HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS

1. THE ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE

In the textbook you have been introduced to the concept of temperature, and to the fact
that there is a natural zero of temperature, the temperature at which the motion of
molecules ceases. This temperature is called absolute zero. With a simple experiment we
can determine the location of absolute zero on the Celsius scale, by making use of the
ideal gas law, pV = nRTK , where p is the pressure in N/m2, n is the number of moles, R
is the universal gas constant (R = 8.31 Joule/mol-K), and TK is the absolute temperature
in Kelvins. For our purposes the formula can be re-written

nR nR
p= TK = (TC + TK 0 ) (1)
V V

Where TC is the temperature measured in Celsius and TK0 is the absolute temperature of
the gas (measured in Kelvins) when it is at 0 degrees Celsius. (We will be measuring the
constant TK0). This formula tells us that if we plot the pressure of a fixed, sealed volume
of gas, then the pressure should be proportional to the absolute temperature. Thus, we
should be able to determine the value of absolute zero (expressed in degrees Celsius) by
taking our fixed, sealed volume of gas and measuring the pressure at two known
temperatures; e.g. 0 degrees Celsius and 100 degrees Celsius, corresponding to ice water
and boiling water.

Experiment: You will find several stainless-steel bulbs, containing air at various
pressures. Take each bulb and immerse it sequentially in the given bath of ice water and
the bath of boiling water, recording the respective pressures. Plot the pressure versus
temperature for each bulb, as shown in Figure 1, and graphically extrapolate to zero
pressure. Do the two lines intersect the p = 0 axis at the same temperature? What is that
temperature?

Given your measurements of the absolute pressure at 0 C and 100 C, how would you
mathematically extrapolate back to zero pressure? (Hint: consider the ratios of sides of
similar triangles). What temperature do you get if you do so, for each of the starting
pressures that you used?
 30

25

20
Absolute Pressure (psi)

15

10

0
-300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100
Temperature (C)

Figure 1 The pressure of an ideal gas in a sealed bulb as a function of temperature in

Celsius. The three curves depict the same volume but with different numbers of atoms in
the volume, and hence different pressures at a given temperature.

2. THE MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT

When you rub your hands together you do mechanical work against the frictional force
exerted by one hand against the other. Try rubbing your hands together. Your hands get
warm as the mechanical work (force times distance) is converted into thermal energy. As
we saw in the previous demonstration, thermal energy is just the energy associated with
the random jiggling of atoms. The frictional force pushes and pulls on the individual
atoms, giving them increased kinetic energy of jiggling.

You may also warm your hands by putting them close to a fire, that is, by heating them.
Whether you rub your hands or put them close to a fire, the end result—increased jiggling
of the atoms and increased temperature—is the same.
Prior to the middle of the nineteenth century it was not realized that heat was a form of
energy. Heat was thought to have the properties of a kind of invisible material fluid, such
that when it flowed into a body, that body got hot. We now realize that heat is merely
another form of energy, and that the temperature of a body can be increased either by
rubbing it or by holding it over a source of heat. The amount of rubbing work needed to
raise a gram of water by one degree Celsius is called the mechanical equivalent of heat.

The apparatus, shown in Figure 2, consists of an aluminum spool of known mass m and
diameter d, which may be heated by rubbing it with a known frictional force. As a result
of this rubbing, the temperature of the spool will rise. To measure the temperature of the
spool, there is, embedded in the spool, a device called a thermistor—a temperature-
sensitive resistor whose resistance is a unique function of its temperature. If this
functional relationship is provided, the temperature rise of the aluminum spool may be
determined by monitoring the resistance of the thermistor with an ohmmeter. The
calibration of our thermistor is given in Table 1.

Figure 2 The mechanical equivalent of heat apparatus.

The known frictional force can be exerted by a length of cord that is wrapped a few turns
around the spool. The upper end of the cord is attached to a post, while the lower end of
the cord is attached to a known mass M, typically several kilograms. If the crank is turned
quickly enough to make the cord tension vanish where it is attached to the post, but not so
quickly that the weight accelerates upwards, the frictional force will just equal Mg, the
weight of the suspended mass. The work done by this force for each revolution of the
cylinder will be given by

work per turn = force times distance = ( Mg )(π d ) (2)

If the crank is turned N revolutions, the total work done will be NMg πd . This work,
which will be measured in Joules if M is measured in kilograms and d is measured in
meters, 1 will be completely transformed into heat. Almost all of this heat will be
absorbed by the spool, since the cord is a good insulator.

TEMPERATURE (C) RESISTANCE (Ω)

20 126,740
21 120,810
22 115,190
23 109,850
24 104,800
25 100,000
26 95,447
27 91,126
28 87,022
29 83,124
30 79,422

Table 1. Resistance vs. temperature for the PASCO thermistor.

The total heat absorbed by the cylinder, which we call Q and which is measured in
calories, is equal to the heat capacity of the cylinder times the temperature rise ΔT.

Q = CmΔT (3)

Here C is the specific heat of the pure aluminum cylinder (0.214 calories/gram-C), m is
the mass of the cylinder in grams 2 (not to be confused with M, the much larger mass of
the suspended weight), and ΔT is the temperature rise in degrees Celsius.

Experiment: With the mass suspended from the cord, and with the cord wrapped 3-4
turns around the cylinder, turn the crank about 100 turns. After you stop, wait about a
minute (but not much more) for the temperature in the cylinder to come to equilibrium
throughout itself. 3 Determine the total work done by the frictional force in Joules, and
determine the amount of heat absorbed by the cylinder in calories.

The number of Joules per calorie is called the mechanical equivalent of heat, and has
been determined, by experiments similar to the one that you have just done, to be
approximately 4.187 Joules per calorie. How well does your measured value agree with
this?

1
For this apparatus, d = 0.0478 m.
2
For this apparatus, m = 0.2018 kg.
3
If you wait much longer than a minute, the spool will begin to noticeably cool overall.
 PRE-LABORATORY QUESTIONS

1. Measurement of absolute zero:

Suppose the pressure of the bulb is 20 psi (absolute) at 20 C. What would you predict the
pressure to be at 0 C? What would you predict the pressure to be at 100 C?

2. The Mechanical equivalent of heat:

Using the table provided, what is the change in the thermistor resistance if its temperature
rises from 21 C to 30 C?
Does it matter how many turns of cord surround the cylinder? Why?
Does it matter how fast you turn the crank? Why?
Suppose the cord, where it is attached to the post, is under tension during the experiment.
Would this lead to an error in your measured value of the mechanical equivalent of heat?
If so, would your value be too large, or too small?