COLUMN VESSEL EXCHANGER VALVE

Shell Shell Tube Set pressure

Dish end Dish end Tube sheet Pop pressure
Nozzle Nozzle Tube Bundle Hydro-1-shell side
Trays Man hole Shell 2-Tube side
Tray support ring Dish end
Down comer Channel head
Distributor Pipeline Portion plate
Demister Baffle plate
Vortex Breaker Tie rod

1-CASADE TRAYS
2-SIEVE TRAYS
3-VALVE TRAYS
4-FIXED VALVES
5- FLOATING VALVES

4.6.2.2.4 Tower Attachments-Tray Support Rings, Support Clips, Downcomer Bars, etc
The piping system should be drained, purged, cleaned,
ventilated, gas tested and locked out/tagged out before it is entered

Outside surface of the vessel insulation

system, Painting, Coating systems, supports,
check for leakage, hotspots, vibration,
allowance for expansion, welds
(reinforcement plates & clips) for cracking or
other defects.

Column- absorption
Distillation
Checklist- shell, head, demister,-- all welds
Tray support, stiffeners—all welds
Tray- missing looseness
Inspection:
a) Internal Inspection
b) On stream Inspection
c) External Inspection
d) Thickness Inspection
 e) CUI Inspection (10°F-350°F For C.S
140°F-400°F for
Austenitic stainless
steel)

Records Review:
a) Prior history of the vessels, prior inspection results, repair.
b) Current inspection plan.
After RBI:
a) The most appropriate inspection and NDE
method.
b) The extend of NDE.
c) The interval for internal, external, & on
stream.
d) The need for pressure testing after damage
has occurred.
e) The prevention & mitigation steps to reduce
the probability & consequence of a vessel
failure.

9.3 External Inspection

9.3.1 General
9.3.2 Ladders, Stairways, Platforms, and
Walkways
9.3.3 Foundations and Supports
9.3.4 Anchor Bolts
9.3.5 Concrete Supports
9.3.6 Steel Supports
9.3.7 Rivets
9.3.8 Guy Wires
9.3.9 Nozzles
9.3.10 Grounding Connections
9.3.11 Auxiliary Equipment
9.3.12 Protective Coatings and Insulation
9.3.13 External Metal Surfaces
9.3.14 External Evidence of Corrosion

9.4 Internal Inspection

9.4.1 General
9.4.2 Surface Preparation
9.4.3 Preliminary Visual Inspection
9.4.4 Inspection of Degradation
9.4.4.1 Thinning and Pitting
9.4.4.2 Cracking
9.4.4.3 Erosion
9.4.4.4 Blistering
9.4.4.5 Deformation
9.4.5 Inspection of Components
9.4.5.1 General
9.4.5.2 Trays
9.4.5.3 Internal Components
9.4.5.4 Nozzles
9.4.5.5 Linings
9.4.6 Inspection of Nozzles
9.4.7 Inspection of Metallic Linings
9.4.8 Inspection of Non-metallic Linings
9.4.9 Corrosion beneath Linings and Deposits

8.1.6.4.1 Local Post weld Heat Treatment

300ºF min / 2x Depth of weld
8.1.6.4.2 Preheat or Controlled Deposition Welding
Methods as Alternatives to
Post weld Heat Treatment
8.1.6.4.2.2 Preheating Method (Notch Toughness
Testing Not Required)
P1, P2, P3, 300ºF min / 600ºF
max /
Greater of (4” / 4x Depth of
weld)
8.1.6.4.2.3 Controlled-deposition Welding Method
(Notch Toughness Testing Required)
P1, P2, P3, P4, Preheat as per
WPS +
Controlled Deposition.

P3, P4, P5 repair should be

examined for cracking by the
UT -24 hours –delayed cracking.

7.4.2 Evaluation of Locally Thinned Areas

7.4.2.1 For a corroded area of considerable size the wall thicknesses may be averaged over a length
not exceeding the following:
For vessels with inside diameters less than or equal to 60 in. (150 cm), one-half the vessel diameter or
20 in. (50 cm), whichever is less.
For vessels with inside diameters greater than 60 in. (150 cm), one-third the vessel diameter or 40 in.
(100 cm), whichever is less.

7.4.3 Evaluation of Pitting

During the current inspection, widely scattered pits may be ignored as long as all of the following are
true:
a. The remaining thickness below the pit is greater than one-half the required thickness (1/2 required).
b. The total area of the pitting that is deeper than the corrosion allowance does not exceed 7 in.2 (45
cm2) within any 8-in. (20- cm) diameter circle.
c. The sum of the pit dimensions that is deeper than the corrosion allowance along any straight 8-in.
(20-cm) line does not exceed 2 in. (5 cm).

7.4.5 Joint Efficiency Adjustments

When the vessel surface away from a weld is corroded and the joint efficiency is less than 1.0, an
independent calculation using the appropriate weld joint factor (typically 1.0) can be made. For this
calculation, the surface at a weld includes 1 in. (2.5 cm) on either side of the weld (measured from the
toe) or twice the required thickness on either side of the weld, whichever is greater.

The long-term (LT) corrosion rate shall be calculated from the following formula:
Corrosion rate(LT) = t initial- t actual / time between t initial and t actual(years)
The short-term (ST) corrosion rate shall be calculated from the following formula:
where
Corrosion rate(ST) = t previous - t actual / time between [t previous and t actual(years)

tinitial = theinitial thickness at the same CML as tactual. It's either the first thickness measurement at
this CML or the thickness at the start of a new corrosion rate environment, in in. (mm).
tactual = the actual thickness of a CML, in in. (mm), measured during the most recent inspection.
tprevious = the previous thickness measured during the prior inspection. It is at the same location as
tactual measured during a previous inspection, in in. (mm).

7.2.1 The remaining life of the vessel (in years) shall be calculated from the following formula:

Remaining life = t actual - t required / corrosion rate

7.3.3 In corrosive service, the wall thickness used in these computations shall be the actual
thickness as determined by inspection (see 5.6.2) minus twice the estimated corrosion loss
before the date of the next inspection, as defined by:
t = tactual- 2 (Crate X linternal)
where
Crate governing corrosion rate in in. (mm) per year.
I internal = interval of the next internal or on-stream inspection in years.
tactual = the actual thickness of a CML, in in. (mm), measured during the most recent
inspection.

Heat exchanger
Shell to tube ---------- fixed, U tube, Floating head
Type---- Plate exchanger
Fin form

Shell-- A 516Gr70
Tube-- A 179
Elbow- WBFC 234
Inspection parts- shell, dish end
All weld joints - Chanel head, nozzle, tube sheet

Tube bundled
Tie rod
Baffle plate
Impingement plate (inlet nozzle)
U bend
Floating head split ring is Floating head
Baffle oval ling - vibration
Tube – U bend - dispersion

Chemical
Cleaning-- Mechanical
High pressure jetting 100 to 2800 bar.
Teem tubular exchangers manufacturing association--- 13% plus allowed.

Hammer test
Tube condition-- Eddy current
IRIS (Internal rotating inspection technical service)

Tube-- Bowing
Sagging

Hydro-- 1st Shell

2nd tube

Black deposit- General corrosion

Green deposit- Copper based corrosion

Shell type
1) One pass shell
2) Two pass shell
3) Split flow
4) Double flow
5) Kettle type
6) Cross flow

Stationary head
1) Removable channel & cover
2) Bonnet (integral cover)
3) Integral with tube sheet removable cover
4) Channel
5) Special high pressure cover

1) Channel cover
2) Channel
3) Channel flange
4) Pass partition
5) Stationary tube sheet
6) Shell flange
 7) Tube
8) Shell
9) Baffles
10) Floating head backing service
11) Floating tube sheet
12) Floating head
13) Floating head flange
14) Shell cover

3.4.7
cold differential test pressure
CDTP
The pressure at which a pressure-relief valve is adjusted to open on the test stand.The CDTP includes
corrections for the service conditions of backpressure or temperatures or both

Causes of damaged valve seats;

1. Corrosion
2. Debris.
3. Careless handling.
4. Valve leakage causing erosion corrosion;
 Improper maintenance.
 Improper installation.
 Improper valve assembly.
 Operating at near the valve setting.
5. Valve chattering;
 Chattering due to wrong blowdown setting.
 Chattering due to lengthy pipe length at inlet.
 Chattering due to obstruct inlet.
6. Severe over-sizing of pressure relieve valve resulting in abrupt closing of valve.
Spring failures.
2 modes of failures;
 Weakening.
 Complete fracture.

Causes of failures;
 Improper material selection for high temperature services.
 Corrosion;
• General corrosion and pitting corrosion.
• Stress corrosion cracking

Mitigations';
 Material selection.
 Isolation by “O” ring and bellow.
 Isolation by rupture disks at inlet and/or outlet.
 Coating of parts.

Plugging and sticking (galling) may be caused by;

 Foreign particle entrapped in the moving parts.
 Corrosion.
 Polymer formation of entrapped process fluid.
 Chattering.
 Poor alignment of valve disk due to debris.
 Poor alignment of parts (incl. gasket) during assemblies.

Mitigations;
 Rupture disk at the inlet.
 Rupture disk at the outlets.
 Bellow.
 “O” ring.
Rupture disk problems are often associated with improper handling,
installation, and selection. The following should be considered.
 proper orientation.
 Once a rupture disk is removed should not be reinstalled.
 An improper torque could affect the opening pressure of the disk
 Touching the rupture disk surface could lead to localized corrosion
 Appropriate burst temperature should consider ambient heating or cooling.
 installed away from unstable flow patterns to avoid premature failures
 Welding :

Before Welding:
1). Check identification numbers on material with number on material certificate.
2). Verify chemical compositions and mechanical test result with manufacturer codes,
3). Check pipe dimensions with drawing.
4). Check joint dimensions with drawing (root face, root gap, bevel angles).
5). Make sure WPS is qualified for ranges on WPS to be used.
6). Check welder’s identification.
7). Do consumable check.
8). Check pipe fit up for misalignment.
9). Joint preparation (Shape & dimensions)
10). Verify the pre-heat. Make sure the required temperature is reached before welding starts.
11). Suitability of working conditions for welding, including environment.

During Welding:
1). Essential welding parameters (e.g: Welding current, arc voltage, and travel speed).
2). Check interpass temperature.
3). Do NDT on root run if possible.
4). Verify soundness of root run.
5). Check for cleaning between runs ( cleaning and shape of runs and layers of weld metal).
6). Back gouging.
7). Welding sequence.
8). Verify welding parameters.
9). Correct use and handling of welding consumables.
10). Control of distortion.
11). Verify if correct WPS is used.

After Welding:
1). Do NDT that is required: MPI, PT, UT and RT, Visual.
2). Make sure all hold points are signed off.
3). Mark out defects for repair if there is any.
4). P.W.H.T if required.
5). Make sure repairs are done according to specification requirements.
6) Do NDT tests on repairs.
7). Destructive testing when required.
8). Form, shape and dimensions of the construction.
9). Get documentation in order and signed off.
10). Ensure weld numbers are indicated on drawing and it correspond with RT report.
11). Keep note book for references.

BASE MATERIAL CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, ELECTRODE & FILLER WIRE FOR VARIOUS
PROCESSES
BASE
GTAW SMAW FCAW SAW
MATERIAL NOMINAL
SR.NO.
TYPE OR COMPOSITION
FILLER WIRE ELECTRODE WIRE WIRE FLUX
GRADE
CARBON STEEL FAMILY
C-Mn-Si ER70S2 E6010/E7018 E71T-1 EM12K F7A2-EM12K F7P2-
1 A106 Gr A
EM12K
2 A106 Gr B
 3 A106 Gr C

4 A671-CB 60 C

A333 Gr6 C-Mn-Si(LTCS)

5 ER70SG E6010/ E7018-1
A671-CC 60
ALLOY STEEL FAMILY
A335-P11
F8PoEB2-B2,
1 A691-1.25CrCL1 1.25Cr-0.5Mo-Si ER80S-B2 E8018-B2 E81T1-B2 EB2
F8PZEB2-B2
A691-1.25CrCL2

A335-P22
F9PoEB3-B3,
2 A691-2.25CrCL1 2.25Cr-1Mo ER90S-B3 E9018S-B3 E91T1-B3 EB3
F9PZEB3-B3
A691-2.25CrCL2

A335-P5
F8PoEB6-B6,
3 A691-5CrCL1 5Cr-0.5Mo ER80S-B6 E8018-B6 E81T1-B6 EB6
F8PZEB6-B6
A691-5CrCL2
F8PoEB8-B8,
4 A335-P9 9Cr-1Mo ER80S-B8 E8018-B8 EB8
F8PZEB8-B8
A335-P91
F9PoEB9-B9,
5 9Cr-1Mo-V ER90S-B9 E9018-B9 EB9
F8PZEB9-B9
A691-9CrCL2

STAINLESS STEEL FAMILY

E308LT1-
1 A312 TP 304L ER308L E308L ER308L
1/4
2 A312 TP 304 ER308 E308 E308T1-1/4 ER308
E308HT1-
3 A312 TP 304H ER308H E308H ER308H
1/4
18Cr-8Ni
E308LT1-
4 A358 TP 304L ER308L E308L ER308L
1/4
5 A358 TP 304 ER308 E308 E308T1-1/4 ER308
E308HT1-
6 A358 TP 304H ER308H E308H ER308H
1/4
E316LT1-
7 A312 TP 316L ER316L E316L ER316L
1/4
8 A312 TP 316 ER316 E316 E316T1-1/4 ER316
E316HT1-
9 A312 TP 316H ER316H E316H ER316H Agglomerated neutral
1/4
18Cr-12Ni-2Mo flux
E316LT1-
10 A358 TP 316L ER316L E316L ER316L
1/4
11 A358 TP 316 ER316 E316 E316T1-1/4 ER316
E316HT1-
12 A358 TP 316H ER316H E316H ER316H
1/4
13 A312 TP 321L ER321(Ti)

14 A312 TP 321 ER347(Cb)

15 A312 TP 321H 18Cr-10Ni-Ti

ER347 E347T1-1/4 ER347
16 A358 TP 321
ER347
17 A358 TP 321H

18 A312 TP 347&H 18Cr-10Ni-Cb

F number:
3rd digit =2 Iron Powder = F1
3rd digit=1 last digit= 2,3,4,9 = F2 = Rutile
3rd digit=1 last digit= 0,1 = F3 = Cellulosie
3rd digit=1 last digit= 5,6,8 = F4 = Low hydrogen.

Upto 9mm - Root & Face Bend only

10mm to 18mm - 2Root & 2Face Bend (or) 4 Side bend
19mm & above - 4 Side bend only

QW-100.1 A Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) is a written document that provides direction to the welder
or welding operator for making production welds in accordance with Code requirements

When a WPS is to be prepared by the manufacturer or contractor, it must address, as a minimum, the specific
variables, both essential and nonessential, as provided in Article II for each process to be used in production
welding

The purpose for qualification of a WPS is to determine that the weldment proposed for construction is capable
of providing the required properties for its intended application. Welding procedure qualification establishes the
properties of the weldment, not the skill of the welder or welding operator.

The Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) documents what occurred during welding the test coupon and the
results of testing of the coupon. As a minimum, the PQR shall document the essential variables and other
specific information identified in Article II for each process used during welding the test coupon and the results
of the required testing. In addition, when notch toughness testing is required for procedure qualification, the
applicable supplementary essential variables for each process shall be recorded.

QW-100.2 In performance qualification, the basic criterion established for welder qualification is to determine
the welder’s ability to deposit sound weld metal. The purpose of the performance qualification test for the
welding operator is to determine the welding operator’s mechanical ability to operate the welding equipment.

QW-141.1 Tension Tests. Tension tests as described in QW-150 are used to determine the ultimate strength of
groove-weld joints.

QW-141.2 Guided-Bend Tests. Guided-bend tests as described in QW-160 are used to determine the degree of
soundness and ductility of groove-weld joints.

a. WPS(s) are properly qualified and meet applicable codes, standards and specifications for the work (see 6.4).
b. Procedure qualification records (PQR) are properly performed and support the WPS(s) (see 6.4).
c. Welder performance qualifications (WPQ) meet requirements for the WPS (see 8.3).

The WPS should contain, as a code requirement, the following information as a minimum:
a. Process.
b. Base metal.
c. Filler metal (and/or flux).
d. Welding current.
e. Welding position.
f. Shielding gas, if used.
g. Preparation of base metal.
h. Fitting and alignment.
i. Backside of joint.
j. Peening
The WPS should also reference the supporting PQR(s) used to qualify the welding procedure. In addition, the
construction code or proprietary company specifications can impose specific requirements related to service of
the equipment and piping. These can include:
a. Toughness of base metal, weld metal, and HAZ.
b. Limitations of welding process.
c. Limitations of filler metals and fluxes.
d. Critical joint geometries.
e. Limitations on preheat.
f. Limitations on PWHT.
g. Limitations on weld metal hardness.
h. Limitations on the chemical composition of base metal and filler metal.

6.4.2 Items to be Included in the PQR

a. Name of the company using the procedure.
b. Unique number or designation and the date.
c. WPS(s) that the PQR supports.
d. Welding process used.
e. Type of weld for qualification (groove, fillet, other).
f. Test coupon thickness.
g. Test coupon diameter.
h. P-numbers of coupon welded.
i. Filler metal F-number.
j. Filler metal A-number.
k. Position and progression.
l. Total weld metal thickness deposited.
m. Any single weld pass thickness greater than 1/2 in. (12.7 mm).
n. Preheat temperature.
o. PWHT temperature and thickness limit.
p. Gas.
q. Electrical Characteristics.
r. Technique.
s. Proper number, size, and test results for tensile tests.
t. Proper number, type, and results for bend tests.
u. Additional test results if required by construction code or project specification.
v. Certification signature and date.
w. Welder’s Name.
x. Tests Conducted by & Record number.

7.2 P-NUMBER ASSIGNMENT TO BASE METALS

Base metals are assigned P-numbers in ASME Section IX
to reduce the number of welding procedure qualifications
required. For ferrous base metals having specified impact test
requirements, group numbers within P-numbers are assigned.
These assignments are based on comparable base metal characteristics
such as composition, weldability, and mechanical
properties.

7.3 F-NUMBER ASSIGNMENT TO FILLER METALS

Electrodes and welding rods are assigned F-numbers to
reduce the number of welding procedure and performance
qualifications. The F-number groupings are based essentially
on their usability characteristics, which fundamentally determine
the ability of welders to make satisfactory welds with a
given process and filler metal.

7.5 A-NUMBER
To minimize the number of welding procedure qualifications,
steel and steel alloy filler metals are also grouped
according to their A-number. The A-number grouping in
ASME Section IX, Table QW-442 is based on the chemical
composition of the deposited weld metal

Table 4—Capability of the Applicable Inspection Method for Weld Type Joints
Inspection Methods
Joints RT UT PT MT VT ET LT
Butt A A A A A A A
Corner O A A A A O A
Tee O A A A A O A
Lap O O A A A O A
Edge O O A A A O A

A—Applicable method
O—Marginal applicability

Base Metal Brinell Value

Carbon Steel 200
C- 1/2 Mo 225
1-1/4 Cr-1/2 Mo 225
2-1/4 Cr-1 Mo 241
5, 7, 9, Cr-Mo 241
12 Cr 241

Typically, steels with a CE less than 0.35 require no preheat.

Steels with a CE of 0.35 – 0.55 usually require preheating,
and steels with a CE greater than 0.55 require both
preheating and a PWHT

10.10.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels are iron-based alloys that typically
contain low carbon, chromium between 15% – 32% and
nickel between 8% – 37%. They are used for their corrosion
resistance and resistance to high temperature degradation.

11.2 HOT TAPPING AND IN-SERVICE WELDING

API Publ 2201 provides an in depth review of the safety
aspects to be considered when hot tapping or welding on inservice
piping or equipment

Two primary concerns when welding on in-service piping

and equipment are burn through and cracking. Burn through
will occur if the unmelted area beneath the weld pool can no
longer contain the pressure within the pipe or equipment.
Weld cracking results when fast weld-cooling rates produce a
hard, crack-susceptible weld microstructure. Fast cooling
rates can be caused by flowing contents inside the piping and
equipment, which remove heat quickly.

11.2.1 Electrode Considerations

Hot tap and in-service welding operations should be carried
out only with low-hydrogen consumables and electrodes
(e.g., E7016, E7018 and E7048).

An appropriate flow rate should be maintained to minimize

the possibility of burn-through or combustion. The minimum
flow rate is 1.3 ft/sec. (0.4 m/sec.) for liquid and gas. For liquids,
the maximum flow rate usually required to minimize
risk of high hardness weld zone due to fast cooling rate. The
allowable maximum flow rate depends on the process temperature.
In general, 4.0 ft/sec. (1.2 m/sec.) is the upper limit.
There is no restriction on maximum velocity for gas lines,
subject to maintaining preheat temperatures.

To minimize burn through, the first weld

pass to equipment or piping less than 1/4 in. (6.35 mm)
thick should be made with 3/32 in. (4.76 mm) or smaller
diameter welding electrode to limit heat input.
Butterfly Valve
Check Valve
Gate Valve

PRD : Pressure Relief Devices: Devices Installed in manufacturing plants to prevent excessive over
pressure in process in process system and storage vessels and thus protect equipment and personnel.
These devices function automatically at a predetermined set pressure to prevent excessive over
pressure in the equipment on which they are installed. PRD may be used as either as safety or relief
valve, depending on application.
PSV: Pressure Safety Valve: A safety valve is an automatic pressure relieving device by the static
pressure upstream of the valve, and characterized by rabid opening or pop action.

PRV: Pressure Relief Valve: A relief valve is an automatic pressure relieving devices actuated by the
static pressure upstream the valve, which opens in proportion to the increase in pressure over opening
pressure.

Sentinel Valve: It is designed similar to the relief valve. Sentinel Valve do not reduce system pressure
instead they warn the operator of system over pressurization. When system pressure exceeds the
Sentinel Valve’s set point, it will open, creating a loud whistling sound. This valve is commonly found
in turbine casings and in the inlet side of some relief valves.

Set pressure: Set pressure is the gauge pressure at the inlet, for which the relief valve has been
adjusted to open under service conditions.

Cold Differential Set Pressure: It is the pressure at which the valve is adjusted to open on test stand.
This pressure includes correction for back pressure and or operating pressure.

Blow down: It is the difference between set pressure and reseating pressure of a pressure relief valve,
expressed as a percentage of the set pressure or sometimes as actual pressure units.

Back Pressure: It is the pressure exits at the outlet of a pressure relief device as a result of the
pressure in the discharge system.

Rupture Disc: A Rupture Disc is a differential pressure device where the specified burst pressure is
equal to the difference between the desired upstream pressure at the time of Rupture Disc burst and
the downstream pressure (Back pressure).

Brittle Fracture:
1). The material fracture toughness (Measured by Charpy Impact Test).
2). The size, shape and stress concentration effect of flow.
3). The amount of residual and applied stresses of the flow.

Appearance:
-Be straight, non branching and largely devoid any associated plastic deformation (fine shear lips)
-largely cleavage with limited intergranular.
Reduce: PWHT, Warm pre stress hydrotest.

Thermal Fatigue:
*Cyclic stress caused by variations in temperature – 200°F Temp swing
* Notches and sharp corners.
Affect: Hydrogen mix points & coke drum between the drum and skirt.
Appearance:
*They are generally wide and often filled with oxide due to elevated temperature.
*It propagates transverse to the stress and they are dagger shaped transgranular.
Prevention:
*Designs, control rate for operating condition.
*MT & PT

Erosion / Erosion & Corrosion:

*Erosion is the accelerated mechanical removal of surface material.
* Erosion & Corrosion : When corrosion contributes to erosion by removing protective films or
scales.
Affect: * Bends, elbow ,tee, reducer,valve,pumps,propellers.
*Erosion can be caused by gas borne catalyst particles carried by a liquid slurry.
Appearance: Localized loss in the thickness in the form of pits, grooves, gullies.
Prevention: Higher molybdenum containing alloys are used for improved resistance to naphthenic
corrosion.
*UT,VT,RT, IR scans are used to defect refractory.

Cavitation:
It is form of erosion –tiny vapour bubbles.
*velocity – pump casing, impellers, downstream.
Appearance: Sharp edged pitting- gauged appear damaged occur low pressure zone.
*VT,UT,RT

Lamination in vessel plates have an appearance similar to cracks, but they run at a slant to the plate
surface. While cracks run right angles to the surface. If open sufficiently for a thin feeler to be
inserted.
*heating to 200°F – the edge of the lamination to lip upward.

Mechanical Fatigue:
*Mechanical notches, weld joint, tool mark, grind mark.
*Endurance limit – Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) - 0.4&0.5
*Reduce HT – Finer grain microstructure.
a) Thermal cycling
b) Mechanical loading.

Appearance: Clam shell (Beach marks) – PT, MT, SWUT

Galvanic corrosion:
*Dissimilar metals - affect Heat exchangers. (rectify with suitable coating).
*UT, VT.

CUI:
CS: 10°F to 350°F - Localised corrosion
AS: 140°F to 400°F- Chloride Stress corrosion.

UT, Real time RT, Neutron backscatter, IR thermography,

Guided wave UT.