KULLIYYAH OF PHARMACY

YEAR 1, SEMESTER 2, 2018/2019

UNGS2090K
THE ISLAMIC WORLD VIEW, KNOWLEDGE AND CIVILIZATION

QURANIC REFERENCES TO ILM AND ITS ROLE IN THE

FOUNDATION OF THE ISLAMIC GOLDEN AGE

LECTURER’S NAME : Asst. Prof. Bendebka Ramzi

DATE OF SUBMISSION : 16​th​ December 2019
GROUP : Group 10

NAME MATRIC NO
SITI NURARFA DANIA BINTI MOHD SALLEH 1813696
NUR SYAHIRAH BINTI MOHD RUSHDI 1817764
NURAISYAH AINAA BINTI SALEHUDDIN 1814608
NUR’ NASHATUL AZNIEZA ABU BAKAR 1814556
SITI AISYAH BINTI MOHD. SOPIAN 1815708
ABSTRACT

In the contemporary world, knowledge can be recognized as a mixture of insights,

understandings and experience. In contrast, knowledge in Islam covers both understanding about
the world and the Divine set by the authentic sources of Islam which is the Holy Quran and the
authentic compilation of Prophetic practices. This paper discusses the Quranic references in
various field of ‘ilm including economy, science and medicine, law and politics as well as its role
in the foundation or development of the Islamic Golden Age.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the history of education, the widely concept of knowledge has been a controversial
topic to discuss at many critical points. Due to the contemporary society’s transition from an era
of paucity of information to the one of information abundance, advance development of modern
technologies and post-modernist trends, the concept of knowledge is understood differently and
subjectively, depending on the individual’s own viewpoint. Generally, knowledge can be defined
as a combination of ‘insights, understandings, experiences, contextual information and the
practical of know-how’ that produces a structure for evaluating new information (Al-Hudawi,
Musah & Hamdan, 2014). Knowledge can be increased through one’s experiences and
understanding of underlying principles as well as the patterns involved, so that it can be
combined and put together to become a complete set of applicable knowledge resulting in
wisdom (Al-Hudawi, Musah & Hamdan, 2014).

It is impressive to see the contributions of Islamic scientists in numerous fields of

knowledge from the 8th to the 16th centuries. These were called the Islamic Golden Age. It
refers to a period whereby the historically Islamic world was ruled by various caliphates and
science knowledge, economic development as well as the cultural works prospered. This
remarkable period was believed to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun
al-Rashid (786–809) with the initiation of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad that played a role as
a place for various scholars from different parts of the world and different cultural backgrounds
to gather and translate all of the world’s classical knowledge into the Arabic language ("The

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Islamic Golden Age | World Civilization", 2019). However, poverty in many Islamic countries
showed rising rate after the 16th century. Besides that, the Islamic world also experienced
various rough events that contributed to its fall in political and economic powers. This occurred
due to the invasions of the Crusades, Mongol, natural catastrophes, loss of international trade, the
capitulations of the Ottoman Empire to Western benefits, and the rise of European imperialism
(Hajar, 2013).

As the well-known Arab historian, Ibn Khaldun said: “Science thrives only in affluent
societies.” This sentence indicates that science knowledge would only be flourished during
mighty and rich era or empire (Hajar, 2013). This is because, it highly depends on the framework
afforded by the presence of affluence. According to Al-Ghazali, knowledge or ‘ilm in Islam
gives the definition of the realization of the meanings of things. It also can be defined as the
realization of something in its true nature. As mentioned in Surah Muhammad, verse 19:

This verse relates with the meaning of knowledge as a firm belief that accords with the reality of
things. As a Muslim, it is compulsory for us to seek knowledge. As mentioned in Surah An-Nisa,
verse 162, knowledge is the way to recognize Allah as The Creator and discover the truth.

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Moreover, it is important for Muslims to seek ‘ilm to elevate our status. This can be observed in
verse 11 of Surah Al-Mujadila:

With the various importance of ‘ilm mentioned above, it is clear that knowledge mainly
contributes to the foundation of Islamic Golden Age. The Islamic faith promotes learning and
seeking knowledge which makes it greatly contributed to the flourishing of a culture of free
inquiry and rational scientific thinking. It may be difficult to realize that knowledge and reason

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are vital to the Islamic way of life, judging by the events occurred in the modern world
nowadays. However, the Islamic faith considers that understanding this world and the Divine are
both equally important.

2.0 DEVELOPMENT IN ISLAMIC GOLDEN AGE

2.1 DEVELOPMENT IN ECONOMY

The Muslim world is in a dire need of help. Even though Muslims comprise of more than
a fifth of the world’s population and mostly sits on resourcefully rich region, the Muslim’s
purchasing power is deemed insignificant relative to other people. Whenever Muslim is heard,
they can easily been assiociated with poverty, unemployment, imbalanced ecomony and
illiteracy. But history tells us anything except the bitter and gloomy present days. The Islamic
Golden age is easily the hallmark in Muslim’s world. The robust economic growth brought
during this time is one of the driving forces of Islam’s rapid development.
The key player in the rapid economic growth can be found in the Abbasid Empire. The
uncontested spreading of Islam and the establisment of solid, well-planed law and order during
this era, bring light to sleeping agriculture and to the promising, rural areas. It is said that
economy is the backbone of a country where it is a fine line connecting every industry.
Spreading of Islam has open up many revenues and development oppurtunity especially to
underdevelop concquered lands (Barreh, 1969).

One of the important achievements brought up in Islamic golden age is the advance in
rural agriculture. It is well known that majority of Abbasid’s population live mostly in
countryside and cultivated lands. During this era, they made full use of every method that existed
in the lands they lived and the one they had conquered with more improved devices in order to
increase yield and efficiency. The Abbasid empire not only introduced new and developed
farming techniques but also encourage the development of advanced farming methods, all in the
hope to grow more new crops. The Abbasid also implement water irrigation systems to be a
significant part of their farming (Barreh, 1969).

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 In line of justice that being emphasis in the Quran in surah Al-Qasas verse 77 for not
corrupting and doing any unnecessary damage to the land, the Abbasid empire adopted the
humane practice of leaving agriculture land in tact without doing any damage in the conquered
territories. This practice is not a new and foreign practice in Islam, in fact it has been
implemented since Prophet Muhammad’s era and has been passed down to the four earliest
caliphs. In fact, Prophet Muhammad has emphasis the forbidance on doing any destruction to
thhe conquered land in the hadith as a part of the limitation during war. In sharp contrast with
other conquerors at that time such as Byzantine and Sassanian that confiscate the land from its
original owner to benefit their soldiers and military (Barreh, 1969). Islam merciful way of
appreciating and respecting the conquered agriculture land made them preferable than other
colonizers and ultimately viewed Islam as a merciful religion.

Other important development that needs to be highlighted is the urban prosperity during
Islamic golden age. Rural robust and rapid growth has expanded its territory to a variety of
sectors and industries of the economy and society. This lead to expansion of urbanization and
development of the rural area. Islamic conquests has unlocked larger amount of exchange and
the Abbasids in particular has boost it to a prodigious scale. All of these soaring prosperity and
improved living conditions during the caliph’s era resulted in a swift and smooth demographic
growth. In the Abbasid era, Baghdad is easiest being the biggest, most prosperous city with

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population reaching one million on earth. The influencing factors to its fortune lies on its peace,
political stability, efficient administration as well as its rapid development of new resources.
Networks of trading between outside world were also securely established, making Baghdad one
of the most important trade and finance centre (Barreh, 1969).

Last development which need to be emphasized is the development in business and

entrepreneurship. During the Abbasid’s time, Mudaraba which is the classical Islamic financial
instrument of trade and commerce was being practiced. Mudaraba is one of the most successful
practice at that time due to its ability to promote entrepreneurship and risk taking. This way of
business uses the concept of profit and loss sharing instead (Barreh, 1969). The significant part
of Mudaraba is the existence of sharing or shouldering loss and profit with the investor and agent
or mudarib. This principle is the basis of Mudaraba business partnership arrangement. This
practice has been declared as lawful by the jurist and has been widely adopted and practiced
through the Mediterranean and Europe.

One lesson that has to be boldly highlighted from the economic acheivement and decline
of Muslims during this era was not due to the shortcomings of Islam but instead the failure of
Muslims to live up to the perfect and well constructed Islam itself. If Muslims are able to fulfill
their respectful responsibilities in accordance to the Quran and Sunnah, Muslims can surely be as
successful as they used to be in the golden age. This because, it is the very promise Allah has
given to us in Surah An-Nur verse 55,

“Allah has promised those of you who believe and do righteous deeds that He will surely bestow
upon them power in the land as He bestowed power on those who preceded them, and that He
will establish their religion which He has been pleased to choose for them, and He will replace
with security the state of fear that they are in. Let them serve Me and associate none with Me in
My divinity”.

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 2.2 DEVELOPMENT IN SCIENCE AND MEDICINE

The developments achieved in the field of science and medicine also plays a role in the
foundation of the islamic golden age. The advancements achieved by Muslim scholars and
scientists was made possible due to the scientific association and broad-mindedness of rulers of
the time which encouraged the translation movement of classical scientific books. The early
Islamic period had emphasised the importance of obtaining knowledge from works of different
languages. As stated by the Prophet: “To acquire knowledge is the duty of every (Muslim man
and woman)” (Ibn Majah, Hadith no. 220). The Prophet himself acquired many technical and
administrative ideas from other races. He had followed the advice of Salman Farsi, a Persian
Muslim, to dig the mile long trench in the battle of Ahzab. Moreover, he instructed Zaid ibn
Thabit to learn Hebrew and later Zaid also mastered the Syriac language. The Prophet had also
encouraged Muslims to acquire knowledge by learning other people’s languages (Islam, 2011).

During the Umayyad Caliphate, Prince Khalid bin Yazid, a grandson of Caliph Amir
Muawiyah, wanted to learn chemistry and medicine. At that time, Christian and Jewish scholars
were the only ones skilled in the discipline. However, Khalid studied chemistry with Miryanis, a
Christian from Ruhban. Khalid authored three treatises in chemistry, and patronized much
translation of different classical books into Arabic (Islam, 2011). The enthusiasm in seeking
different types of knowledge from various sources during those times may be due to influence
from the Qur'an as it was mentioned in Surah al-Baqarah, verse 164:

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 The importance of science and quest for knowledge can also be prominently seen during
the rule of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasids were inspired by verses from the Quran and
Hadiths that emphasize the value of knowledge so they strongly pushed for advances in science,
art, and commerce. Caliphs of the Abbasid Caliphate such as al-Rashid and al-Ma’mun directly
encouraged a translation movement, a formal translation of scholarly works from Greek into
Arabic. The Abbasid rulers wanted to make Greek texts, such as Aristotle’s works, available to
the Arab world. Their goal was to translate as many of these famous works as possible in order
to have a comprehensive library of knowledge. They wanted to have many philosophy, science,
and medicine texts translated. Al-Ma’mun encouraged people to bring books to him and
exchanged them for their weight in gold. With this enthusiasm, within a short period, Muslims
all kinds of extant knowledge at that time were made available in Arabic. Soon Arabic became
the language of Islam and science and many scientific terms in current use today were borrowed
from Arabic. In addition, with the high demand for skilled doctors, having as much knowledge as
possible for them to access was very important. The importance of aspiring to gain plenty of
knowledge may also be due to the influence of the Qur'an as it was mentioned in Surah Taha,
verse 114:

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 In the field of medicine, one of the most renowned figures of that time was Ibnu Sina,
also known as Avicenna in the West. He was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the
most significant physicians, astronomers, thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age and the
father of modern medicine (Corbin, 2016). He had written Al Qanun fi al Tibb or the Canon of
Medicine, which helped physicians diagnose dangerous diseases such as cancer. The Canon is
divided into five books, including medical therapeutics, with 760 drugs listed. It was the most
influential medical book ever written by a Muslim physician. It is a one million word medical
encyclopedia representing a summation of Arabian medicine with its Greek roots, modified by
the personal observations of Ibnu Sina. It became the textbook for medical education in Europe
from the 12th to the 17th century. Additionally, in this book, Ibnu Sina correctly documented the
anatomy of the eye along with description of ophthalmic conditions such as cataracts. He also
mentioned that tuberculosis was contagious. He also provided a description of the symptoms of
diabetes, and gave descriptions of the types of facial paralysis​ (Amr & Tbakhi, 2007).

Besides Ibnu Sina, another notable figure was Ar-Razi, known as Rhazes in the West. He
had written the Kitab Al-Hawi fit Tibb, also known as Liber Continens, the most celebrated
encyclopedia on medicine and surgery included a brief account of the art of science and
medicine in twenty-five treatises. It contains topics related to pharmacy and has the material
medica placed in alphabetical order, combined medicines, prescribed pharmaceutical dosages
and toxicology. It contained many medical formulae and medical treatments both in Islam and in
the West. Moreover, smallpox and measles used to be thought to have been the same disease.

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However, Ar-Razi’s careful observation noticed dissimilarities in appearance of the skin
abscesses as well as the physical symptoms. He correctly stated that they were two different
diseases (Islam, 2011).

Next, one of the notable figures in the field of physics during the islamic golden age was
Ibn al-Haytham, who was also known as Alhazen. He played a role in the development of optics.
Ibn al-Haythm invented the first camera and was able to form an explanation of how the eye
sees. One of the prevailing theories of vision in his time and place was the emission theory
supported by Euclid and Ptolemy, where sight worked by the eye emitting rays of light, and the
other was the Aristotelean theory that sight worked when the essence of objects flows into the
eyes. Alhazen correctly argued that vision occurred when light, traveling in straight lines, reflects
off an object into the eyes. Ibn al-Haytham was the first to explain that vision occurs when light
reflects from an object and then passes to one's eyes (Adamson, 2016). He was also the first to
demonstrate that vision occurs in the brain, rather than in the eyes (Baker, 2012). Additionally,
he was also a significant figure in the history of scientific method, particularly in his approach to
experimentation (Toomer, 1964). Furthermore, he was an early proponent of the concept that a
hypothesis must be proved by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical
evidence—thusly, coming to an understanding of the scientific method five centuries before
Renaissance scientists.

In short, the knowledge of science and medicine was one of the factors for the
achievements of the Islamic golden age. The motivation for Muslims of the Islamic golden age to
achieve such outstanding progress in this field was due to the emphasis on the importance of
knowledge in the Quran and Hadith.

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 2.3 DEVELOPMENT IN LAWS

Another element that plays a key role in the foundation of islamic golden age is the
Islamic Law. Islamic law which symbolize one of the world’s absolute legal systems is one of
the important elements that maintain peaceful and prosperous Islamic empire during Islam
golden age. The Islamic Law or also frequently known as Sharia which means “the right path”
are based on the Quran which muslims believe to be a revelation from God. Not only that, the
Sharia also were constructed based on the teachings and traditions of Prophet Muhammad SAW.
It aims to establish secure the welfare of society as well as establishing an ethical society
(​Costly, A., n.d.).

The five principles of shariah or also known as Maqasid Al Shariah are the preservation
of life, religion, reason, lineage and property. Shariah can be considered as a well-encompass law
since it includes both ​religious and secular duties and sometimes retributive penalties for
lawbreaking. ​Muslim considered Sharia as sacred as it is originated from Allah.When Prophet
Muhammad SAW died in seventh century, many Islamic scholars tried to pursue and adapting
the Sharia with the intention of expanding the muslim’s empire. The role of Sharia became more
prominent especially in the tenth century, where Islam has entered the Golden Age era. In this
era, the sharia were kept on being reinterpreted and adapted with new issues and changing
circumstances that kept arising (​Monier, E., Ditmars, H., & Kårtveit, B. H., 2018).

Family law has always made up an essential part in the Sharia since every individual is
shaped and influenced by a family and therefore a good trait that comes from a family will
produce a good individual and will indirectly produce a better country. This law includes the
permission for man to marry up to four wives at once. In Surah An-Nisa verse 3, Allah SWt said:

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 “And if you fear that you will not deal justly with the orphan girls, then marry those that please
you of [other] women, two or three or four. But if you fear that you will not be just, then [marry
only] one or those your right hand possesses. That is more suitable that you may not incline [to
injustice]”

This is the only verse in the Quran which highlight the polygamy as a social constitution and not
for the nafs satisfaction alone. The approval to have four wives is only applicable under a
remarkable circumstances with a very strict condition such that the polygamy is only intended
for safeguarding property or rights of the orphans.

Not only that, in a family, the responsibilities of guardianship, supervision and

management of the family has been placed on the shoulders of man. However, in decision
making or planning, a mutual agreement , consultation and views between husband and wife
must be taken into account to avoid any miscommunication and argument that will ruin the
family institution. However, it is important to note that a man is only responsible to manage the
family but he should not be exploiting his power and do whatever he wants and prohibit other
members to express their opinions. (​Mutual Rights and Responsibilities of Spouses, 2015) Allah
said in the Quran Surah An-Nisa verse 4:

“Men are the protectors and supervisors of women because of the advantage Allah has given
some over others and because they support them from their means. Therefore righteous women
are those who are humble and who guard (in their husband’s presence and absence) his rights
and secrets, which Allah has ordained to be guarded.”

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Therefore, communication is very important in a family institution. Each member of the family
must take responsibility in anything that is related to family affairs and should not put the whole
burden on one shoulder only . Any dissatisfaction must be discussed properly to avoid any
arguments and to strengthen ukhuwah between family members (​Family laws & the Quran,
2009).

A criminal law is also crucial during Islamic golden age as criminal is one of the
important factors that might corrupt a particular country. The Sharia law follows the punishment
for serious crimes as mentioned in the Quran because these crimes were considered as a sin and
punishment must be made to be fair to the victims and their families. This includes to stone until
death for ones who commit adultery, to cut his or her right hands off for theft crime and to carry
80 lashes for drinking wine or other intoxicants. This is in line with what Allah has mentioned in
the Holy Quran in surah Al-Maidah verse 3:

“The recompense for those who wage violent transgression against God and His Messenger and
who go forth spreading corruption in the Earth is that they should be killed or crucified or that
their hands and feet should be cut off on alternate sides or that they should be sent into exile…”

These kind of punishments were not simply to torture the criminals, but it is solely to
protect the society from dagers of crime. This is because if the crime they committed were not
countered with serious punishments, then the crimes might repeat their acts that will put the

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people in jeopardy. However, if the criminal knows the negative consequences of their actions,
then he or she will be fearful to commit anything that is prohibited. To spread the awareness and
to give lesson to the society, Islam has made it as a principle to announce and carry the
punishment publicly. (​al-Muala, A., n.d.) This is aligned with the Quran in Surah An-Nur verse
2:

“…A group of the believers should witness the punishment.” (Quran 24:2)

Hence, it can be concluded that the integration of knowledge of law from the quran is one
of the factors that maintain the glory of Islamic world during Islamic golden age. These laws has
successfully prevent or minimize serious crimes which then eventually contribute to greatness of
Islam empire in the tenth century.

2.4 DEVELOPMENT IN POLITICS

Islamic golden age had witnessed the peak of Islamic civilization history in various
fields. Indeed, behind a triumph of an era lies a very powerful foundation as its base. As for
Islamic golden age, their foundation was indeed relied mainly on the role of knowledge or ilm.
Utilizing every aspect of knowledge and realizing how important knowledge was, it became the
source of light that led to the development of Islamic golden age that is acknowledged until
today. Back then, the Muslims were eager to seek knowledge by translating western scientific
books and even improvising them. This action had shaped many Islamic scholars that we know
today.

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 Islamic golden age was also undeniably brought up by its responsible and highly
respected caliphs. The caliphs during the Islamic golden age were also highly knowledgeable
which partly contributed to the development of the golden era. The question was, what actually
made these Muslims during the golden era to hold onto knowledge so firmly in their palm of
their hands? The answers are recorded in the Quran. Quran is the primary source of knowledge
that is very comprehensive and it even covers the political aspects in Islam. The proximity
between the Quranic teachings and the caliphs during the golden era led them to live up to this
quranic political teachings and showed the best example of a leader in Islam. This explained why
and how political aspect during the Islamic golden age were shaped and ruled successfully by the
caliphates.

Political aspects had been significantly depicted in the Quran numerous times and it is
also considered as a knowledge on how to implement administration of a country. It also could
be observed during Prophet Muhammad era as the leader for muhajirin and ansar in Medina back
then. Therefore, it is very essential to have a greatly responsible leader with a wide political
knowledge in order to have a systematic organization as the Umayyad and Abbasid era. Allah
SWT had mentioned in Surah Al-Baqarah, verse 30, about the leadership of Adam A.S on earth.
In this verse, it highlights how Allah SWT had chosen a human being as a leader on earth despite
the angels’ doubts. This indirectly shows how prominent it is to point out the best leader or
caliph to rule a nation.

And [mention, O Muhammad], when your Lord said to the angels, "Indeed, I will make upon the
earth a successive authority." They said, "Will You place upon it one who causes corruption

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therein and sheds blood, while we declare Your praise and sanctify You?" Allah said, "Indeed, I
know that which you do not know." (2:30)

Interestingly, Allah SWT had put out some guidance for us on how to be a great leader.
In Surah Sad, verse 26, He mentioned about the characteristics of a successor or caliph which is
to judge between men with truth and justice. Justice and truth mentioned here also meant to
guide caliphs to rule his people with Allah’s rulings and the right shariah. Plus, Allah also
prohibit a leader to follow their own desire or nafs as it will lead them astray from Allah SWT. It
is essential to highlight that the role and the religion of a caliph are very important. A caliph who
lives his life close to the Quran, indeed will implement Islamic rulings under his leadership as he
knows that Allah will bless him and his country. A caliph should also be zuhud in his daily life
because the leaders who chase after fame and money, will destroy himself and his country. A
leader is indeed an example to his people. When a leader holds onto Islam very firmly, therefore
his people will follow his steps. Therefore, it is very important to choose the right leader for our
country.

[We said], "O David, indeed We have made you a successor upon the earth, so judge between
the people in truth and do not follow [your own] desire, as it will lead you astray from the way of
Allah ." Indeed, those who go astray from the way of Allah will have a severe punishment for
having forgotten the Day of Account. (38:26)

Islamic golden age had been ruled by a line of zuhud and responsible caliphs. Most of
them held onto the Quran as their guidance in being a caliph which what made them successfully
ruled the Umayyad and Abbasid with their Islamic based personality and responsibilities. They
had offered major contributions in developing Islamic golden age as they prioritize their
caliphate over their own worldly desires. For instance, Caliph Abu Jaafar Al Mansur which was
acknowledged as the father of development during his 22 years of ruling Baghdad city. Due to

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his love towards ilm and Islam, he had initiated research of knowledge movement until Baghdad
was famously knowned as the centre of scientific world. In addition to that, he encouraged his
people to translate scientific books into arabic language. As a caliph, Abu Jaafar Al Mansur was
known to be very devoted to Islamic teachings and loved to perform his Islamic duties. Due to
Allah’s blessings, he had successfully developed Baghdad to be the centre of knowledge at the
time (UITM, 2019).

And We made from among them leaders guiding by Our command when they were
patient and [when] they were certain of Our signs. (32:24)

In Surah As Sajdah, verse 24, it is stated that patience and faith are the basic requirement
for a leader. These characteristics can be observed in Caliph Harun Al Rashid who was the
caliph of the Abbasid caliphate at the age of 25 years old. He was known as a religious caliph
and was very intelligent in politics. He always performed 100 rakaat prayers in his daily life
except when he was sick. His leadership was respected by many as he always took care of his
people’s welfare (UITM, 2019). All the characteristics of Harun Al Rashid were in line with the
mentioned great values of a leader in the Quran. Therefore, this had led to the emergence of
Islamic golden age. Without a great caliph, this golden era would not be able to make a huge
contribution in Islamic history.

In conclusion, political aspect is a field that should be significantly mastered in order to

rule a successful country. Allah SWT had showed us the way and the guidance on how to be a
great and blessed leader or caliph. Indeed, each and everyone of us is a caliph on earth. Our
choices and decisions matter because Allah SWT had granted us the caliph title on this earth.
Therefore, it is essential for us to understand and liven up to Allah’s guidance in being a great
and responsible caliph.

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3.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the findings and accomplishments of those Muslim scientists during the
Golden Age of Islam are truly astonishing. The usage of the divine sources of Islam which is the
Holy Quran as well as the practices of the Prophet in finding the right ‘ilm were the major
contributions during this period of time. The developments achieved in various field such as
economy, science and medicine, law and politics during this era were due to the priority made by
the Muslims during the Golden Age of Islam in seeking knowledge in the Quran and Hadith.
Hence, we as Muslims need to fulfill our responsibilities as the servant of Allah to seek
knowledge according to the Quran and the Sunnah so that we can follow the steps of success and
achievements from the Golden Age of Islam era.

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Baker, D. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology: Global Perspectives.
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