheel to rotate in the same direction.
(2) There is no pressure-difference between the two sides of the wh.eels, and
little tendency for stearn to leak past their outer periphery. Adequate clearance may thus
be left to prevent the blades fouling the casing.
(3) The steam velocity is relatively high and the blade velocity is about 0·25 to 0-4
of the steam-jet velocity.
( b) Reaction turbines
(1) Part of the fall of pressure and increase i.n velocity of"the steam takes place
"Within the moving blades and the emerging steam has a reactive effect upon them, in addition.
to the impulse effect at entry. ·
(2) There is a difference of pressure between the two sides 0£ the .wheels and
clearances must be reduced to a minimum to prevent leakage. The fall of pressure occurs
progre~s~yely fr()l!lt!J.e inlet erid_to the exhaust end.
(3) The steam velocity is relatively low and the blade velocity is about 0·6 to 0·9

•
of the steam-jet velocity .

(4710)
S.P/7 The. Steam Turbine.
A;2
3. (a) T17h.at degree of vacuum would you aim at obtaining in connection with a steam turbine, and why?
( b) J!Vhat factors limit the maximum degree ef vacuum advisable in a steam turbine plant ?
VACUUM FOR STEAM TURBll:NES
(a) Theoretically, I should airn at securing as perfect a vacuum as possible .in order to
take advantage of the kinetic energy made available in the last stages of expansion. Practically,
I shoull.d aim. <.-11.t a vacuu.:i;.n o:f ab((}ut28 or 29 inches~ representing a condenser pressure of
0·5 to l ·O lb. per sq. inch absolute.
vVith a reciprocating engine, the lirn.it of vacuum is about 26 ins., but, with a turbine,
the fio'IN of. stea.100.is u.r.rtl-dirr~ciional . ~n.ad th1e exh.m.'!st outlet ca:n. be tt!l.ade of large
dini.ensions, and this permits of a much higher vacuum being effectively utilised.
The advantage of a high vacuum is that an irtcrease of' 1 inch near the higher Hm.its
•
reduces the steaxn consu.rn.pt:ion by five or six per cent with high-pressure turbines,
and by as much a§ 14 per C0J1'1J.t with exhau.st-st<eall.n or nnixed-pressure turbines.
A high vacuum· is particularly desirable in the latter case. ·
( b) The :factors that Hmit the ml'.ll.a:-di:.n.um. vacuum d.esirabl~ are chiefly economic.
A balance rnust be struck between (i) the cost of producing and maintaining the vacuum, and
(ii) the saving in steam and fuel effected by the vacuum. The higher the vacuum, the greater
is the cost of the condensing plant and the greater is the difficulty of evacuating the last traces
of air from the condenser. If there is a plentiful supply of cooling water at a low temperature,
this will aid the maintenance of a high vacuum. If cooling towers or ponds are necessary,
the capital and working cost of the condensing plant will be high. In many cases, it JDay
be 1tnore iecononn.ic:al to maintain a va.cu1i:u1.n smco.e-wbat · Jl.tJ>wl'Br tha.n. that theoretically
desirable.

4. At a large colliery, there are two winding engines, one winding 240 tons per hour from 580 yards,
the other winding a similar tonnage from 540 yards. The steam-driven fan produces 300,000 cu. ft.
of air per min. with a w-g of 4 ins. Estimate the weight ef exhaust steam likely to be available and
the power in kW of a mixed-pressure turbine that could be installed to utilise the exhault -steamfrom
these . engines. . •
.MIXED-PRESSURE TURBINE FR.OM EXHAUST STEAM
First calculate the effective HP developed by the various engines. The average shaft •
HP· of the winding engines may be obtained by multiplying the output per minute by the
-dcpth in feet and dividing the result by 33,000.
240 x 2,240 x 580 x 3
Shaft HP of No. 1 winder 472 hp.
x 60
33,000
240 x 2,240 x 540 x 3
Shaft HP of No. 2 winder 440 hp.
33,000x 60
300,00d x 4 x 5 x 2
HP. of Ventilation 189 hp.
33,000
Now allow a steam consumption of, say, 60 lbs. per shaft HP-hour for the winding engines,
and 40 lbs. per Air HP-hour for the fan (non-condensing).
Then steam consumption of winders
And steam consumption of fan
Total steam consumption
912 >< 60
189 x 40
62,280 lbs. per hour.
54,720 lbs. per hour.
7,560 lbs. ·per hour:
Losses (15%) 9,342 lbs .
•
. ·. Available exhaust steall.n 52,938 say 53,000 lbs. per hour
Allowing 35 lbs. of low-pressure steam per kW-hour
53,000
Power of mixed~pressure turbine (say) 1,500 kW.
35

5. Outline a scheme for a complete economical steam power plant to prooidefor a steady load ef 1,000
kW. during the morning shift and a load of 500 kW. during the other two shifts. Do not deal with
the electrical equipment.
POWER PLANT FOR A COLLIERY
A "complete power plant" includes (a) boilers and accessories; (b) prime movers, and
( c) condensing plant and accessories.
The kind of power plant to install is governed by local conditions and may include either
(1) high-pressure condensing turbines; (2) mixed-pressure turbines; or (3) high-pressure reci-
procating steam engines.
 SP/7
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. ,Ar3'

For the present purpose, it is assumed that suffident exl.1.l.aust steam is available
from winding engines, air-compressors, etc., to give a constant supply of low-pressure steam
(supplemented occasionally by high-pressure steam) to mixed-pressure turbines.
To give reasonable flexibility and provide for standby-plant, I should install one 1,250

•
kW. set for normal morning duty, and two 625 kW. sets to operate (one at a time) during
the other shifts, or to act together as a standby for the morning shift. Each set would thus
normally work on about 80% full load, with a margin to spare for overloads.
As steam is being supplied from existing engines, no additional boiler plant would be·
required. The normal morning steam requirements, allowing 35 lbs. of low-pressure steam
per kW. hour, would be of the order of 35,000 lbs. per hour. It is assumed that the capacity
of the existing boiler plant is in excess of, say, 50,000 lbs. per hour and is well designed and
mairita.ined to ensure maximum efficiency.
The mixed.-pres:'!H.llre turbin'lt~S would be of the impulse type running at 3,000 r.p.m.
Governing mechanism would be provided to enable the turbine to work on high-pressure or
low-pressure steam, to maintain an almost constant speed, and to shut off the supply of steam
if the speed should exceed about 10% above normal. Steam accuurnulators would be pro-
vided to maintain a regular supply of low-pressure steam.
The condenser would be of the surface type, complete with auxiliary apparatus, including
a centrifugal circulating .pump for the cooling water, a centrifugal extraction pump for the
condensate, and a two-stage steam-jet air ejector to maintain the vacuum at about 28·5 inches.
[NOTE.-It would be permissible to outline a scheme utilising high-pressure condensing
turbines requiring about 15 lbs. of steam per kW. hour, or a total of, say, 20,000 lbs. of steam
per hour in the morning shift, allowing for feed pumps, forced draught fans, and losses. In
such a case, the answer should also include an account of the boiler plant required] .

• 6. (a) In a test in a colliery generating station it was found when firing with coal ef a calorific value ef
13,650 B .. Th.U. per lb. that 1 kW-hour was delivered to the sioitchboard for every 1·24 lb. of coal
burnt on· the g,ate. Determine the overall efficiency ef the station ... ( b) Enumerate briefly the various
sources of loss of energy from the boiler grate to the switchboard and draw up on a percentage basis an
approximate statement giving percentage losses.
OVERALl.- E},FICIENCY OF POWER STATION
(a) The overall efficiency of a power station is expressed on a heat basis and is given
by the expression:
Heat equivalent of 1 kW-hour
Overall efficiency
Heat value of coal burnt to produce lkW.:..hour
Now 1 kW-hour=2,654,156 ft. lbs.+778=3,410 B.Th.U. (approx.)
"And heat in 1·24 lb. of coal=13,650x 1·24~16,926 B.Th.U.
3410
. ·. Overall efficiency --- X 100 20%
16926
( b) Losses 0£ energy
Assuming that the total heat in the coal is taken as .100 units, the various losses may be
set out approximately as follows, in round numbers:-
. Waste heat in chimney gases 11%
Heat in unburnt fuel 2 o/0
Radiation and other losses in boiler
and pipe line 4% Heat in steam 83 units.
Heat, rejected to condenser (in-
cl ud insr friction and shock losses
in turbine) 62 % Energy to alternator 21 units.
Copper, iron, and windage losses
in alternator 1 °/0 Energy to switchboard 20 units.

Total heat losses 80%

The above statement implies a boiler efficiency of 83 %, a turbine thermal efficiency of

25·3%, and an alternator efficiency of 95%, giving an overall thermal efficiency of 0·83 X 25·3
x 0·95=20%. In many cases, the overall efficiency and turbine efficiency are much less than
this.
-·· ... _"':"_-:: :;:_-_---=:,:.:.:::.-_-_-,,======:;:::::======
[P. T.O. for Addendum to Lesson SPnJ,
•.c:·.',
SP/7
Exhaust Steam Accumulators.
A/4
----------·---

ADDENDlJM TO LESSON SP17

EXHAUST STEAM ACCUMULATORS
The function of a steam regenerating heat accumulator is to receive and store in water
the heat contained in irregular supplies of exhaust steam from intermittently running engines
-and to reconvert and deliver this heat in a regular supply of steam to a low-pressure or a mixed
pressure turbine. Improvised accumulators, consisting of old Lancashire boilers with the flue
tubes removed and the end plates closed with boiler plate, are sometimes used, but a specially
designed accumulator is more efficient.
The Rateau-Morison accumu-
lator consists of a cylindrical steel
vessel, about 8! ft. tlia, and 25 ft. long,
filled about two-thirds full of water and
fitted with an inlet branch for the
exhaust steam. The inlet is connected
to a main horizontal distribution pipe
placed above water level, and a number
of vertical pipes descend from the main
pipe and are fitted with nozzles at their
ends which are about 4 ins. below ·~==;.;.;.;.;~~;;;,;.;;..;=~;;;.;.;;.;==~~~~~::::+~~~~~<.;1
water level. Each steam nozzle is
placed within a vertical water-circular- Fig. 1. Rateau-Morison Accumulator
ing pipe extending nearly to the base
of the vessel, the purpose being to
ensure maximum intermingling of steam and water.

absolute.
Action of Accumulator
The vessel is also fitted with an outlet
for the regenerated steam and a relief-valve arranged to blow off at about 19 lbs. per sq. inch

.
Exhaust steam entering the accumulator is condensed by the cold water which is thereby
heated until it reaches boiling point (212°F.). As the steam continues to enter, the temperature
•
will rise further, and the pressure will increase up to 19 lbs. per sq. inch when the relief valv~
will open. T'he accumulator is now in a charged condition.
Assume now that a mixed-pressure turbine is started up and temporarily requires more
steam than .is entering the accumulator.. The pressure will. fall so that more steam is. evaporated
from the water until its temperature falls to that corresponding to the reduced' pressure." 'This
process continues, the drop in pressure causing evaporation of steam, accompanied by drop
in temperature, until the accumulator becomes discharged. It is said to be discharged when
the pressure has fallen so low as to allow an automatic governor to admit high-pressure steam
to the turbine.
The governor is usually· set to act when the pressure falls to about 16 lbs. per sq. inch
absolut;e, so that the accumulator works through a range of 3 lbs. per sq. inch. When
the supply of exhaust steam is resumed, the pressure and temperature in the accumulator
rise and the turbine at once takes low-pressure steam again, continuing to do so as long as
the supply is equal to or greater than the demand.
The time interval bridged by an accumulator is usually one or two minutes
but can, by design, be greater than this. The time interval of an Sf ft. X 24 ft. accumulator
supplying a 1,000 kW. set may be estimated as follows, assuming that the turbine requires
30 lbs. of low-pressure steam per kW-hour, or 30,000 lbs. per hour, or 500 lbs. per minute.
Weight of water=two-thirds volume of accumulatorx 62·5 .= 900x 62·5 = 56,250 lbs.
Temperature of steam at 19 lbs. absolute=225°F.; at 16 lbs. absolute=216°F.
:. Each lb. of water yields up 225-216 = 9 B.Th.U. during discharge and
Total heat available = 9X 56,250 = 506,250 B.Th.U.
For the evaporation of each lb. of steam, the water gives up about 965 B.Th.U .
. ·.Weight of steam liberated between charge and discharge = 506,250 7 965 = 525 lbs.
In this case, therefore, the accumulator will bridge over a time interval of one minute.
It will be noted that, with a range of9°F., one gallon of water will store 9 X 10=90 B.Th.U.
and, as each lb. of steam will give up 965 B.Th.U. when condensed, it requires 965 +90=10·7
gallons of water :for every pound . of steam to be stored. Knowing the steam-con-
sumption. of the turbine per minute; and the time-interval to be bridged in· minutes, it is··a ·
simple matter to calculate the weight of water required and thence the size of the accumulator
(or of several accumulators in parallel).
A secondary function of an accumulator is to remove any oil that has passed into it with
the exhaust steam. This may be effected by arranging the circulating pipes so .that they cause
a surface flow of the water in one direction only. The floating oil is thereby driven to one end
where it falls over a. weir into a receiver from which it-is automatically discharged.
•
 SP/8

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T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.~

•
THE U.M.8.
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Lesson SP /8.
COMPRESSED AIR.
In spite of the great increase in the use of electricity in mines, compressed air still retains an important
place in power transmission over considerable distances, especially for the driving of machines near the
face, e.g. coal-cutters, conveyors, hammer-drills, reciprocating pumps and auxiliary haulages. In

•
efficiency-and this means in cost-compressed air cannot compare with electricity, but it has many
advantages-including safety, convenience in sub-division, and suitability for rock-drilling-which,
on balance, outweigh this one great drawback. It is, indeed, often the only form of power that can be
used safely at the coal face of a fiery (gassy) mine.
For power=purposes, air must first be compressed, usually to a gauge-pressurebetween 60 and 100 lbs ..
per square inch, in "a machine called an air-compressor.· A compressor must, of course, be driven
by some prime mover, and this may be either a steam engine or turbine, or an electric motor, or sometimes
an •internal combustion engine. The capacity of a compressor is always expressed in cubic feet
of free air per minute and this refers to the actual volume of air compressed and delivered, expressed
in terms of free air at the inlet temperature and pressure.
A compressor is said to be single-stage when it compresses the air to its final pressure in one opera-
tion, and it is said to be multi-stage when it compresses the air in two or more successive operations ..
After leaving the compressor, the air passes into a receiver and thence through a pipe-line (which may
have any required number of branches) to the various points of utilisation where it supplies the air-driven
machines; These may be referred to as air-motors or air-engines, and take several forms. Any
reciprocating engine designed as a steam engine may, if desired,· be used with compressed air as motive
power. Alternatively, as.In rock drills, the machine may be designed specially for use with compressed
air; or an air-turbine may be used, as in coal-cutting machines worked by compressed air. A complete
compressed air system thus includes prime mover, compressor, transmission line, air-motors, and such
auxiliaries as inter-coolers, receivers; valves, etc.

• LAWS AND DEFINITIONS .

There are certain laws governing the so-called perfect gases* (including air) and. it is desirable here
to recapitulate them briefly because they enter into almost every compressed air problem.
(1) Boyle's Law. The volume of a given mass of gas varies inversely as the absolute
when the temperature remains constant.
1
pressure

i.e. v ex and Pv = a constant (1).

p
It should be noted that the pressures measured by a pressure-gauge are not absolute pressures (i.e.
pressures above zero) but pressures· above the atmospheric. pressure. Standard atmospheric pressure·
is usually defined as that pressure which supports a column of mercury 29·922 ins. high at the sea-level
and when the temperature of the mercury is 0°C. or 32°F. This barometric pressure is equivalent to
an absolute pressure of J4·7 lbs. per sq. inch. For approximate calculations, it is sufficient to take
standard atmospheric pressure as 15 .lbs. per sq. inch or 30 ins. barometer. Note carefully that:-
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atrnosphenic pressure.

At high altitudes, the atmospheric pressure is less than at sea-level and it is, of course, necessary
to· make· allowance-for this. in-compressed-ai-r--ealculati0ns-concerning- compressors-at- considerable heights
above (or below) sea-level.

*(Note.-It is necessary to distinguish between substances which are perfect gases at all ordinary
temperatures and pressures, such as air, and vapours such as steam, which can readily be liquefied by
a small reduction of temperature or increase of pressure. Boyle's Law does not apply strictly to vapours
and even the so-called perfect gases (e.g. nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.) cease to obey
the Law when subjected to. very high or very low pressures.)

(4711)
 SPf8
Compressed Air.
2

(2) Charles' Law. The volume of a given mass of gas varies directly as the absolute temperature

•
when the pressure is constant.
v
i.e. v ex: T and - = a constant (2).
T
The absolute temperature is always measured from the absolute zero of temperature and this is
stated as -273· 13°C or -459·63°F. For approximate calculations, the figure -459°F is commonly
used, and we may thus say that :-
Absolute temperature 459° + F°
(3) The Characteristic equation of a perfect gas. From a combination of Boyle's and Charles'
Laws:-
PV
-- = R = constant, or PV RT (3).
T
Where P absolute pressure in lbs. per sq. foot.
T absolute temperature measured on the F. scale.
v volume of 1 lb. of air in cubic feet.
If we take P standard atmospheric pressure = 14·7 X 144 = 2116·8 lbs. per sq. ft.
T absolute temperature of melting ice . 492·63°F.
v volume of 1 lb. of air for the given value of P and T = .12·386 cub. ft.

•
2116· 8 x 12·386
We have, for the case of air, R 53·20.
492·63
If, however, we take w lbs. of air, its volume will be wV = v cub. ft., and multiplying both sides of
equation (3) by w, we have
PwV = wRT or Pv = wRT (3a)
This equation enables us to calculate the value of any one of the factors when the others are kriown,
Exam.pie l. A compressor delivers 1,000 cub. ft. of free air per minute. "What weight of air passes
through the compressor per minute assuming the initial pressure to be 14·7 lbs. per sq. inch absolute
and the temperature to be 60°F ?
Ans. (a)
p = 14'•7 x 144; v = 1,000; T = 459 + 60 = 519.
Pv 14·7 x 144 x 1,000
. ·.w = 76 · 66 lbs. per min •
RT 53·2 x 519
(b) Students familiar with ventilation problems will be able to utilise an alternative method, as
follows:-
1·3253 B
Weight per cub. ft. w where B barometer in inches.

•
459 + F
1·3253 x 29·922
Hence w = x 1,000 = 76·4 lbs. per min.
519
(c) Yet another method is based on the fact that 1 cub. ft. of dry air at 14·7 lbs. per sq. inch and
32°F weighs 0·0807 lb. Hence, by Charles' Law, the weight of 1,QOO cub. ft. per min. at 60°F is
459.+ 32
w ~ 0·0807 x x 1,000 = 76·3 lbs. per min.
459 + 60
(4) First Law of Thermo-dynamics. Heat and· mechanical energy are mutually convertible.
Heat requires for its production, and produces by its disappearance, a definite number of units of work
for each thermal (heat) unit. The mechanical equivalent of heat is given by the equation
One British Therm.al Unit = 778 ft-Ibs,
and this-is -known--as--Joule's Equivalent.- ----It is-evident- that-heat-supplied to-a--gas- can ·produce-one or
both of the following results. It may raise the temperature of a gas, i.e. increase its stock of internal
energy, or it may cause the gas to do a certain amount of external work (e.g. in expanding against a movable
piston in a cylinder). We can thus express the First Law of Thermo-dynamics as follows :- ,
Heat supplied = Work done + gain of internal energy.
(5) Second Law of Thermo-dynamics.
a purely self-acting process.
Heat cannot pass from a cold body to a hot one by

(6) Joule's Law. When a gas expands without doing external work (e.g. if it expands into. a perfect
vacuum) its temperature remains unchanged. The converse of this is also true, namely that when a
gas does external work by its expansion (as in a steam or air engine) its temperature falls, and when work
is done upon a gas to compress it (as in an air-compressor) its temperature rises..
•
 SP/8
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
3

(?) The specific heat of a gas is defined as the am~:mntof heat required to raise the temperature

•
of unit mass of the gas· one degree. If the gas be heated m a. closed vessel, so that its volume remains
constant, the whole of the heat apJ?liedis ~pent on i~creasi~g ~hetemperatur_e(and incidentally the pressure}
of the gas. If the gas be heated in a cylmder havmg a frictionless and weightless piston under a constant
external pressure, its volume changes but its pressure remains constant. In this case, the temperature
of the gas is raised and also work is done in pushing out the piston against the external pressure. It follows
that the specific heat at constant pressure Cp must always be greater than that at constant volume Cv.
In the case of air Specific heat at constant pressure = Cp = 0·2375
,, constant volume = C; = 0· 1691
In ot?er wo~ds O; 2375 a1?-d 0·1691 B.Th ..U's respe~tively are required to raise the temperature of
1 lb. of air by 1 F. Fhe ratro of Cp to Cv IS symbolised by y ( = Greek gamma) and is equal to
0 ·2375 .:.:-- 0· 1691 -- . 1 ·404.

MODES OF COMPRESSION.
Isothermal Compression.
When air (or any other gas) is compressed from a pressure Pr to a higher pressure Pz without change
of temperature, the process . is called isothermal· compression. Such are the conditions to which
~oyle'.s~aw strictly applies. For a gas to be co.mpressed iso~hermally (a condit~onunattainable in prac-
!Ice), rt is necessary that the heat produced during compression, by the. c~nvers10nof mechanical energy
into heat, must be abstracted by some coolmg arrangement as fast as it rs produced. Let us consider
isothermal compression a little more closely by means of a theoretical pressure/volume diagram (fig. 1)

•
in which the curve AB shows the change of pressure p with volume v .
Assume that a volume of free air v1 ( = say 4 cub. ft.) Y --"'
at a pressure Pi ( = atmospheric pressure = 15 lbs. per so
sq. inch) is compressed isothermally by a piston in a
cylinder so thzt •the final pressure is p2 ( = 60 lbs. per sq. 45
inch absolute) and the final volume is v2 ( = 1 cub. ft.)
Then if corresponding values of p and v, be plotted as UJ
determined by Boyle's Law (pv · a constant) it will be 0.:: 30
:::.
found that ·a curve drawn through the points so deter- (./)

mined will . be of the shape AB shown in the diagram. ~20

cr15 [2 _
This curve AB is called an isothermal curve and -it is a.
also known as a rectangular hyperbola.
Fig. 1, however, not only shows corresponding 00
pressure/volume changes, but it also (like the· indicator
diagram of a steam engine) gives information as to the VOLUME
theoretical work done in compressing air isother-
mally a~d delivering. it to a receiver at th~ final pressure Figfor 1 isoii::::X:t/~~!;:n;:s~~~ram.
Pz: It rs not proposed here to go deeply mto the rather P
involved mathematics of the subject, for this is more the province of the designer of air-compressors.
Students interested should refer to text-books on Thermo-dynamics. It is sufficient for our present
purpose to deal with the matter in a general way. Sufficeit then, that the shaded area EXAB is a measure

•
of the theoretical work required to compress air from the initial pressure Pi to the final pressure p2• The
area of the rectangle OEBY ( = Pzv2) is a measure of the displacement work required to force the com-
pressed air into a receiver at pres.sure Pz . The area of the rectangle OXAD ( =p1 v 1 ) is a measure of
the work done by the atmospheric pressure behind the advancing piston. It follows that the net work
required of the prime mover to compress and deliver the air is equal to the area DABY. In other words :-
Net work done= DABY =work of compression +displacement work - work done by atmosphere
EXA~ + OEBY -OXAD
= EXAB + P2V2 - Pi Yt
Now, with isothermal compression, Pr v1 = p2v2, and therefore the net work required for isothermal
compression and delivery of the gas (=area DABY) is the same as the. theoretical work of compression
alone (=area EXAB). It may be shown that the value of this work is given by the equation:-
P2
Work required for Isothermal Compression and delivery= 331 ·2 Pi v1 log-ft':"lbs. (4).
P1
Where Pi and Pz = initial and final absolute pressures respectively in lbs. per sq. inch.
and v1 = initial volume of free air in cub. ft.
Adiabatic Compression.
·---

A gas is said to be compressed adiabatically when there is no transference of heat to or from the
gas during its compression. In other words, the mechanical. energy converted into heat during the
compression is allowed to remain in the gas and goes to increase its temperature. The final temper-'
ature depends partly on the initial temperature and also on the degree to which the air is compressed,
but for final gauge pressures of 70 to 90 lbs. per sq. inch ( = 85 to 105 lbs. per· sq. inch absolute)
the final temperatures lie between 420° and 460°F ., the initial temp. being assumed to be 60°F.
This may have an adverse effect on the working parts, especially the valves, and it may also result in the.
ignition of carbonaceous deposits due to the use of an inferior lubricant. Pure adiabatic compression
is never attained in practice because perfect lagging of the cylinder to prevent loss of heat cannot be
 SP/8
Compressed Air.
4

secured, nor can friction and shock losses be avoided ; but compression usually more nearly approaches
the adiabatic than the isothermal unless effective steps are taken to counteract the temperature rise by
some cooling arrangement. For gauge pressures up to about 60 lbs. per sq. in. the only attempt usually
made to cool the air is to water-jacket the cylinders ; but for higher pressures the air is almost invariably
compressed in stages, the heat of compression being abstracted between the stages in an intercooler.
The increase of temperature is thereby much reduced, the final temperature usually being less than 300°F.
It is evident that, as the temperature rises during y
adiabatic compression, Boyle's Law (pv = a constant) no
longer applies. The pressure does not increase inversely as
the volume, but at a faster rate than this. Thus, if the
volume be halved;· the new pressure will not be double the
original pressure, but something greater than this, owing to
the increased temperature. A similar argument applies to
every point in a pressure/volume diagram, with the result
that (as shown in fig. 2) the adiabatic curve AH lies above
and is always steeper than the isothermal curve AB. It
may be shown that the adiabatic curve AH obeys the law
Pv1"404 = a constant, where 1 ·404 = y (gamma) = the ratio
of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat 0
at constant volume. Fig. 2.
Considering fig. 2 as a theoretical indicator diagram of Comparative pressure/volume
diagrams (not to scale).
work, the net work required for adiabatic compression and
delivery of a given volume of free air is represented by the area DAHY. This obviously exceeds the
work required for isothermal compression and delivery ( = area DABY) by the shaded area BAH between
the isothermal and adiabatic curves_. It may be shown that:-

Work required
·
C. ompress1on
for Adiabatic
d D 1·
an · e 1very
--·-.
y-1
y ·r (·Pz)
P1 V1
,
---'.
Pt
y-1
Y. ·
]
-p1 v1.·
f 1
144·. t-.t.J:ts. ·
,
. {5) .

Example 2. An air-compressor compresses and delivers 1,000 cub. ft. of free air per min. from atmos-
pheric pressure (15 lbs. per sq. inch) to a final gauge pressure of 75 lbs. per sq. inch. Find (a) the isother-
mal HP, and (b) the adiabatic HP. required. ·
Answer (a). By formula (4) :-'-
90
Isothermal HP = 331 ·2 x 15 x 1,000 x log - 33,000 117 HP.
15
y 1 ·404 y-1 0·404
(b) and 0·29; By formula (5)
y-1 0·404 y 1·404

Adiabatic HP -
1 ·404
[1s
x 1,000 x C:f29 15 x 1,000] 144 33,000

.i
0·404
90
But = 6 and log 6 = 0 ·.7782;
15
log 60 ·29 = 0 ·7782 x 0 ·29 = 0 ·2257; .·. 60 ·29 = 1 ·6815
351
Adiabatic HP · [ 25,220 - 15,000 ] 144 7 33,000 = 155 HP.
101
The economy of isothermal compression is very evident from this example, the saving being much
greater, however, for high pressures than for low pressures. This furnishes another reason 'why multi-
stage compression should be used for high pressures, the compression curve then being much nearer
the isothermal than with single-stage compression ..
Law of actual . compression.
When a gas is compressedisothermally, the whole of the heat equivalent of the work done has to
be abstracted; if the' compression takes place adiabatically, none of the heat is removed. If now during
compression, a portion only of the heat equivalent is abstracted, as happens in act\1a.lpractice, the
.curve. of_compression wiUJ_i~-b~tw~~11,. !h~~j~QtJ:i~rgt~~
_al"!~_ ~~iah;_itic, and the . cha11ge is said
to be polytropic, The compression curve will then obey the law Pvn = :i-corisfant,"wheie ·ii1ias ·some·
value between 1 ·0 on the one hand and 1 ·404 on the other. The nearer the compression approaches
the isothermal, the more nearly will the value of n approach unity, and the less the amou.11t of work
required to compress a given volume of free air to a given final pressure. In fig. 2, the dotted curve AF
represents a polytropic change. Formula ( 5) already given for adiabatic compression, applies with

•
equal force to polytropic compression, except that the appropriate value of n must be substituted for
the value (1 ·404) given for y. A common value for n is about 1 ·3.
Comparison of various cycles.
It will now be clear that, in an air-compressor, the least work is required to be done (theoretically)
by isothermal compression, and the most .by adiabatic compression. This would be quite immaterial
if the whole of the work put into the air in a compressor could be utilised in the engine using the air,
i.e -. if the air engine .were very near to the compressor and received its air at the same high temperature
as it leaves the compressor. In such a case, the air could expand adiabatically back to atmospheric
 SP/8
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
5

pressure and temperature in the air-engine and, in the process, yield up the work originally put into it.

•
In practice, however, the compressor delivers into a long pipe-line so that the air radiates its heat into
the atmosphere and cools down to atmospheric temperature on the way. The whole of the heat of com-
pression is therefore entirely wasted. This explains why the aim of designers is to approach isothermal
compression as nearly as possible. The net result at the far end of the transmission line, whatever the
mode of compression, is the same in so far as we have a definite weight or volume of air compressed to
a definite pressure, but the. work· expended in the compressor varies greatly according to the manner
in which compression is performed,
Table 1 shows the useful HP. required per 1,000 cub. ft. of free air per min. compressed from
atmospheric pressure at sea-level up to various gauge pressures. The figures in columns (2) and (3)
are theoretical only and are calculated from formulae (4) and (5); those in column (4) include mechanical
losses in the compressor. All the figures refer to single-stage compression. It should be noted that,
with a' final g'augepressure of 40 lbs. per sq. inch, nearly 8 cub. ft. of free air per min. are compressed
per B.HP., but that with a final gauge pressure of 80 lbs. per sq. inch (a usual pressure in mining)
only about 5 cub. ft. of free air per min. per B.HP. are compressed. The power required for
compressing any given quantity of free air per min. may be readily, though roughly, estimated from these
figures.

Table 1. HP. required per 1,000 cub. ft. of free air per min. (single-stage compressors).

Final Gauge HP. for HP. for Brake HP.

Pressure: Isothermal Adiabatic for Actual

•
lbs. per sq. inch. Compression. I Compression. Practice.
(1) (2) I (3) (4)

·1
4'()• 85 103 ,135
50 95 120 155
60 105 134 175
• 70 113 147 190
80 120 159 205
90 127 170 220
100 I 133 180 235
I
Two-stage Compression.
The saving effected by two-stage com- Y 61'\ L H
r-.tr-----"-~1 ~'1--. FINP.L l',e,'.:,QLUTE:
pression is shown in fig. 3 where the dotted curve \ «~;\ \ PRESSURE

AB represents an isothermal 'curve and AH an -1~~// '\

adiabatic curve corresponding to an initial' I U'
o.-\,'· ~/
_,.\~,// / l.'
,
pressure P1 and a final pressure P3, assuming p3 ~\ :;,(<?'I:;\"?

'\~~~z
i ~JI> . , //"./:;~ ,,. ' _,
single-stage compression. The ·curve AL is a I znJ '!?\~/,'/,:'.'.'.·}'- \"<~
polytropic curve which is assumed to obey the I s1AGs I' '0//:::X. <o
law Pv! ·3 = a constant. Then for single-stage
compression, the work required for compression Ts _[!_~~;'c;;;i-~;t
and delivery is . represented by the area AL YD.
Assume now that two stages are used. and
that, in the first stage, the pressure is· raised from
P1 to P2 polytropically according to the curve
D l'.
p'2.
•NtTIAL
1sr 5'Tl\GE

ABSoLu·n
--
PREssuRE.
A
T
------

p,
-~
--=~--
AN, the volume at the same time decreasing from ' l_
OX to SN. The compressed air is then passed O ! zrno Ae"'oLuTt. PRE:;suRE x
through an intercooler where its temperature is
reduced to the initial free air temperature, the ~
r-
H.P CYL. VOL. ---P1
---·-' L.P. CYL. VOLUME --->-1
I

pressure remaining approximately constant. The Fig. 3. Pressure/volume diagram for

volume is thereby reduced to SM, where M is a two-stage compression.
point on the isothermal curve. In the second stage, compression starts at M on this curve and the
pressure is raised from P2 to P3 according to the polytropic curve MK. It is evident that the work
required for two-stage compression is represented by the area ANMKYD and that the amount of work
saved is that equivalent to the shaded area MNLK. In practice, there is usually a slight fall of
pressure in the intercooler, and the initial temperature in the second stage is also a few degrees higher
than the free air temperature, and an adjustment in the diagram would be heeded to allow for these
modifications; but the principle holds good. To obtain the highest efficiency, the cylinders should
he __of. such a. $_lz~ that equal work..Js done.i.in. each, and the absolute pressure Pz at the end of
the first stage should be such that Pz = vp1 p3, where Pr = intake pressure and Pa = delivery,

•
absolute pressure. Thus if the initial pressure is 15 lbs. per sq. inch, absolute, and the delivery
pressure is 95 lbs. per sq. inch, absolute, the terminal pressure in the low-pressure cylinder should
theoretically be v15 x 95 = 37 · 8 lbs. per sq. inch absolute. Two-stage compression is used for
gauge pressures between 60 and 100 lbs. per sq. inch, this being the range of pr,es$ures commonly
adopted in mining. The percentage saving of power over single-stage compression (within the
range of pressures given) is of the order of 10 to 15%. Three-stage compression is used for higher
pressures up to about 750 lbs. per sq. inch, and four or even five-stage compression for still higher
pressures.
SP/8
Compressed Air.
6

INDICATOR DIAGRAMS.
Indicator diagrams for an air-compressor are taken exactly as [t.LWERY B RECEIVER
for a steam engine and they serve a similar purpose, namely to C \ PRESSURE
give information as to the conditions inside the cylinder, to enable
any defect in the construction, action, or setting of the valves to : z ,.\ c:0'7..<)
be discovered, and to enable the mean effective pressure and thence ,. ~ ·'-b~...
the indicated HP. to be calculated. ~ -s-~,, ~~.s-
Fig. 4 shows a typical indicator diagram for a single-stage t -5)~~<> .s/o.,,,.
compressor in good condition and fitted with automatic valves, .., '', A
i.e. valves which are worked by the air-pressure itself and not ATMOSPHERIC. IN',,
SUCTION ~
mechanically. The line AB is the compression curve, somewhere I D
JJ

between the isothermal and adiabatic. The hump at B shows the ~PISTON otSPLACEMENT ~
slight excess pressure (above that in the receiver) required to lift the Fig. 4. Typical Indicator
delivery valve or valves. The line BC is the delivery line, and is Diagram (Single-stage).
usually somewhat wavy because of slight surges of pressure during this part of the cycle. The line CD
represents the sudden fall in pressure at the beginning of the return stroke when the compressed air left
in the clearance spaces in the cylinder expands down to below atmospheric pressure. The hump at D
shows the slight negative pressure existing in the cylinder just prior to the opening of the inlet valves.
Thereafter, the suction line DA more or less coincides with the atmospheric line.

Fig. 5 is a diagram which shows a number of defects in

the compressor froni which it might have been taken. Actually,
all the defects are not likely to occur simultaneously in one
compressor. The excessive hump at b indicates that the delivery
valves are held down by springs which are too. tight and the
pressure has to rise excessively high before they will open. The
delivery line be falls too slowly to the receiver pressure, and this
indicates that the valve-opening or the delivery pipe is too
.)
small. The hollow at e means that the delivery valves close
too slowly, so allowing compressed air to leak back into the
cylinder at the beginning of the suction stroke. The point d is
too far below the atmospheric line, indicating that the inlet valves
are also held down by too tight springs. The suction line
da rises too slowly towards the atmospheric line, and this shows ct
that there is throttling or wire-drawing of the air in the ·suction Fig. 5. Defective Indicator
valve or suction pipe. Diagram (Single-stage).

Economy of Cool intake air.

It· is of first importance . that the inlet air shall be as cool as possible because the greater the initial
absolute temperature the greater is the· work done per unit weight of air in compression and the greater
also is the final temperature. The inlet air should always enter the compressor. from outside the engine
house where the temperature is often much lower than inside, especially in winter. The saving in
power amounts approximately to 2% for every 10°Fthat the air taken in is lower than the temperature
of the engine room-and the only expense is that incurred in installing an intake pipe or duct. The
latter should be as short and of as large diameter as possible to reduce friction losses and it should preferably
be made of brick, tile, or other non-conductor of heat. The opening should be protected by a wire screen
so that· large particles cannot be drawn in, for even a small amount of· coarse· dust constantly passing in to
the compressor will cause rapid wearing of the valves and piston.

Moisture in compressed air.

All air, unless artificially dried, contains a certain amount of water vapour which is invisible. If
the air holds less than the maximum weight of water vapour it is capable of carrying, it is said to be
unsaturated, but if it holds this maximum weight, it is said to be saturated and its relative humidity is 100%.
Now, although, for convenience, we say that the air has the capacity for "holding" moisture, it must
be clearly understood that the amount of water-vapour required to saturate a given space is the same
whether that space is a vacuum or is already filled with air or other gases. The capacity of the space
to contain water-vapour depends only on the temperature ... It is quite independent of the quantity
(weight) of air also present or of the pressure exerted by it. It follows that when the volume of a given
-f'o1~fg~··iifoi~A~~~~ij~~~rrfi~()~{~~s~i-~i~N£f/~~£ic~a~~~a~i~li~~ita~i1~~~\iec~i~6ap;)&%fai~~~.~-iii~f!i~~
is also reduced in the same ratio, the relative humidity being increased. If the air is initially in a saturated
condition, it· will deposit some ·of its moisture, depending on the extent to which the volume of the air
is reduced. On the other hand, if the temperature of the air be increased (without change of volume)
the capacity for holding moisture will also be increased, each rise of about 20°F. doubling the capacity
for moisture. We see then that the reduction in volume resulting from increase of pressure reduces
the capacity of air for holding moisture, whilst an increase of temperature increases this capacity.

Now let us suppose that the free air entering an air-compressor has a temperature of 60°F and
a relative humidity of 50%,. and that it is compressed to 6 atmospheres ( = 90 lbs. absolute or 75 lbs.
by gm.J.ge). Then, if the temperature remains constant during compression, or if the air cools down
to the initial temperature during transmission, the final volume of the. compressed air will be one-
sixth of the original volume, and the · relative humidity would be· increased six times, i.e. to 300
 SP/8
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
7

per cent.* It is evident that there is 200% excess moisture which will be deposited somewhere
in the transmission-line. This moisture should be collected as far as possible in an air-receiver where

••
the air is allowed to cool before entering the pipe-line. Moisture which condenses and collects in the
pipe-line itself causes water-hammer, tends to leaky joints, and by accumulating at low poirits causes
loss of power by reducing the air-passage, To give some idea of the amount of water entering a
compressed-air system, it has been estimated that, on a damp day, with plant compressing 10,000 cub. ft.
of free air per min. no less than 50 gals. of water per hour are liberated and must be expelled through
drain taps on· receivers or through automatic water-traps.

Expansion of Air.
The various laws relating to compression of gases apply with equal force in converse manner to
expansion, and air will yield up, in expanding, an amount of work equivalent to that required to compress
it between the same limits of temperature and pressure. Such work, of course, is done at the expense
of the heat in the air which therefore falls in temperature to an extent depending on the degree of expansion.
This would not matter if the compressed air was delivered to . the air-engine at the same temperature
at which it leaves the compressor, for then the air could be expanded to atmospheric pressure and tem-
perature and yield up the maximum amount of work in the process. But when, as is usually the case,
the compressed air reaches the air engine at atmospheric temperature, its final temperature, after expansion,
is so low that trouble is likely to arise from ice blocking up the exhaust-pipe. It is for this reason that,
in practice, very little· use is made of the expansive properties of air in an air-engine, and it
is customary for the full. pressure to· be kept on during almost the whole of each stroke. This method
of using compressed air is very wasteful but it can only be avoided by re-heating the air before admission
to the engine, a process which is, rarely practicable. When air is used non-expansively at gauge-

•
pressures between 60. and 80 lbs. per sq. inch, the consumption per Indicated HP. is of the order
of 20 cub. ft. of free air per irrrin, A 30 HP. engine would thus require about 600 cub. ft. of free air
per min. About 25o/0 or 30o/0 more air is, of course, required per Brake HP. developed, owing to friction
t
losses in the air engine. If the compressed air could be cut off at (say) stroke and some advantage
thus taken of its ~xpansive properties, only 11 or 12 cub. ft. of free air per Ind. HP. would be required.
These figures are approximate only and assume a reasonably good condition of the engine concerned.
Much higher consumptions are necessary with an ill-adjusted, inefficient machine.

Fr;ezing at exhaust-ports of air-engines.

This is a phenomenon which is due to (a) the moisture which is inevitably contained in compressed
air, and (b) the low temperatures existing in the exhaust-passages of air-engines. We have seen that
compressed air is nearly always saturated with moisture after it has cooled down to near atmospheric
temperature and that a great deal of water is deposited in the transmission mains. Much of this is drained
away, but however well this is done, the air still contains water vapour when it reaches the engines. If
the air' were then completely expanded down to atmospheric pressure in the engine, the final
temperature of the exhaust would be of the order of -100°F to -180°F, and the formation of ice
in serious quantity would be almost inevitable. Even when full - pressure is used throughout almost
the· whole of each stroke, work is done by the expanding air against the piston towards the end of the
stroke and against the atmospheric pressure as the air leaves the exhaust passages, and the final temperature
commonly ranges between -35°F and -70°F. The possibility of ice accumulating and blocking the
passages in the latter case is less than in the former, especially as the force of ejection during exhausting

•
is greater, but trouble is quite frequently experienced. Preventive measures include (a) the thorough
drainage of receivers and pipe-line to ensure the air reaching the air-engine as dry as possible, ( b) the
installation of additional receivers or air-driers near the engines using the air, and (c) the designing of
exhaust passages to permit free exit for the air and enable ice to be cleared away by the force of ejection
as it, forms.

EFFICIENCIES OF COMPRESSORS.
Although, in general, the term. " efficiency " represents a ratio of output -:- input, and this
ratio .must necessarily be less than unity, there are several different efficiencies pertaining to air-com-
pressors and these must be clearly defined. They are
(a) Volumetric efficiency. (c) Mechanical efficiency.
(b) Compression (or Isothermal) efficiency. (d) Overall efficiency.
Air delivered
(a) Volumetric Efficiency = (6).
Piston-displacernent
The air delivered refers to ·the capacity of the compressor and is the actual volume delivered in
cub. ft. per minute expressed in terms of free air at the inlet temperature and pressure It may be
measured by the " pumping up " test, i.e. by running the machine at its designed pressure and revolutions
and leading the discharge to a receiver of known capacity ... By notin.g the tinie taken to fillthereceiver
to- a given- pressure and noting the temperatures, the actual volu:me delivered, referred to atmospheric

•
conditions, may be ascertained. Alternatively, the capacity may be determined by passing the air through
a measuring nozzle or through a calibrated air-meter .

*[During compression, of course, the temperature of. the air normally rises to something over
300°F,and the capacity of the air for holding moisture is thereby doubled so many times that the decrease
in volume is more than counter-balanced. The relative humidity of t_h~_~il'.'__ qL !bl! _f()'fl!P1'<!§§Q!.-Q.Y.tlt!t is
therefore usually very low. The temperature effect, however, may be ignored because of the cooling
down to atmospheric temperature that occurs in transmission.]
SP/8
Compressed Air.
8

The piston-displacement is the volume in cub. ft. displaced by the net area of the compressor piston
per minute, and is equal to
Net piston area (sq. ft.)
In the case of multi-stage compressors, the piston displacement refers to the low-pressure cylinder only.
The volumetric efficiency usually ranges between 60o/0 and 90%, being higher with multi-stage than
with single-stage compressors. It is not, of course, a measure of economical performance, but refers
only to capacity.

( b) Compression or Isothermal Efficiency =

Isothermal HP.
(7).
X Stroke (ft.) X Effective strokes per min.

•
Actual Air Indicated HP.
In other words, compression efficiency is the ratio of (i) the theoretical work required to compress isother-
mally all the air delivered by the compressor (as calculated by formula 4) to (ii) the work actually done
within the compressor-cylinders, as shown by actual indicator cards. An alternative method of expressing
this efficiency is as follows
Area of isothermal diagram
Compression Efficiency (7a).
Area of actual indicator diagram
It is evident that the nearer the actual compression approaches isothermal compression (by efficient
cooling arrangements) the higher will be the compression efficiency. A good average figure is about
70%.
Actual Air Indicated HP.

•
( c) Mechanical Efficiency = (8).
Brake-HP. of Prime Mover
The difference between these two horsepowers represents the power required to overcome the frictional
resistance of the compressor, and this is largely dependent on its design and workmanship, and the main-
tenance it receives'. The mechanical efficiency of a well-designed machine may efceeo •90%.
Isotherm.al HP.
( d) Overall Efficiency ,9).
Ind. HP. of engine, or HP.-input to motor
It is this efficiency that is the most important from the user's point of view because it expresses a
ratio between the least amount of power that could theoretically do the work under ideal conditions of
compression, and the actual power-input to the prime mover. It includes, of course, the efficiency of
both compressor and prime mover, and does not indicate where the inefficiency, if'uny, Iies, A good
prime mover might be saddled with an inefficient compressor, and vice versa. In the case of a steam-
driven compressor, it is frequently impossible to evaluate the efficiencies separately owing to the difficulty
of ascertaining the brake-HP. of the steam engine, and she compressor and prime mover must then be
regarded as one unit. In the case of a compressor driven by an electric motor, the brake-HP of the latter
is usually known, and the overall efficiency of the comperssor alone may be calculated from the ratio of
Isothermal HP --;- Brake-HP. of motor. Overall efficiencies of compressors and their prime movers
are usually of the order of 60% to 70%.

1. If air at 60 lbs. per sq. inch, by gauge, and at

60°F. be heated to 300°F., what will be the
final gauge pressure,
constant ? (Assume
the volume remaining
atmospheric pressure
TEST PAPER SP/8.
5, What is meant by (a) isothermal,
compression
advantages
and
accrue
more than one stage ?
from
and (b) adiabatic
expansion? (c) What
compression by
•
= 15 lbs. per sq. inch.)

2. A receiver having a· volume of 120 cub. ft. holds 6. The exhaust ports and passages of machines
air at a pressure 'of 100 lbs. per sq. inch, driven by compressed air sometimes get
by gauge, . and a thermometer . shows its blocked with ice, How do you explain the
temperature to be 84°F. What weight of presence and formation of this ice, and what
air is in the receiver ? (Assunie atmospheric steps can ·be taken to avoid the ports and
pressure = 14·7 lbs. per sq. inch.) passages becoming choked ?
---.,.------·--·------·---·---··-- - -----· ----------- .. ·-·--------~-----· ·--·-----~- - - --··---------·-·----·--,---

3. Air at a gauge pressure of 25 lbs. per sq. inch and 7. (a) In what circumstances would you consider
60°F. is compressed to half its original installing an inbye compressor ? (b) What
volume, and heated at the same time to are . the advantages and disadvantages of this
155°F. What is the final gauge pressure ? arrangement, as compared with a compressor
(Atmospheric pressure = 15 lbs. per sq. inch.).

••
.installed at the surface ?

4. A quantity of gas occupies a volume of 60 cub. ft.

at an absolute pressure of 25 lbs. per sq. 8. Discuss generally the use of compressed, air and
inch and a temperature of 80 · 6°F. It is electricity in underground workings, pointing
compressed to a volume of 24 cub. ft. and its out the particular purposes for which each
temperature is raised to 260 · 6°F. What is is best suited, and the advantages and dis-
the final absolute pressure ? advantages of each.

PRINTE.D BY S.P. LTD.

 SP/8

Al

FOUNDED '1883. COPYRIGHT.

THE U.M.8.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD@41
THIS PAPER
WAS THE FIRST
IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING
IN THE
SCHOOL
WORLD.
fil'&~~e-waf ·~ ~,Jwof, CONDITION
IT IS
THAT
RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
INCORPORATED .19$1. CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN USE.

STEAM PLANT, ETC.

Answers SP /8.
COMPRESSED AIR.
1. If air at 60 lbs. per sq. inch, by gauge, and at 60°F. be heated to 300°F., what will be the final gauge
pressure, the volume remaining constant? (Assume atmospheric pressure = 15 lbs. per sq. inch.)

• PRESSURE CALCULATION .
By Charles' Law, the pressure
remains constant.

Final pressure:!
..
(60 + 15)
varies directly

x
60
300

459
+
+
as the absolute

459

519
75
temperature,

x
519
759

109 ·7 lbs. per sq. in. absolute = 94 ·7 lbs. per sq. in. by gauge.
when the volume

56925

2. A receiver having a volume of 120 cub. ft. holds air at a pressure of 100 lbs. per sq. inch, by gauge, and
a thermometer shows its temperature to be 84°F. What weight of air is in the receiver? (Assume
atmospheric pressure = 14 ·7 lbs. per sq. inch).
WEIGHT OF AIR IN ·RECEIVER.
Pv
By Formula (3a), Pv = wRT vy eight of air = w
RT
where P - (100 + 14 ·7) X 144 lbs. per sq. foot; v 120 cub. ft. ;
T = 459 + 84 · 543 °, absolute. R = 53 ·2
114 ·7 x 144 x 120
. ·.Weight of air·= w = = 68 ·6 lbs .

•
53·2 x 543

3. Air at a gauge pressure of 25 lbs. per sq. inch and 60°F. is compressed to half its original uolume, and
heated at the same time to 155°F. What is the final gauge pressure? (Atmospheric pressure
= 15 lbs. per sq. inch).
PRESSURE CALCULATION.
By Boyle's Law, the pressure will be doubled because of the halved volume.
By Charles' Law, the pressure varies directly as the absolute temperature.
155 + 459 614 49120
Final Pressure - (25 + 15) X 2 X ----- 80 x
60 x 459 519 519
= 94 ·64 lbs. per sq. in. absolute = 79 ·64 lbs. per sq. in. by gauge.
4. A quantity' of gas occupies a volume of 60 cub. ft. at an absolute pressure of 25 lbs. per sq. inch and a
temperature of 80 ·6°F. It is compressed to a volume of 24 cub. ft. and its temperature is raised
to 260 · 6 ° F. What is the final absolute pressure ?

APPLICATION OF GAS LAWS.

By a. . combination of ~Qyk'~ and Charles' laws :-
P 1V1 P~V2 - P1 V1
and P2 x
T1 T2
25 x 60
Final absolute pressure P2 x
80·6 + 459 24
25 x 60 719·6 89,950
x 83 · 35 lbs. per sq. inch.
539·6 24 1,079 ·2
(P.T.O. for alternative method.)
(4711)
 SP/8
Answers on Compressed Air
A/2

Ans. 4 (continued).

(80 · 6
(Alternative
to the reduction
+
Method.
in volume.
By Boy le ts Law, the pressure is increased m the ratio 60
By Clrar-Ies ' Law, the pressure is increased in the ratio (260 · 6
459) owing to the increase in temperature.

. ·. Final absolute pressure 25 x

60

24
X·
719·6

539·6
83 · 35 lbs. per sq. inch.)
24 owing
+ ~r59) -;-

•
5. rYhat is meant by (a) isothermal, and (b) adiabatic compression and expansioni (c) VVhat advantages
accrue from more than one stage ?

MODES OF COMPRESSION COMPARED.

(a) Isothesm.al co mpz-esaiorr and expansion take place at equal or constant temperature.
During compression, the heat of compression must be absorbed and carried off continuously as q uickly
as it is produced. During expansion, heat must be supplied at such a rate that cooling due to transforma-
tion of heat into work is exactly and continuously counter-balanced. In both cases, the air obeys Boyle's
Law which states that the pressnre and volume of the gas vary inversely, i.e. pv = a constant.
(b) Adiabatic corrrpr esaion and e.xpa ns iori take place in such a way that the ternpersuuee

•
changes according to a definite Iaw du1·ing the process. During compression, work is transformed
to heat, none ofwhich is permitted to escape, wit.h the result that the temperature rises. During expansion,
heat is transformed into work, and no heat is permitted to enter the air, with theresult that the temperature
falls. In both cases, the cvlirider must be regarded as being surrounded by sorne completely nori-con-
ducting material, The air rm 12.:oyle's Law; but the pressure and volume ~h,.ange according
to the law pv1 ·4.04 = a constant.
Both isothermal and adiabatic compression and expansion assume theoretical conditions which
are unattainable in practice, and the lavi of actual compression lies somewhere between the two. •
(c) The adva:ntages of tn rrror e than one stage: are :--
(i) The work of compression is reduced by about 10 to 15% for final gauge pressures of 60 to 100
lbs. per sq. inch because compression more nearly approaches the isothermal.
(ii) The final air-temperature is reduced owing to the effect of the intercooler. Difficulties of
lubrication and excessive wear and tear are thus avoided.
(iii) The stresses set up in the machine are greatly reduced and a better balanced compressor may
be built.

6. The exhaust ports and passages of machines dri·ven by compressed air sometimes get blocked with ice.

•
How do you explain the presence and formation of this ice, and what steps can be taken to avoid
the ports and passages becoming choked ?

ICE IN EXHAUST PASSAGES.

The formation of ice in the exhaust passages of an air-driven engine is due first to the
impossibility of securing complete extraction of moisture from the air in its journey from the compressor-
cylinder to the cylinder of the air-engine, and secondly to the extremely low temperatures caused by
the conversion of heat into work during the expansion of the air in the cylinder and while it is escaping
through the exhaust passages. The result is that some of the moisture is deposited and, if allowed to
collect, freezes, sometimes to such an extent that the ports and passages become choked with ice. This
is one of the main reasons why compressed air is seldom used expansively, full pressure being instead
maintained throughout the stroke or, alternatively, a late cut-off provided. Expansive working would
entail still lower temperatures, and in addition, the force of the air issuing from the exhaust would be
reduced, and the tendency for ice particles to collect would be increased.
To avoid getting the exhaust. passages choked :-
-- -

(a) Cool the air and extract moisture from it as much as possible before it enters the compressor.
(b) Extract as much moisture as possible from the air after compression by the provision of an efficient
after-cooler and properly drained receivers, and of automatic water-traps at low-lying points.

•
(c) Instal air-driers in the pipe-line near to the· air-engine. These consist of a series of baffle-plates
upon which the air impinges within a cylindrical casing, water (and oil) being deposited and
led away through a valve and drain-pipe.
(d) See that all exhaust ports and passages are as large and straight as possible.
(e)llf possible reheat the air just before it enters the engine, so that the final temperature does not fall
below freezing point. This greatly increases the efficiency of the air as practically all the heat
is available for useful work, but reheating is not usually practicable underground.
 SP/8
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff,
A/3

• 7. (a) In what circumstances would you consider installing an inbye compressor ? (b) What are the advantages
and disadvantages of this arrangement,. as compared with a, compressor installed at the surface ?

INBYE COMPRESSORS.

(a) I would consider installing electrically-driven compressors Inbye in cases where electricity
is in general use for main power purposes but a supply of compressed air is also desired for mechanical
picks, rock-drills, small face pumps, compressed air fans, air-turbo electric lamps, or other special purpose.

Efficient two-stage, air-:-cooled, electricaHy-diriven, .compressors are rrow available, having

capacities of 60 to 400 cubic feet of free air per minute, at pressures up to 100 lbs. per sq. inch. They
require only light foundations and can be installed at the side of a widened intake airway where they are
readily accessible and are in the path of all the air passing into the district. A number of such com-
pressors, suitably located, can take the place of a single, larger, surface installation.

(b) The chief advantage of installing a series of smaller compressors inbye at strategic points
is that fong §upply pipe lines and fittings, w itb, their heavy capital cost and high transn:~d.ssion
losses, are eliminated frorn the shafts and rrra in road'V!1ays, and use is made of electric cables with

•
their higher transmission efficiency. The overall efficiency of the arrangement is higher than with a
surface compressor and only those compressors need be run at any one time that are required for the
work in hand.

The disad.van41ges are that underground supervision and maintenance are more difficult and
costly than at the surface, especially where a number of widely separated units are involved ; coal dust
is liable to be drawn into the air-cylinders, so increasing wear and tear of the compressor and danger
of f!re due to the heat of compression ; and the method is not applicable in gassy mines where electricity
cannot be used in the inbye workings, or where large volumes of compressed air are required for coal-
cutters, conveyors, haulages, and so on. In such a case, a main surface compressed-air generating plant
would be the more suitable.

8. Discuss generally the use of compressed air and electricity in underground workings, pointing out the
particular purposes for which each is best suited and the advantages and disadvantages of each.

• COMPRESSED AIR VERSUS ELECTRICITY .

This subject may be considered under the headings of (1) suitability for mining operations, (2) con-
venience, (3) safety, and (4) efficiency.

Suitability for mining operations.

Both electricity and compressed air are suitable for a wide range of mmmg purposes, including
pumping, hauling, coalcutting, and conveying, but, where large powers are involved) there is little
doubt that electricity is superior in both distribution and use. With increasing mechanisation,
electricity is almost essential, especially for large cutter-loading machines on longwall faces and for cutters,
drills, and loaders in Room and Pillar mining. For main pumping and large haulages, electricity is the
only satisfactory- power medium.

Compressed air shows to best advantage in certain special applications, e.g. mechanical
picks, percussive rock drills for the hardest rocks, air-turbo lamps, pneumatic stowing machines, and
small direct-acting ram pumps.

•
Convenience .

In both cases, power can be split up indefinitely into a number of branches, the mam advantage
of compressed air being that the necessary pipes and :fitments can be installed by unskilled workmen,
and breakdowns can usually be quickly rectified. Electrical apparatus, on the other hand, must be
installed, inspected and maintained by skilled workmen and a lengthy stoppage is likely to occur if there
is a breakdown from any cause. From the point of view of operational convenience, flexible electric
cables are smaller, lighter, and more convenient than air mains and hoses of comparable power.
 SPf8
Answers on Compressed Air.
A/4
Safety.

•
It is in this respect that compressed air shows to greater advantage. It is almost, if not quite,
fool-proof. Unlike electricity, which is prohibited in any par~ of a mine wher~, on account of r~sk of
explosion of gas or coal dust, its use wou~d.be dangerous to life, compress~d air may be used without
restriction. In some mines, compressed air .is the only form of power permitted to be used at the face.
By contrast, many explosions and fires have been caused by defective electrical apparatus and the danger
to workmen from shock or burns is always present.
Nevertheless, great strides have been made in rendering electricity safe to use, chiefly by a
high standard in d~sign, cou~led with fla~el?~oof enclosure and, where possible, ~he in~tallation of
appliances that are mherently mcapable of 1gmtmg firedamp. And the modern attitude rs to make
the mines safe for electricity (by maintaining a .high standard of ventilation) whilst still adhering
to a high standard of design as a second line of defence.
It should also be noted that even compressed air has been associated with dangerous
occurrences, in several different ways. Thus, personal injury has resulted from the bursting of badly
made joints ; deaths have occurred fron: _carbon~onoxide produced at or near t~e con:pres~or by over-
heated or burning carbonaceous material and given off from the exhaust of arr-engines mbye ; and
ignitions of firedamp may be caused by discharges of static electricity generated by compressed air issuing
from an unearthed dust-laden pipe.
Efficiency.
It is in this respect that electricity shows to best advantage and it is because of this that the

•
use of electricity has grown, and will doubtless continue to grow, at the expense of compressed air.
By efficiency here is meant the overall efficiency, namely the ratio of the useful power output
at the driven machines to the power input to the electric generator or air-compressor, as the case may
be. It is this efficiency that governs the power losses in generation, transmission, and utilisation, and
determines the cost of each unit of power put to effective use. • •

(a) Losses in generation.

In an electric generator, the losses may be divided into (a) copper losses, (b) iron losses, ;nd •
(c) mechanical losses. The power wasted is dissipated in the form of heat and, on the average, is of the
order of 10°/0 of the power put into the generator-shaft. In other words the efficiency of an electric
generator may be taken (for our present approximate comparative purposes) as 90°/0•
In an air-compressor, the losses are partly (a) mechanical and partly (b) due to the compression
not being isothermal, and the sum of these losses may be 30°/0 or more. In other words, the efficiency,
expressed as a ratio of isothermal, H.P. to brake H.P. of prime mover, is of the order of 70°/0 or less, i.e.
less than 70% of the power put into the compressor-shaft is available in the compressed air for doing
work.
( b) Losses in transmission.
In electric cables, power is lost in overcoming ohmic resistance, the losses being dissipated as

•
heat. An average figure for such losses may be taken as about 10°/0, giving a transmission efficiency
of 90% .. The leakage losses are negligible.
With compressed air, the losses are due to (a) leakage and (b) friction and they vary widely in
different cases. In good installations, the losses may be as low as 10% or 15%, but in many instances
they are nearer 30°/0 and may reach as much as 50%. These high transmission losses are largely respon-
sible for the notorious inefficiency of compressed air.
For comparative purposes, we may take the relative average transmission efficiencies in practice as
90% for electricity and 75% for compressed air.
(c) Losses in utilisation.
In an electric motor, the losses are due to the same causes as in a generator and may be taken as
about 10°/0• In an air engine, the losses are partly mechanical and partly due to the impracticability
of working with any large degree of expansion. If the engine be well designed, the mechanical losses
need not exceed 10%, but the losses due to inefficient utilisation of the power in the air may be 40% or
more, giving an efficiency of less than 50%. Moreover, the air consumption of an air engine is pro-
portional to the speed of the engine, and not to the work done, and is just as great when the load is light
as when it is heavy. An electric motor, however; automatically adjusts the-power taken by it to the work
being performed and is also capable of dealing with a temporary overload.
Summary.
The overall efficiency of an entire power system may be obtained by multiplying together the several

•
separate efficiencies. Using the figures given, we have :-
With compressed air, overall efficiency = 0·70 X 0·75 X 0·50 = 0·2625 = 26·25%
With electricity, overall efficiency = 0 · 90 X 0 · 90 X 0 · 90 = 0 · 729 = 72· 9%
It will be understood that these figures are given as a general comparison only, but they are of the
right. order of magnitude. An overall efficiency of 70% is quite frequently obtained with electricity.
With compressed air, the overall efficiency rarely reaches 30% and may be as low as 10%. No further
comment. is needed to show the inefficiency of compressed air as a motive power in mines.
 SP/9
I

FOUNDED 1883. COPYRIGHT.

THE U.M.6.
A. SOUTHERN LTD.41
THIS PAPER
WAS THE FIRST
IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE
CONDITION THAT

•
MINING SCHOOL
IT IS RESERVED·
IN THE WORLD.
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN USE.

STEAM PLANT, ETC.

Lesson SP/ 9.
COMPRESSED-AIR PLANT.

Many different types of air-compressor have been designed to suit the widely varying outputs.
and pressures required for different purposes. Pressures range from a few lbs. per sq. inch up to as
much as r j.ooo lbs. per sq. inch (e.g. in one of the processes for producing synthetic ammonia}
whilst turbo compressors for power purposes have been built for outputs exceeding 60, ooo cub. ft.
of free air per min. We are here concerned with compressors designed for gauge pressures
of 60 to 100 lbs. per sq. inch and suitable for providing compressed air for power purposes in
mines. Even so, the number of different designs is almost legion and we must confine our attention
to main lines of development .

• Comparison of types of Air-compressor. The two chief types are (i) reciprocating com-
pressors, which may be either horizontal or vertical, and (ii) turbo cornpressors. The horizontal
compressor (reciprocating) driven by a long-stroke horizontal steam-engine, was the type first
introduced at-ill.ines. Running at a low speed (60 to 80 revs. per min.) it is a reliable machine and
has a long useful l:ii:e, but it takes up a great deal of :floorspace and requires massive foundations;
and, although many of the later examples are reasonably efficient, a great deal of old inefficient
p lan t still exists. Modern practice definitely favours the vertical compressor (reciprocating)
running at a relatively high speed (200 to 500 r.p.m.). It is lighter and less costly; it requires.
smaller foundations and takes up less room; its work.ing parts can he totally enclosed and arranged
for forced lubrication; and its higher rotational speed enables it to be driven direct by a modern,
qu.ick-revolution, vertical, short-stroke steam-engine, or an electric motor, or sometimes a gas-
engine,. or even (through reduction gearing) a steam-turbine. Reciprocating compressors may be
either single-stage or two-stage, but two-stage compressors are standard except in small sizes. They
are more efficient than turbo compressors (and are therefore preferred) for all outputs up to about
6, ooo cub. ft. per min., although they are frequently built to deal with as much as 8, ooo c. f. rn.
Above 6,ooo c.f.m., however, the turbo compressor is a serious competitor, whilst above 8,ooo
c. f. m. and upwards the turbo compressor is the only type suitable, because of the unwieldiness of
reciprocating compressors for such large outputs. It normally runs at speeds in excess of 3, ooo r.p.m.
and is therefore direct-coupled to a steam-turbine, although an electric drive through gearing is.
also commonly used.

Prime Movers. Where the motive power is steam, the prime mover is either a horizontal or
a vertical steam-engine, or a steam-turbine, depending on the type of compressor, and in each case
it is usual for the drive to be direct. Exceptionally, a vertical compressor may be connected through
double-helical reduction gearing to a steam-turbine. Where the motive power is electricity, a
number of alternatives are available. Dealing first with reciprocating compressors, if the supply
is direct current, a shunt-wound motor is very suitable and it can be readily arranged for variable
speed by regulating the exciting current. If the supply is 3-phase a. c. (as is more usual) either a
slip-ring induction motor or a synchronous motor is usually installed, being preferably
direct-coupled to the compressor. Both these motors are essentially constant-speed machines, their
speed depending on the frequency of the supply. The induction __ I.:1'1.919ris .. essential where frequent
starting and stopping are required, but it has the disadvantage of a low power factor when running
at the low speed suitable for reciprocating compressors. If constant running is permissible, a synch-
ronous motor is to be preferred because of its ability to take a leading current and so improve the
lagging power factor of an electrical system. With turbo compressors, the ideal drive is by a
steam-turbine because both compressor and prime mover run at their highest efficiency at high
speeds: but there are cases where steam is not available and the compressor is then electrically
driven by an induction or a synchronous a.c. motor. In these cases, the compressor usually
runs at a higher speed than the motor and the two are connected by double-helical gearing. A
synchronous motor is generally preferred to an induction motor because of its power-factor improve-
ment qualities. - -. - -

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS.
(a) Horizontal compressors. The general arrangement of a two-stage compressor driven by
a cross-compound steam engine is shown diagrammatically in fig. I. The h. p. and 1. p. air cylinders
are placed in line with the h. p. and 1. p. steam-cylinders respectively, and the inter-cooler is situated
between the two air-cylinders.

(58rn)
 SP/9
Compressed-air Plant

The two cranks are at right-angles

(as indicated by the, positions of the
pistons) whilst a massive flywheel is
mourrted on the crank-shaft to ensure
a more even torque or turning moment,
Inlet and delivery valves are situated in
the cylinder-ends, the manner of showing
them being purely diagrammatic. The
air cylinders are water-jacketed. It will
be understood that a double horizontal
engine may be used instead of a compound
engine; or that two single-stage air-.
cylinders delivering to a common air-
receiver may be used instead of a two-
stage compressor; but the general layout
remains the same. In nearly all cases, AIR-t ll'tLET
the compressor is double-acting, i.e. air Fig. 1.
is delivered during both strokes of each Diagram of Horizontal Two-stage
piston. Well known examples of hori- Compressor. (Plan).
zontal compressors are the vValker and the Ingersoll-Rand compressors.
Assuming that the pistons are moving in the directions shown by the arrows in the steam-
cy linders, air at atmospheric pressure is entering the left-hand end of t.he 1. p. air-cylinder, whilst
when the 1. p. piston nears the end of its stroke to the right, compressed air at the intermediate
pressure will be delivered by it into the intercooler. Meanwhile, air from the intercooler is being

•
drawn in at the r ight-handend of the h. p. a.ir-cyl inder and, when the h. p. piston nears the end of
its stroke to the left, compressed air at the final pressure will be delivered to the air-receiver.
(b) Vertical compressor. This may be either single-acting or doub le-acting. The latter is
exemplified by the Bellis and M orcom compressor in which the 1. p. and h. p. cylinders are mounted
vertically side by side with the intercooler at the back and a flywheel at one end 0±4ti1ecrank-shaft.
In a steam-driven compressor, the air-cylinders are mounted vertically above •the steam-cy linders.
In a motor-driven compressor, the electric motor is usually direct-coupled to the crank-shaft, or it
may be connected by belt to a pulley on the end of the shaft. The sing le-acting motor-driven ~ype
is exemplified by the Sentinel compressor, an outline
diagram of which is given in fig. 2.
It will be seen that there is only a single cylinder
but that the trunk piston is of differential pattern, i.e.
it has two diameters, one somewhat smaller than the
other. In the sketch, the piston is at the end of its
downward stroke. The space above the piston-head
forms the low-pressure cylinder while the annular
space below the piston-head forms the high-pressure
cylinder. During the downstroke of the piston, free air
is admitted to the l.p. cylinder. When the motion of
the piston is about to be reversed, the 1. p. inlet valve
closes, and when further upward motion has compressed

•
the air, the 1. p. discharge valve opens and permits the
air to pass to the intercooler. Meanwhile, during the
upward stroke of the piston, air is drawn from . the
intercooler through the h. p. inlet valve into the annular
11. P: cylinder, and during the next downward stroke,
this air is further compressed and discharged at the final
pressure through the h. p. discharge valve. Two-stage
compression is thus effected in a single cylinder, Fig. 2.
deliverv of air taking place during each stroke alter- Diagram of· Sentinel Vertical
nately through the 1. p. and h-p. discharge valves. Two-srage Compressor.

Coofirig ar-r-ange.merrts . It is usual in all types of reciprocating compressor to water-jacket

the air-cylinders and to maintain through the jacket a constant circulation of cold water. The
effectiveness of the arrangement, however, is not very high owing to the relatively small area of
· cooling surface available. In stage compressors, an intercooler is invariably provided between
the stages and gives much more efficient results. The irrtercoo ler may take many different shapes
but essentially it comprises a horizontal or vertical cylindrical steel or cast iron tank containing a
large nurnberof cooling tubes. · The tubes are usually of copper or brass or other similar alloy and
may be attached to the end tube-plates by being expanded into accurately drilled holes. The air
may pass outside the tubes and the water inside (as shown in figs. I and 2) or vice versa, but the
water and air-flow should a lwaysbe in opposite directions-the so-called "contra-flow" system-
so that the air leaving the intercooler is in contact with the coldest water. The moisture deposited

•
by the air during cooling must be drained off at intervals from a drain-cock specially provided.
The amount of cooling water required depends on its initial temperature and on the extent to which
it is desired to cool the air but approximately, in ordinary two-stage compressors, it is of the order
of 2~ gallons per cub. ft. of free air. Intercooling aims at reducing the air-temperature to the
initial inlet temperature of the air, but it is usually considered satisfactory if the air is cooled to within
zo°F. of this. In some cases, an aftercooler is used as well as an intercooler. This is similar in
construction but is interposed between the compressor-outlet and thereceiver so as to cause as much
moisture and oil as possible to be deposited before the air enters the pipe-line.
 SP/9
The Uni·versal Mining School, Cardiff
3
Compressor valves. It is probably no exaggeration to say that at least go per cent of compressor
troubles have been attributable to faulty valves and much attention has therefore been devoted to
these important devices, in regard to both the nature of the steel used and the design of the various
parts. A compressor valve must be light in weight and possess small inertia; it must have a small
lift but afford ample passage for the air; and it must be durable and as simple as possible. This will
be appreciated when it is realised that in a compressor running at (say) 450 r. p. rn., the delivery
valves have to open,pass the air, and reseat themselves in about one-sixt ieth part of a second. Valves
may be either (a) mechanically-operated or (b) automatic. Mechanically-operated valves are
worked by some form of link motion in a manner similar to steam-engine valves and are suitable
for low speeds and pressures. Automatic valves, however, are far more frequently used, and almost
universally so for multi-stage machines. They depend for their opening on a. difference of air-pressure
between the two sides of the valve and are returned to their seat by a spring. Sometimes the inlet
valves are mechanically operated; the delivery valves being automatic. In other designs, the valves
are opened automatically by pressure-difference but are closed mechanically. Automatic valves
may be divided into two main classes, (a) poppet valves, and (b) plate or disc valves.
Poppet valve. One form of this is .known as a mushroom valve
and a suction valve of this type is shown in fig. 3. The valve V is
turned from nickel-steel bar and is mounted within a detachable
seating and guide S. The latter is of cast iron or gunmetal and is
held into machined recesses in the main casting by means of a
screwed plug. The pockets PP are in communication w ith the
suction pipe. When the pressure within the cylinder falls sufficiently
low (due to the piston receding) the atmospheric pressure forces B
down the valve V against the resistance of the coiled spring C and
air then enters through ports in the plug and the valve-seat as shown A
by the arrows. As soon as the piston reaches the end of its stroke,
the valve is returned to its seat by the spring C. The diameter of
r:
,,;,. ,_,,,.,, .... /
such a valve is usually 31 to, 4 ins., and the number required
-depends on the volume .of air to be passed. (The upper part of the
p

sketch i llustrates an unloading device which will be referred to

presently.). v
Plate or disc valve. This is a later development than the
-poppet valve and is much more extensively used. Details of design
vary w ith different makers, but the general features will be under-
stood from fig. 4, which represents one of the Ingersoll-Rand plate Fig. 3. Poppet_ Valve
valves. The valve-seat S is an iron or bronze casting with three (Mushroom Type)
.conceritr ic circular ports or passages and eight stiff radial ribs to
ensure rigidity. P is the valve-plate proper; H is a cushion-plate provided with four spring-arms;
.and R is a retaining plate. All three plates are made of steel, and are provided with segmental
openings to pass the air from the ports in the seat S.
The various· parts are held together by the bolt B
and nut N, washers A and D being inserted to
separate the valve-plate from the seat S and the
-cush iori-p late H. The portions M of the valve-plate
P(see plan) are ground to about half the thickness
of t herest of the plate and have considerable spring-
iness. The outer portion of the valve-plate is thus
free to move axially although the inner portion C
is fixed. The diameter of a plate valve ranges be-
tv.reen 4~ and I2 ins. and, where necessary, a number
of such valves are arranged around the cylinder-ends
to afford ample port area. The thickness of the
plates is usually o ·07 to o ·09 inch, wh i.lst the
vertical lift of the valve is o ·08 to o ·I4 inch. The
weight of the valve-plate is only about one-third
that of a comparable poppet valve. The low lift of
the valve and its extreme lightness render it very
suitable for compressor work. Plate valves sim ilar
in principle to that described but differing in details
.as to method of assembly and shape of the springs
are used in such wel I-known compressors as the
Walker, Bellis & JV!orcom, and Sentinel compressors.
Governing and unloading devices. As the
load on a compressor is rarely constant owing to the
varying demand for air, it is usua Ily essential to
provide some __ m(;_(lIJS whereby the output may be
automatically adjusted to meet requirements. Of
-course, the simplest arrangement is a relief- Fig. 4. Plate or Disc Valve.
valve on the receiver to enable. the air to blow off
:vhe~ the pres:ure exceeds a.pred~termined maximum, but this_is extremely wasteful and is rarely
Justifiable. With an electric drive, ~ne or other of the followmg arrangements may be adopted:-
(a) A cascade motor (a.c.) designed to run at several different speeds may be used, the
speed being changed automatically as required by means of contactor switch-gear.
~b) A~tom~tic ~topping a_ndstarting switches may be fitted, these being actuated by the
--varymg air-pressure m the receiver: Such an arrangement is suitable for an a. c. induction motor
 SP/9
Compressed-air Plant
_1-
but cannot be applied to an a. c. synchronous motor because this type is not suitable for frequent
starting and stopping.
(c) A throttle-valve may be fitted to the inlet-pipe, the rnotor then running at constant
speed. This is suitable for any type of motor and is the method usually
J)referred. One form of unloading device, used in the Bellis & M orcorn
compressor, is shown diagrammatically in fig. 5. It comprises a double-
beat throttle-valve T placed in the inlet pipe and made so heavy that
it will open under its own weight. Its stem is connected to a piston P
working in a small cylinder which communicates via the pipe C with an
air-governor. This comprises a vessel V connected by the pipe D to the
delivery branch of the compressor. The vessel V has also a small piston-
valve S weighted by W. When the air-pressure in V becomes sufficiently
high, the valve S is lifted and air passes to the piston P, thereby closing c
the valve T (as shown in the sketch) and so shutting off the air-supply to
the compressor. The compressor-piston now runs more or less in uacuo
until the pressure in the receiver has fallen sufficiently to enable the
throttle-valve T to re-open. In this way, the receiver-pressure can be
ma int.a ined practically constant. A somewhat similar device in which s
the throttle-valve and piston are controlled by a spring instead of by
gravity, is used in the Sentinel compressor (fig. 2) where T is the
throttle-valve and P the piston referred to.
(d) An unloading device may be fitted to the inlet valves. One
form of this is shown in fig. 3 and comprises a small piston mounted on
the piston-rod A above the valve-stem, and controlled by the spring B. Fig. s.
The upper side of the piston communicates with the receiver via the Automatic Unloading
passage D. When the receiver pressure rises too high, the piston is Device.
forced down so that the suction valve is held open and no air is delivered. Wheri the air-pressure
falls, the piston A is raised by the spring and the suction valve again functions normally.
When the compressor is driven by a steam-engine, the output of air is usually controlled by
varying the speed. An air-governor, similar to that already described, controls the speed by varying
the position of a throttle-valve in the steam-inlet to correspond with the arr-pressure in the receiver.
An ordinary centrifugal governor is also provided, operating the steam throttle-valve, to prevent the
speed exceeding a predetermined maximum no matter how low the air-pressure may fall in the receiver,
Cylinder-lubrication. In some machines, the internal oiling is effected by a slow drip feed
into the suction pipe, but in others oil-ways are drilled in the working parts and the oil is supplied
under pressure. It is important that the oil used should be carefully selected. It should have a
flash-point of not less than 5oocF; it should be free from carbonaceous deposit; and it should be
sparingly used. These precautions are necessary because of the high temperatures developed during
.compress ion which might result in (a) ignition and explosion of the vapour from a mineral oil of
low flash-point; (b) the formation of carbonised deposits tending to jam the piston-rings and
interfere with the free action of the valves; and (c) the production of carbon monoxide due to
the partial combustion of the carbonaceous deposit. Other precautions include the prevention of the
entry of coal-dust by filtering the air beforehand, and periodically cleaning out of the cylinders and
air-passages. A simple form of filter comprises a closely fitting box formed around the outer end
-of the intake pipe, the outer side of this box cons ist ing of a removable wooden frame on which is
stretched fine cocoanut matting supported by wire netting. The area of the matting should be about
'60 times the area of the intake pipe, and the matting .must be cleaned or renewed periodically.

TURBO COMPRESSORS.
A turbo compressor is in many respects similar to a turbine pump, although there are naturally
-d ifferences in construction owing to the one working on a.ir, and the other on water or other liquid.
In both cases, the principle of centrifugal force is utilised to generate the desired head or pressure,
and in both cases, the chief elements of the machine comprise a number of impellers mounted in
•
series on a rapidly rotating shaft, with 'stationary diffusing channels between successive impe llers. -
. The essential features of a turbo compressor are shown in fig. 6. A number of forged or cast
steel impellers PP (the number depending on the final pressure required) are mounted in series on
the shaft S which is driven at a high speed by means of a steam-turbine or electric motor. Each
impeller consists of two discs (shaded solid black) united by a number of backward-curved blades
-or vanes (V in the end view). The shaft, with its impellers, rotates within a fixed casing or stator
provided with· diverging channels
.DD known as diffusers. These
lead into the return channels RR
which also diverge and guide the
air into the next impeller. When
the rotor is revolving, air enters the
first impeller and has work done
upon it with the result that it s
leaves the impeller with an in-
creased pressure and at a higher
velocity. . During the passage of
the air through the diffuser. its
velocity is reduced and some of its
kinetic or velocity energy is trans-
formed into equivalent pressure Fig. 6. Diagram of Turbo Compressor.
INLET
 SP/9
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
5
,energy (in accordance with Bernoulli's Law which states that the sum of the pressure and kinetic
·energy in a stream of air is constant). The air thus enters the next impeller with a correspondingly
increased pressure and reduced velocity. This process is repeated in successive stages until finally
the air reaches the outlet at the desired pressure. The ratio of compression in each stage rarely
exceeds 1 ·2, i.e. the final absolute pressure in any one stage is about I -z times the initial absolute
pressure in that stage. This places a limit on the degree to which air may be compressed in a turbo
-compressor, the maximum pressure being about I70 lbs. per sq. inch if the number of stages is not
to be excessive. For gauge pressures of 80 to 100 lbs. per sq, inch, about 10 to 16 stages
are required, depending on the speed of rotation. The radius of the impeller is reduced towards
the outlet end of the compressor because of the reduced volume of the compressed air.
Cooling systems. The methods adopted by different makers for cooling the air during corn-
pression vary considerably and, of course, details of design are always in process of change. In
some cases, a water-jacket only is provided on the outer casing, a number of channels being
formed therein and cooling waterkept in constant circulation. This has the effect of cooling the air
somewhat between successive stages. In other cases, jacket cooling is combined with an ex-
ternal intercooler - through which the air passes after the middle stage of the set. Other makers
eliminate jacket cooling and pass the air through intercoolers (integral with the casing) after every
-one , two, or three stages. In yet other cases, the impellers are mounted in two groups in separate
-cases and an intercooler provided between the two casings.

Characteristics. The turbo compressor differs from the reciprocating compressor in several
important respects, apart from its principle of operation being entirely different. The action in a
·turbo compressor is continuous, and so a uniform delivery is assured without the use of a large
receiver between the compre_ssorand the transmission line. No internal lubrication is required,
the only wearing par ts being the bearings which are external to the compressor itself. The air is
thus delivered clean and free from oil vapour. The turbo compressor is a valveless machine,
with the exception of controlling valves which are external to the machine. The valve trouble
experienced with reciprocating compressors is thus eliminated. On the other hand, whereas there
is theoretically no limit (either high or low) to the pressure for which a reciprocating compressor
may be desigrred, nor to the quantity of air with which it can be designed to deal, a turbo com-
pressor is urrsuteable for pressures exceeding about 170 lbs. per square inch (owing to the
-excessive number of impellers required) and it has a well-marked minimum volumetric capacity,
varying with the final pressure (owing to the difficulty of manufacturing an impeller of small axial
width). Thus, for a gauge pressure of 80 lbs. per sq. inch, the minimum volume of free air that can
be dealt with is about 3, ooo cub. ft. per min. unless compromises are made in the design and
efficiency sacrificed. (For lower pressures, the minimum capacity is not so high, being for example,
about 550 c. f.m. for a gauge pressure of IO lbs. per sq. inch).
Surging. The pressure -developed by a turbo compressor depends chiefly on the peripheral
speed of the impellers and the number of impellers in series. For a given speed, however, the
pressure also varies with the volume of air passing, and a curve
showing the relationship between pressure and volume is given
in fig. 7. It will be seen that, as the volume delivered increases
from zero, the pressure gradually rises to some maximum,
represented by point X, this maximum being reached when w Pr !-----'---t~~~~-+~~~-~
the volume is from zo to 40% of the full output, depending cc::
::>
v7
on the design. Thereafter the pressure falls with increase of I/I
w
volume. Under normal conditions, the compressor works on a::
Q.
the portion BA of the curve to the right- of X. Suppose that
conditions are such that the machine is delivering volume Q
.at pressure P. When the demand for air increases, say to Q1, Q
the pressure falls to P1, and the operating point moves towards VOLUME
A. When the demand decreases, say to Q2, the pressure rises Fig. 7.
to P2, and the operating point moves towards B. In other Characteristic Curve for Turbo
words, the operation of the machine is stable. It remains stable Compressor running at
even if the pressure rises to that corresponding to the peak or constant speed.
critical point X (the quantity then being somewhat less than
'02) but if the demand for air falls still further, say to Q',j, the pressure in the pipe-system exceeds
that in the compressor-outlet, namely P3. Delivery then ~eases abruptly and the operating point
suddenly moves to point D corresponding to zero quantity and the lower pressure P1• Eventually,
if the air is still being consumed, the pipe-line pressure will itseHfallto P4andthe compressor
w i l l immediately begin to deliver, the operating point jumping suddenly from D to E. Delivery
will now be in excess of requirements, the pressure will rapidly rise and reach the maximum or
critical value, and delivery will again cease abruptly. Such unstable_ operatton, resulting in
great variation in the power demand on the driving motor or turbine, is known as "surging" or
"pu mpfng ", Normally, of course, the system is arranged so that the compressor shal lwork as far
as possible at full load, but precautions must be taken to prevent surging. The most usual method
is to fit an automatically operated relief or blow-off valve to the cornpr-esaor-outlet and a
throttle-valve to the compressor-inlet. When the demand for air decreases, the throttle-valve
(actuated by the increase of pressure in the delivery-pipe) first restricts the volume of inlet air, and
'this has the effect of moving the surging point further to the left and altering the curve in fig. 7.
Just before surging commences, the relief-valve opens and allows excess high-pressure air to blow
away to atmosphere. If no air is required at all, the throttle-valve closes almost entirely whilst
the relief-valve remains full open, .and a non-return valve prevents the air being discharged from
the delivery pipe-line to atmosphere or back into _the compressor. The rotor then runs almost in a
·vacuum and the power demand is very small. -
 SP/9
Compressedvai» Pl ant. ·
6

Gover-nirrg; In. many· cases, the only air-governing arrangements employed with turbo-
compressors are those referred to above for the prevention of surging,, but where an approximately
-constant delivery pressure is desired, the following additional methods may be employed:-
(a) In machines driven by steam turbines, the steam throttle-valve is operated by air-pressure
and the speed is thereby increased or decreased according to whether the air-pressure is falling or
rising.
(b) In machines arranged for constant speed (as when driven by an a. c. motor) the air pressure
is regulated by the throttle-valve in the compressor-inlet. This, together with a non-return delivery
valve and a relief-valve, operates in the manner described for the prevention of surging, but the
apparatus is adjusted to operate more sensitively. In this \Vay, the pressure may be maintained
-constarit within about two or three lbs. per square inch.
TRANSMISSION OF COMPRESSED AIR.
The essentials in transmission are as far as possible to (I) eliminate leakage, (2) reduce friction,
and (3) provide for the drainage of mo isture. For these purposes, a first-class pipe-range is essential,
with such auxiliary apparatus as receivers, air-driers and automatic water-traps.
The pipe-line. Pipes for the transmission of compressed air may be of either mild steel or
-cast iron. Steel is much to be preferred, being lighter, stronger, more flexible, and more reliable
than cast iron, but the latter is more resistant to corrosion and is often used underground where the
water is of a corrosive nature. The di ameter of the pipes depends on the volume of compressed air
to be carried and the permissible drop of pressure due to friction. The thickness of the pipes
-dcpends on the material used, their diameter, and the air-pressure to be resisted.
Friction of air in pipes. The pressure expended or lost in overcoming friction, for a given
pipe-diameter, varies as the square of the velocity or the quantity of air, and for a given quantity,
it varies inversely as the fifth power of the diameter. It is important therefore to use large-diameter
pipes in which the air flows at a reasonably 10\l\' ve locit.y. For practical convenience, tables and
curves are available which show at a glance the diameter of pipe required for a given quantity of
air, and a given permissible pressure-drop. It is sufficient for the student to remember that,
except in hose-pipes, the air-velocity should not exceed 30 ft. per second, and jshou ld prefer-
ably be less. The following pressure drops, given by Professor Penman, indicate figures that are
-considered reasonable:-
Shaft pipes and underground mains 3 lbs. drop per r , ooo yds.
Branch pipes . 3 lbs. drop per 500 yds.
Small pipes 3 lbs. drop per IOO yds.
Hose-pipes 3 lbs. drop per 50 yds.
As a rule, a shaft pipe-range should never be less than about I2 ins. diam., with at least 6 inch
pipes taken into each district. The use of smaller pipes should be reduced to a minimum. Much
higher velocities are allowable in flexible rubber hose connected to portable machines. Such
.hose rarely exceeds 2 ins. internal diameter, because larger diameters have the grave disadvantage
of difficulty in handling. The drop in pressure in them is often considerable, being in some cases
as much as 30°/0 of the pressure at the gate-end valves.
Thickness of pipes. This may be calculated from the thin-cylinder formula:-
pd
Thickness in inches c= t = ·- . . . . (r)
2f
where p = gauge or work ing pressure in lbs. f = safe tensile strength of the material m
per sq. inch. lbs. per sq. inch.
d = internal diameter in inches. _: ultimate tensile strength -:- factor of \.
safetv.
The value of the safe tensile strength f', ma~y be taken as I850 -for cast iron pipes and upwards
0 Df 9000 for solid-drawn mild steel pipes.
Air-leakage. The loss of air from a transmission line, especially from pipe-ranges underground,
is often very high, ranging up to as much as 50% of. the air compressed. Most of this waste is due
·to inefficient joints, but some is due to defective valves and cocks or to receiver drain-cocks being
left open. In a pit, natural conditions militate against easy maintenance; movement of floor
.and sides is continually going on; falls occur and pipes become bur ied ; possibly some part of the
range was installed in a .road wh ich has since become. untravelable. In any case, leakages seen and
unseen, audible and inaudible, are constant ly going on and require constant attention to keep them
to a reasonable figure. It is a good practice to support the pipes on brick or wooden pillars or
·on cr-osa-ttrnbes-s rather than to lay t.hem on the floor.
Testing for leakage. It is quite impossible by mere casual observation to estimate the amount
-of leakagein a system: th iscarr.on Iy be done by_sy~te_m~ticair-met~ring.
the general state of the mains can be made (e.g. at a week-end) by
running the system up to its normal pressure, and then noting the time
__j"~~~
But a simple test on
1~~·1\'
r
taken for the pressure to drop to that of the atmosphere with no machines · ==~
'-~~·~,
working and all gate:..end valves closed. Subsequent tests have a com- ~PAc1~1NG

parative value in that they disclose whether the condition of the mains
has improved, or has deteriorated, since the previous test.
Pipe-Joints. The tightest form of joint is a welded one, but its
use is usually limited to important surface air ma ins. The general
practice in British m ines is to use some form of bolted flange joint.
Fig. 8 illustrates. one type of Iooae-Hang ed joint, suitable for steel
pipes and formed by bolting together two loose flanges, one at the end Fig. 8.
-of each pipe. These flanges are placed on. the pipes during manufacture, Loose-flanged Joint.
 SP/9
The Universal 'JJ;fining School , Cardiff
___ 7__

before the pipe-ends are turned outwards or otherwise shaped to prevent the flanges slipping off.
The joint-ring. is inserted to ensure air-tightness and is made of rubber, asbestos, or some patent
fibrous material. The bolts are spaced equidistantly around the flanges, four bolts being usual for
pipes 2 to 4 ins. diam., eight bolts for pipes4~ to IO ins. diam., and twelve bolts for pipes I2, to

• I8 inches diameter. As an alternative to loose flanges, the flanges may be electrically welded to
the pipe-ends or screwed thereto. With cast iron pipes, the flanges are cast solid with the body of
the pipe, the construction being otherwise similar to that shown.
Where considerable movement takes place, some less rigid type of joint is preferable, e.g.
the Victaulic Joint, shown in fig. 9. This joint comprises (a) a specially shaped rubber ring, and.
(b) a metal housing or gland which fits over the rubber ring
and holds it in position. The gland is made in halves for ease
of assembly, the two halves being bolted together by two bolts,
one at each side of the pipe. The ends of each pipe are provided
with a slightly raised shoulder or flange and the gland is shaped
to fit (with a clearance) over the two. adjoining flanges so as to
prevent the pipes being pulled apart. The rubber ring is
designed on the principle of the · 'U "washer and is provided with
two sealing lips, one resting on each pipe-end shoulder. It is
sealed by the fluid pressure within the _pipes, so that the joint
becomes tighter as the. pressure rises. The v ictaul ic joint has
several other advantages over ordinary .flanged joints. It is
simpler to fix; it is more flexible and permits of an air-tight
joint being made even when the pipes are out of alignment by
as much as I5°; it remains.a.ir-t ight when subject to consider-
able ground movement; and it permits of considerable expan- Fig. 9. Victaulic Joint.

•
sion and contraction of the pipes, so frequent ly rendering
unnecessary the provision of special expansion joints or bends .
Hose-pipe and coupling. The final connection between the pipe-range and portable machines.
such as coa.l-quzters must of necessity be made by means of flexible rubber hose, usually reinforced
with cord or steel. wire. Hose-pipes should not, if . jc.,-,,
possible, exceed about 40 yds. in length so as to mirii- CAM+ ~~ -:P·~11RN~~
mise frictional drop in pressure. Where it is necessary .~~-~~~
to•couple two lengths of hose together, th is.should be
done by some form of joint or coupling which is air-
tight and quickly and easily made. A well-known
type of joint, suitable for the purpose, is shown in
fig. IO. It may be described as a spigot-and-faucet
lever joint. One .hose-pipe end (the left in fig. IO) is
shouldered and provided with a projection (the spigot)
which enters into a recess (the faucet) on the other
pipe-end, this recess having at the bottom a thick rubber ring against which the spigot bears. The-
faucet has two projecting lugs, each carrying a pair of curved links, and between each pair of
links is pivoted a cam. To make the joint, one pair of links (the upper pair in the sketch) is turned.
over by hand until the cam rests in position behind the shoulder on the spigot. The other pair of
links (hanging down in the sketch) is pulled over as far as possible

•
by hand and the cam is finally snapped into position alongside the
pipe (as shown dotted in the sketch) by means of a toggle-bar. The
two pipes are then firmly held together but can be readily dis-
connected by prising back one of the cams with the toggle-bar.
Expansion Joints. In cases where expansion and contraction
of the pipes is not sufficiently allowed for by the joints, or by the
existence of bends in the pipe-range, some special provision must
be made for this, by installing either a telescopic joint or prefer-
ably a special horse-shoe bend as shown in fig. II. Underground,
especially "in deep mines, temperature variations are usually
negligible and expansion and contraction of the pipes does not Horse-shoeF~~P~~·sion Bend.
occur to a troublesome degree, but on long surface air-mains,
variations of atmospheric temperature must be considered and allowed for. It is, moreover, de-
sirable to insert an expansion joint or bend somewhere in the shaft pipe-range within about IOO
yds. of the surface air-receiver. The temperature of the air leaving the receiver, when the com-
pressor is working, is ordinarily about 200°F. and thus the temperature of the pipes for some
considerable distance from the receiver will rise
and fall with alternating periods of work and rest.
As already mentioned, variation in the length
of the pipes is best allowed· for by inserting a
bendin the range: but where. this is inconvenient,
a telescopic joint, as shown in half-section in

•
fig. I2 may be used. This comprises two main
castings, one sliding within the other and pro-
vided with end-flanges for bolting to the pipes in
the required position in the range. Air-tightness
is secured by a gland and stuffing-box arrange-
ment, asbestos cord or other packing being placed SAJ'8~f~
in the space provided between the neck-bush and Fig. 12. Telescopic Expansion Joint.
the_gland.
SP/9
C onipressed-air Plant
8

The gland is fixed tightly to the outer casting by a number of bolts B around its periphery and
serves to compress the packing. The sliding surfaces (shaded solid black in the sketch) are of brass,
bronze, or gunmetal. Two or more safety bolts or guard bolts, SS, are provided to prevent the
inner casting from being withdrawn completely from within the outer casting except when desired
for purposes of examination or repair.
Receivers. A receiver consists of a steel cylinder or tank placed at one or more convenient
points in a transmission line. A Lancashire boiler, suitably modified, forms a good receiver.
The objects of a receiver are :- .
(a) To eliminate pulsations and rapid fluctuations of pressure set up by a reciprocating
air-compressor, or by an air-engine, and so to reduce friction and shock.
(b) To act as an equaliser and reservoir of power, i.e. to store up air during periods of low
demand to deal with subsequent peak loads. For this purpose, the receiver should have a volume
at least equal to three times the compressor output for one minute.
(c) To collect moisture from the air before it passes into the pipe-line. For this purpose
one of the essent ia.lpositions for a receiver is near to the compressor outlet and, of course, the receiver
must. be entirely uncovered so as to cool the air as much as possible by radiation.
The principal features of a receiver are shown in fig. I3. It comprises a number of steel plates
bent to a cylindrical form and riveted together to form a shell which is closed at the ends by curved
end-p lates, It is mounted on brick or
wooden pillars in such a way that it dips tlNLET SAFETY
VALVE
towards one end to facilitate drainage. PRES!>URE
GAUGE--~..J...J-~~-.-,,__~...C:.l--~-n-.,-~~~.._--n-
The essential fittings Incfude i-c-
(I) Inlet and outlet pipes at the top
and at. opposite ends of the shell.
MANHOLE
(z) Safety-valve of either the dead- DOOR

•
weight or lever type.
(3) Manhole-door to enable the
inside to be examined and cleaned.
(4) Pressure-gauge to record the DRAIN
COCK
gauge pressure in lbs. per sq. inch.
(5) Drain--pipe and cock to run off
precipitated water. Fig. 13. Receiver.
(6) Control-valve in outlet pipe.
Some engineers would never think of putting down, say, a small haulage gear without also
installing its own special receiver as an integral part of the plant, this receiver being placed as close
to the engine as. possible. Other receivers are often placed at intervals in the range to secure ad-
ditional storage and capacity. On the other hand, it cannot be too strongly emphasised that the
best receiver is a large-diameter pipe-range. (which also reduces frictional losses) and that no
number of receivers can compensate for too small pipes.

TEST PAPER SP/9.

I. Make an outline sketch of a reciprocating air- 6. Make an outline drawing of an air-receiver to
compressor and briefly .descr ibe the operation contain approximately the air de.livered in
of compression, noting the merhod of cooling three .m irrutes by an air-compressor inhaling
the air, the form and action of the valves, 1, 500 cub. ft.· of free air per minute and
and the method of unloading the compressor. compressing to 85 lbs. per sq. inch, gauge

2. (a) What is meant by the compression efficiency
of an a i r-com pressor ?
(b) An air-compressor draws in 1, 250 cub. ft. of
free air per min. at 15 lbs. per sq. inch, 7.
absolute, and compresses to 100 lbs. per sq.
inch, gauge. The air· indicated HP is 229.
Wha.t is the compression efficiency?
3. In applying compressed air for use underground,
wha.t arrangements would you suggest to get
the best results and efficiency at various 8.
consuming points up to (say) 2; ooo yds. from
the shaft-bottom?
4. An air-compressor has one steam-cylinder and
one air-cylinder, each 20 ins. diam., arranged
in tandem. The stroke is 40 ins. The initial 9.
steam pressure by gauge is 80 lbs. per sq. in.
and the point of cu t-off in the steam cylinder
is at !~stroke .... The steam is not condensed.
Di-aw an ind.icator diagram such as might be
taken from the front end of the atea.m-cv Iirider
and another one such as might be taken from
the back encl of the air-cylinder. Make the
diagrams approximately to a scale Of r inch
to 40 lbs. per sq. inch.
•
pressure. Show the l.ea.d irig': dimensions.
Indicate in their correct position the fittings
and mountings and the inlet and . outlet
branches for the air. (Temperature-changes
are to be ignored).
A main air-pipe is to supply two coal-cutters w rth
air at 60 lbs. per sq. inch (gauge) each
machine requiring 600 cub. ft. of free air per
minute. Allowing 10% extra for leakage,
what diameter of pipe will be needed if the
velocity is not to exceed 25 ft. per second ?
\Vhat is the highest permissible working pressure,
in lbs. per sq. inch, inside a mild steel
weldless tube, 7 inch bore and 7t ins. outside
diameter, at a factor of safety of 5 ? The
ultimate. tensile strength of the steel is to be
taken as 2 2 tons per sq. inch;
A cornpressed-a.ir supply of 2, ooo c. f. rn , of free
air compressed to 90 lbs. per sq. inch (gauge)
is wanted for a mine .. It is decided to instal
a two-stage vertical, double-acting rec ipro-
·catlng compressor driven by · .a: compound
steam-engine. The compressor runs at 240
r.p.m. and has a r z -rnoh stroke. T0.e boiler
steam-pressure by gauge is 120 lbs. per sq.
inch and the mean effective steam-pressure,
"referred to the L p. cylinder, " is 50 lbs. per

•
sq. inch. Give approximate dimensions of
5. Explain the action of turbo compressors and the steam and air-cylinders. Assume 5 cub.
compare them wi th reciprocating compressors ft of free air per min. are compressed for each
for colliery work. brake-HP. of the engine.
(Note re Ques. 9. When the M.£.P. is "referred to the l.p. cylinder," the latter must be made large
enough to develop the whole required Ind. HP, The area of the h. p. steam cylinder may then be taken as one-
third that of the 1. p. cylinder).

Pr:o ·y Pres s Ltd., Cardiff

 SP/9

AJI
FOUNDED 1863. COPYRIGHT.
THE U.M.S.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.~
THIS PAPEI'
WAS THE FIRST
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING
IN T.HE
SCHOOL
WORLD.
~&/U™'~af ~ £Jwof.
IS
CONDITION
IT
SUPPLIED

IS
EXCLUSIVELY
RESEl'tVED·
ON
THAT

FOR
IMCORPOR~TEO 1931. CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN USE.

STEAM FLANT, ETC.

Answers SP/9.
COMPRESSED-AIR PLANT.
I. 11/I ake an outline sketch of a reciprocating air-com-presser and briefly describe the operation of
compression, noting the method of cooling the air, the Jann and action of the valves, and th:e
method of unloading the compressor.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF AN AIR-COMPRESSOR.
(Note.-In this answer, the student may base his sketch on those given in the Lesson, or he
may make a diagram of any other compressor with which he is familiar, but it is not necessary to
repeat any of the sketches here. The description called for must necessarily be brief.)
Briefly, a reciprocating compressor consists of a piston working to and fro in a cylinder

•
which is provided with inlet and de livery, valves. During the compressing stroke, the air is gradu-
ally compressed in a manner which is neither isothermal nor adiabatic, but somewhere between the
two, and is then discharged at the required pressure into a receiver. During the return stroke, air
at atrnospherip pressure is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valves in readiness for
compression.• In 'i single-acting compressor, delivery takes place during one stroke only: in a
t).ouble-acting. compressor, it takes place during both strokes of the piston. In a single-stage
compressor, the air is compressed to the final pressm:,e :in a s:ingle cylinder: in a two-stage
cc1mpressor, it is first partly compressed in a low-pressure cylinder and is then discharged into a
smaller high-pressure cylinder where the compression is completed. For very high pressures, three,
four, or more stages are used.
Cooling is effected in all instances by surrounding the air-cylinder or cylinders with a water-
jacket through which cold water is constantly circulated: whilst in two-stage compressors, an
intercooler is also provided between the two stages. The intercooler is usually of the multi-
tubular type and is much more effective - than water-jacketing.
The _valves are usually opened automatically by pressure-difference and returned to their
seats by a spring. The most usual form is the plate or disc-valve, in which the valve itself comprises
a steel plate, some sixteenth of an inch thick and provided with segmental openings to permit air
to pass. Two other somewhat similar plates are included in the valve assembly, one· being a

i.
cushion plate and the other a retaining plate, the details of construction varying with different
makers. The lift of the valve plate from its seat is very small, being only about equal to the
thickness of the plate.
Unloading the compressor is usually arranged for by fitting a throttle-valve in the inlet
pipe, this valve being kept open by gravity or by a spring but being closed automatically by an air-
governor when the pressure. in the receiver or d~livery o_utlet rises above a pr~determined. maximum.
The piston then merely reciprocates to and from a partial vacuum and very little power is absorbed.
2. (a) What is meant by the compression efficiency of an air-compressor?
(b) An air-compressor draws in I, 250 cub. ft. of free air per min. at I5 lbs. per sq. inch, absolute,
and compresses to IOO lbs. per sq. inch, gauge. The air indicated HP. is 229. What is the·
compression effiicency?
COMPRESSION EFFICIENCY.
(a) This is often referred to as the "isothermal efficiency" or sometimes merely "air effici-·
ency" and is the fraction obtained by dividing the theoretical isothermal HP. of compression by
the actual air HP. as determined from actual air-indicator cards.
Pz
(b) Isothermal HP. = 33I ·2 X P1V1 X log - 33,000
P1
II5
331 ·2 X I5 X I,250 X log -- 7 33,000 166·46 HP.
r5·

I5) = log 7 ·667

Isothermal HP. = 166·46; Air indicated HP. = 229
Isothermal HP 166 ·46
Compression Efficiency 0·7270 72·7%'
Air Indicated HP 229

(58rn)
 SP/9
A n stoers on Compressed-air Plant
~L~-------- --- -
3. In applying compressed air for use underground, what arrangements would you suggest to get the
best results and efficiency at uarious consuming points itp to (say) 2, ooo yds. from th? <haft-
bottom.
ARRANGEMENTS FOR EFFICIENT RESULTS.
(a) Install a first class modern reciprocating air-compressor, compressing the air in two
·stages up to 80 lbs. per sq. inch, by gauge, and having an intercooler between the two stages.
Alternatively, where large volumes of air are required, install a turbo compressor and make
.adequa.te provision for cooling. Arrange for the output of air to be regulated by an automatic un-
loader, or otherwise, in accordance with the demand for air. Install an aftercooler for the com-
-pressed air so that as much moisture as possible shall be deposited before the air enters the pipe-line.
(b) Lead the air to the compressor inlet from outside the engine-house so that it shall
be as cool as possible. Filter the air so as to remove all dust and prevent abrasion of cylinder and
valves.
(c) Install a large receiver at the surface to reduce shock and pulsation in the compressor.
Install other receivers (i) at the shaft-bottom to entrain moisture draining from the shaft air-pipe
range and, (ii) near the air-engines in.bye to collect moisture and prevent freezing in the exhaust
ports.
(d) Install large-diameter pipe-ranges to reduce friction, and fit them with good joints
{e.g. of the V'ictaulic type) to reduce air-leakage. Raise them from the floor to prevent their burial
.and to facilitate ·examination and repair. Install air driers to extract moisture from the air.
Provide autornartc water-traps at low points to eject accumulated water.
(e) Reduce the use of flexible hose to a minimum because of the excessive pressure-drop
-caused by it. ·
(j) Check the condition of the system by regularly metering the air. Provide pressure-

•
-gauges at the various points of utilisation so that the extent of leakage and friction may be estimated,
and defects rectified.

..
(g) Arrange for the load to be as uniform as possible throughout the 24 hours. A fluctuating
-demarid does not conduce to high efficiency.
.-------·----- - -
-l- An air-compressor has one steam-cylinder, and one air-cylinder, each 20 ins. diam.,arrangedin
tandem. The stroke is 40 ins. The initial steam-pressure by gauge is 80 lbs. per sq. in. and
the point of cut-off in the steam-cylinder is at !-stroke. The steam is not condensed. n:aw
an· indicator diagram. such as migtit be taken from the front end of the steam-cylinder and
another one such as niight be taken from the back end of the air-cylinder. M ake the diagrams
approxi:m.ately to a scale of r inch to 40 lbs. per sq. inch.
INDICATOR DIAGRAMS.
The two adjoining diagrams form a complete answer to the question.
(Note.-When plotting the diagrams care must be
taken to convert all gauge pressures to absolute
pressures. B STEAM LINE
w 100
""
5! 90
c ~-4"..,
(a) Steam diagram. This is merely the diagram. ""'sio
.of a non -condensing engine taking steam for ! of each ~ 80
~ "'D
~ 70
stroke. The. initial steam-pressure (shown by point B) <>:::
'-'' e.o
STEAM lu,
,i ...
DIAGRAM

•
is 80 lbs. gauge = 95 lbs. per sq . in. absolute. The t-
I/) 50 1'?
steam line BC falls slightly owing to the effect of wire- .... 1>-·
:::>
t: 40 I<.>
-drawing so that at C, the point of cut-off, the absolute ~ 30
F E
"'~ zo

,
.steam pressure is about go lbs. per sq. inch. Thereafter
I
the steam expands until, at D, the end of the stroke, 10 A I 'L..
0 .__
its pressure is about 1 x go = say 70 lbs. per sq. inch.
I I

~ ~ ~
.During the return stroke (shown by the line EF) the STROKE.
back-pressure in the cylinder is 3 to 5 lbs. per sq. in.
above atmospheric pressure, so that the line EF is
:above the atmospheric line AL. The diagram may now
.be completed in the manner shown.
(b) Air diagram. In this case, the initial pressure AIR
DIAGRAM
is atmospheric pressure and during the stroke the air is
-compressed as shown by . the compression curve AB.
This curve lies above the isothermal curve which
·should also be plotted and is shown dotted. The delivery
_,g§:l!K~ PE~~?':lr:~-h~~ b~_e11_~~suil:1ed. t() be 80 lbs ... pe:r sq.
inch so that the delivery line- BC lies aoove ·me 'li.n-e
' >4. .v,_ 3-4 -1-
-corresponding to 95Jbs. per sq. inch absolute, the hump
.at B representing the excess pressure required to open STROKE -. --~
the delivery valves. CD is the clearance expansion line Indicator Diagrams
whilst DA is the suction line. The latter lies below (One-half" re quired size)

•
.the atmospheric line AL.
As the s.team and air I?istons are c:>f the same size the area of the air diagram is less than that of
the steam d1':1-gram, the d1fferen~e be~ng a measure of the work required to overcome friction and
~hock losses m the steam a~d a.ir-cy linders. For the same reason, the mean effective air-pressure
rs le:ss than the mean effec~1ve steam-pressure. If the overall mechanical efficiency of the steam
, e1:gme and air-compressor as 7 5 % , the area of the air diagram wi ll be 75% of that of the steam
-diagram.')
 SP/9
The Unioersal }\!fining School, Cardiff
A/3
5. Explain the action of turbo compressors and com.pare them with reciprocating compressors for
colliery work.
·TURBO COMPRESSORS.
A turbo compressor may be regarded as similar to a turbine pump in that it consists of (a) a
series of impellers mounted on a rapidly revolving shaft and provided with curved vanes or blades,
.and (b) a series of specially shaped diffusing channels provided in a fixed outer casing and leading
from one impeller to the next. When the impellers are revolved, atmospheric air enters the first impel-
ler where its pressure and velocity are increased by centrifugal action. Some of the velocity energy is
transforrned into equivalent pressure energy in the diffusers, and the air at the higher pressure then
-en ters the eye of the second impeller and so on. Ten to sixteen stages are required for gauge pressures
of about 80 lbs. per sq. inch. Cooling is effected during compression either by water-jackets in the
·casing between adjacent stages, or by external intercoolers which may be integral with the casing,
or entirely separate from the casing, depending on the size of the compressor and the ideas of the
manufacturer. The compressor normallyruns at speeds exceeding 3, ooo r: p. rn. and is driven either
by a steam turbine or, through gearing, by an electric motor.
Turbo versus reciprocating compressors. A turbo compressor has the inherent character-
istic that it is very inefficient unless it is dealing with a certain minimum volume of air, depending
on the final pressure, whereas a reciprocating compressor can be highly efficient even in small sizes.
.Moreover. a turbo compressor does not show to advantage on a fluctuating load. For colliery work,
therefore, a turbo compressor is chiefly applicable where (a) not less than 6, ooo cub. ft. of free air
per minute are to be compressed, and (b) the_ demand is fairly constant. For smaller quantities,
the reciprocating type is less costly and more efficient, and is usually preferred. For larger quanti-
ties, the reciprocating compressor becomes unwieldy and cumbersome, and the turbo compressor
-becomes more and more the cheaper, whilst its efficiency also compares favourably with that of a
reciprocating compressor. In such cases, it is a good plan to install a turbo compressor to deal with
the average continuous load, and one or more reciprocating compressors to assist with the peak loads.
For cases where the turbo compressor is a suitable type to install, it has several further
advantages:-
(a) It is smaller than a reciprocating compressor for a similar output, and thus requires
smaller f<1u.nda tions.
(b) It has fio continuously operating inlet and discharge valves to cause trouble.
(c) No internal lubrication is required and clean air is delivered.
• (d) The output is continuous and no receiver is required to damp down fluctuations, although
it is desirable for the drainage of condensed moisture.
·6. 1'v1 ake an outline drawing of an air-receiver to contain approximately the air deliuered in three minutes
by an air-compressor inhaling I, soo cub. ft. of free air per minncte and compressing to 85 lbs.
per sq. inch gai.ige press,ure. Show the leading dimensions. Indicate in their correct position
the fittings and mountings and the inlet and outlet branches for the air. (Temperature-changes
are to be ignored).
AIR-RECEIVER.
Volume of receiver volume of compressed air delivered in 3 m ins,
IS rs
(r,500 x 3) x ---- = 4,500 x -- = 675 cub. ft.
8s + IS IOO
Let length of receiver = 20 ft.; then sectional area = 33 ·75 sq. ft.
· 133 7'"' '/ r4
And diameter ofueceiver- = V--· -~i:~ = , _/ 43 = (say) 7 feet.
To find size of inlet and outlet pipes, assume air-velocity not to exceed 20 ft. per second e- r , 200
ft. per minute. Now compressed air delivered per min.= 67s-:- 3 = 225 cub. ft. per min.
225
. ·. Area of pipes=-- x I44 = 27 sq. ins.
I,200

. ·. Diameter of inlet and outlet pipes =

. /z7 X I4 _
V ------- - v 34. 4 = (say) 6 ins.
II

(Note.-The design of the receiver may be similar to that illustrated in the Lesson, and the
student should compare his answer with that sketch, no further sketch being here necessary. The
calculated dimensions should be marked clearly on the sketch.)
7.
A main. air-pipe is to supply two coal-ctetters with air at 60 lbe. per sq. inch (gaitge) each machine
requiring 600 cub. ft. of air per minute. Allowing ro% extra for leakage, what diameter of
pipe will be needed if the velocity is not to exceed 2s ft. per second?
_DIAMETER OF PIPE FOR TWO COAL CUTTERS.
Free air .requlr ed :-=_(2 K QO_Q) .LO°l0 +I,2QO +~20 _ - 1, 320 cub. ft. per min.
rs - - --- - -
Volume of air at 60 lbs. gauge _ I,320 x - = 264 cub. ft. per min.
~75
Permissible velocity = 60 = I, 500 ft. per min.
25 X
Volume 264
Area of pipe = ---- -- = 0 ·I76 sq. ft. 25. 34 sq. ins.
Velocity ISOO

Diameter of pipe = d V
z5. 34 = v132. 26
0.7854
= 5. 68 = (say) 6 inches.
SP/9
Answers on C om.pressed=air Plant
--~lA ------------ - ----- - - --
8. 1/Vhat is the highest permiss1:bze teorking pressure, in lbs, per sq. inch, inside a mild steel ioeldless
tube, 7 inch bore and 7i ins. outside diameter, at a factor of safety of 5? The ultimate tensile
strength of the steel is to be taken as 22 tons per sq. inch.

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE Pl~ESSURE IN STEEL TUBE.

22 >< 2240
Safe tensile strength of the steel = f = ---·- = 9, 856 lbs. per sq. inch.
5
Thickness of tube = t = o. 25 inch; Internal diameter = d = 7 ins.

pd
By thin cylinder formula, thickness in ins. t = -
2f
2 ft. 2 x 9856 x 0.25
Permissible working pressure = p ------- = 704lbs. per sq. inch.
d 7

9· A compressed-air suppl_;,• of 2,000 c.J.m. of free air compressed to 90 lbs. per sq. inch (gauge) is
wanted for a mine. It is decided to install a two-stage, vertical, double-acting reciprocating
compressor driven by a com-pound. steam-engine. The compressor runs at 240 r.p.m. and has a
I2-inch stroke. The boiler steam-pressure by gauge is r20 lbs. per sq. inch and the mean effectiue
steam=pressure, "referred to the l.p. cylinder," is 50 lbs. per sq. inch. Gioe approximate
dimensions of the steam and air-cylinders. Assume 5 cub, ft. of free air per minute are com-
pressed for each brake-HP. of the engine.

CYLINDER DIMENSIONS OF STEAM-DRIVEN AIR-COMPRESSOR.

(a) Steam cylinders.
Taking the mechanical efficiency of the steam engine as 90°/0, ..
2000 IOO
Ind. HP. of steam
engine=-- x -- =(say) 450 Ind. HP.
5 90 •
Now the low-pressure cylinder must be large enough to develop 450 Ind. HP. with the "referred"
M. E. P. of 50 lbs. per sq. inch. -
PLAN 5ox r xAx24ox2_
But Ind. HP = and 450
33000 33000
45ox33000
Area of 1. p. cylinder = A= -------- - 620 sq. ins. (approx.).
5ox :t x24ox 2

Diameter of 1. p. steam cylinder =

•
620
Assuming area of h. p. cylinder = one-third that of 1. P. cylinder = 207 sq. ins.
3

Diameter of h.p. steam cylinder = ,V~:~o.~Z-7854 (say) 16·5 inches.

(b) Air cylinders.

The whole of the air (2,ooo c. f. m.) has to be handled by the 1. p. air cylinder and so, allowing
for a volumetric efficiency of 90°/0 :--
2000 IOO
Area of l. p. air cylinder x x I44 667 sq. ins.
24ox2 90

. ·. Diameter of l.p. air cylinder ~ -~~Z____ v'849 29 ins.

0·7854
Initial absolute pressure in h.p. cyl. "/IS x rn5 = v' ~SJ5 = say 40 lbs. per sq. inch.
IS
Volume to be handled by h. p. cyl. 2000 x 750 cub. ft. per min.
40
750 IOO
Area of h. p. air cylinder. x X I44 250 sq. ins.
24ox2 90

Diameter of h.p. air cylinder v'--0.7854

~_9___ '\ 31s
1 18 ins.

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