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Inspection Department
WELDING PROCESSES
USED IN SAUDI
ARAMCO
PEW-209.01
The training materials contained in this module are the property of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company (Saudi Aramco) and
are intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco employees enrolled in advanced inspection training courses. Any
material contained in this manual which is not already in the public domain, may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given or
disclosed to third parties or otherwise used, in whole or in part, for purposes other than for use in Saudi Aramco’s
Professional Engineering Development Unit courses without the prior written permission of the Chief Engineer of Saudi
Aramco.
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT REVISIONS
i
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT TABLE OF CONTENTS
OBJECTIVES 1
Terminal Objective 1
Enabling Objectives 1
INTRODUCTION 2
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING 3
Types of Electrodes 3
Cellulosic Electrodes 4
Rutile Electrodes 4
Basic Electrodes 4
Metal Powder Electrodes 5
Equipment for SMAW Welding 5
Power Source 6
Electrode Holder and Cables 8
Advantages and Limitations 10
Advantages 10
Limitations 10
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) 11
Process Characteristics 11
Power Source 12
Arc Starting 12
Electrodes 13
Shielding Gas 13
Applications 13
Advantages and Limitations 14
Advantages 14
Limitations 15
GAS METAL ARC WELDING 16
Process Characteristics 16
Metal Transfer Mode 16
Short-circuiting 17
Droplet / Spray 17
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT TABLE OF CONTENTS
Spray-Pulsed 17
Shielding Gas 18
Electrodes for Gas Metal Arc Welding 19
Applications 19
Advantages and Limitations 19
Advantages 19
Limitations 20
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 21
Essential Equipment 22
Power Source 22
Welding Gun 23
Flux 23
Bonded fluxes 23
Fused fluxes 24
Applications 24
Advantages and Limitations 25
Advantages 25
Limitations 25
FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) 26
Advantages and Limitations 27
Advantages 27
Limitations 27
STUD WELDING (SW) 28
Stud Welding Equipment 28
Discontinuities 29
Advantages and Limitations 30
Advantages 30
Limitations 30
OTHER PROCESSES 31
Thermite Welding (TW) 31
Electro-Gas, Electro-Slag, Plasma, Electron Beam, Laser Beam Welding &
Brazing 31
IDENTIFY WELD SYMBOLS 32
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT TABLE OF CONTENTS
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
Terminal Objective
Upon completion of this module, the Participant will be able to describe welding
processes used in Saudi Aramco and the symbols associated with welding.
Enabling Objectives
In order to accomplish the Terminal Objective, the participant will be able to do the
following:
Note: This training material has been developed using the latest available versions of
applicable Saudi Aramco and industry standards. However, these documents are
regularly updated; therefore, it is the responsibility of the inspector to ensure that
he is conducting his inspections according to the latest versions of these
documents or those designated for the project.
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
Inspectors must also have knowledge of the weld discontinuities associated with each
welding process. This is important for the inspector performing radiographic film
interpretation on behalf of Saudi Aramco.
When performed correctly, welding leaves the completed assembly with a joint that is so
like the base metals that they behave as one continuous piece.
This module describes the equipment, welding processes, weld layering, and welding
discontinuities particular to Shielded Metal Arc Welding, Gas Tungsten Arc welding, Gas
Metal Arc Welding, and Flux-Cored Arc Welding. It also covers the joint designs and
welding symbols used in the welding industry.
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is the oldest and most common electric arc welding
process. It is commonly known as ‘stick’ welding. SMAW is extremely portable and
versatile. SMAW is the most frequently used welding process in Saudi Aramco.
The process allows only short lengths of weld to be produced before a new electrode
needs to be inserted in the holder. Weld penetration is low and the quality of the weld
deposit is highly dependent on the skill of the welder.
The primary element of SMAW process is the electrode itself. It is made up of a solid
metal core covered with a layer of granular flux held in place by some bonding agent.
The electrode coating is the feature, which classifies the various types of electrodes. It
actually serves five separate functions:
◊ Shielding - the coating decomposes to form a gaseous shield for the molten
metal.
◊ De-oxidation - the coating provides a fluxing action to remove oxygen and other
atmospheric gases.
◊ Alloying - the coating provides additional alloying elements for the weld deposit.
◊ Insulating - the solidified slag provides an insulating blanket to slow down the
weld metal cooling rate.
Types of Electrodes
Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal deposition rate and positional capability are
greatly influenced by the chemical composition of the flux coating on the electrode.
Electrodes can be divided into three main groups:
◊ Cellulosic
◊ Rutile
◊ Basic
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Cellulosic Electrodes
These contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating and are characterized by a
deeply penetrating arc and a rapid burn-off rate giving high welding speeds. During its
decomposition, cellulose (wood fiber) forms a shielding gas, predominately hydrogen,
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide which protects the molten metal transferring
across the arc.
Weld deposit can be coarse and with fluid slag, de-slagging can be difficult. These
electrodes are easy to use in any position and are noted for their use in the ‘stovepipe’
welding technique. The main features for cellulosic electrodes are:
◊ High level of hydrogen generated - risk of cracking in the heat affected zone
(HAZ)
Rutile Electrodes
These contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the coating. Titanium oxide
promotes easy arc ignition, smooth arc operation and low spatter. These electrodes are
general-purpose electrodes with good welding properties. They can be used with AC
and DC power sources and in all positions. The electrodes are especially suitable for
welding fillet joints in the horizontal/vertical (HV) position. The main features for rutile
electrodes are:
Basic Electrodes
These contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride
(fluorspar) in the coating. This makes their slag coating more fluid than rutile coatings -
this is also fast-freezing which assists welding in the vertical and overhead position.
These electrodes are used for welding medium and heavy section fabrications where
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
higher weld quality, good mechanical properties and resistance to cracking (due to high
restraint) are required. The main features for basic electrodes are:
These contain an addition of metal powder to the flux coating to increase the maximum
permissible welding current level. Thus, for a given electrode size, the metal deposition
rate and efficiency (percentage of the metal deposited) are increased compared with an
electrode containing no iron powder in the coating. The slag is normally easily removed.
Iron powder electrodes are mainly used in the flat and HN positions to take advantage of
the higher deposition rates. Efficiencies as high as 130 to 140% can be achieved for
rutile and basic electrodes without marked deterioration of the arcing characteristics but
the arc tends to be less forceful which reduces bead penetration.
Although the manual metal arc (SMAW) process has relatively basic equipment
requirements, it is important that the welder have knowledge of operating features and
performance to comply with welding procedures for the job and, of course, for safety
reasons.
The main components of the equipment required for welding are (also see Figure 1A):
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
◊ power source
◊ electrode holder
◊ cables
◊ welder protection
◊ fume extraction
◊ Wire brush to clean the joint area adjacent to the weld (and the weld itself after
slag removal);
◊ Chipping hammer to remove slag from the weld deposit (See Figure 1B);
◊ Pair of lens goggles or a face shield to protect the eyes (lenses should be
shatter-proof and noninflammable).
1A
1B
Figure 1. A SMAW set; Figure 1B. Chipping hammer
Power Source
The primary function of a welding power source is to provide sufficient power to melt the
joint. However, with SMAW the power source must also provide current for melting the
end of the electrode to produce weld metal, and it must have a sufficiently high voltage
to stabilize the arc.
Figure 2 shows welding current level for various electrode sizes. The normal operating
range and current are recommended by manufacturers. Typical operating ranges for a
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
selection of electrode sizes are illustrated in the table. As a rule of thumb when selecting
a suitable current level, an electrode will require about 40A per millimeter (diameter).
Therefore, the preferred current level for a 4mm diameter electrode would be 160A, but
the acceptable operating range is 140 to 180A.
SMAW electrodes are designed to be operated with alternating current (AC) and direct
current (DC) power sources. Although AC electrodes can be used on DC, not all DC
electrodes can be used with AC power sources.
As SMAW requires a high current (50-300A) but a relatively low voltage (10-50V), high
voltage mains supply (240 or 440V) must be reduced by a transformer. To produce DC,
the output from the transformer must be further rectified.
To reduce the hazard of electrical shock, the power source must function with a
maximum no-load voltage, that is, when the external (output) circuit is open (power leads
connected and live) but no arc is present. The power source may have an internal or
external hazard-reducing device to reduce the no-load voltage; the main welding current
is delivered as soon as the electrode touches the work piece. For welding in confined
spaces, you should use a low voltage safety device to limit the voltage available at the
holder to approximately 25V.
◊ AC transformer
◊ DC rectifier
◊ AC/DC transformer-rectifier
◊ DC generator
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
AC electrodes are frequently operated with the simple, single-phase transformer with
current adjusted by means of tappings or sliding core control. DC rectifiers and AC/DC
transformer-rectifiers are controlled electronically, for example by thyristors. A new
generation of power sources called inverters is available. These use transistors to
convert mains AC (50Hz) to a high frequency AC (over 500 Hz) before transforming
down to a voltage suitable for welding and then rectifying to DC. Because high frequency
transformers can be relatively small, principal advantages of inverter power sources are
undoubtedly their size and weight when the source must be portable.
The electrode holder clamps the end of the electrode with copper contact shoes built into
its head (See Figure 3). The shoes are actuated by either a twist grip or spring-loaded
mechanism. The clamping mechanism allows for quick release of the stub end. For
efficiency, the electrode has to be firmly clamped into the holder; otherwise, poor
electrical contact may cause arc instability through voltage fluctuations. Welding cable
connecting the holder to the power source is mechanically crimped or soldered.
Cables are covered in a smooth and hardwearing protective rubberized flexible sheath.
This oil and water resistant coating provides electrical insulation at voltages to earth not
exceeding 100V DC and AC (RMS value).
◊ duty cycle,
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Electrodes should always be kept in a dry and well-ventilated store. It is good practice to
stack packets of electrodes on wooden pallets or racks well clear of the floor. Also, all
unused electrodes, which are to be returned, should be stored so they are not exposed
to damp conditions to regain moisture. Good storage conditions are 10 degrees C above
external air temperature. As the storage conditions are to prevent moisture from
condensing on the electrodes, the electrode stores should be dry rather that warm.
Under these conditions and in original packaging, electrode storage time is practically
unlimited. It should be noted that electrodes are now available in hermetically sealed
packs
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Advantages
◊ The shielding characteristics of the electrodes make the process less sensitive to
wind and draft than a gas shielded arc welding
Limitations
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is also referred to as ‘TIG” welding. In the GTAW
process, the electric arc is created between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and
the base metal thus producing the heat for welding (See Figures 5 and 6).
GTAW became an overnight success in the 1940s for joining magnesium and aluminum.
Using an inert gas shield instead of a slag to protect weld pool, the process was a highly
attractive replacement for gas and manual metal arc welding. GTAW has played a major
role in the acceptance of aluminum for high quality welding and structural applications.
Process Characteristics
In the GTAW process, the arc is formed between a point tungsten electrode and the
work piece in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium. The small intense arc provided by
the pointed electrode is ideal for high quality and precision welding. Because the
electrode is not consumed during welding, the welder does not have to balance the heat
input from the arc as the metal is deposited from the melting electrode. When filler metal
is required, it must be added separately to the weld pool.
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Power Source
GTAW must be operated with a drooping (i.e. slightly declining curve), constant current
power source - either DC or AC. A constant current power source is essential to avoid
excessively high currents being drawn when the electrode is short-circuited on to the
work piece surface. This could happen either deliberately during arc starting or
inadvertently during welding.
If a flat characteristic power source (i.e. non-drooping) is used, any contact with the work
piece surface would damage the electrode tip or fuse the electrode to the work piece
surface. In DC, because arc heat is distributed approximately one-third at the cathode
(negative) and two-thirds at the anode (positive), the electrode is always negative
polarity to prevent overheating and melting. However, the alternative power source
connection of DC electrode positive polarity has the advantage in that when the cathode
is on the work piece, the surface is cleaned of oxide contamination. For this reason, AC
is used when welding materials with a tenacious surface oxide film, such as aluminum.
Arc Starting
The welding arc can be started by scratching the surface, forming a short circuit. It is
only when the short circuit is broken that the main welding current will flow. However,
there is a risk that the electrode may stick to the surface and cause a tungsten inclusion
in the weld. This risk can be minimized using the ‘lift arc’ technique where the short
circuit is formed at a very low current level.
The most common way of starting the GTAW arc is to use HF (High Frequency). HF
consists of high voltage sparks of several thousand volts, which last for a few
microseconds. The HF sparks will cause the electrode - work piece gap to break down
or ionize. Once an electron/ion cloud is formed, current can flow from the power source.
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Electrodes
Electrodes for DC welding are normally pure tungsten with 1 to 4% thoria to improve arc
ignition. Alternative additives are lanthanum oxide and cerium oxide which are claimed
to give superior performance (arc starting and lower electrode consumption).
It is important to select the correct electrode diameter and tip angle for the level of
welding current. As a rule, the lower the current, the smaller the electrode diameter and
tip angle. In AC welding, as the electrode will be operating at a much higher
temperature, tungsten, with a zirconium addition, is used to reduce electrode erosion.
Shielding Gas
Shielding gas is selected according to the material being welded. It has two main
functions; it provides a suitable atmosphere for the arc and it protects the weld pool from
atmospheric contamination. The following guidelines may help:
◊ Argon:
The most commonly used shielding gas for welding. It can be used for welding a
wide range of materials including steels, stainless steel with the addition of 1 to 5
% of Oxygen aluminum and titanium. Argon with 2% to 5% Hydrogen will make
the gas slightly reducing (i.e. less surface oxidation), assisting the production of
cleaner-looking welds. As the arc is hotter and more constricted, it permits higher
welding speeds. Disadvantages include risk of hydrogen cracking in carbon
steels and weld metal porosity in aluminum alloys.
Adding helium to argon will raise the temperature of the arc. This promotes
higher welding speeds and deeper weld penetration. Disadvantages of using
helium or a helium/argon mixture are the high cost of gas and difficulty in starting
the arc.
Applications
GTAW is applied in all industrial sectors, but is especially suitable for high quality
welding. In manual welding, the relatively small arc is ideal for thin sheet material or
controlled penetration (in the root run of pipe welds). Because deposition rate can be
quite low (using a separate filler rod) SMAW or GMAW may be preferable for thicker
material and for fill passes in thick-wall pipe welds.
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
GTAW is also widely applied in mechanized systems either autogenously (i.e. without
filler metal) or with filler wire. However, several ‘off the shelf systems are available for
orbital welding of pipes, used in the manufacture of chemical plant or boilers. The
systems require no manipulative skill, but the operator must be well trained. Because the
welder has less control over arc and weld-pool behavior, careful attention must be paid
to edge preparation (machined rather than hand-prepared), joint fit-up and control of
welding parameters.
Advantages
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Limitations
◊ Transfer of molten tungsten from the electrode to the weld cause contamination.
The resulting tungsten inclusion is hard and brittle.
◊ Exposure of the hot filler rod to air using improper welding techniques causes
weld metal contamination
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW was first patented in the US in 1949 for welding
aluminum. The arc and weld pool formed using a bare wire electrode was protected by
helium gas, readily available at that time. From about 1952, the process became popular
for welding aluminum using argon as the shielding gas, and CO2 for carbon steel.
GMAW is an attractive alternative to SMAW, which offers high deposition rates and high
productivity (See Figure 7).
Process Characteristics
GMAW is similar to SMAW in that heat for welding is produced by forming an arc
between a metal electrode and the work piece; the electrode melts to form the weld
bead. The main difference is that the metal electrode is a small diameter wire fed from a
spool. As the wire is continuously fed, the process is often referred to as semi-automatic
welding.
The manner, or mode, in which the metal transfers from the electrode to the weld pool
largely, determines the operating features of the process. There are three principal
metal transfer modes (See also Figure 8):
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
◊ Short-circuiting
◊ Droplet / spray
◊ Spray-Pulsed
Short-circuiting
Short-circuiting and pulsed metal transfer are used for low current operation. In short-
circuiting or ’dip’ transfer, the molten metal forming on the tip of the wire is transferred by
the wire dipping into the weld pool.
This is achieved by setting a low voltage; for a 1.2mm diameter wire, arc voltage varies
from about 17V (100 A) to 22V (200 A). Care in setting the voltage and the inductance in
relation to the wire feed speed is essential to minimize spatter. Inductance is used to
control the surge in current, which occurs when the wire dips into the weld pool.
Droplet / Spray
For droplet or spray transfer, a much higher voltage is necessary to ensure that the wire
does not make contact i.e. short-circuit, with the weld pool; for a 1.2mm diameter wire,
the arc voltage varies from approximately 27V (250A) to 35V (400A). The molten metal
at the tip of the wire is transferred to the weld pool as small droplets (about the diameter
of the wire or smaller).
However, there is a minimum current level, threshold, below which droplets are not
forcibly projected across the arc. If an open arc technique is attempted much below the
threshold current level, the low arc forces would be insufficient to prevent large droplets
forming at the tip of the wire. These droplets would transfer erratically across the arc
under normal gravitational forces. The pulsed mode was developed as a means of
stabilizing the open arc at low current levels i.e. below the threshold level, to avoid short-
circuiting and spatter.
Spray-Pulsed
Spray type metal transfer is achieved by applying pulses of current, each pulse having
sufficient force to detach a droplet. Synergic pulsed GMAW refers to a special type of
controller which enables the power source to be tuned (pulse parameters) for the wire
composition and diameter, and the pulse frequency to be set according to the wire feed
speed.
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Shielding Gas
In addition to general shielding of the arc and the weld pool, the shielding gas performs a
number of important functions:
◊ Ensures smooth transfer of molten droplets from the wire to the weld pool. Thus,
the shielding gas will have a substantial effect on the stability of the arc and
metal transfer and the behavior of the weld pool, in particular, its penetration.
General purpose shielding gases for GMAW welding are mixtures of argon, oxygen and
CO2, and special gas mixtures may contain helium. The gases which are normally used
for the various materials are:
◊ Steels
CO2
Argon +2 to 5% oxygen
◊ Non-ferrous
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Argon-based gases, compared with CO2, are generally more tolerant to parameter
settings and generate lower spatter levels with the dip transfer mode. However, there is
a greater risk of lack of fusion defects.
The electrodes used for this process are solid wires, which are usually supplied on a
spools or reels of various sizes.
The system for identifying bare carbon steel electrodes and rods for gas-shielded arc
welding is as follows: (AWS 5.18) Example ER70SC1
Applications
GMAW is widely used in most industry sectors and accounts for almost 50% of all weld
metal deposited.
Advantages
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Limitations
◊ Not well suited for field welding due to high sensitivity to drafts or wind which
tend to blow the shielding gas away
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Similar to GMAW welding, Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) involves formation of an arc
between a continuously fed bare wire electrode and the workpiece.
The process uses a flux to generate protective gases and slag, and to add alloying
elements to the weld pool. A shielding gas is not required. Prior to welding, a thin layer
of flux powder is placed on the workpiece surface. The arc moves along the joint line
and as it does so, excess flux is recycled via a hopper. Remaining fused slag layers can
be easily removed after welding. As the arc is completely covered by the flux layer, heat
loss is extremely low. This produces a thermal efficiency as high as 60% (compared with
25% for manual metal arc).
There is no visible arc light in SAW, welding is spatter-free and there is no need for fume
extraction. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is a process where the welding arc is totally
submerged and not seen. Most longitudinal pipe seams are welded at the pipe mill by
the SAW process.
In the SAW process, a flux blanket is laid down in the weld joint by the flux hopper,
ahead of the welding arc. The filler wire, which also acts as the electrode, travels along
the weld groove with the welding. It is completely submerged by the flux blanket (See
Figure 10).
The electrode wire feed rate and position is controlled by the wire feed motor and head
control. The power supply controls the voltage and amperage.
This process can be used semi-automatically by the welder manually using a welding
gun (with a flux hopper attached). This automatically feeds and guides the electrode and
flux at an automatic deposition rate. This process can also be used with fully automatic
equipment where either the work piece or the equipment is automatically manipulated.
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Essential Equipment
◊ Power source
◊ Wire gun
◊ Flux handling
◊ Protective equipment
As SAW is a high current welding process, the equipment is designed to produce high
deposition rates.
Power Source
In practice, most welding is carried out on thick plate where a single wire (4.0mm
diameter) is normally used over a more limited range of 600 to 900A, with a twin wire
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
system operating between 800 and 1200A. In DC operation, the electrode is normally
connected to the positive terminal. AWS A5.23 gives the Specification for Low Alloy
Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding
(DCEN) polarity can be used to increase deposition rate but depth of penetration is
reduced by between 20 and 25%. For this reason, DCEN is used for surfacing
applications where parent metal dilution is important. The DC power source has a
'constant voltage' output characteristic which produces a self-regulating arc. For a given
diameter of wire, welding current is controlled by wire feed speed and arc length is
determined by voltage setting.
Welding Gun
SAW can be carried out using both manual and mechanized techniques. Mechanized
welding, which can exploit the potential for extremely high deposition rates, accounts for
the majority of applications.
Flux
Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible minerals containing oxides of manganese,
silicon, titanium, aluminum, calcium, zirconium, magnesium and other compounds such
as calcium fluoride. The flux is specially formulated to be compatible with a given
electrode wire type so that the combination of flux and wire yields desired mechanical
properties.
All fluxes react with the weld pool to produce the weld metal chemical composition and
mechanical properties. It is common practice to refer to fluxes as 'active' if they add
manganese and silicon to the weld, the amount of manganese and silicon added is
influenced by the arc voltage and the welding current level. The main types of flux for
SAW are:
Bonded fluxes
Bonded fluxes are produced by drying the ingredients, then bonding them with a low
melting point compound such as a sodium silicate. Most bonded fluxes contain metallic
deoxidizers, which help to prevent weld porosity. These fluxes are effective over rust and
mill scale.
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Fused fluxes
Fused fluxes are produced by mixing the ingredients, then melting them in an electric
furnace to form a chemical homogeneous product. Then the product is cooled and
ground to the required particle size. Smooth stable arcs, with welding currents up to
2000A and consistent weld metal properties, are the main attraction of these fluxes.
Applications
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is ideally suited for longitudinal and circumferential butt
and fillet welds (See Figure 11). However, because of high fluidity of the weld pool,
molten slag and loose flux layer, welding is generally carried out on butt joints in the flat
position and fillet joints in both the flat and horizontal-vertical positions.
For circumferential joints, the work piece is rotated under a fixed welding head with
welding taking place in the flat position. Depending on material thickness, either single-
pass, two -pass or multi pass weld procedures can be carried out. There is virtually no
restriction on the material thickness, provided a suitable joint preparation is adopted.
Most commonly welded materials are carbon-manganese steels, low alloy steels and
stainless steels, although the process is capable of welding some non-ferrous materials
with carefully planned choice of electrode filler wire and flux combinations.
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Advantages
◊ It is appealing to operators since there is no need for protection from the arc and
there is less smoke generated than for the SMAW and FCAW processes
◊ It has the ability to penetrate deeply due to the high current used
Limitations
◊ The granular flux can prevent the operator from seeing the arc progression
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
In the Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) process, the heat for welding is provided by an
electric arc between the tubular consumable electrode and the base metal. Shielding for
welding is produced by the flux inside the tubular consumable electrode. Auxiliary
shielding gas may be provided as in the GMAW and GTAW processes.
FCAW Equipment Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) joins metals utilizing the heat of an
electric arc between a continuously fed, internally fluxed filler metal electrode and the
base metal (Figure 12). Heating and melting are similar to gas metal arc welding, but the
difference lies in how the weld is shielded. Shielding comes from a flux contained with
the electrode. Flux cored electrodes are self-shielding or shielded by an externally
supplied gas. Supplemental shielding may be obtained from an external gas supplied to
control depth of penetration as well as to help protect the molten pool. AWS 5.20 is the
Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding
Ingredients within the electrode provide deoxidizers, ionizers, purifying agents, and
alloying elements. These results in a thin slag covering to protect the solidifying weld
metal, much as what happens in the SMAW process. Flexibility of the FCAW process is
extremely good. Some of its many major advantages include high quality weld metal at
relatively high travel speeds and lower cost than with the SMAW process. FCAW is more
forgiving than GMAW and is, of course, more flexible than the SAW process. This
process also produces excellent weld beads in uniformity, smoothness, and general
appearance. It is adaptable to a wide variety of carbon, alloy, stainless, and other steels
and is an all-position weld process.
FCAW is usually applied as semiautomatic welding. The gun is hand-held and directed
by the welder. The process is also used in machine welding where the operator monitors
the operation continuously during mechanized travel. The basic equipment for
self-shielded and gas shielded FCAW is similar. The only difference between the two is
a system to provide the external gas for shielding. The recommended power source is
the direct current, constant voltage type that is similar to those for GMAW. The power
supply should be capable of operating at the highest current needed for the specific
application. Most semi-automatic setups operate at less than 650 A. The rate that the
electrode is fed into the arc determines the welding amperage that a constant voltage
power source must supply.
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Advantages
Limitations
◊ It is a smoky process
◊ The complexity and the cost of the equipment is greater than that for the SMAW
process
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Stud Welding (SW) is considered an arc welding process because the heat for welding is
generated by an arc between the stud and the base metal .
Stud welding equipment consists of a DC power source, control unit and stud welding
gun (See Figure 13A). Variations can include automatic stud feeding apparatus as well
as gas shielding for use in the welding of aluminum studs.
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PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Once welded, a stud can easily be inspected. First, a visual inspection is made to ensure
the presence of a 360-degree flash. Then the stud can either be struck with hammer or
pulled to judge its acceptability. When struck with a hammer, a good stud will ring while
a poor joint will result in a dull "thud."(see figure 13B)
Studs are used for fastening insulation to pressure vessels and in boiler repairs as heat
conductors.
Discontinuities
SW has two possible discontinuities. They are the lack of 360-degree flash and
incomplete fusion at the interface. Both are caused by improper machine settings or
insufficient ground connection.
Presence of water or heavy rust or mill scale on the base metal surface could also affect
the resulting weld quality.
29
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Advantages
◊ Easily inspected,
◊ Eliminates the need for hole drilling, tapping or tedious manual welding using
some other process
Limitations
◊ Stud shape is limited to some configuration, which can be held in the gun's chuck
30
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
OTHER PROCESSES
Use of this process by Saudi Aramco is limited only to attaching cathodic protection
cables to buried pipelines, piles, sheet walls, etc.
Heat is generated chemically by igniting the thermite mixture. This chemical heat
generation, called exothermic reaction, creates molten metal and partially melts the pipe
wall in the process. Extreme caution must be used when making such connections, in
order not to burn through the pipe wall and/or damage the coating of internally coated
pipe.
The Electro-gas, electro-slag, plasma, electron beam, laser beam and brazing may be
used only with the approval of Saudi Aramco and depending on the process and
application proposed, may require testing in addition to that specified by the Code.
Approval to use these processes shall be obtained through the welding procedure
review process.
31
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
When welds are specified on engineering and fabrication drawings, a defined set of
symbols is used as a sort of shorthand for describing the type of weld, its size, and other
processing and finishing information. The purpose of this page is to introduce you to the
common symbols and their meaning. The complete set of symbols is given in a standard
published by the American National Standards Institute and the American Welding
Society:
32
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
The horizontal line--called the reference line--is the anchor to which all the other welding
symbols are tied. The instructions for making the weld are strung along the reference
line. An arrow connects the reference line to the joint that is to be welded. In the
example above, the arrow is shown growing out of the right end of the reference line and
heading down and to the right, but many other combinations are allowed.
Quite often, there are two sides to the joint to which the arrow points, and therefore two
potential places for a weld. For example, when two steel plates are joined together into a
T shape, welding may be done on either side of the stem of the T.
The weld symbol distinguishes between the two sides of a joint by using the arrow and
the spaces above and below the reference line. The side of the joint to which the arrow
points is known as the arrow side, and its weld is made according to the instructions
given below the reference line. The other side of the joint is known as the other side, and
its weld is made according to the instructions given above the reference line.
The below=arrow and above=other rules apply regardless of the arrow's direction. The
flag growing out of the junction of the reference line and the arrow is present if the weld
is to be made in the field during erection of the structure. A weld symbol without a flag
indicates that the weld is to be made in the shop. In older drawings, a field weld may be
denoted by a filled black circle at the junction between the arrow and the reference line.
33
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
The open circle at the arrow/reference line junction is present if the weld is to go all
around the joint, as in the example below.
The tail of the weld symbol is the place for supplementary information on the weld. It
may contain a reference to the welding process, the electrode, a detail drawing, any
information that aids in the making of the weld that does not have its own special place
on the symbol.
Each type of weld has its own basic symbol, which is typically placed near the center of
the reference line (and above or below it, depending on which side of the joint it is on).
The symbol is a small drawing that can usually be interpreted as a simplified cross-
section of the weld. In the descriptions below, the symbol is shown in both its arrow-side
and other-side positions.
Groove Welds
The square groove weld, in which the "groove" is created by either a tight fit or a slight
separation of the edges. The amount of separation, if any, is given on the weld symbol.
34
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
The V-groove weld, in which the edges of both pieces are chamfered, either singly or
doubly, to create the groove. The groove is made up of a root opening, root face, groove
face, bevel angle, and groove angle (See Figure). The angle of the V is given on the
weld symbol, as is the separation at the root (if any).
35
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
If the depth of the V is not the full thickness - or half the thickness in the case of a double
V - the depth is given to the left of the weld symbol.
If the penetration of the weld is to be greater than the depth of the groove, the depth of
the effective throat is given in parentheses after the depth of the V.
The bevel groove weld, in which the edge of one of the pieces is chamfered and the
other is left square. The bevel symbol's perpendicular line is always drawn on the left
side, regardless of the orientation of the weld itself. The arrow points toward the piece
that is to be chamfered. This extra significance is emphasized by a break in the arrow
line. (The break is not necessary if the designer has no preference as to which piece
gets the edge treatment or if the piece to receive the treatment should be obvious to a
qualified welder.) Angle and depth of edge treatment, effective throat, and separation at
the root are described using the methods discussed in the V-groove section.
36
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
The U-groove weld, in which the edges of both pieces are given a concave treatment.
Depth of edge treatment, effective throat, and separation at the root are described using
the methods discussed in the V-groove section.
The J-groove weld, in which the edge of one of the pieces is given a concave treatment
and the other is left square. It is to the U-groove weld what the bevel groove weld is to
the V-groove weld. As with the bevel, the perpendicular line is always drawn on the left
side and the arrow (with a break, if necessary) points to the piece that receives the edge
treatment. Depth of edge treatment, effective throat, and separation at the root are
described using the methods discussed in the V-groove section.
37
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
The flare-V groove weld is commonly used to join two round or curved parts. The
intended depth of the weld itself is given to the left of the symbol, with the weld depth
shown in parentheses.
The flare bevel groove weld is commonly used to join a round or curved piece to a flat
piece. As with the flare-V, the depth of the groove formed by the two curved surfaces
and the intended depth of the weld itself are given to the left of the symbol, with the weld
depth shown in parentheses. The symbol's perpendicular line is always drawn on the left
side, regardless of the orientation of the weld itself.
Common supplementary symbols used with groove welds are the melt-thru and
backing bar symbols. Both symbols indicate that complete joint penetration is to be
38
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
made with a single-sided groove weld. In the case of melt-thru, the root is to be
reinforced with weld metal on the backside of the joint. The height of the reinforcement, if
critical, is indicated to the left of the melt-thru symbol, which is placed across the
reference line from the basic weld symbol.
When a backing bar is used to achieve complete joint penetration, its symbol is placed
across the reference line from the basic weld symbol. If the bar is to be removed after
the weld is complete, an "R" is placed within the backing bar symbol. The backing bar
symbol has the same shape as the plug or slot weld symbol, but context should always
make the symbol's intention clear.
Fillet Weld
The fillet weld is used to make lap joints, corner joints, and T joints. As its symbol
suggests, the fillet weld is roughly triangular in cross-section, although its shape is not
always a right triangle or an isosceles triangle. Weld metal is deposited in a corner
formed by the fit-up of two members, penetrates, and fuses with the base metal to form
the joint. (Note: for the sake of graphical clarity, the drawings below do not show the
39
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
penetration of the weld metal. Recognize, however, that the degree of penetration is
important in determining the quality of the weld.)
The perpendicular leg of the triangle is always drawn on the left side of the symbol,
regardless of the orientation of the weld itself. The leg size is written to the left of the
weld symbol. If the two legs of the weld are to be the same size, only one dimension is
given; if the weld is to have unequal legs (much less common than the equal-legged
weld), both dimensions are given and there is an indication on the drawing as to which
leg is longer.
40
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
If no length is given, then the weld is to be placed between specified dimension lines (if
given) or between those points where an abrupt change in the weld direction would
occur (like at the end of the plates in the example above).
For intermittent welds, the length of each portion of the weld and the spacing of the
welds are separated by a dash (length first, spacing second) and placed to the right of
the fillet weld symbol.
Notice that the spacing, or pitch, is not the clear space between the welds, but the
center-to-center (or end-to-end) distance.
41
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
See Figure below for a summary of all the weld symbols and identifications.
42
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT EXERCISES
43
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT EXERCISES
7. What do Basic electrodes contain a high proportion of and what effect does that
have ?
9. Which electrode has a high level of hydrogen and there is a risk of cracking in the
heat affected zone
44
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT EXERCISES
45
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT EXERCISES
8. Give three examples where Shielded Metal Arc welding has limitations?
46
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT EXERCISES
2. Which welding process offers high deposition rate and high productivity and is
similar to Shielded Metal Arc welding?
3. Which welding process mentioned in the module does not need a shielding gas?
47
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT EXERCISES
10. Give three examples how shielding performs a number of important functions?
48
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT EXERCISES
6. Which are the most common shielding gasses used in Gas Metal Arc welding?
49
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT EXERCISES
9. Flux Core Arc welding uses the same equipment as which other welding
process?
50
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT EXERCISES
2.
51
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT EXERCISES
3.
4.
52
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT EXERCISES
5.
6.
53
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
alternating current (AC) An electrical current that reverses its direction at regular
intervals, such as 60 cycles alternating current (AC), or 60
hertz.
arc The physical gap between the end of the electrode and the
base metal. The physical gap causes heat due to
resistance of current flow and arc rays.
direct current (DC) Flows in one direction and does not reverse its direction of
flow as does alternating current.
54
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT GLOSSARY
ground lead When referring to the connection from the welding machine
to the work, see preferred term Workpiece Lead.
55
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT GLOSSARY
plasma arc cutting An arc cutting process which severs metal by using a
constricted arc to melt a small area of the work. This
process can cut all metals that conduct electricity. Miller
Spectrum cutters are complete packages that contain all
required equipment and torch consumables. Consumables:
torch consumables, gas or compressed air supply.
semiautomatic welding The equipment controls only the electrode wire feeding.
The welding gun movement is controlled by hand.
spatter The metal particles blown away from the welding arc.
These particles do not become part of the completed weld.
submerged arc welding Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) shields the weld arc using
a granular flux fed into the weld zone forming a thick layer
that completely covers the molten zone and prevents
spatter and sparks. It also acts as a thermal insulator,
permitting deeper heat penetration. The process is
obviously limited to welding in a horizontal position and is
widely used for relatively high speed sheet or plate steel
welding in either automatic or semiautomatic
configurations. The flux can be recovered, treated, and
reused. Submerged Arc Welding provides very high
welding productivity....4-10 times as much as the Shielded
Metal Arc Welding process.
56
PEW-209.01 PARTICIPANT GLOSSARY
tungsten arc welding Often called GTAW welding, this welding process joins
metals by heating them with a tungsten electrode which
should not become part of the completed weld. Filler metal
is sometimes used and argon inert gas or inert gas
mixtures are used for shielding. Consumables: tungsten
electrode, filler metal, shielding gas.
weld metal The electrode and base metal that was melted while
welding was taking place. This forms the welding bead.
weld transfer Method by which metal is transferred from the wire to the
molten puddle. There are several methods used in GMAW;
they include: short circuit transfer, spray arc transfer,
globular transfer, buried arc transfer, and pulsed arc
transfer.
wire feed speed Expressed in in/min or mm/s, and refers to the speed and
amount of filler metal fed into a weld. Generally speaking
the higher the wire feed speed, the higher the amperage.
workpiece connection A means to fasten the work lead (work cable) to the work
(metal to be welded on). Also, the point at which this
connection is made. One type of work connection is made
with an adjustable clamp.
57