Chemistry Notes:

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-P-block elements are those elements whose last electrons enters the p-orbitals
-ns2np1-6
-metals, metalloids, non-metals exist in p-block
-1st member of each group differ from the remaining group

-Atomic Radius:
Three Types of Radius:
-Van Der Waals radii: radius of an imaginary hard sphere which can be
used to model the atom
Covalent Radii: Measure of size of an atom whihc forms 1 part of atom
-Ionic radius: It is a measure of the size of the atom

-P block radius has covalent bonds -Atomic radius of gallium (135) is less than
that of aluminum (143)
-due to poor sheilding by 3d 10, that is effective nuclear charge
is faced more by the outer electron and have a tencdency to come closer to nucleus

-Ionization Enthalpy: Energy required to remove an electron,

IE of group 13 is less than that of group 2

-Group 15 has low electron gain enthalpy

-Electronegaticity is the tendency to attract a shared pair of electron towrds

itself

-Oxidising agents- cl,fl

-Reducing agents- Al,

-Occurence of oxidation state two units less is known as inert pair effect, as
electron present in the outer most subshell not undero ionisation and remain
unshared. this effect becomes predominant as the nuclear charge increases

allotropes:each of two or more different physical forms in which an element can

exist

Similarities between Boron and Silicon

-both are non metals
-both have high MP and BP. High density
-Both form covalant bond
-similar EN
-Oxides are acidic
-Carbides of both boron and silicon are very hard and used as abrasive
-bot can exist amourphous and crystalline state
-Inert pair Effect: Oxidation state two unit less than the group oxidation state
become progressively more stable for the heavier elements in each group

-Boron family:
-B, Al, Ga, In, Tl (thallium)
-Density increases down the group
-Due to inert pair effect: In+ and Tl+ and not 3+
-Boron is small in size, it rarely loses 3e- hence it generally forms
covalent bonds
-Aluminum forms both covalent and ionic, others form ionic
-Boron on heating with air forms B2O3 (acidic), Al2O3
-Aluminum forms a very thin oxide layer
-Boron and Aluminum forms nitrides BN, AlN
 -Aluminum and gallium are amphotheric
-They dont react with H2 directly
-Li[AlH4] strong reducing agent
-Hydrides are weak lewis acids
-Boron does not react with acids at moderate temperature
-Hallides:
-They form trihallides by heating elements
-fluorides are ionic
-AlCl3 acheives stability by forming a dimer
-lewis acid character: BF3<BCl3<BB3, due to back bonding, the order is
-Chlorine do not fit between the small boron atoms hence bcl3 do not
exist

*Boron:
-Boron mainly exists in the form of orthoboric acid, borax and kernite
-its very hard, like diamond
-low electrical conductivity

*Compounds of Boron:
-Borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O)
-dissolves is water to give orthoboric acid
-on heated it dehydrates and swells up. Then turns into a transparent
liquid and solidifies into glass known as borax bead (B2O3)
-borates of many metals have colors, therefore borax bead test can be
used to identify them

-Orthoboric acid B(OH)3

-sparingly soluble in cold water, but highly soluble in hot water
-It can be prepared by acidifying an aq borax
-weak monobasic, it is not protonic, acts as a lewis acid

-diborane B2H6
-simplest boron hydride, colorless, foul smelling, highly toxic, highly
flammable
-readily hydrolised to form boric acid
-Lab preparation: oxidation of sodium borohydride (NaBH4) with iodine
-Industrial preparation: By reaction of BF3 with sodium hydride

-Boron Trihalides
-electron defiecient having planar structure

*Aluminum: Bauxite:Al2O3 and cryolite (NaAlF6)

*Carbon family:
-density increases going down the group
-going down the +2 oxidation state is more stable (inert pair effect)
-catenation is the linkage of atoms of the same element into longer chain
-It depends on the strength of atom-atom bonds
-going down the grp, catenation decreases

-carbon:
-In elemental state it exists as caol, grahite, diamond
-combined state as carbonates, hydrocarbons, CO2
-CO is neutral because of triple bond and co bond is very strong
-Thermal stability decreases as we go down the group
-except for CCl4 all can hydrolise
-Allotropes of carbon
 -Crystalline allotropes:
-Graphite: has layered structure, layers are helld by van der
walls forces. Each layer has planar hexagonal rings. 4th carbon atom forms a pi
bond
-It is very soft and slippery, can stand high pressure
-most stable form of carbon

-Diamond: Crystalline lattice. is linked 4 other c atoms.

Tetrahedral structure. Covalent

-Fullerene: heating of graphite in an electric arc in presence of

gases such as helium and argon
-pure c structure
-26 membered ring, and 12 5 membered ring
- the remaining character at each carbon is delocalised in
molecular orbitals, which give aromatic character to molecule

-Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and water insoluble

gas
-powerful reducing agent
-Preparation:
-Pure Co is prepared by dehydration of formic acid
-C in limited supply of oxygen
-water gas or synthesis gas

-Carbon dioxide is colorless, odourless

-low solubility in water
-Preparation
-complete combustion with air
-on heating limestone

*SiO2 , also known as silic, covalent, three dimension network solid in which it is
bonded tetrahedrally to oxygen atoms
-usually non reactive

*Quartz: extensively used as piezoelectric material;

-electronic chips

*Silicones: They are a group of organosilicones polymers, which have (R2SiO) as a

repeating unit
-preparation
-alkyl or aryl substituted silion chlorides
-hydrolysis of dimethyldichlorosilane (CH3)SiCl2 followed by
condensation polymerisation yeilds straight chain polymers
` -Chain length can be controlled by adding (CH)3SiCl which block the
ends

*Silicates: solids with silicon-oxygen bond

*Zeolites are microporous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial
absorbents

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Mole Concept:
*Mole: It is defined as number of entities same as number of atoms in 12g of C-12.
It is also called as avagadros number (N) and its value is 6*10^23

*Atomic Mass unit: mass 1/12 carbon 12 atom

1 AMU= 1.67 * 10^27Kg

*Limiting Reagent: reactant which is present in short supply or gets consume

completely

*Excess reagent: reagent present is large, excess or which does not get consumed
completely during the course of a reaction

*Emperical formula: Simplest ratio in which various atoms are present in

molecules. Emperical mass is mass of a molecule as per emperical formula

***Law of chemical Combination

1) Law of conservation of mass: In a chemical reaction mass is always conserved and
the mass of products formed is equal to mass of reactants used.
OR
In a chemical reaction the sum of mass of productsand
unused reactants is equal to initial mass of reactant taken

2) Law of constant composition or fixed proportion: No matter the origin of a

compund or method of preparation the composition of a coumpound is fixed by mass

3) Law of multiple proportion: When elements A and B react to form multiple

compounds the mass of B used in different compounds to a fixed amount of A are used
in simple ratio to one another

*Dalton theory
1)atoms is the smallest indivisible part
2)an atom can neither be created or destroyed
3)smallest part that takes part in a chemical reaction
4)atoms of same element are identical to each other
5)atom shows all the properties of the element

*Isotopes: same atomic number but different mass number

*Isobars: same mass number but different atomic number
*Isotones: Atoms which have the same number of neutrons
*Isodiaphere: Atoms which have same isotopic number
*Isosteres: same number of atoms and are iselectronic

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3)Atomic Structure:

-Lymam, balmer, paschen, brackett, pfund, humphry

-Bohr model was able to explain various properties of hydrogen and hydrogen like
species
-It was able to explain the hydrogen spectrum
-values were very close to that of experimental values

-valid for only hydrogen like species

-ignored wave nature of electron
-provided no justification of angular momentum tto be a multiple of h/2pi
-Violates heisenberg's uncertainty principle
*Heisenbergs Uncertainty Rule: The exact position and momentum of a quantum
particle cannot be determined simultaneously. It is impossible to simultaneously
and accurately measure the position and momentum of a quantum particle.

*Orbital: a region where the probability of finding an electron is maximum

*Quantum numbers:
1) Principle quantum number (n):
-Gives the shell number, distance, size and energy of a shell,

2)Azimuthal quantum number/ Orbital quantum number (l)

-Gives the shape of the orbital/ subshell, energy, values of L, orbital
angular momentum

3) Magnetic Quantum number (m)

-orientation of orbital, does not contribute to energy

4)Spin quantum number (s)

-not result of shrodinger's equation
-rotation of an electron about its own axis
-only anticlockwise, clockwise spin is possible

1)Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity: This states that while filling up of

degenerate orbitals, pairing does not begin until all the orbitals are occupied by
1e- each

2)Pauli's exclusion principle: This states that no 2e- can have all quantum number
exactly the same. At least one of the quantum number must be different

3)Auf bau Principle: e- are filled as per energy levels with lowest energy level
filling up first followed by higher energy level

*Black Body: A material which absorbs all radiation which incident on it is called
a black body.

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4) Equilibrium:

-Reversible: Chemical reaction which procedd in two directions

-Irreversible: Reaction in which it proceeds in one direction only
-Equilibrium state: Rate of forward = Rate of backward direction, and no net
change is observed

*Chemical reaction is Dynamic equilibrium

-All measurable properties like concentration, density, colour, composition become
constant at equilibrium.
-Dynamic equilbrium can only be achieved in a closed container
-dynamic equilibrium can be achieved from either side
-Role of catalyst: Catalyst does not affect equilibrium state of reaction. It only
helps in achieving equilibrium soon.

*Law of mass action: rate of reaction is directly proportional to the activity

raised to power its stoichometric coefficient
-does not depend on pressure, concentration of various reaction, and pressure of
catalyst
-depends on stochiometry of reactants and temp
*Le chatelier's principle: It states that a change in any of the factors that
determine the equilibrium conditions of a system will cause the system to change in
such a manner so as to reduce or to counteract the effect of the change

-Volume is increased, pressure is decreased and the reaction shifts towards the
direction with greater number of moles

-Homogenous equilibria: all the reactants and products are in the same phase

-heterogenous equilibria: equilibrium in system having more than one phase

-Ionic Equilibrium is equilibria involving ions

-Electrolytes coduct electricity due to ions
-Non electrolyte do not conduct electricity

*Arrhenius Concept:
-Acid: Produces H+ in water
-Base: Produces OH- in water
-It only talks about solution in water
-fails to acidic nature of non-protic compounds (protic --> H+) and same goes
for bases

*Bronsted Concept:
-Acid produces H+
-Base accepts H+

-In H2O all minerals appear to be equally strong because of complete ionization,
hence water is called levelling solvent

*Common-Ion-Effect:
-The supression of dissociation of weak electrolyte in presence of a strong
electrolyte or a weak electrolyte producing a common ion

-Ka at a given temperature is a measure of the strength of the acid HX, larger the
value of Ka, the stronger is the acid. Ka is dimensionless quantity with the
understanding that the standard state concentration of all species is 1M.
Similarily Kb is base ionization constant

-Ka * Kb = Knet

*Hydrolysis: The process of interaction of cation or anion with water to produce

acidic and basic solution respectively in known as salt hydrolysis

*Buffer solution: The solution which resist a change in pH on dilutiotion or with

the addition of small amounts of acid or alkali are called buffer solution.

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5) Redox Reaction:

-Redox reactions are reactions which involve change in oxidation number of the
interacting species
-ON: The chare aquired by an atom in bonded state.

-Oxidation -Reduction
-Increase in ON -Decrease in ON
-Loss of electron -Gain of electron
-Reducing agent or reductant -Oxidising agent or oxidant
*Types of Redox Reaction
1)Combination Reaction: Two or more reactants form one product

2)Dcomposition Reaction:One reactant forms two or more products

3)Displacement Reaction: An ion in a compound is displaced an ion of another

compound
1)Metal Displacement: Metal that can be displaced by another metal
2)Non-metal displacement: This include hydrogen displacement or
rarelyoccuring reaction displacing oxygen

4)Disproportionation reaction: An element in one oxidation state is simultaneously

oxidised and reduced

*Redox couple is defined as having together the oxidised and reduced forms of a
substance taking part in an oxidation or reduction half reaction

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Hybridization is defined as the intermixing of a set of atomic orbitals of slightly

different energies, thereby forming a new set of orbitals having equivalent
energies and shape. Hybrid orbitals have minimum repulsion between their electron
pairs and thus are more stable. it helps indicate the geometry of the molecule.

polar covalent bond is when two dissimilar atoms having different

electronegativivties combine to form a covalent bond, the bond pair of electrons is
not shared equally. The bond pair shifts towards the nucleus of the atom having
greater electronegativity. As a result, the electron is displaced towards the
electronegative atom

a chemical bond is defiend as the attractive force that holds the constituents
together in a chemical species

Octet rule was developed by kossel and lewis. Atoms can combine either by
transferring or sharing of electrons in order to attain the gas configuration of
the nearest nobel gas config

Condition to form molecular orbitals

*The combining atomic orbitals must have nearly the same energy.
the combining atomic orbitals should have proper orientation so that overlapping is
maximum
extent of overlap should be large

Hydrogen bond is defined as an attractive force between the hydrogen attached to an

electronegative atom of one molecule and an electronegative atom of a different
molecule

bond order is defined as one half of the difference between the number of electrons
present in bonding and antibonding molecular orbital

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*Hydrogen
coal gasification process:

C + H2O ---> CO + H2 at 1270K

Water gas shift:

CO + H2O ---> CO2 + H2 iron chromate catalyst 673K

preparation of hydrogen by electrolysis method:

acidiefied or alkaline water with platinum electrodes, electrolysis of pure water
is very slow due to the absence of ions from it. As a result, an electrolyte such
as an acid or a base is added for the ions to conduct electricity

Non stoichiometric or metallic hydrides are formed by many f block and dblock
elements except of groups 7,8,9. Chromium is the only 6th group element forming
these hydride. these are dieficient in hydrogen

Atomic hydrogen is produced by dissociation of hydrogen under an electric arc. This

releases a huge amount of energy. this is ideal welding and cutting tools

hydrogen bonding order is H2O>HF >NH3, due to shortage of hydrogen in fluorine

Autoprotolysis is when water molecule reacts to hydronium ion and hydroxy ion

structure of ice: crystalline form of water. It takes a hexagonal form if

crystallized at pressure, but condenses to cubic form if the temperature is very
low. the structure has hydrogen bonding. each oxygen atom is surrounded
tetrahedrally by four other oxygen atoms. The structure also has wholes which can
store molecules instertitially

temperory hardness is due to soluble salts of magnesium and calcium in the form of
hydrogen carbonates
permanent hardness is due to presence of soluble salts of mg and ca in the form of
chlorides

Methods to soften the water:

To soften temperory water:

1) Boiling
2) Clark's method- addition of calcium hydroxide

1) Addition of washing soda

2) Calgon's method: Sodium hexametaphosphate (Na6P6O18) "calgon" forms soluble
complexes with Mg2+ and Ca2+
3) Ion Exchange method:

Demineralised water is free from all soluble mineral salts. It does not contain any
anions or cations

for drinking water, some minerals are required whereas demineralised water is free
from all minerals. It is not fit for drinking