Ethnobotanical Study of Plants and Its Uses: A Case Study of Atan Village in Oyo State.

Chiamaka Grace Maduoma

November 2012

LITERATURE REVIEW

Ethnobotany as defined by Harshberger, ‘is the study of the utilitarian relationship between

human beings and vegetation in their environment, including medicinal uses’ (Harshberger,

1896). The concept of ethnobotany started to develop in 1895 after a lecture in Philadelphia by

Dr. John Harshberger, where he used the term ethnobotany to describe his field of study, namely:

‘the study of plants used by primitive and aboriginal people’ (Robbins et al 1916). It is important

to note that in as much that the term ‘ethnobotany’ was not coined until 1895 by this US Botanist

John William Harshberger, the history of the field has been in existence. Ethnobotanical research

has a long and rich history; in AD77, the Greek surgeon Diocoride published ‘de material

medica’ and this was a catalog of about 600 plants in the Mediterranean. It also included

information on how the Greeks used plants especially for medicinal reasons. And for

generations, scholars learned from this herbal but did not venture into the field until after the

middle ages. In 1542, the Leonhart Fuchs, a renaissance artist led the way back into the field. His

‘De Historia stipium’ catalogued 400 plants native to Germany and Austria. In 1953, Carl

Linnaeus wrote ‘Species plantarum’ which included information on 5700 plants. In 1495 BC, an

Egyptian queen, Hatshesput, sent an official to distant areas to collect living specimens of

fragrant trees (Coats 1970; 243 in Schultes and Reis 1995). The use of plants for medicinal

purposes originated from the beginning of civilization, as evidenced by the earlier recorded uses

found in Babylon (1770 BC) and in ancient Egypt (1550 BC). Ancient Egyptians believed that

medicinal plants were even effective in the afterlife of their pharaohs, as indicated by the plants

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recovered from the Giza pyramids (Veilleux and King 1996). The earliest known ethnobotanical

work, ‘The condition of the flora of the Southern Region’ was written at the end of the third

century A.D by Hi-Han and it has to do with Chinese introduction and utilization of numerous

plants from Southeast Asia (Millot 1968, p 1741 in Schultes and Reis 1995). The meaning of the

term ethnobotany changed from ‘the study of native uses of plants’ to a more scientific approach

(Robbins et al 1916). And Jones (1941), is of the opinion that ethnobotany is exclusively

concerned with the inter relations of primitive man and plants. And Ford (1978) amending Jones

definition to accommodate the evolution of the field defined ethnobotany as ‘the study of the

‘direct’ interrelations between humans and plants’. The word ‘direct’ in the above definition

signifying those who were in continual contact with plants, permitting them to classify them in

their way and to generate cultural rules for manipulating the plants and their local environments.

From the above, we would notice that the term ‘primitive’ which was mentioned in Jones

definition was omitted in Ford’s definition of ethnobotany. And this omission allows expansion

of the field of study. Also, from here, we can say that ethnobotany was concerned with the folk

knowledge of primarily non-western people.

Ethnobotany is the study of useful plants prior to commercial exploitation and eventful

domestication. It is based on the knowledge of plants by the local people and their usefulness as

understood by the people of a particular ethnic group, since information concerning a particular

plant varies from one ethnic group to another (Igoli et al., 2005).

Ethnobotany maintains a multidisciplinary character: botanically, plants and plant uses

are the focus, although ecological patterns, plant dispersals, resources utilization and

horticultural and agricultural patterns have become popular avenues of study among

ethnobotanists (Veilleux and King 1996). Anthropologically, ethnobotanists concentrate on

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discovery human interaction with plants through indigenous symbols epistemology, folklore,

ceremonies (Opler 1938) and plant classification among non-western peoples (Posey 1984; Atran

1985). While archaeologically, ethnobotanists concentrate on agricultural origins and prehistoric

plant use and relied on plant and corolite remains, fossilized pollen and ancient food caches to

determine prehistoric plant use and relationships (Kaplan 1963). But recently, ethnobotanists

developed a holistic approach (Ford 1978) and this is that they relied on several theories in order

to conduct their research, including data from botany, anthropology, linguistics, pharmacology,

musicology, architecture, conservation, biology etc, depending on the questions being asked in

the study (Jones 1941; Ford 1978; Turner and Davis 1993).

Any work about man’s life, would not be whole without a look at the role of plants. And,

this is because plants have been a vital part of humans and their society since and even before the

start of civilization. Long term changes in vegetation affect culture and language (Meggers 1977;

Hebda and Matthew 1984 in Schultes and Reis1995). Particular plants may exert dominant

influences upon cultural beliefs and art, be they hallucinogen (Dobkin de Rios 1974 in Schultes

and Reis 1995) or a major crop plant (Hanks 1922; Nigh 1976).

The main uses of plants include sources of food (cereals, vegetables, fruits, beverages, drinks,

spices, condiments, seasoning, etc.); edibles (for colouring) or as dye-colours; ethno-medicine

and ethno-veterinary medicine; pesticides and insecticides to protect the crops; wood for making

implements, utensils, tools, musical instruments, boats, oars and other household goods; cordage;

commercial plants; crude drugs, packaging material, wild fruits and vegetables and fuel (Shah,

2005). Humans have always used plants in one capacity or another. And, plants are becoming

popular for their vital usage in many areas. Ethnobotanists explored how plants are used by the

people for such things as food, shelter, medicine, clothing, hunting, and religious ceremonies.

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Plants in this view cater for all the basic, essential needs of human being. They also provide raw

materials for material culture and for economic livelihood. In an ethnobotanical and socio-

economic survey carried out for preferred economic trees by farmers and residents in the

savannah region of Nigeria, Parkia biglobosa was leading in the list of eighteen selected

indigenous fruit trees providing services and income (Soladoye et al. 1989, Popoola & Maishanu

1995).

Another example is that for centuries, people have used the herbs and species obtained from

plants as seasoning for food; while rosemary come from leaves, pepper and nutmeg are obtained

from dried fruits. All the more so, leaves of trees often serve as vegetables and also, beverages

come from plant life. With the exception of the consumptive use of the fruit/seeds and leaves of

the species as food, juice, spices, condiments, production of oil, among others, some of them also

serve as a source of chew stick for cleaning the teeth, and this has been demonstrated to have

inhibitory effect on some microbial organisms that cause certain mouth diseases (Rotimi et al.

1988). They also serve as a habitat for some beneficial insects. For instance, Triplochiton

scleroxylon particularly serves as a good habitat for African silkworm (Anaphe venata) that has

been reported to be an edible caterpillar (Ashiru 1988) which also spins their cocoon for silk

production. More also, in many parts of the world wood, a plant product is used in producing

suitable shelter for humans. Furnitures are products of wood and, paints used to beautify homes

are derived from paint extract. In addition, the use of wood can be used as a means of generating

heat energy, particularly for cooking and heating. This is still very pertinent in developing

countries (Erakhumen 2008a). However, the people of the African countries have depended, for

livelihood and sustenance, on their indigenous plants resources for centuries. They depend on

them for food security and a host of everyday products, from medicine to fibres (leakey and Izac

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1996). Speaking of fibres, they are used to provide one of the basic needs of man which is

clothing. For example, cotton and synthetic fibres such as rayons are produced from plants.

One major use of plant has been in the aspect of its medicinal value. For example,

Olapade (1998) asserted that many plants like Momordica charantia and Allium sativum

(Onions) have been used in traditional systems of medicine for oral treatment of diabetes.

Among others identified, Basil Ocinum (Tea bush) to cure diabetes and typhoid, Citrus

aurantium (Bitter orange) as anti flammatory, anti-fungal and antibacterial, the roots of cassia

alata (ringworm plant) with garlic and onions cures Gonorrhea. Ayantola, 2012: (personal

communication).

Ethnobotanical studies of different plants of the world have revealed similarities in the usage of

plants in various regions except for slight divergence in the mode of plants usage by indigenous

people of the area (Ekeruche, 1993). And, most plants serve different purposes and are therefore

known as multipurpose trees and shrubs. For example, the oil palm trees, Iroko etc. The rate at

which forest foods influence development varies significantly from region to region. Olajide

(2003) stated that Nigerian vegetations are naturally endowed with arrays of floristic

composition of different plant forms including trees, shrubs, herbs and other non-wood forest

resources. Within the natural forest abound several valuable non-timber resources of edible and

highly nutritious plants whose fruits, twigs, barks, roots, gum, latex or dyes are of medicinal

value (Owonubi and Otegbeye, 2004). Mgeni (1991) asserted that with the unique diversity of

plant and animal life, tropical rainforest represents biologically renewable resources of food,

medicine and fuel if well managed. And as reported by Awosina (1988), the different uses of

plants, for example, medicinal purposes are declining due to provision of modern facilities

(hospitals, clinics), which has direct link with modernization and civilization. However, despite

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the availability of plants and its many uses, if there is no knowledge of it by the people, it would

be a total waste.

PLANT IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTIONS

In the course of this project, different kinds of plants were collected and observed. While

the uses of some of the plants collected are specific to the people and area, some others are

popular and share universal uses or have the same uses with other culture or area. And, when the

uses of a plant are specific to a particular people it makes it quite difficult to know more about

the uses of that particular plant(s) or other information as pertaining to the plant(s). And so the

researcher is limited to the knowledge derived from the area and people. Some of the recipes

were given by the traditional healer and herbalist, while researches were carried out on the

others.

IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION

1. Family name: EUPHORBIACEAE

Botanical name: Jatropha curcas

English name: Purging nut plant

Local name: Lapalapa plant (Yoruba)

Description: Jatropha carcass is a species of flowering plant and it is a semi-evergreen

shrub or small tree. It is about the height of 6m (20 ft). The plant grows in tropical and

subtropical regions. It also can grow in abandoned lands and in fact, it can grow just

anywhere. It can be poisonous.

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 Uses: Cures epilepsies, ringworm, eczema, scabies, fever, impotence and convulsion.

For homicide and pesticide; it is also sometimes used with some other plants or plant

parts for treatments.

2. Family name: RUBIACEAE

Botanical name: Marinda lucida

English name: Brimstone tree

Local name: Oruwo (Yoruba)

Description: It is a tropical West Africa rainforest tree. In other words, it found in

tropical regions of the world. It bears collective or many fruits that can be fleshy.

Uses: Cures diabetes and malaria, Jaundice and typhoid fever (bark). It can be used to

dress wounds to prevent infections. A weak decoction of the stem bark is used for the

treatment cancer, poor low sperm count.

3. Family name: AMARYLLIDACEAE

Botanical name: Crinum Jagus

English name: Asthma cough plant/ Swampy lily

Local name: Ogede Odo/Ile tutu (Yoruba)

Description: This is a tender perennial bulb and it is native to tropical Africa. The Height

reaches 2 to 3 feet and it spreads 2 to 3 feet. It is of herbs with bulbous rootstock of

succulent scale leaves. The leaves are usually linear, arising from ground level. Some

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 Leaves may be broad in some forms, whereas they are narrower in other forms. The

bloom time is July to August. The plant is a commonly found in swampy locations with

tulip-like white flowers, which bloom in clusters during drier season (Olorode, 1984).

Uses: Cures cough and asthma

4. Family name: BIGNONIACEAE

Botanical name: Newbouldia laevis

English name: African border tree

Local name: Akoko (Yoruba)

Description: This plant is a fast growing medium-size tree Leaves are lush, tropical

looking, dark red and waxy. The flowers are tubular and pink; they come in bunches and

attract butterflies and bees. The tree has relative resistant to cold and so endures cold

without significant harm.

Uses: Cures stomach ache (the bark) and migraine. The Akoko Tree is regarded as a

sacred tree by the Yoruba, and a symbolic marker for sacred spots. Its leaves are used for

chieftaincy.

5. Family name: MENISPERMACEAE

Botanical name: Chasmanthera dependens

English name: Twigs

Local name: Ato (Yoruba)

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 Description: This plant is a prickly semi-woody herb. The plant in flower is ornamental

with white or pinkish-white flowers green-veined, in a terminal spike 20 to 30

centimetres long. It has mature branches with papery exfoliating bark. It occurs

commonly in forest margins, savanna and secondary forest, often near rocks, but

sometimes also in dense and moist evergreen forest, semi-deciduous forest and riverine

forest, up to 1500 m altitude. It prefers well-drained soils with ample water and sun.

Uses: This plant is used to set animal broken bone, the stem sap are locally applied to

cure sprains and bruises, it is used as a dressing for fractures and when mixed with Shea

butter, it used to as a liniment to treat muscle or joint pain and stiffness. The bark is

chewed as a remedy for venereal discharges or as a general tonic for physical or nervous

weakness in inflammatory and exhausting diseases. The stem soaked together with stems

and roots of several other plants is drunk against convulsions.

6. Family name: MORACEAE.

Botanical name: Ficus thonningii

English name: plants that move

Local name: Ọfẹ (Yoruba)

Description: They are large genus of tropical trees or shrubs and climbers. It is a thick-

branched wide-spreading tree of Africa.

Uses: Can be used to disappear and also, as a catalyst for sales (often used with

incantations), to treat cough

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7. Family name: LYTHRACEAE

Botanical name: Lawsonia inermis

English name: Henna plant

Local name: Laali (Yoruba)

Description: Henna is a flowering plant; it is a tall shrub or small tree, 2.6 m high. It is

does not have hairs or bristles, multibranched with spine tipped branchlets. Leaves are

attached directly to the stem, glabrous and pointed having depressed veins on the dorsal

surface. The flowers have four sepals and a 2 mm calyx tube. The fruits are small,

brownish capsules, 4–8 mm in diameter, with 32–49 seeds per fruit, and open irregularly

into four splits.

Uses: Henna has been used since the Bronze Age. It aids to stop incessant flow of blood

(menses), it is used to paint fingernails and hands; used to dye skin, hair, wool and

leather. It used as an anti-fungal and a preservative for leather and cloth.

8. Family name: LEGUMINOSAE- CAESALPINIOIDEAE

Botanical name: Senna alata

English name: Ringworm plant

Local name: Asunwọn pupa (Yoruba)

Description: It is a tropical shrub having yellow flowers and large leaves

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 Uses: It is to cleanse stomach, cures constipation, cures skin infections; the root part is

used to cure gonorrhea. The juice of the leave is used to cure ringworm and poisonous

bites

9. Family name: CONNARACEAE

Botanical name: Cnestis ferruginea

English name: Short pod/alum plant

Local name: Akara Ajọn/Ọmu aja (Yoruba)

Description: This shrub is native to Africa. It is an erect, sometimes scrambling shrub or

small tree to 6 m covered with short hairs.

The plant is about 3.0-3.6m high. It is a wild, densely brown plant with pinnate leaves

and brown fruits, which produces flowers within the months of January to March (Irvine,

1961).

Uses: It is believed that it is used to appeal witches and it is used as an enema by women

with abortion and ovarian troubles. Treats Snake bite, eye drops, migraine, gonorrhea,

madness, laxative, sore throat, stabilise pregnancy, oral infections

10. Family name: ASCLEPIADACEAE

Botanical name: Calotropis procera

English name: Giant milkweed/sodom apple

Local name: Bomu-bomu (Yoruba)

Description: Giant milkweed is native to West Africa. It is a soft-wooded, evergreen,

perennial shrub. It has one or a few stems, few branches, and relatively few leaves,

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 mostly concentrated near the growing tip. The bark is corky, furrowed, and light gray. A

copious white sap flows whenever stems or leaves are cut. Giant milkweed has a very

deep, stout taproot with few or no near-surface lateral roots. The opposite leaves are

elongated and obovate to nearly flat and roundish; it is short-pointed to blunt at the apex

and have very short petioles below a nearly clasping, heart-shaped base. The leaf blades

are light to dark green with nearly white veins. They are 7 to 18 cm long and 5 to 13 cm

broad, slightly leathery, and have a fine coat of soft hairs that rub off.

Uses: The seed is used by hunters to set guns. The tissues, especially the root bark, are

used to treat a leprosy, measles, fever, menorrhagia, malaria, and snake bite (Parrotta

2001). Extracts, chopped leaves, and latex have shown great promise as nematicides, in

vitro and in vivo (Anver and Alam 1992, Charu and Trivedi 1997).

It is also used to prepare cow milk.

11. Family name: RUTACEAE

Botanical name: Citrus aurantium

English name: Bitter orange

Local name: Osangoungoun (Yoruba)

Description: It is native to tropical and subtropical areas. They possess green leaves,

white flowers and spiny stems. Their fruits are nearly always edible and rich in vitamin

C.

Uses: Anti flammatory, anti fungal, anti bacterial, can help cleanse the blood and assist in

the body's absorption of iron.

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12. Family name: APOCYNACEAE

Botanical name: Parquetina nigrescens

English name: the plant that hears

Local name: Ewe Ọgbọ (Yoruba)

Uses: Cures stomach ache and also used for command turn

13. Family name: ROSACEAE

Botanical name: pygeum africanum

English name: African plum tree

Local name: Ewe esisi (Yoruba)

Description: This tree is native to African forest regions. It is ever green and can grow to

about 45m in height. The leaves are thick and elongated. The bark is usually red, black or

grey.

Uses: It is used for command, to treat urinary problems (the bark), fevers, malaria,

stomach pain and gonorrhea, the wood is used to make furniture, utensils, axe etc.

14. Family name: LABIATAE

Botanical name: Ocinum gratissimum

English name: Tea bush

Local name: Efirin (Yoruba)

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 Description: This is a herb tree, usually about 1.2m high with various branches.

Uses: it is used to cure diabetes, typhoid, lower back ache and stomach upset.

15. Family name: OLACAEAE

Botanical name: Olax subscorpoidea

English name: Olax

Local name: Ifọn (Yoruba)

Description: A small tree, 9m-10m high; the branches are flexible and angular. The leaf

is simple.

Uses: To attract customers and to curse (used with incantation); to cure yellow fever,

jaundice, guinea worm, veneral diseases, mental disorders and tooth ache

16. Family name: MENISPERMACEAE

Botanical name: Cissampelos owariensis

English name: Lungwort

Local name: Jenjoko/Jokoje (Yoruba)

Uses: to prolong pregnancy (either used with incantation or it is taken in),to induce

contraction of the uterus to start labour or abortion and to expel the placenta, to treat

diarrhea, dysentery, digestive complaints

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17. Family name: CUCURBITACEAE

Botanical name: Momordia charantia

English name: Balsam pear

Local name: Ejirin (Yoruba)

Uses: It is used to cure fever, convulsion, diabetes and constipation

18. Family name: SAPINADACEAE

Botanical name: Blighia sapida

English name: akeo apple

Local name: Isin (Yoruba)

Description: The coat is poisonous. The tree is sometimes above 6m high with highly

green leaves.

Uses: It cures malaria, migraine, dysentery, dandruff; ease labor, anti-ulcer

19. Family name: PIPERCEAE

Botanical name: Peperomia pellucida

English name: Silver bush

Local name: Renren (Yoruba)

Uses: treat mental disorders, wounds, hypertension, convulsion

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20. Family name: SAPINDACEAE

Botanical name: Paulinia pinnata

English name: Hipo cola, five finger, water cola

Local name: kaka seunla (Yoruba)

Uses: it is used to cure sore throat, leprosy, jaundice, mental disorder, dysentery,

astringent, malaria, black tongue

Plate 1: Paulinia pinnata (kakaseunla), Family: Sapindaceae

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 Plate 2: Crinum Jagus (Ogede Odo), Family: Amaryllidaceae

Plate 3: Newbouldia laevis (Akoko tree bark), Family: Bignoniaceae

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 Plate 4: Lawsonia inermis (Laali), Family: Lythraceae

Plate 5: Calotropis procera (Bomubomu with seeds), Family: Asclepiadaceae

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Plate 6: Sphenocentrum jollyanum (Akere jupọn), Family: Menispermaceae

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Table 1: Other Specific plants and uses include:

Family Botanical name Local names Uses

1 LEGUMINOSAE Senna Rere The seed is used by hunters to
(FABACEAE) occidentalis set gun
2 Baphia ntida Iyere Osun Used to consult the Ifa god
3 APOCYNACEAE Rauvolfia Oloora-Igbo Treat Fever, mental disorders
vomitoria

4 ASCLEPIADACEAE Secamone Ailu To prevent curse

afzelii

5 RUBIACEAE Morinda Oju ologbo To prevent curse, to put

morindoides protection mark, treat cold,
cough, convulsion,
rheumatism, contraceptive,
ulcer, anemia, anti dote,
antimicrobials
6 EUPHORBIACEAE Alchomea Ijan Chewing sticks, traditional
laxiflora wraps for kola nuts(leaves),
cures veneral diseases and
ringworm
7 ACANTHACEAE Justicia Isepe agbe Heal wounds, emollient,
insularis measles, small pox, diseases
on the head of a child.
8 LEGUMINOSAE Piliostigma Abafe Cures fever, ulcer,
reticulatum rheumatism, cough,
toothache, hook worm,
diabetes, diuretic
9 PALMAE Elaeis Igi a/ọpẹ Treat malaria, mental
guineensis disorders, diarrhea, asthma,
measles, oil extracted from
fruit.
10 EUPHORBIACEAE Croton Ajeofole To appeal witches, treat
zambesicus malaria; used as fodder.
11 TILIACEAE Grewia Itakun okere Taken by pregnant women, to
carpinifolicea avoid mental disorder in
child.
12 LILACEAE Barbados aloe Ahon erin Heal wounds, emollient,
purgative, hair care

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13 MENISPERMACEAE Sphenocentrum Akere jupọn To cure pain relief and for
jollyanum any poison bite and also for
‘afose’ (to command), a good
remedy for cough,
aphrodisiac, jaundice,
wounds, fever and malaria
treatment; as chewing sticks
14 MORACEAE Ficus mucoso Ewe ọdan Used as pain killers, dyes,
timber, exudation-gums
15 CUCURBITACEAE Telfairea Apiroko Treat Anemia, used as blood
occidentalis (Ugwu) tonic, vegetable.
16 ASTERACEAE Vernoma Ewuro Food source (vegetable), treat
amygdalina stomach ache, treating
malaria, diabetes, diarrhea
and hypertension.
17 STERCULIACEAE Cola acuminate Obi abata As a flavoring ingredience in
(kola) beverages. It is chewed. Used
to treat whooping cough and
asthma.
18 MELIACEAE Azadirachta Dongoyaro Treat malaria, jaundice,
indica eczema, ringworm, sore
throat, laxative, syphilis.
19 PORTULACACEAE Talinum Gbure (water To treat fever and
triangulare leaf) hypertension. For culinary
purpose (vegetable)
20 EUPHORBIACEAE Manihot Ege (cassava) Food source; reduces bleeding
esculenta from cuts, livestock feed.
21 MALVACEAE Theobroma Cocoa Chocolate liquor, cocoa
cacao butter, beverage, chocolate
Table 1: Other Specific plants and uses

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 Plate 7: Rauvolfia vomitoria (Oloora-Igbo), Family: Apocynaceae

Plate 8: Baphia ntida (Iyereosun), Family: Leguminosae

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Plate 9: Secamone afzelii (Ailu), Family: Asclepiadaceae

Plate 10: Senna occidentalis (Rere), Family: Leguminosae (Fabaceae)

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3.2 Table 2: Process of preparing specific plants for different purposes

Atan Plants and uses. Local plant name Plant part used Preparation

Anaemia

Telfairea occidentalis Apiroko (Ugwu) Leaves Macerate and take

(Cucurbitaceae) orally.
Antidotes

Senna alata Asunwon pupa Leaves and leaves Infusion taken orally
(Leguminosae- juice
Caesalpinioideae)

Sphenocentrum Akere jupon Leaves

jollyanum Infusion taken orally
(Menispermaceae)

Calotropis procera Bomubomu Leaves Extract Juice of leave

(Asclepiadaceae)
Measles
Grind, mix with black
Olax subscorpoidea Ifon Root soap and apply on
(Olaceceae) body

Calotropis procera Grind, mix with black

Bomubomu Leaves
(Asclepiadaceae) soap and apply on
body

Hypertension

Ocinum grassimum Efirin Leaves Boil leaves and bark

(Labiaceae) with water and drink

Cosmetic

Lawsonia inermis Laali Leaves Maceration or fresh

(Lythraceae) leaves applied to
colour desired parts
of the body

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Cough

Crinum Jagus Ogede Odo Leaves Macerate and take

(Amaryllidaceae) orally.

Piliostigma
Abafe Leaves Macerate and take
reticulatum
orally.
(Leguminosae)

Cola acuminate Obi abata Fruit Part taken orally

(Sterculiaceae)
Diabetes

Morinda lucinda Oruwo Roots and leaves A decoction of the

(Rubiaceae) mixture or part is
taken orally
Ocinum gratissimum Ejirin Leaves
(Labiatae) Part is taken orally

Piliostigma Macerate and take

Abafe Leaves
reticulatum orally.
(Leguminosae)
Cuisine

Telfairea occidentalis Apiroko Leaves Vegetable

(Cucurbitaceae)

Talinum triangulare Gbure Leaves Vegetable

(Portulacaceae)

Vernoma amygdalina Ewuro Leaves Vegetable

(Asteraceae)

Ocinum gratissimum Efirin Leaves Vegetable

(Labiatae)

Ofe Leaves Vegetable

Ficus thonningii
(Moraceae) Fruit Extract Oil
Ope
Elaeis guineensis

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(Palmae)

Diarrhea

Morinda lucida Oruwo Roots and Leaves Maceration taken 2x

(Rubiaceae) daily

Cissampelos
owariensis Jenjoko Leaves A decoction of the
(Menispermaceae) part is taken orally

Malaria
Azadirachta indica
Dogoyaro Stem-bark Macerate and take
(Meliaceae) orally.

Momordica charantia
(Cucurbitaceae) Ejirin Leaves Macerate and take
orally.
Venoma amygdalina
(Asteraceae) Ewuro Leaves Macerate and take
orally.

Dysentery

Momordica charantia Ejirin Leaves A decoction of the

(Cucurbitaceae) part with salt added is
taken orally
Venoma amygdalina
Ewuro Leaves A decoction of the
(Asteraceae)
part with salt added is
taken orally
Ocinum gratissimum
(Labiatae) Efirin Leaves A decoction of the
part with salt added is
taken orally

Impotency

Morinda lucida Oruwo Stem bark A decoction of the

(Rubiaceae) stem bark is taken.

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Convulsion

Charasmanthera Ato Stem Maceration of stem

dependens together with stems
(Menispermaceae) and roots of several
other plants is taken
orally

Peperomia pellucida Renren Leaves Macerate and take

(Piperceae) orally.

Ringworm

Senna alata Asunwon pupa Roots and leaves Add local soap to the
((Leguminosae- parts being pounded
Caesalpinioideae) and use to bath
Gonorrhea

Senna alata Asunwon pupa Root A decoction of the

((Leguminosae- root is taken.
Caesalpinioideae)

Pygeum africanum Ewe esisi Leaves Macerate and take

(Rosaceae) orally.

Chewing sticks

Sphenocentrum Akere jupon Stem

jollyanum
(Menispermaceae)

Alchomea laxiflora Ijan Stem

(Euphorbiaceae)

Sprains and bruises

Chasmanthera Stem sap mixed with

dependens Ato Stem sap Shea butter locally
(Menispermaceae) applied

Hallucinogens

Parquetina nigrescens Ewe Ogbo Plant Used with incantation

(Apocynaceae)

27
Nematicide

Calotropis procera Bomubomu Leaves Extracts, chopped

(Asclepiadaceae) leaves, and latex have
shown great promise
as nematicides, in
vitro and in vivo
To appeal witches

Cnestis ferruginea Akara ajon/Omu aja Plant With incantations

(Connaraceae)
To prevent curses

Secamone afzelii Ailu Plant With incantation

(Asclepiadaceae)
Anti-fungal

Citrus aurantium Osan goungoun Fruit The liquid squeezed

(Rutaceae) out of the fruit is
taken orally

Stomach ache

Newbouldia laevis Akoko Bark Decoction of plant

(Bignoniaceae) part taken orally

Venoma amygdalina Ewuro Leaves Part is boiled and

(Asteraceae) taken orally

Parquetina nigrescens
Ewe Ogbo Leaves A maceration of
(Apocynaceae) leaves with that of
‘lapalapa’
Venereal diseases

Olax subscorpoidea Ifon Leaves Macerate and take

(Olacaeae) orally.

Alchomea laxiflora Ijan Stem bark Decoction of plant

(Euphorbiaceae) part taken orally

Chasmanthera Atoo Bark The bark is chewed

dependens
(Menispermaceae)

28
Cancer

Morinda lucida Oruwo Stem bark Weak decoction of the

(Rubiaceae) stem bark taken orally

Dye

Ficus mucoso Odan Leaves Maceration of fresh

(Moraceae) leaves.
Dress wounds

Barbados aloe Ahon erin Leaf juice Squeeze out substance

(Lilaceae) and rub on injured
area
Table 2: Process of preparing specific plants for different purposes

DISCUSSION

As mentioned earlier, any work about man’s life, would not be whole without a look at the role

of plants. Plant performed and still performed a crucial role in the struggle for survival. Plants do

not only represent the primary source of food for man and animals but a large number of plant

species have been confirmed over the ages to have medicinal uses. Plants also perform critical

roles in man’s welfare and economy. Plants provide fuel, food, clothing and even shelter either

directly or indirectly. They provide tangible, intangible materials and essential benefits because

of their biodiversity. Tangible plant product which include wood for timber, poles, panels pulp

for papermaking; fuel, chemicals and animals-animal products are converted after exploitation

from the area of production. In fact, Harshberger defining ethnobotany pointed that it is the study

of plants used by the indigenous people in all ramifications such as medicine, food making, dye-

making, soap-making, conservation etc. The usage of plants usually relates to people’s notion of

its importance, medicinally and otherwise, and also their experience of plant occurring in their

local environment.

29
The phenology of plants may shape the yearly round of festivals (e.g. Guyot 1975). Their

behavior is read as portents of weather harvests or community health and their responses to

manipulation serve for divination (e.g. Alcorn1984). Plant also provides raw materials for

materials culture and for economic livelihood. It is a major source of materials for economic

development of the people in the rural development Plants maintain the physical and chemical

integrity of ecosystem.

Alternatively, some have negative element; they can bring about death, punishment and

negative influences on people. For example, ‘Lungwort’, also known as ‘Jenjoko’ or ‘Jokoje’

that can be used with incantation to prolong pregnancy and can still also be used to induce

contraction of the uterus to start labour. Another example is the ‘Akeo apple’ plant that is known

as ‘Isepe agbe’; the coat is poisonous but yet the plant is used to cure malaria and migraine. One

man’s disadvantage is another man’s advantage. There are plants so dangerous to humans as to

be studiously shunned, avoided at all cost and to be used for nothing at all (Burkell: 1985 in

Schultes and Reis 1995).

One very observed and noticeable factor is the fact the major use of the plants has been

for and is still for medicinal purposes. And in most cases, when extraction from plants is

required, water was used exclusively as the extraction medium (Igoli et al., 2003). And in many

cases two or more plants or plant parts are used jointly. For example, extract from ‘Akoko’

leaves mixed with ginger can be used to cure anovulation. This may be due to either synergistic

or additive effects of the constituents that have been observed over the years (Igoli et al, 2002).

Oral consumption of remedies was advised where extracts were involved and in some cases

dosages (usually two to three times a day) and duration of treatment (usually 2-5 days or until

when symptoms disappear) were prescribed. An example is ‘Cassia alata’ (Asunwo pupa) to

30
cure gonorrhea; when the extract of the roots is mixed garlic and onions, the medication is not to

be taken for more than one month.

One other observed thing as the plant was studied is the deep traditional beliefs of the

people, what the layman might call ‘fetish belief’. It was astonishing to know that there were

plants that were used with incantation to produce expected results, plants used to prevent curses

(in this modernized age) and hallucinogenic plants (mainly used to command people). Most of

these plants are used with incantations. Examples of such plants include: ‘Ajeofole’ and ‘Akara

Ajen’ used to appeal the witches; ‘Ailu’ used to prevent cause (in the words of the interviewed:

‘Ogun lati mala pe yan pa’ translated ‘so that someone will not call you and you die’); ‘Iyere

Osun’ used by the herbalist to consult the Ifa god and ‘Ifon’ plant used to attract customers and

to curse.

The indigenous personality that was met was able to identify each and most of the plants,

so that one could wonder or ask question about the source of the knowledge. This is really

astounding and this shows that it would be of good importance if interaction with these

knowledgeable indigenous personalities is continuous as it will produce good information and it

would lead to preservation of such knowledge. Little wonder, Ekeruche (1993) in his work

pointed out that ethnobotanical studies of different plants of the world have revealed similarities

in the usage of plants in various regions except for slight divergence in the mode of plants usage

by indigenous people of the area.

31
THE INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF PLANTS AMONGST THE PEOPLE WITH

RELATION TO CONSERVATION OF THE PLANTS.

In ethnobotany, an understanding is not created only about present uses of plants, but also

the importance of plants for food, medicine, construction etc in their past experience. This

invariably hints about the people’s traditional ecological knowledge specifically related to plants

and the influence of this knowledge on the research and methods used in ethnobotany. In fact,

the term ethnobotany broadened by Robbins (1916) suggests that the science of ethnobotany

should include the investigation and evaluation of the knowledge of all phases of plant life

among primitive societies and of the effect of the vegetal environment upon the life customs,

beliefs and history of these tribal people. Indigenous knowledge is an important factor that

governs the acceptance and use of any renewable natural resources for any purpose in any

community

The knowledge the native people inhabiting in unindustrialized regions of the world

possess about their biological environment is wide. In fact, plants are a very crucial part of a

person’s every day environment and plant behavior habit and parts are used as resources.

Accordingly, some ethnobotanists have emphasized this by defining plant use as ‘behavioral

response to plants’ (Hays 1974 in Schultes and Reis 1995).

In most places especially the rural areas, there are specific people knowledgeable about

the elements of plants and their uses. These specialized folks represent the key to understanding,

utilizing and protecting the plant diversity. And, most times the extent to which they understand

and are able to sustainably use this diversity is astonishing. These persons most often are elderly

people with younger persons working as apprentice. These younger person(s) could be the

32
child(ren) of the professional or just an apprentice. These knowledgeable personalities diagnose

and treat illnesses, determine the causes of death, assure good harvest through rituals, explain

climatic and natural phenomena, control methods of hunting and fishing as the repository of

tribal mythology and history. These persons usually are the experts who influence and control

hallucinogenic drugs that are considered to be sacred. These knowledge of plants captured in the

concept of culture, have in turn been passed down to provide them with survival strategy.

Grenier (1998 in Okorie, P.E., et al 2006) pointed out that indigenous knowledge is the unique,

traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific condition of

women and men indigenous to a particular geographical area. Similarly, von Liebenstein and van

Marrewijk (1998 in Okorie, P.E., et al 2006) defined indigenous knowledge as the sum total of

the knowledge and skills which people in a particular geographic area possess, and which

enables them to get the most out of their natural environment.

But, with the occurrence of development and modernization which now has major

influences on social structures and attitudes, this now seem to result to loss or rejection of local

knowledge. And, this may consequently lead in the loss of over the centuries; such the need to

ensure that this knowledge is documented for further preservation and conservation. Ethnobotany

offers a very effective approach to tropical forest conservation, since it may provide a wealth of

knowledge on non timber products, which can often be collected in a non destructive manner.

The challenge facing the ethnobotanists is to discover as much of this information as remains

before it is too late and to pass it along to the people who can make decisions that may help to

conserve both the peoples and the plants involved.

33
 Plants are vital resources that need judicious and sustainable management. Knowledge of

plants would definitely promote conservation. And, conservation of plants suggests the wise use

of plants and its environment leading to a continuous flow of benefits to the plant users and

future generation. Presently, it is imperative for developing nations such as Nigeria to

systematically document uses of medicinal plants in all autonomous areas or communities, which

are still largely unexplored.

Documentation of this kind of information will be beneficial in general health care, ecological

control, forest conservation, research and providing leads to plants with useful medicinal,

cultural and economic significant. This is crucial now because with the current rate of

destruction of tropical forest habitats, plant scientists may have little time to survey the plant

kingdom for useful original or lead compounds. And also, the knowledge of plant enables

maximal utilization of the plant. Conclusively, the certain way of ensuring and improving quick

and sustainable production of environmental resources is by having an in depth understanding of

indigenous knowledge of the plants diversity and its uses.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ETHNOBOTANY AND ARCHAEOLOGY

Archaeological studies indicate the importance of ethnobotanical knowledge even before

rudimentary writing evolved. The knowledge was preserved first verbally in songs and poems.

The Egyptian scrolls preserve the oral tradition of medicinal and other plant uses. From the

above, it can be deduced that ethnobotany has been and is still is a relevant aspect of

Archaeology. Ethnobotany aids the possible reconstruction of past environments at different

periods. Ethnobotany can be said to have a connection with environmental archaeology which is

an aspect of archaeology. Of which archaeology encompasses the study of man, animal and

34
plants for a full grasp of the study of ‘man’. With this, it is important to remind us that

ethnobotany is not just about the plant study but the inter relationship between man and plant.

And besides, with ethnobotany, one can easily understand the past of man relating it with present

and seeking a way that it will benefit the future generation.

With respect to the human context of ethnobotany, ethnobotanical research allows the gathering

of many cultural elements fundamental to elaborating a strategy of national integration; and this

is what archaeology also tends to do. Also, plants and plant communities give structure to the

environment experienced by humans, they act as standards for the present locality and past

events and they also give their names to local areas. In other words, ethnobotanical study can be

used to trace the origins or beginnings of a people. Plants are included in mythologies and legend

according to their features and their cultural importance.

As a final point, ethnobotany meets most of the objectives of archaeology of which one is aimed

to recover at least some aspects of man’s past, beginning with those unrecorded by written

documents. Also, with the definition of archaeology provided by Shaw, which states

‘archaeology comprises a system of techniques for deriving the maximum amount of information

from the material culture and physical remains which have been left behind by past generations

of mankind, and which have survived to the present.’ Thus ethnobotanical research can be

included in the system of techniques uses.

35
SUMMARY

Two major terms that stand out in ethnobotany are ‘people’ and ‘plant’. The focus of

ethnobotany is how plants have been or are used, managed and perceived in human societies.

This includes plants used for medicine, divination, cosmetics, dyeing and textiles, for building,

tools, currency, clothing, rituals, social life and music. Ethnobotany maintains a multi-

disciplinary character which is the reason why variety of skills such as botanical,

anthropological, linguistic, and archaeological training is required to carry out an ethnobotanical

research.

Humans have been and are very dependent on plant life. Studies have shown that inhabitants of

developing countries, especially in the rural areas, are dependent upon plant resources for

livelihood and sustenance. With reference to Atan people, they depend on plants especially for

food, economic, medicinal and ritualistic purposes. This can be noticed in the mode of

subsistence of the people which is mainly of farming and trading and the absence of hospitals

within the community. The people also engage in garri making and palm oil production.

Plant use and plant human interrelationship are shaped by history, by physical and social

environments, and by inherent qualities of the plants themselves. And, the utilization of plant

consists of a large collection of foods, building, drugs and other raw materials which include

fuels, fibres and ornamental plants. The results obtained in this study have shown that one plant

can serve different purposes, different parts of a plant can be used for different purposes, a

particular part of a plant can be used for many reasons and in fact, different plants can serve the

same purpose. Some examples include: the leaves of ‘Venoma amygdalina’ (Ewuro) that can be

used to treat dysentery, malaria, stomach upset and it can also be used for vegetables in food;

‘Chasmanthera dependens’ (Ato), the bark can be chewed as a remedy for venereal diseases or a

36
general tonic for physical or nervous weakness in inflammatory and exhausting disease, a

maceration of the stem is drunk against convulsion while the stem sap is applied to cure sprains

and bruises. Examples of plants that serve the same purpose is the leaves of ‘Senna alata’

(Asunwon pupa), ‘Sphenocentrum jollyanum (Akere jupon), and Calotropis procera

(Bomubomu) that can be used as an antidote for poisonous bite.

In spite of the much positive usefulness of plants, some of these plants have their

negative effects and are used for negative purposes. An example is the ‘Olax subscorpoidea’

(Ifon) that is used to curse.

CONCLUSION

The different parts of plants that can be used and have been used overtime include: the stem,

leaves, stem bark, roots, root bark, fruit etc. Plants are vital resources that need judicious and

sustainable management. Knowledge of plants would definitely promote conservation. Ryan

(1995) opines that it is generally acknowledged that if an efficacious conservation or

management programme is to be set up, the traditional knowledge of vanishing cultures must be

respected and studied and the result of such study should be passed to other land users to educate

them concerning the ecological status of the species they used and traded on. This could be so

because education, domestication and the conservation of biological diversity seem to be most

important considerations in devising measures to assure the local people of permanent and

reliable sources of medicinal herbs, food, income and other benefits. Amongst the rural folks,

there are usually particular persons that are professionals in the elements of plants and their uses.

These specialized folks represent the key to understanding and utilizing the plant diversity. The

place of ethnobotany in development cannot be overstressed. In as much as development is

37
essential in any community, developers should not be allowed to mercilessly destroy vegetation

without planning to replace it or at least conserve part of it.

RECOMMENDATION

 Consistent and thorough studies and researches on plants and their uses should be carried

out especially in regions and areas where the people are still very much dependent on the

plants for daily living and survival. Also, the relationship between these plants. The

people and their culture should be well understood and by so doing, conservation will be

encouraged.

 The conservation and protection of plants species should be encouraged.

 More people, especially the indigenous people should be given in depth enlightenment

and training as regards the use and management of plant species in their environment.

 Studies on plants, its content, uses and preparation for usage should be well documented

and made known to the public. This would encourage maximal utilization but with care.

And in fact, it can lead to further researches and development.

 Experiments and improvement should be carried out on studies that have been made so as

to encourage more researches.

 The use of plants for negative purposes should be discouraged.

38
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Appendix 1

Map of Nigeria showing Oyo State

44
Appendix 2

Map of Oyo state showing Akinyele Local Government Area

45
Appendix 3

Map of Akinyele Local Government Area showing Atan

46