ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER
RESOURCES ENGINEERING

PREDICTION OF SEDIMENT YIELD IN

KOGA WATERSHED AND RESERVOIR
SEDIMENTATION INTO KOGA RESERVOIR

By: Engidasew Zerihun

Advisor: Dr. Ing. Nigussie Tekile

Co. Advisor: Dr. Ing. Kassa Tadele

February, 2012
 Abstract
Estimating sediment-transport phenomenon is essential for various purposes such
as design of dams, pollutant control and development of integrated watershed
management practices. Empirical approaches and physically-based models can be
used for estimating sediment transport.

In this study will be focused on the prediction of the amount of sediment yield in the
Koga watershed and reservoir sedimentation of the Koga reservoir by using
physically based models SWAT and HEC-6 / CCHE2D. Not only study of the
prediction of the amount of sediment that enter into the reservoir from the watershed
also to recommend appropriate strategies to reduce the sedimentation of the Koga
reservoir.

The Koga catchment area to the dam site is 170.9 km2 and divided into two, the
upper and the lower catchment. The upper catchment comprises predominantly inter
fluvial ridges and steep valleys. The land adjacent to the river is steep, with slopes
typically ranging from 16% to 40%, but up to 55% in some places. Therefore, Soil
erosion is a major problem because of the steep slopes and high rainfall.

i
Abbreviations

BCM Billion Cubic Meter

DEM Digital Elevation Map
GIS Geographic Information System
GPS Global Position System
HRU Hydrologic Response Unit
ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
masl Mean at sea level
MUSLE Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation
MoWE Ministry of Water and Energy
NMSA National Metrological Service Agency
SWAT Soil Water Assessment Tools
USLE Universal Soil Loss Equation
USDA-ARS US Department of Agriculture – Agriculture Research Service
USDA US Department of Agriculture

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 Table of Contents
Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................................. ii
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Back ground .................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Statement of the problem ............................................................................................................ 3
1.3. Objective ....................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Significance of the study ............................................................................................................... 4
1.5. Scope of the study ........................................................................................................................ 5
2. Study Area ............................................................................................................................................. 5
2.1. Description of Upper Blue Nile ..................................................................................................... 5
2.2. The description of Koga Dam ........................................................................................................ 6
3. Review of Literature.............................................................................................................................. 8
3.1. Sediment Yield and Sedimentation............................................................................................... 8
3.2. Hydrological models...................................................................................................................... 9
4. Material and Methodology ................................................................................................................. 10
4.1. Data collection ............................................................................................................................ 10
4.2. Methodology............................................................................................................................... 10
4.3. Flow Chart ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.4. The Conceptual SWAT Model ..................................................................................................... 14
5. Expected outputs ................................................................................................................................ 15
6. Cost Breakdown .................................................................................................................................. 16
6.1. Summary of Total Cost ................................................................................................................ 16
6.2. Personal cost ............................................................................................................................... 16
6.3. Material Cost ............................................................................................................................... 17
7. Time schedule ..................................................................................................................................... 18
8. Reference ............................................................................................................................................. iv

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 1. Introduction

1.1. Back ground

The construction of a dam and the creation of an impounded river reach area usually
change the stream natural conditions. Concerning the sediment logical aspect, the
dams cause a reduction on the flow velocity, thus causing the gradual deposition of
those sediments carried by the stream resulting in the sedimentation, gradually
diminishing the reservoir storage capacity. Therefore, it may come to hinder the
reservoir operation, besides causing several kinds of environmental problems.
Environmental and economic damages arising out of the sediments deposition in
reservoirs may be hard to solve, especially in arid and semi-arid regions (ICOLD,
1989).

Land degradation in the watershed results in high erosion problems. This is causing
increased sediment loads in the river system and accelerated deposition of sediment
in reservoirs and irrigation channels. This result in great socio -economic and
environmental losses, both onsite due to a decrease in soil fertility and off-site due to
increased maintenance costs in hydropower plants and irrigation systems and
sediment deposition along the river channel causing flooding in the surroundings. It
is clear that research of sediment transport and watershed management is a key to
improve the management of the entire Nile basin. Therefore, data on sediment
production and transport are necessary to improve our understanding of the river
system.

The processes of erosion, entrainment, transportation and deposition in a river

catchment are complex. The detachment of particles in the erosion process occurs
through the kinetic energy of raindrop impact, or by the forces generated by flowing
water. Once a particle has been detached, it must be entrained before it can be
transported away. Both entrainment and transport depend on the shape, size and
weight of the particle and the forces exerted on the particle by the flow. When these
forces are diminished to the extent that the transport rate is reduced or transport is

1
no longer possible, deposition occurs. Sediment is transported in suspension, as
bed load rolling or sliding along the bed and interchangeably by suspension and bed
load. The nature of movement depends on the particle size, shape, and specific
gravity in respect to the associated velocity and turbulence. Under some conditions
of high velocity and turbulence, e.g. high flows in steep-gradient mountain streams;
cobbles are carried intermittently in suspension. Conversely, silt size particles may
move as bed load in low-gradient, low -velocity channels, e.g. drainage ditches.

Even in transport, whether as bed load or in suspension, sediment may cause

problems. The products of erosion may be deposited immediately below their
sources, or may be transported considerable distances to be deposited in channels,
on flood plains, or in lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and oceans. When stream flow
enters a natural lake or reservoir, its velocity and transport capacity is reduced and
its sediment load is deposited. In natural lakes that have no outlets the total
incoming sediment load is deposited. In artificial lakes with outlets, e.g. reservoirs,
the amount deposited depends on the detention storage time, the shape of the
reservoir, operation procedures, and other factors.

As stated by Brune, 1953, in most storage reservoirs of modern design more than
90% of the incoming load is usually trapped (ASCE, 1977). Sediment may cause
severe damages depending on the amount, character, and place of deposition.
Deposits that occur on floodplains create numerous types of damages to crops and
developments. The deposition of sediment in drainage ditches, irrigation canals, and
in navigation and natural stream channels creates serious problems in loss of
services and cleanout costs. The deposition of sediment in our natural stream
channels has greatly aggravated floodwater damages. The deposition of sediment in
channels decreases the channel capacity and the flood-carrying capacity. This
results in higher and more frequent overflows.

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 1.2. Statement of the problem

Soil erosion is a major problem in Ethiopia. Deforestation, overgrazing, and poor

land management accelerated the rate of erosion. Many farmers in Ethiopian
highlands cultivate sloped or hilly land, causing topsoil to be washed away during
the torrential rains of the rainy season. The rains also leach the highland soils of
much fertility. In most parts of Ethiopia the high intensity rainfall occurs when the
cultivated land has low cover, which can reduce the impact of the high intensity
raindrop and the high runoff which can be slowed by soil cover. With the fast
growing population and the density of livestock in the basin, there is pressure on the
land resources, resulting in even forest clearing and overgrazing. Increasingly
mountainous and steeper slopes are cultivated, in many cases without protective
measures against land erosion and degradation (Dereje D, 2010, H. Hengsdijka et
al, 2004).

Deposits cause different impacts or consequences. The backwater deposits cause

flood problems at upstream. The deposits in the lake cause reduction of the storage
capacity and the variation of the water level shall determine the delta formation.
While most delta deposits gradually reduce the useful capacity of the reservoir, the
overbanks reduce the dead storage. Part of the delta is also contained in the dead
storage. Those sediments reaching the dam and passing through spillway and
ducts, cause abrasions on the structures, gates, piping, turbines and other pieces.
Other problems deriving from sediments deposition may be noticed, and all of them
require study and present distinct environmental impacts (Carvalho, 1994).

According to the feasibility report, Soil erosion and consequent land degradation are
the most serious problems in the Koga catchments. In general, the land is fully
utilized for either grazing or agriculture which in turn affects the life expectance of
the Koga Dam or reservoir. Measurements of sediment loads during the studies
have confirmed a high rate of erosion and indicate that unless erosion control
measure are implemented in the upper catchments, sedimentation will pose a major
threat to the longevity of the Koga reservoir.

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This study introduces as the total amount of sediment yield into the reservoir and
rate of reservoir sedimentation which decreases the life span of the Koga Dam
Reservoir and the overall concept of sustainable sediment management with the
goal of converting today's regimenting reservoirs into resources that will benefit
future generations as well as our own.

1.3. Objective

The main objective of this study is to quantify the amount of sediment yield from the
Koga watershed and reservoir sedimentation by using SWAT model and other
supporting tools.

The specific objectives are:

 Calibrate, Validate and undertake sensitivity analysis of a semi-distributed
hydrological model for modeling sediment yield and reservoir sedimentation
 To quantify the amount of sediment yield inflow in to the reservoir from the
watershed
 Assess and evaluate the spatial variability of sediment yield and identify
vulnerable sub-watersheds for erosion and sediment yield in the watershed
 To predict the total amount of sediment in the reservoir.
 To recommend appropriate strategies to reduce the sedimentation of Koga
reservoir

1.4. Significance of the study

Any types of Dam design includes dead storage part of the reservoir where mainly
deposited sediment that comes from the watershed. Dead storage is the volume that
is below the invert of the lowest-level outlet and which cannot be drained by gravity.
When sediment can be deposited in place of inactive storage that is reduce the
amount of water that passes through the outlet or may close the outlet gate. Then
take action and quantifying the amount of sediment that inflow from watershed is
main part of the dead storage design and also for operation of the reservoir of the
Dam. This study is useful for designer and policy maker to take appropriate

4
measures or decisions on the watershed process and will be taken some mitigation
actions.
1.5. Scope of the study

This research attempts to present a prediction of sediment yield in the study area
watershed and reservoir sedimentation into Koga reservoir. The scope of this
section is broad and attempts to address the method of prediction of sediment yield
and the cause of reduction of storage capacity of reservoir as well as the amount of
sediment yield from the watershed is entered in the reservoir per annual. Also the
method how to prevent the watershed from the erosion which is produced or wearing
away of the land surface by the action of water, wind, ice, and gravity.

The research indicates the way of reducing or avoiding the erosion or sediment
transport by using different approaches such that Empirical Approach for Erosion
Estimation, Physically based Approach models and Computer Model Simulation of
Surface Erosion or using Soil Water Assessment Tools (SWAT) and may be use
additional supporting tools.

Finally this research shows the methods of preventing watershed from erosion and
reducing of storage capacity of the reservoir from suspended and bed load materials
by using different conservation practical measures and management planning

2. Study Area

2.1. Description of Upper Blue Nile

The Upper Blue Nile lies in west Ethiopia between latitudes of 7o 45`N and 12o 46`N;
and longitudes of 34o 05’E and 39o 45’ E. The basin has a catchment area of about
199,812 km2 at the border with Sudan, covering parts of Amhara, Oromiya and
Benishangul- Gumuz Regional states. It covers about 17.5 percent of Ethiopia’s land
area, about 50% of its total average annual runoff and 25 % of its population. The
Abbay basin accounts for a major share of the country’s irrigation and hydropower
potential. It has an irrigation potential of 815,581 ha and a hydro potential of 78,820

5
GWH/yr. The basin has an average annual run-off estimated to 54.8 BCM.
(Awlachew et.al. 2007)

An altitude ranging from 590 meters to more than 4000 meters dominates the
climate of Abbay basin. The influence of this factor determines the variation in local
climates ranging from hot to desert-like climate along the Sudan boarder, to
temperate on the high plateau, and cold on the mountain peaks. The annual rainfall
varies between about 800mm to 2,220 mm with a mean of about 1420mm. (Master
Plan of UBNRB – Main Report, 1999)

The highest temperatures are observed in the northwestern part of the basin, in
parts of Rihad, Dinder, Beles and Dabus sub basins. The maximum temperature
being 28oc - 38oc and minimum temperature 15oc – 20oc. Lower temperatures are
observed in the highlands of Ethiopia in the central and eastern part of the basin.
The maximum and minimum temperature ranges from 12 oc – 20oc and -1oc to 8oc
respectively. (A. Denekew et al. 2009)

2.2. The description of Koga Dam

The catchment is located approximately 35km southwest of Bahir Dar, the capital of
the west Gojam administrative region, it is situated between 11 o10’ and 11o32’ N and
37o04’ to 37o17’E with an altitude range from 1998 (at the dam site) to 3,200 masl.
The catchment area to the dam is 170.9 km2.The source of the Koga River is close
to Wezem, at an altitude of about 3200 m. The river is 64 km long; flowing into the
Gilgel Abay River (which is the major inflow to Lake Tana, the source of the Abbay
River (Blue Nile)) after it crosses the Debre Markos - Bahir Dar road, downstream of
the town of Wetet Abay, at an altitude of 1985 m

The catchment can be divided into two, the upper and the lower catchment. The
upper catchment comprises predominantly inter fluvial ridges and steep valleys. The
land adjacent to the river is steep, with slopes typically ranging from 16% to 40%,
but up to 55% in some places. Soils in the upper catchment varied, comprise Luvic
Phaeozems, Chromic Cambisols and Lithic Leptosols. Soil erosion is a major
problem because of the steep slopes and high rainfall. The lower catchment, where

6
the irrigation scheme is located, comprises a much flatter plateau (locally called the
Bojed Plain), with some undulating topography in places and extensive flood plains
bordering the Koga River. Soils in the lower catchment comprise primarily Haplic
Alisols in the well-drained areas, Eutric Vertisols in the poorly drained plains and
Eutric Gleysols in the very poorly drained floodplains of the Koga and its tributaries.

The regional geology comprises flow type rocks of Tertiary origin. The Koga
catchment is underlain primarily with basalt inter bedded with pyroclastic deposits.
Rocky outcrops occur primarily at higher elevations. Most of the catchment covered
by highly weathered red clay soils, with alluvial deposits bordering the river at lower
elevations (AfDB, 2000).

The climate of the catchment is largely controlled by the movement of air masses
associated with the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The dry season occurs
between November and April and the wet season between May and October.
Typically, about 95% of the annual rainfall occurs in the wet season. In some years,
depending on the exact movement of the ITCZ, small rains occur between April and
May. Rainfall varies depending on altitude. Mean annual rainfall is approximately
1590 mm, but varies considerably from year to year, with pronounced wetter and
drier cycles.

The Koga project comprises the construction of two dams. Currently the project
totally completed. The main dam is a 21.5 m high earth dam with a length of 1,860
m. In addition, an 18.50 m high and 1,106 m long saddle dam about 6km to the
northeast of the main dam. The storage capacity of the reservoir at full supply level
(2015.25 m.a.s.l) is 83.1 Mm3 (i.e. 71% of the mean annual runoff). The area
submerged at FSL is 18.59 km2.The reservoir will provide water for approximately
7000 ha of dry season irrigation and 5,600 ha of wet season irrigation.

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 3. Review of Literature

3.1. Sediment Yield and Sedimentation

Soil erosion by water is one of the most important land degradation problems and a
critical environmental hazard in worldwide (Eswaran et al. 2001). Specially,
accelerated erosion due to human-induced environmental alterations at global scale
is causing extravagant increase of geomorphic process activity and sediment fluxes
in many parts of the world (Turner et al.1990).

The process of soil erosion involves detachment, transport and subsequent

deposition (Meyer & Wishmeier, 1969). Sediment is detached from soil surface
both by the raindrop impact and the shearing force of flowing water. The detached
sediment is transported down slope primarily by flowing water, although there is a
small amount of down slope transport by raindrop splash also (Walling, 1988). Once
runoff starts over the surface areas and in the streams, the quantity and size of
material transported depends on transport capacity of runoff water. However, if
transport capacity is less than the amount of eroded soil material available, then the
amount of sediment exceeding the transport capacity gets deposited (Meyer &
Wishmeier, 1969; Haan et al., 1994). A basin sediment yield refers to the amount of
sediment exported by a basin over a period of time which is also the amount that will
enter a reservoir located at the downstream limit of the basin (Morris & Fan, 2009).

The erosions or sediments settled due to the influence of the reservoir, expand to
upstream and downstream, and are not equally distributed even within the lake. The
upstream deposition is called backwater deposit, named after the hydraulic
phenomenon, being also ascending since the deposits in that area increase. The
depositions within the reservoir are called delta, overbank and bottom-set deposit.
Coarse make up the delta, while the inland deposits are made up by finer sediments
(Mahmood, 1987). Floods produce another kind of deposition, occurring along both
stream and reservoir, being made up by thin and coarse, named flood plain deposit.

Storage loss is but one of many sedimentation problems that can affect reservoirs.
Operation of storage reservoirs is severely impacted by the time half the volume has

8
been sediment, but severe sediment-related problems can appear when only a small
percentage of the storage capacity has been lost. As reservoirs age and sediments
continue to accumulate, sediment-related problems will increase in severity and
more sites will be affected. At any dam or reservoir where sustainable long-term use
is to be achieved, it will be necessary to manage sediments as well as water. This is
not a trivial challenge. Many type of sediment-related problems can occur both
upstream and downstream of dams, and sediment entrainment can also interfere
with the beneficial use of diverted water. Sediment can enter and obstruct intakes
and greatly accelerate abrasion of hydraulic machinery, thereby decreasing its
efficiency and increasing maintenance costs. (Gregory L. et al).

Traditional approaches to sediment management have not considered the need for
sustained use. Large initial storage volumes and erosion control have traditionally
been recommended to reduce sediment inflow and delay the eventual "death" of
reservoirs, but erosion control alone cannot achieve the sediment balance required
to stabilize reservoir storage capacity and achieve sustainable use. Furthermore,
many erosion control programs are poorly conceived and implemented, and fail to
achieve the desired reductions in sediment yield. As a result, reservoirs worldwide
are losing storage capacity rapidly, possibly as fast as 1 percent per year
(Mahmoud, 1987).

Conversion of sedimenting reservoirs into sustainable resources which generate

long term benefits requires fundamental changes in the way they are designed and
operated. It requires that the concept of a reservoir life limited by sedimentation be
replaced by a concept of managing both water and sediment to sustain reservoir
function.

3.2. Hydrological models

Modeling is defined by Wight (1988) as the process of organizing, synthesizing, and

integrating component parts into a realistic representation of the prototype. USDA
(1980) lists the following benefits of modeling: Models help sharpen the definition of
hypotheses, define and categorize the state of knowledge, provide an analytical

9
mechanism for studying the system of interest, and can be used to simulate
experiments instead of conducting the experiments on the watershed itself.
Hydrological Models can be categorized into three classes: Empirical models,
Conceptual models, and Physical models (Beven, 1985).

4. Material and Methodology

4.1. Data collection

Primary data: observation, collection and measuring of different type of samples by

field survey of the study area and specific gauging station using GPS and other
equipment.

 Suspended load sampling

 Bed load Sampling

Secondary data: from different Organization and Agencies legally to be collected

data which need to this study.

 Topography Map
 Meteorological data
 Hydrological data etc.

Materials needs

 Arc VIEW GIS (software)

 Arc SWAT ( software)
 SWAT model (software)
 HEC-6/CCHE2D (Software)
 Different sizes of plastic bags (sacks) for sampling
 Scanner, GPS, plotter, color printer and other software if necessary

4.2. Methodology

The methodology of this work has the following components.

a. Data collection
 DEM data

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 Topographic map
 Land use map
 Soil map
 Physiographic data
 Hydrological data ( primary, secondary data and others)
b. Data processing
c. Running model
d. Calibrating the model
e. Model result interpretation.

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3.1. General
The general methodology of this study is depending on the data which are collected from
different organization and also field observation. This methodology has two parts, the
first part is the prediction of sediment yield in the watershed by using SWAT model and
the second part is the determination of sedimentation into the Reservoir by using
Empirical method. The overall procedure of this methodology can be described by the
following flow chart.

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 4.3. The Conceptual SWAT Model

The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was developed by US
Department of Agriculture – Agriculture Research Service (USDA-ARS). It is a
conceptual model that functions on a continuous time step. Model components
include weather, hydrology, erosion/sedimentation, plant growth, nutrients,
pesticides, agricultural management, channel routing, and pond/reservoir routing.

The SWAT model predicts the influence of land management practices on

constituent yields from a watershed. SWAT is the continuation of over 30 years of
Total Annual
model development within the US Department Sediment
of Agriculture’s Yield
Agricultural Research
Service. The CREAMS, GLEAMS, and EPIC models ( Knisel, 1980; Leonard et al.,
1987; Williams et al., 1984) have each contributed to the scaling up of past field-
scale models to one which includes large river basins. SWAT is a public domain
model which is actively supported by the USDA Agricultural Research Service at the
Grassland, Soil, and Water Research Laboratory in Temple, Texas, USA.

The SWAT watershed model also contains algorithms for simulating erosion from
the watershed. Erosion is estimated using the Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation
(MUSLE). MUSLE estimates sediment yield from the surface runoff volume, the
peak runoff rate, the area of the HRU, the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) soil
erodibility factor, the USLE cover and management factor, the USLE support
practice factor, the USLE topographic factor, and a coarse fragment factor.

After the sediment yield is evaluated using the MUSLE equation, the SWAT model
further corrects this value considering snow cover effect and sediment lag in surface
runoff. The SWAT model also calculates the contribution of sediment to channel flow

14
from lateral and groundwater sources. Eroded sediment that enters channel flow is
simulated in the SWAT model to move downstream by deposition and degradation
(Neitsch et al., 2001a).

While the SWAT model provides algorithms for calculating different watershed
constituent dynamics, the ability of the SWAT model to depict processes in a
particular watershed is partially dependent on the quality of input data. The input
data that describe the physical structure of a watershed are generally incorporated
into the model using the AVSWAT interface. AVSWAT is an ArcView interface
version of the SWAT model. Mandatory GIS input files for AVSWAT include the
Digital Elevation Map (DEM), land use, and soil layers (DiLuzio et al., 2001).

Generally, SWAT simulates eight major components. There are

 Hydrology
 Weather
 Sedimentation
 Soil temperature
 Crop growth
 Nutrients
 Pesticides
 Agricultural management

5. Expected outputs

The expected out puts of this study includes but not limited to:
 The amount of sediment delivered by the Koga watershed into the Koga reservoir
annually.
 The dominant factor of the erosion in the Koga watershed.
 Identify the highly prone area from sub watershed for sediment production.
 To predict the total amount of sediment in the Koga Reservoir.

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6. Cost Breakdown

6.1. Summary of Total Cost

Item Description Amount (Birr)

No
1. SUB TOTAL 1 13,400
2 SUB TOTAL 2 17,450
3. TOTAL ( item 1 + item 2) 30,850
4. 10%CONTIGENCY 3,085
5. GRAND TOTAL 33,935

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17
6.2. Personal cost

Item No. Description Unit Quantity Rate Amount

1 For data collection and literature review
Ethiopia Mapping Agency days 15 70 1050
Data from MoW&E and NMSA days 15 70 1050
KOGA irrigation project office days 30 70 2100
2. Transport cost
Trip 5 150x2 1500
From Arba-minch to A.A
Trip 5 225x2 2250
From A.A to Bahir-Dar
From koga irrigation office to Dam Trip 20 50x20 1000
Site
3. At field, daily laborers No 4 50*20 4000
4. Additional labor to work on No 1x3 150/day 450
computer (skilled)
SUB TOTAL 1 13,400

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6.3. Material Cost

Item No. Description Unit Quantity Rate Amount

1 Topo map LS 2500
Purchasing some data such as
2 pcs 4500
geological, soil and land use.
3 Remove able disk (4GB) No 1 900 900
4 CD writer (external type) No 1 800 800
5 Rewritable CDS No 15 30 450
6 Computer diskettes (31/2 floppy) No 30 6 180
Photocopying (drawings,
pcs 1000 0.60 600
7 supporting documents)
8 Photo copy paper packet 5 100 500
9 Transparent paper (roll) No 1 400 400
10 Millimeter paper (roll) No 2 100 200
Stationeries( pen, pencil, note
11 pad) 500
12 For communication ( Mobile Card) LS 10 100 1000
13 Internet service hour 30 25 720
14 Typing & printing the report pcs 120*6 10 3600
15 Thesis compiling and binding 6 100 600
SUBTOTAL 2 17,450

17
7. Time schedule

Item No Description Months (2012)

Jan Feb Mar April May June

1 Literature review
2 Investigation of the feasibility
study held for Koga Dam site
3 Data collection
climate data
soil data
land cover/cover condition
Topo map for selected area
Physiographic
4 Data analysis and processing
digitizing and delineating
selected catchments
producing DEM
integrating different data and
interpreting
5 Report writing &completion of
the thesis

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 8. Reference

African Development Bank, (AFDB) 2000, Koga Irrigation and Watershed

Management Project, Summary Environmental Impact Assessment

ASCE, Committee on Sedimentation, 1977 "Relationships between Morphology of

Small Streams and Sediment Yield," J. Hydraulics Div.

Aster D, and Awlachew S, (January 2009), Characterization and Atlas of the Blue
Nile Basin and its Sub basins, International Water Management Institute
(IWMI)

Dereje D. (2010) MSc thesis “Impact of land use change on Reservoir

Sedimentation, Case study of Karadobi”

Fuad Abdo (2009), MSc thesis “investigation and hydrological characteristic of

surface water storage options in the Upper Blue Nile Case study of Kaga
and Gomit Dam,

H. Hengsdijka, G.W. Meijerinkb, and M.E. Mosugu Modeling the effect of three soil
and water conservation practices in Tigray, Ethiopia. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment journal, June 2004.

ICOLD, 1989. World Register of Dams, Update. International Commission on Large

Dams, Paris

Joel Nobert, et. al (2010), Sediment Yield Modeling Using SWAT Model in Tropical
Regions “Cases of Rugezi, Koka Reservoir, Simiyu and Pangani
Catchments in Rwanda, Ethiopia, Tanzania”

Kinsel, W.G. (1980). "CREAMS: A Field Scale Model for Chemicals, Runoff, and
Erosion," in Agricultural Management Systems, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Conservation Report no. 26, 640 pp.

iv
Morris, Gregory L. and Fan, Jiahua. 1998. Reservoir Sedimentation Handbook,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.

Neitsch (a), et al. (2002) Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) Theoretical
Documentation, Version 2000, Grassland Soil and Water Research
Laboratory, Black land Research Centre, Texas Agricultural Experiment
Station, Texas Water Resources Institute, Texas Water Resources
Institute, College Station, Texas

Neitsch (b), et al. (2002) Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) User’s Manual,
Version 2000, Grassland Soil and Water Research Laboratory, Black land
Research Center, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Texas Water
Resources Institute, Texas Water Resources Institute, College Station.

Williams, J.R. (1981). "Testing the modified Universal Soil Loss Equation," in
Estimating Erosion and Sediment Yield on Rangelands, USDA, ARM-W-
26: 157-1 64.

Williams, J.R., C.A. Jones, and P.T. Dyke (1984) "A modeling approach to
determining the relationship between erosion and soil productivity,"
Transaction of the American Society qf' Agricultural Engineers, vol. 27, pp.