Engineering Physics

Engineering Physics
LECTURE NOTES ON
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Revised Edition 2018
Department of Applied Science

International Centre of Excellence in Engineering and Management
Waluj, Aurangabad-431136 (M.S.)
Tel.: 0240-2558101, Fax: 0240-2558111:
Website: www.iceemabad.com
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Engineering Physics ELECTRON OPTICS
LECTURE NOTES ON
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Electron Optics

Tel.: 0240-2558101, Fax: 0240-2558111:
ICEEM Page 1
1.1 Positive rays:

The positive rays are constituted by positive ions in motion. Positive ions are the atoms,
which have lost one or more electrons due to ionization of gas in discharge tube.
1.1.1 Production:
Goldstein designed a discharge tube (Fig.1.1), which consists of anode, perforated
cathode and fluorescent screen. The tube is exhausted to a pressure of 1N/m 2. When a
large potential difference is applied between the electrodes, electrons are emitted form the
surface of the cathode and travel towards the anode. In their path, electrons collide with the
atoms and molecules of the gas and knock out electrons from neutral atoms. Thus the gas
is ionized. The positively charged ions are accelerated towards cathode. Some of the ions
pass through the holes in the cathode. This stream of positive ions constitutes positive
rays. When these rays strike the screen, they produce a tiny flash of light.
A
+
__ C
1.1.2 Properties of Positive Rays: Fig. 1.1
1) Positive rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields in the direction opposite to
cathode rays. The direction of deflection shows that they have positive charge.
2) Positive rays travel in straight line.
3) Positive rays can produce phosphorescence and fluorescence.
4) Positive rays can affect the photographic plate.
5) Positive rays can disintegrate metals.
6) Positive rays can penetrate through small thickness of matter.
7) The specific charge (q/m) of positive ray particles is much smaller than the cathode
ray particles.
1.1.3 Determination of q/m of Positive Rays (Thomson’s Parabola Method):
Principle:
A positive ray is subjected simultaneously to parallel electric and magnetic fields of
uniform intensities. The resultant deflection on the screen is measured.
Apparatus:
Apparatus is shown in Fig.1.2. It consists of a bulb fitted with an anode A and cathode
C. The tube is filled with a gas, the mass of whose atoms to be determined. The discharge
tube is evacuated to desired level; generally the pressure is about 10 –3 m of mercury. The
positive ions are produced in this tube.
X
C
N P +
A
0
+
_
_ S Q -
S
S
+
Fig.1.2 X
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The cathode is perforated with an extremely fine hole. N and S are the poles of a strong
electromagnet. P and Q are two parallel plates across which a strong electric field can be
maintained in the same direction as that of magnetic field i.e. two fields are parallel to each
other. The direction of both the fields is perpendicular to the direction of positive rays. The
chamber in which the deflection of positive rays occurs is highly evacuated. XX is a
fluorescent screen or a photographic plate.
Theory:
Consider a single positive ion in beam whose mass, charge and velocity is m, q and v
respectively. When there is no field at all, ion will not be deflected.
I) Deflection due to electric field:
Let an electric field of strength E acts on an ion in a direction perpendicular to that of
beam. The ion will be deflected in the direction of field, i.e. y-direction, due to the force ( E
q ) acting on it.
The downward force acting on positive ion is
F =ma where a is downward acceleration.
But, F = E q
 Downward acceleration = Eq m
Let v y be the downward velocity in y-direction at the end of plates in field free area. Then,
vy = a t ( a = v y / t)
Eq
= t
m
Eq l
=
m vz
where t = l v z is the time of travel between the plates and l is the distance traversed in
two fields.
The displacement in y-direction on the screen,
y = v y t' ( v y = y t )
Eq l
= t'
m vz
Eq l L
y = ---[ 1 ]
m vz vz
L
where t ' = is the time of travel form the mid point of plates to screen and L the
vz
distance between mid point of plates and screen.
II) Deflection due to magnetic field:
Now consider that only magnetic field of flux density B acts in the same direction as
electric field. The ions will be deflected by the field in a direction at right angles to both the
directions of field and its own original direction i.e. in x-direction.
The force acting on the particle in x-direction due to magnetic field is
F = Bqvz
Bqv z
 Acceleration ( a ) =
m
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Let v x be the velocity in x-direction at the end of the plates in field free space. It is given by
vx = a t
Bqv z l
vx =
m vz
Bql
=
m
Let x be the displacement along x direction, it is given by
x = v x . t'
Bql L
= ---[ 2 ]
m vz
III) Deflection due to simultaneous application of electric and magnetic field:
When both the fields are applied in parallel direction simultaneously, the resultant
displacement will be given by coordinates (x,y) measured considering the position of the
undeflected spot as origin.
Now, squaring Eq.(2) we get,
B 2 q 2 l 2 L2
x2 =
m 2 v z2
2
x2 B 2 q 2 l 2 L2 mv z
 = .
y m 2 v z2 EqLl
2 B2 q
 x = l L y --- [ 3 ] Y
E m
In Eq. (3), for a certain value of q m , all the quantities except
y are constant. Hence we can write
x2 = k y where k is a constant
This is an equation of a parabola about y-axis. Hence, the locus 0 X
of impact on screen of all ions that have same q m value will be a
parabola. The value of q m can be found by measuring Fig.1.3
coordinates( x, y ) of this parabolic trace and using them in Eq. (3) along with the known
values of E , B , L and l .
1.1.4 Bainbridge Mass Spectrograph:
Principle: The stream of positive ions is made perfectly homogenous in velocity before it enters
the magnetic field by the use of a special device called the velocity selector. The number of lines
observed on the photographic plate corresponding to different masses are studied for their
comparative intensities, from which we can determine the masses of various isotopes
Construction: Apparatus is shown diagrammatically in Fig.1.4.
The beam of positive ions produced in a discharge tube is S1
collimated by two slits S1 and S2. Then this collimated beam is S2
passed through a velocity selector. The velocity selector consists of Velocity
selector P2 P1
1) the steady electrical field maintained at right angles to the ion
beam between two parallel plates P1 and P2 and 2) a magnetic Plate
field. The circle represents the magnetic field produced by an S3
electromagnet. The magnetic field B is perpendicular to electrical
field X and ion beam. Beyond the velocity selector, another slit S3 is
arranged to further collimate the narrow monovelocity ion beam. A A
photographic plate is mounted in the analyzing chamber in line with
slit S3.
Fig.1.4
Working: Let X is the intensity of the electric field and B is the
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magnetic flux density, then the electric and magnetic force experienced by ion will be Xq and Bqv
respectively. The positive ions tend to deflect towards the negative plate by electric force while
towards the positive plate due to magnetic force. The two fields of velocity selector are so adjusted
that the deflection produced by one is nullified by the deflection produced by the other field.
Hence, X q = Bqv
X
v = ------[ 1 ]
B
Only those ions having this velocity v, will not be deviated while passing through the velocity
selector. All other ions will be deflected towards any one plate and will be removed from the stream.
The undeviated ions pass through the entry slit S3 to enter the analysing chamber A.
The positive ions which enters into chamber A are again subjected to a strong uniform
magnetic field of intensity B', perpendicular to its path. The magnetic force acting on each ion will be
B'qv. Due to this force, positive ions travel along the circular paths as shown in Fig. 1.4.
mv 2
 = B'qv where r is the radius of circular path.
r
mv
r = ----[ 2 ]
B' q
q v
 = ---- [ 3 ]
m B' r
Since v and B' are constant quantities, q/m is directly proportional to 1/r.
Hence after describing semicircle, if the ions are made to fall on the photographic plate, they will
strike it at different points depending on the different values of q/m, producing different lines. The
visual record of ions in the form of vertical lines on the photographic plate is called the mass
spectrum.
From Eq.(2) it is clear that, radius of circular path r of an ion is directly proportional to (i) the
mass of the ion and (ii) the constants q, B' and v. Thus spectrograph gives a linear mass scale on
the photographic plate
By comparing the positions of the lines produced by a particle of unknown mass with the
position of line produced by a particle of known mass, the unknown mass is determined.
1.1.5 Aston’s Mass Spectrograph:
Principle: A narrow beam of positive ions is successively subjected to uniform
electric and magnetic fields acting at right angles to the path of the beam in different
regions.
Construction and Working: A schematic of Aston’s mass spectrograph is shown in
Fig. 1.5. AO is the incident beam of the positive ions collimated by slits S 1 and S2; which is
allowed to pass through a uniform electric field maintained by plates P1 and P2. The beam
will be deflected and dispersed by electric field in downward direction.
A
P1
R C D
O α
S1 S2 θ F
P2
dθ
dφ
V
S3
O' φ
Fig. 1.5
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The beam is then allowed to pass through magnetic field acting at right angles to the
electric field and in inward direction. Then according to the Fleming’s left hand rule, the
beam will be deflected upwards. This magnetic field annuls the dispersion produced by
electric field and recombines the ions; which are brought to focus in the form of sharp lines
on the photographic plate at F. The lines are similar to those of spectral lines.
The condition necessary for focusing can be derived as follow. Let q , m , v be

the charge, mass and velocity of positive ions; X and B be the electrostatic and
magnetic field strengths. . Let  and d  be the angles of deviation and dispersion
produced by electric field; while  and d  be the angles of deviation and dispersion
produced by magnetic field.
Effect of electrostatic field: Considering that the deflection in the electric field is small
the curve near the vertex may be considered as circular of radius r , we have,
mv 2 1 Xq
Xq = i.e. =
r r mv 2
Hence deflection  which is proportional to 1/r is given by
Xq
 =C
mv 2
Xq 
∴ Dispersion d  = -2 C 3
dv = -2 dv
mv v
d dv
∴ = -2 ------------- [ 1 ]
 v
Effect of magnetic field: If r is the radius of curvature in the magnetic field, then
mv 2 1 Bq
Bqv = '
i.e. '
=
r r mv
Bq
∴ = C'
mv
Bq 
∴ Dispersion d  = - C ' 2
=-
mv v
d dv
∴ =- ------------ [ 2 ]
 v
d d
By Eqn (1) and (2) = 2 - ------- [ 3 ]
 
Thus for a given deflection, the dispersion due to the electric field is twice that due to
magnetic field.
Let a be the distance between the centre of electric and magnetic field; and let b is
the distance between the magnetic field and photographic plate CD. In the absence of
magnetic field, the dispersion produced in the beam for a distance (a + b ) is = (a + b ) d 
The magnetic field acting in a direction perpendicular to the electric field produces the
same dispersion in a distance b but in opposite direction.
Dispersion produced by magnetic field = b d 
As all the ions are focused to the same position,
(a + b ) d  = b d 
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d a+b
=
d b
 a+b
By Eqn (3), =
2 b
i.e. b (  − 2 ) = 2 a ----------- [ 4 ]
This is the condition for focusing of ions.
Let RO be the perpendicular to the line CD produced and ∠ROV =  , then from
'
∆ ROO '
RO ' '
= OO Sin ( + )
= a Sin ( + ) -------- [ 5 ]
In ∆ RFO
'
, RO
' '
= O FSin ( −  − )
= b Sin ( −  −  ) -------- [ 6 ]
By Eqns. (5) and (6),
a Sin ( +  ) = b Sin ( −  −  )
For small angles,
a ( +  ) = b ( −  −  ) --------- [ 7 ]
Comparing Eqns. (4) and (7), it is clear that the two equations are identical if  =  . Thus
focusing condition is that the photographic plate must be placed at an angle with the
direction of the incident positive ray beam such that  =  .
1.3 Electron Refraction - Bethe’s law:

Electron refraction is similar to refraction of light. When a electron travels form one
equipotential region to another equipotential region, its path bends. This phenomenon is
known as electron refraction.
Let us consider the two regions A and B with uniform electrostatic potentials V1 and
V2. The two regions are separated by a thin boundary XY as shown in Fig.1.6.
It is assumed that the potential changes abruptly
from V1 to V2 across the boundary. Let an electron v1
travel through region A of uniform potential V1 and
passes into region B of uniform potential V2. In absence A
of potential gradient, the electron does not experience i
V1
any force in both the regions and travels along a X Y
V2
straight line with uniform velocity v1 through region A. r
B
At the boundary XY, electron comes across an abrupt
change of potential and experiences force due to
potential difference between two sides of boundary v2
surface. As the electric field exists only in the vertical Fig.1.6
direction (y-direction), this force alters only y-
component of velocity of electron, whereas x-component remains constant on both sides.
If V2 > V1, y-component of velocity increases and if V2 < V1, it decreases for a negatively
charged particle like electron. In present case, y-component is enhanced at the boundary
surface. Consequently, the resultant velocity v 2 in region B is different from v1. Therefore
the electron path is bent nearer to the surface normal, which is analogous to the bending of
light at the boundary of two different media.
From Fig 1.6, we have
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vx = v1 sin i in region A
vx′ = v2 sin r in region B
As x-component of velocity remains constant in region A and B, we have,
vx = vx′
v1 sin i = v2 sin r
sin i v
 = 2 ---[ 1 ]
sin r v1
As electron velocity v is proportional to V , we have
sin i v V2
 = 2 = ---[ 2 ]
sin r v1 V1
Eq. (2) is known as Bethe’s law for electron refraction. This law is identical to the Snell’s
law in optics, which is
sin i v
= 1 -- [ 3 ]
sin r v2
The difference between equation (2) and (3) is that, the order of velocities v 1 and v2 are
reversed. When light enters a denser medium, it gets slows down and bends towards the
normal; while the electron gets accelerated and bends towards normal when it enter the
region of higher potentials.
1.4 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO):

The properties of cathode rays are utilized in the construction and working of CRO.
These are i] they can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields and ii] they can produce
scintillation on fluorescent screen.
The CRO is a device in which an electrical signal is converted into visible signal. The
electrons striking the screen produces a waveform, this waveform depends on the applied
electrical signals to the deflecting system.
Construction:
Any CRO basically consists of following five major sections –
1) Cathode ray tube (CRT)
2) Time base circuit
3) Trigger circuit
4) Vertical and horizontal circuits
5) High voltage and low voltage power supply.
The arrangement of these sections in a CRO is shown in Fig1.7 in the form of a block
diagram.
1) CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT):
A CRT is a specially constructed vacuum tube in which an electron beam controlled
by electric and magnetic fields generates a visual display of input electrical signals on a
fluorescent screen. It consists of three parts, namely, an electron gun, a deflection system
and a fluorescent screen.
Electron Gun: It is mounted at one end of the tube as a single unit. It generates an
electron beam, focuses it and accelerates it towards a fluorescent screen located at the
further end of the tube.
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Y-input Vert. Amplifier
Y X
Trigger circuit Electronic
LT
SCREEN
circuits
Time Base HT To CRT

circuit
X-input Horz. Amplifier
Fig. 1. 7
Deflection system: in the electrostatic deflection system, two pairs of metal plates
are employed for deflecting the electron beam. The plates in each pair are aligned strictly
parallel to each other, as shown in Fig.1.7. The two pairs of plates are mounted at right
angles to each other and also at right angles to the path of electrons. When potential
difference is applied to the horizontally placed pair of plates, a uniform electric field is
produced in the vertical direction. The field acts normal to the beam and causes a vertical
deflection of the beam. Therefore this set of deflection plates are called vertical deflection
plates (VDP).They are also called Y-plates. The second set of plates is oriented vertically
and produces uniform horizontal electric field when potential difference is applied between
them. This electric field also acts normal to beam but causes a horizontal deflection of the
beam. Therefore, this set of plates is called horizontal deflection plates (HDP) or X-
plates.
When no voltages are applied to X-plates and Y-plates, the electron beam travel along
the CRT axis and strikes at centre of fluorescent screen. A bright spot is produced on the
screen. When dc voltage is applied to Y-plates, the electron beam gets deflected vertically
upward or downward towards the positive plate. The deflection caused depends on the
applied voltage. When dc voltage is applied to X-plates, the electron beam gets deflected
horizontally to the left or right towards the positive plate.
When signal voltage is applied to Y- plates, the polarity and magnitude of voltage on the
plates vary with each alternation of cycle. As a result, the luminous spot moves up or
down on the screen at the same frequency as that of the signal. For frequencies greater
than 20 Hz, due to the persistence of vision the path of the beam on the screen is seen as
a vertical line. It is called trace.
Fluorescent screen: The interior surface of circular front face of the CRT is coated
with a thin layer of phosphors. The phosphor coating glows at the point where it is struck by
the high energy electron beam. At that spot the coating continues to glow for a short period
of time even after the electron beam moves away.
2) Time Base Circuit: When a signal voltage is applied to Y-plates, a vertical trace is
observed. The details of the signal are not revealed through these vertical traces. The
signal form can be known only when the beam moves horizontally from left to right. When
ac voltage is supplied to X–plates, a horizontal trace is observed.
In a signal the voltage varies as a function of time in a specific way. The faithful display
of the signal variation by the electron beam requires the beam to move horizontally from left
to right at a uniform rate across the screen, covering equal distances in equal time
intervals. The electron beam gets deflected though equal distances per unit time when the
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voltage applied to X-plate rises through amounts of voltage per time, Secondly, at the end
of the horizontal motion, the beam should return to the starting point to repeat the motion. A
sweep (ramp or saw-tooth) voltage fulfils these requirements.
The circuit that develops a sweep voltage is called (Vx)max
Time Base Generator or Sweep Generator. The time V
base generator is a variable frequency oscillator which
produces the sweep voltage as shown in Fig.1.8.The
O
sweep voltage varies linearly with time from a minimum t
(Vx)min to a maximum (Vx)max value and from there it
suddenly dips to minimum. The process is repeated. (Vx)min
Therefore the deflection of the trace along the horizontal
direction will be linear with time. As the beam moves Fig. 1.8
uniformly from left to right, it can trace the variations of
the input signal faithfully on the screen.
3) Trigger Circuit: To display a stationary wave pattern of the signal on the screen,
the horizontal deflection should start at the same point of the input signal each time it
sweeps. When this occurs, it is said that the horizontal sweep is synchronized with the
input signal. The signal will be properly synchronized only when its frequency equals the
sweep frequency.
Now-a-days triggering methods are used to obtain the synchronization. In this method, a
part of the output is fed to a trigger generator. Trigger generator is sensitive to the level of
the voltage applied at its input. The circuit monitors the input signal and detects the point
when it reaches a selected level while moving toward a selected polarity. When the
predetermined level is reached, the circuit produces a trigger pulse. This trigger pulse is fed
to the time base generator and it acts as a command signal to the time base generator and
starts one sweep cycle of the time base.
4) Vertical and Horizontal Circuits: The signal to be tested is applied at Y-input. The
vertical circuit helps in amplifying the input signal to the desired level. It also provides the
dc voltage to the Y-plates.
The horizontal circuit comprises of the sweep generator and trigger circuits and voltage
amplifiers. Also these circuits provide the dc voltage to X-plates.
5) D.C. Power Supplies: Two types of the power supplies are required in a CRO
a) The low voltage power supply powers the electronic circuits such as amplifiers, time
base generators, trigger generator etc. It gives an output of the order of few tens to few
hundreds of volts.
b) The high voltage power supply provides voltages to CRT electrodes. It supplies
voltages of the order of 1600-2200 volts
Applications of CRO:
1. To determine the amplitude of variable quantity such as oscillatory current or
voltage, mechanical vibrations, sound vibrations etc.
2. To trace the actual waveform of periodic disturbances such as alternating current or
voltage, sound.
3. To measure the unknown frequency and phase angle.
4. To trace the hysteresis loop of magnetic materials.
5. For creation of pictures in the T.V. receivers.
6. In radar to detect and to give position, direction, speed, distance of a target.
7. In medical fields, in electro-cardio system graphs, ultra–sonography etc.
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8. For detection of flaws in material casting coupled with the ultrasonic flaw detector.
9. For determining the characteristics of the thermionic valves.
10. For detecting the troubleshooting or in circuit analysis in radio engineering,
electronics industry etc.
=================== xxxxxxx ====================
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Engineering Physics CRO
LECTURE NOTES ON
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
CRO

Tel.: 0240-2558101, Fax: 0240-2558111:
ICEEM Page 1
1.0 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO):

The properties of cathode rays are utilized in the construction and working of CRO.
These are i] they can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields and ii] they can produce
scintillation on fluorescent screen.
The CRO is a device in which an electrical signal is converted into visible signal. The
electrons striking the screen produces a waveform, this waveform depends on the applied
electrical signals to the deflecting system.
Construction:
Any CRO basically consists of following five major sections –
1) Cathode ray tube (CRT)
2) Time base circuit
3) Trigger circuit
4) Vertical and horizontal circuits
5) High voltage and low voltage power supply.
The arrangement of these sections in a CRO is shown in Fig1.7 in the form of a block
diagram.
1) CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT):
A CRT is a specially constructed vacuum tube in which an electron beam controlled
by electric and magnetic fields generates a visual display of input electrical signals on a
fluorescent screen. It consists of three parts, namely, an electron gun, a deflection system
and a fluorescent screen.
Electron Gun: It is mounted at one end of the tube as a single unit. It generates an
electron beam, focuses it and accelerates it towards a fluorescent screen located at the
further end of the tube.
Y-input Vert. Amplifier
Electron Gun
Y X
Trigger circuit Electronic
LT
SCREEN
circuits
Time Base HT To CRT

circuit
X-input Horz. Amplifier
Fig. 1. 0
Deflection system: in the electrostatic deflection system, two pairs of metal plates
are employed for deflecting the electron beam. The plates in each pair are aligned strictly
parallel to each other, as shown in Fig.1.0. The two pairs of plates are mounted at right
angles to each other and also at right angles to the path of electrons. When potential
difference is applied to the horizontally placed pair of plates, a uniform electric field is
produced in the vertical direction. The field acts normal to the beam and causes a vertical
deflection of the beam. Therefore this set of deflection plates are called vertical deflection
plates (VDP).They are also called Y-plates. The second set of plates is oriented vertically
and produces uniform horizontal electric field when potential difference is applied between
ICEEM Page 2
them. This electric field also acts normal to beam but causes a horizontal deflection of the
beam. Therefore, this set of plates is called horizontal deflection plates (HDP) or X-
plates.
When no voltages are applied to X-plates and Y-plates, the electron beam travel along
the CRT axis and strikes at centre of fluorescent screen. A bright spot is produced on the
screen. When dc voltage is applied to Y-plates, the electron beam gets deflected vertically
upward or downward towards the positive plate. The deflection caused depends on the
applied voltage. When dc voltage is applied to X-plates, the electron beam gets deflected
horizontally to the left or right towards the positive plate.
When signal voltage is applied to Y- plates, the polarity and magnitude of voltage on the
plates vary with each alternation of cycle. As a result, the luminous spot moves up or
down on the screen at the same frequency as that of the signal. For frequencies greater
than 20 Hz, due to the persistence of vision the path of the beam on the screen is seen as
a vertical line. It is called trace.
Fluorescent screen: The interior surface of circular front face of the CRT is coated
with a thin layer of phosphors. The phosphor coating glows at the point where it is struck by
the high energy electron beam. At that spot the coating continues to glow for a short period
of time even after the electron beam moves away.
2) Time Base Circuit: When a signal voltage is applied to Y-plates, a vertical trace is
observed. The details of the signal are not revealed through these vertical traces. The
signal form can be known only when the beam moves horizontally from left to right. When
ac voltage is supplied to X–plates, a horizontal trace is observed.
In a signal the voltage varies as a function of time in a specific way. The faithful display
of the signal variation by the electron beam requires the beam to move horizontally from left
to right at a uniform rate across the screen, covering equal distances in equal time
intervals. The electron beam gets deflected though equal distances per unit time when the
voltage applied to X-plate rises through amounts of voltage per time, Secondly, at the end
of the horizontal motion, the beam should return to the starting point to repeat the motion. A
sweep (ramp or saw-tooth) voltage fulfils these requirements.
The circuit that develops a sweep voltage is called
(Vx)max
Time Base Generator or Sweep Generator. The time V
base generator is a variable frequency oscillator which
produces the sweep voltage as shown in Fig.1.1.The
sweep voltage varies linearly with time from a minimum O
t
(Vx)min to a maximum (Vx)max value and from there it
suddenly dips to minimum. The process is repeated. (Vx)min
Therefore the deflection of the trace along the
horizontal direction will be linear with time. As the beam Fig. 1.1
moves uniformly from left to right, it can trace the
variations of the input signal faithfully on the screen.
3) Trigger Circuit: To display a stationary wave pattern of the signal on the screen,
the horizontal deflection should start at the same point of the input signal each time it
sweeps. When this occurs, it is said that the horizontal sweep is synchronized with the
input signal. The signal will be properly synchronized only when its frequency equals the
sweep frequency.
Now-a-days triggering methods are used to obtain the synchronization. In this method, a
part of the output is fed to a trigger generator. Trigger generator is sensitive to the level of
the voltage applied at its input. The circuit monitors the input signal and detects the point
when it reaches a selected level while moving toward a selected polarity. When the
ICEEM Page 3
predetermined level is reached, the circuit produces a trigger pulse. This trigger pulse is fed
to the time base generator and it acts as a command signal to the time base generator and
starts one sweep cycle of the time base.
4) Vertical and Horizontal Circuits: The signal to be tested is applied at Y-input. The
vertical circuit helps in amplifying the input signal to the desired level. It also provides the
dc voltage to the Y-plates.
The horizontal circuit comprises of the sweep generator and trigger circuits and voltage
amplifiers. Also these circuits provide the dc voltage to X-plates.
5) D.C. Power Supplies: Two types of the power supplies are required in a CRO
a) The low voltage power supply powers the electronic circuits such as amplifiers, time
base generators, trigger generator etc. It gives an output of the order of few tens to few
hundreds of volts.
b) The high voltage power supply provides voltages to CRT electrodes. It supplies
voltages of the order of 1600-2200 volts
Applications of CRO:
1. To determine the amplitude of variable quantity such as oscillatory current or
voltage, mechanical vibrations, sound vibrations etc.
2. To trace the actual waveform of periodic disturbances such as alternating current or
voltage, sound.
3. To measure the unknown frequency and phase angle.
4. To trace the hysteresis loop of magnetic materials.
5. For creation of pictures in the T.V. receivers.
6. In radar to detect and to give position, direction, speed, distance of a target.
7. In medical fields, in electro-cardio system graphs, ultra–sonography etc.
8. For detection of flaws in material casting coupled with the ultrasonic flaw detector.
9. For determining the characteristics of the thermionic valves.
10. For detecting the troubleshooting or in circuit analysis in radio engineering,
electronics industry etc.
=================== xxxxxxx ====================
ICEEM Page 4
Engineering Physics X-RAYS
LECTURE NOTES ON
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
X-RAYS

Tel.: 0240-2558101, Fax: 0240-2558111:
ICEEM Page 1
2.1 Introduction:
X-rays are electromagnetic waves having short wavelength in the range 1 A o to 100 Ao.
X-rays are produced when fast moving electron strike a high atomic weight material like
molybdenum, tungsten etc.
2.2 Origin of X-Rays:
X-rays are produced when high speed electron strikes high atomic weight materials. In
the process, few of electrons lose their kinetic energy. This loss in kinetic energy of electron
comes out in the form of x-rays. Depending on the way of loss energy of electron, the x-
rays are classified as i ) continuous x-rays and ii) characteristic x-rays
2.2.1 Origin of Continuous X-Rays:
When highly accelerated electrons strike the material, some of the electrons
penetrate the atom of material. These electrons are attracted by the positive charge of the
nucleus. Hence, electron is deflected from its path as shown in Fig.2.1. Due to deflection,
the electron undergoes continuous deacceleration in the field of protons present in the
nucleus. The energy lost during deacceleration is converted into x-rays. The spectrum of
continuous x-rays contains series of uninterrupted wavelength. The continuous x-ray
spectrum has a sharply defined minimum
wavelength λmin.
Now, let us consider that the electron is
accelerated in the potential V; hence its energy Continuous X-rays
is given by
E = eV +
Let, the electron moves with velocity v1 due to
acceleration. The kinetic energy of the electron
is given by
1
E1 = mv 12 Fig.2.1
2
From above two equations, we have
1
eV = mv 12 --- [1 ]
2
Let the electron moving with velocity v1 strikes the atom and penetrate it. After penetration,
it deaccelerates and comes out form material with reduced velocity v 2. The kinetic energy
at the time of exit is
1
E2 = mv 22
2
Due to deacceleration, loss of energy of electron takes place, which is given by
loss energy = (energy at the time of entrance) – (energy at the time of exit)
1 1
= mv 12 - mv 22
2 2
The loss of energy inside the atom is converted into x-rays. If v is the frequency of x-rays,
then
loss of energy = energy of x-rays = h v
1 1
 h v = mv 12 - mv 22
2 2
When electron is completely stopped by target atom, v 2 = 0 and the x-rays emitted have
maximum energy
ICEEM Page 2
1
h v max = mv 12 --- [ 2 ]
2
From Eq. (1) and (2) we get,
h v max = eV
c
But, v max =
 min
hc
 = eV
 min
hc
λmin. =
eV
Substituting the values of constants, we get
12400 o
λmin = A
V
From above expression, it is clear that minimum wavelength of x-rays is, i)
independent of the nature of the target material, ii) depends only on the potential in which
electron is accelerated, iii) inversely proportional to accelerating potential V.
2.2.2 Origin of Characteristics X-Rays:
Some of the highly accelerated electrons knock out an innermost electron of the atom
with which it collides. The energy of electron primarily depends on the principal quantum
number n. The electrons corresponding to n = 1 are said to be in K-shell, those
corresponding to n = 2, L-shell etc. Suppose the incident electrons knock out an electron
from K-shell, this will create vacancy in the K-shell. An electron form a higher energy state
may make a transition to this vacant state. When such a transitions takes place the
difference of energy ΔE is converted into x-rays having wavelength λ = hc/ΔE. X-rays
emitted due to electronic transitions form a higher energy state to a vacancy created in K-
shell, are called K-series x-rays. Fig.2.2 shows the process schematically.
Knocking of
electron
X-rays
+ +
Fig.2.2 Fig.2.3
If an electron from L-shell makes transition to the vacant state in the K-shell, the x-ray
emitted is known as Kα x-ray. If electron from M-shell makes transition to K-shell, then Kβ x-
ray is emitted and so on. Thus transition of electron to K-shell gives K-series x-rays
(Fig.2.3).
Similarly, when the incident electron carries somewhat lesser amount of energy, it knock
out an electron from L-shell, the vacancy created in L-shell can be filled up by transition of
electron from M-shell or N-shell, results in the emission of L α and Lβ x-rays and so on. The
transition of electrons to L-shell gives L-series x-rays.
Similarly, the transition of electrons to M-shell from higher shells gives M-series x-rays.
Let EK, EL, EM are the energies of the K, L, M shells respectively, the wavelength of x-rays
emitted corresponding to these transitions are
ICEEM Page 3
hc
λ= for Kα
EL − EK
hc
λ= for Kβ
EM − E K
hc
λ= for Lα
EM − EL
0
N
M
Mα Mβ
L
Lα Lβ Lγ
K
Kα Kβ Kγ Fig.2.4
These, wavelengths have definite values for a particular material. Thus, K, L, M-series x-
rays emitted in this way are characteristic x-rays. The wavelength of these x-rays may be
used to identify the element from which they originate.
2.3 Diffraction of X-Rays:
On account of short wavelength of x-rays the ordinary ruled grating couldn’t produce any
appreciable diffraction with x-rays. But a crystal, with the regularly arranged atoms in it,
provides a natural grating of suitable spacing for an effective diffraction of x-rays. The
crystal is a three-dimensional space grating rather than a two-dimensional plane grating.
S1 S2 ZnS
P
Fig.2.5
Laue put to the experimental test the use of crystal to produce diffraction with x-rays
as shown in Fig.2.5. A narrow beam of x-ray from x-ray tube is allowed to pass through a
thin crystal of Zinc sulphide (ZnS) along one of its axis of symmetry. The transmitted beam
is received on a photographic plate P. It is observed that, most of the x-rays go directly
through crystals producing a black spot at the center of plate. But there are many other
regularly arranged faint spots, indicates that x-rays had been diffracted from various crystal
planes, exactly in accordance with Laue’s expectations. These spots are known as Laue
spots and pattern as Laue pattern. The diffraction of x-rays indicates that x-rays are waves.
2.4 Bragg’s Law:
When monochromatic x-ray beam incident upon the atoms in a crystal lattice, each atom
acts as a source of scattering radiation. The crystal acts as a series of parallel reflecting
planes. The intensity of the reflected beam at certain angles will be maximum, when the
path difference between two reflected waves from two different planes is an integral
multiple of wavelength λ.
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N
L
l Q
O
θ M θ
R S λ
P
Fig.2.6
Derivation of Bragg’s Law: Consider a set of parallel planes of atom points at a
spacing d between two successive planes. Let a narrow monochromatic x-ray beam of
wavelength λ be incident on the first plane at a glancing angle θ as shown in Fig.2.6.
Consider the ray LM incident on the first plane. The corresponding reflected ray MN is
inclined at the same angle  to the plane. Since x-rays are much more penetrating than
ordinary light, there is only partial reflection at each plane. The complete absorption takes
place only after penetrating several layers. Consider two parallel rays MN and PQ in the
beam, which are reflected by two atoms M and P. The atom P is below the atom M. The ray
OPQ has a longer path than the ray LMN. To compute the path difference between the two
rays, draw perpendiculars MR and MS on OP and PQ respectively. Then the
path difference = RP + PS
= d sinθ + d sinθ
= 2dsinθ
Hence the two rays will reinforce each other and produce maximum intensity, if
2dsinθ = nλ where n = 1,2,3,….
The integer n gives the order of the scattered beam, λ is the wavelength of the x-ray used.
This equation is called Bragg’s law.
Bragg’s law indicates that, for given value n, λ and d, there is reflection only in particular
direction defined by θ.
2.5 Bragg’s X-Ray Spectrometer:
Bragg’s x-ray spectrometer is similar to the optical spectrometer. It consists of (i) source
of x-ray, (ii) a circular table and (iii) a detection device as shown in Fig 2.7.
Construction:
i) Source of x-ray: Consists of x-ray tube and two lead slits. X-rays emitted from the tube
are converted into fine collimated beam of x-rays after passing through the slits S 1 and S2.
ii) Crystal table: It is a circular table provided with a vernier. It can rotate about vertical
axis passing through its center. The rotation can be measured from the graduated scale
and vernier. Crystal C (generally of rock–salt, calcite or mica and quartz) can be mounted
on the table.
iii) Detection device: It consists of ionization chamber. Ionization chamber can also be
rotated about the same vertical axis as that of crystal table. The x-rays reflected from the
crystal planes can be received in the ionization chamber. These rays ionises the gas inside
the chamber and produces the ionization current. The degree of ionization in the chamber
and consequently the intensity of the x-ray beam that enters the chamber is measured with
the help of electrometer E. The circular table and ionization chamber are connected to each
other by an arm R in such a way that, when circular table moves through an angle θ, the
ionization chamber moves through an angle 2θ.
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S1 S2
S3
R
Ionization
Chamber
EE
Fig.2.7
Experiment: Let a collimated fine beam of x- A1

rays is incident on the crystal at glancing angle θ.
The beam will get reflected from the crystal, I A2
making angle 2θ with the incident direction as A3
shown in the Fig.2.7. This beam is received in the
ionization chamber. The ionization current (hence
the intensity of x-rays) is measured with help of θ1 θ2 θ3
electrometer, for different values of θ. The θ
ionization chamber can be replaced by camera, if Fig.2.8
photographic record is required.
Graph: A graph is plotted between angle θ and the ionization current I. From the graph it
is seen that for certain values of glancing angle θ, the ionization current (intensity of
reflection) increases abruptly as shown in Fig.2.8. θ1, θ2, θ3 are angles of diffraction for first,
second and third order respectively.
According to Bragg’s law,
for n = 1 we have, 2d sinθ1 = λ i.e.1st order reflection
for n = 2 we have, 2d sinθ2 = 2λ i.e.2nd order reflection
for n = 3 we have, 2d sinθ3 = 3λ i.e.3rd order reflection
From above equations we get,
sinθ1: sinθ2 : sin θ3 = 1:2:3.
Using Bragg’s law, if wavelength (λ) of x-ray is given, interplaner spacing d can be
calculated or vice versa.
2.6 Compton Effect:
Compton discovered that, when x-rays of definite wavelength are incident on material
like carbon, they are scattered in different directions. The scattered X-rays contains two
wavelengths, one component has incident wavelength while other components has larger
wavelength. The existence of two components of x-ray in scattered beam is known as
Compton effect. and the difference between the wavelengths of two components is known
as Compton shift.
According to Compton, the phenomenon of scattering is due to elastic collision between
x-ray photon and orbital electron of scatter. When the photon strikes the electron, it will
transfer some energy to electron and hence photon itself loose energy. Therefore scattered
photon will have smaller energy and consequently lower frequency or greater wavelength
than that of the incident photon.
ICEEM Page 6
Theory:
Applying the laws of conservation of energy and momentum to scattering phenomenon,
Compton derived an expression for change in wavelength in the following manner:
Let us assume the electron is free and is at rest before the collision. The photon collides
with electron at rest and after collision photon and electron moves in the directions
indicated as in Fig.2.9.
E=h
'
Scattered Photon
P=hν/c
E=h θ
hv 
E=
c Electron at E=mc2
rest P=mv
Recoiled electron
Fig.2.9 Photon
The quantities associated with the electron and photons are as given below.
Before collision after collision
Energy of photon hv hv '
Moment of photon hv /c hv '/c
Energy of electron moc2 mc2
Momentum of electron 0 mv
Let  and  be the angles made by scattered photon and recoiled electron with the
direction of incident photon as in Fig. 2.9.
According to the conservation of energy, we have,
Energy before collision = Energy after collision
hv + moc2 = hv ' + mc2 --- [1 ]
According to the conservation of momentum,
x-component of momentum before collision = x-component of momentum after collision
hv hv '
+0= cos  + mv cos  --- [ 2 ]
c c
y-component of momentum before collision = y-component of momentum after collision
hv '
0+0= sin  - mv sin  --- [3 ]
c
To eliminate  , multiply Eq. (2) and (3) by c, we get
mvc cos  = h ( v - v ' cos  ) --- [ 4 ]
mvc sin  = hv sin '
--- [ 5 ]
Squaring Eq. (4) and (5) and then adding we get
m2v2c2 cos2  + m2v2c2sin2  = h2( v - v ' cos  )2 + ( hv ' sin  )2
Simplifying above equation, we get,
m2v2c2 = h2( v 2 – 2 vv ' cos  + v '2 cos2  ) + h2 v '2 sin2 
= h2 v 2 – 2h2 vv ' cos  + h2 v '2 --- [ 6 ]
From Eq. (1), we have
mc2 = h( v - v ' ) + moc2
Squaring this equation we get
m2c4 = h2( v 2 –2 vv ' + v '2 ) +2h( v - v ' )moc2 + m o2 c4
= h2 v 2 –2h2 vv ' + h2 v '2 +2h( v - v ' )moc2 + m o2 c4 --- [ 7 ]
ICEEM Page 7
Subtraction Eq. (6) from (7)

m2c2(c2 - v2)= h2 v 2 –2h2 vv ' + h2 v '2 +2h( v - v ' )moc2+ m o2 c4–[ h2 v 2 –2h2 vv ' cos  +h2 v '2 ]
= – 2h2 vv ' (1-cos  ) + 2h( v - v ' )moc2 + m o2 c4 --- [ 8 ]
The first term in Eq. (8) can written as,
m o2 mo
m2c2(c2 - v2) = c2(c2 - v2) [ m = ]
1 - v 2 /c 2 1 - v 2 /c 2
m o2
= c2 c2(c2 - v2)
c2 - v2
= m o2 c4
Substituting the above term in Eq. (8), we get
m o2 c4 = - 2h2 vv ' (1-cos  ) + 2h( v - v ' )moc2 + m o2 c4
2h( v - v ' ) moc2 = 2h2 vv ' (1-cos  )
v − v' h
'
= (1-cos  )
vv moc2
1 1 h
 c( ' - ) = (1-cos  )
v v moc
c c h
( ' - )= (1-cos  )
v v moc
c c
But λ = and ' = '
v v
h
 ' - λ = (1-cos  )
moc
2h
or ∆λ = sin2  /2 --- [ 9 ]
moc
The Eq. (9) is known as Compton scattering formula, which shows that the wavelength
 of the scattered photon is greater than the wavelength λ of the incident photon. Further,
'
this relation shows that change in wavelength only depends on the angle of scattering 
varying directly as sin2  /2.
It is seen from the Eq. (9),
i) If  = 0o, then ' - λ = 0, i.e. there is no change in wavelength.
h
ii) If  = 90o, then ' - λ = sin2(90/2)
moc
h
= = 0.02426 Ao
moc
h
The quantity is called Compton wavelength of scattering particle, which for electron is
moc
0.02426 Ao
2.7 Applications of X-Rays:

A] Industrial:
1) X-rays can be used to detect and photograph the defects in the internal structure of body,
such as metal, rubber, motor tyres, tennis balls, diamonds, imperfections in moulds, forgings
and foundry castings.
ICEEM Page 8
2) X-rays can be used to detect the cracks in the machine part designed to withstand high
pressures in aeroplane, motorcars etc.
3) X-rays can be used to analyse the structure of alloys and other composite bodies by
determining the crystal form in an ingot with help of diffraction of x-rays. In this way, alloys
like cobalt nickel, steel, bronze, porcelain insulators, artificial pearls and old paintings can be
analysed.
4) X-rays can be used to study the structure of rubber, cellulose, plastics, fibers etc. The
diffraction of x-rays by these substances leads to valuable information about their molecular
grouping in them.
5) X-rays can be used for testing the homogeneity of welded joints, insulating materials etc.
6) To examine the age of rocks and their infrastructure in geology.
B] Scientific:
1) X-rays are used to study the crystal structure in crystallography.
2) X-rays are used in atomic physics to study the atomic structure.
3) X-rays are used to find the atomic number of the elements and also for the identification of
the elements.
4) X-rays are used for analyzing the structure of complex organic molecules.
C] Medical:
1) Radiography: X-rays are widely used in radiography. Since bones are denser and hence
more opaque to X-rays than flesh, if the human body is interposed between a X-ray source
and photo film, the shadows cast by the bones are denser than those cast by fleshy portion.
Therefore we can detect fractures, tumors in the human body.
2) X-Ray Therapy: Since the X-rays kill the diseased tissues of the body, they are used to cure
many types of skin diseases, cancers, tumors by controlled exposure to X-rays of suitable
quality.
ICEEM Page 9
Engineering Physics INTERFERENCE
LECTURE NOTES ON
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
INTERFERENCE

Tel.: 0240-2558101, Fax: 0240-2558111:
ICEEM Page 1
3.1 NEWTON’S RINGS:

Circular interference fringes can be observed if a very thin film of air of varying
thickness is enclosed between a plane glass plate and a plano-convex lens of large focal
length. Such fringes were first observed by Newton and so called Newton’s rings.
Experimental Arrangement: Light from a monochromatic source S is rendered
parallel by a convex lens and then it is made to
fall on a glass plate G inclined at an angle of 450
to the incident beam. The incident beam gets T
reflected normally towards the plano-convex
lens L placed on a glass plate P, as shown in
fig.3.1. A wedge shaped air film is enclosed by
the lower surface of lens and the upper surface
of plane glass plate. 450
A part of the incident light is reflected by S
the curved surface of the lens and a part is G
transmitted. The light transmitted from lens is
reflected back by the upper surface of the plane
glass plate. These two reflected rays interfere to
produce concentric circular rings with a dark
centre. The fringes are circular because the air
film is symmetrical about the point of contact of L
the lens and the plane glass plate. The rings
can be observed by a traveling microscope M. P
Fig.3.1
Explanation of the formation of
Newton’s rings: Newton’s rings are formed due
to interference between the two rays reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the
wedge shaped air film formed between lens L and glass
plate P. The formation of the Newton’s rings can be A
explained with the help of fig. 3.2. A monochromatic light
ray AB falls normally on the lens-plate system at point B.
1
The ray AB gets partially reflected at point C on the glass- 2
air boundary without any phase change (ray 1). The
refracted ray CD gets reflected at point D with a phase B
change of  (ray 2). As the rays 1 and 2 are derived from L
the same incident ray, they can produce interference. The
path difference between these rays is 2 t cos r +  . For air
C
D
2 P
film  = 1 and for normal incidence r = 0 , so path
difference is 2t +  . Fig.3.2
2
Therefore condition for nth maxima or bright ring is
2t +  = n ------ [1]
2
th
and condition for n minima or dark ring is
2t +  = (n + 1 )
2 2
i.e. 2t = n ------ [2]
ICEEM Page 2
The expression shows that, a maximum intensity of an order n will occur for a
constant value of t . It is satisfied for a circular path around the central dark spot. Thus
maximum is in the form of a circle. Similarly minima are in the circular form.
At the point of contact t = 0 and path difference is  , which is the condition of
2
minimum intensity. Thus central spot of the ring is dark.
Diameter of Dark and Bright Rings: Consider ABC be P
the plano-convex lens placed on glass plate P. The curved
surface ACB is the part of the spherical surface with centre at
O, as shown in fig 3.3.
Let R be the radius of curvature and r be the radius of
O
dark ring located at L. The thickness of the air film at L is t .
From the property of a circle,
LM X MN = PM X MC
A B
= ( PC – MC) X MC L N
rXr = (2 R − t )t M
r 2 = 2 Rt − t 2 C P
Since t is very small, t 2 can be neglected as compared to Fig. 3.3
2 Rt . L
2
∴ r = 2 Rt
2
⇒ t = r --------- [ 3 ]
2R
Thus for bright ring, by eq.(1)
r2 
2 + = n
2R 2
(2n − 1)R
r2 =
2
Replacing r by D , the diameter of n th bright ring is given by
2
D2 (2n − 1)R
=
4 2
∴ D = ( 2 n − 1) 2  R
Thus the diameter of bright ring,
D  (2n − 1) , D   and D  R
Similarly for dark ring, using eq.(3) in eq.(2)
r2
2 = n
2R
∴ r 2 = n R
Or D = 2 (n R )
Thus the diameter of dark ring,
D  n , D   and D  R
3.2 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF INTERFERENCE:
I) Determination of Refractive Index of a Liquid: First of all the experiment is performed
when there is an air film between the glass plate and plano-convex lens. The diameters of
nth and (n+p)th rings are measured with he help of a traveling microscope.
ICEEM Page 3
So when there is air film between glass plate and plano-convex lens, we have D n2
= 4 n R and D n2+ p = 4( n + p ) R
∴ D n2+ p - D n2 = 4 p R ----------- [ 1 ]
Now liquid whose refractive index is to be determined is placed between the lens and glass
plate. Again the diameters of nth and (n+p)th rings are measured. So when there is liquid
film between glass plate and plano-convex lens, we have
4 n R 4( n + p ) R
D n′ 2 = and D n′ +2 p =
 
4 p R
∴ D n′ +2 p - D n′ 2 = ----------- [ 2 ]

From eq. (1) and (2),
D 2 − D n2
 = n2+ p ----------- [ 3 ]
D n′ + p − D n′ 2
Using eq.(3) refractive index of liquid can be calculated.
Alternatively, refractive index of liquid can be calculated using the formula,
[ D n2 ] air
 = ----------- [ 4 ]
[ D n2 ]liquid
II) Testing of Optical Flatness: If two surfaces OA and OB are perfectly plane, the air film
gradually varies in thickness from O to A. The
fringes are of equal thickness. If the fringes are
not of equal thickness, it means the surfaces
are not plane (i.e. flat).
The standard method is to take an
optically plane surface OA and the surface to
be tested OB. The fringes are observed in the
field of view and if they are of equal thickness,
the surface OB is plane; if not, the surface OB
is not plane. The surface OB is polished and
the process is repeated. When the fringes Fig.3.4
observed are of equal width, it means that the
surface OB is plane. M1
M’2
3.3 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER:
’2g
Construction: S is source of light and L is .3
the convex lens to produce parallel rays. This .5
beam falls on the glass plate G1, kept inclined at
450 to incident beam. G2 is the glass plate of same
G2
thickness as G1. Plate G2 is also kept inclined at G1
an angle 450 to the incident beam. There are two S M2
arms at right angles to each other, one arm carries L
scale and on which a highly polished mirror M1 is T

mounted. On the other arm mirror M2 is mounted.
The mirror M1 is mounted on carriage and can be
Fig.3.5
slowly moved forward or backward with the help of
ICEEM Page 4
micrometer screw. Two mirrors M1 and M2 are also provided at back with leveling screw for
changing their planes according to need. The mirrors M1 and M2 are perpendicular to each
other. A telescope T is provided to observe the interference fringes.
Working: Consider a ray of light from source S incidents on the plate G1. Plate G1
is semi-silvered on its back surface. So incident ray is partly reflected and partly transmitted
from G1. The reflected ray goes towards the mirror M1 and transmitted towards the mirror
M2. These two rays fall normally on the mirrors M1 and M2 and after reflections from mirrors
are returned to G1. Both these rays are reflected towards telescope T by the plate G1.
Since both these rays are derived from the same incident ray, these two rays are capable
of giving phenomenon of interference, and thereby producing interference fringes.
Function of Plate G2: The beam going towards the mirror M1 and reflected back
crosses the plate G1 twice, while the other beam traveling towards M2 would travel wholly in
air in absence of plate G2. Thus in absence of plate G2, the paths of two rays are not equal.
Therefore to compensate the additional path, the plate G2 of same thickness and material
as that of G1 is introduced. Because of this nature, the plate G2 is called compensating
plate. The ray going towards the mirror M2 and reflected back also passes twice through
the compensation plate G2. Therefore the optical paths of the two rays become same.
Types of Fringes: The fringes depend upon the inclination of M1 and M2. Let M’2 be
the image of M2 formed by G1. The interference fringes may be regarded as formed by the
light reflected from the surfaces of M1 and M’2. Thus the arrangement is equivalent to an air
film enclosed between the reflecting surfaces M1 and M’2.
a) Circular Fringes: If M1 and M2 are exactly at right angles to each other, the
reflecting surfaces M1 and M’2 are exactly parallel. Hence air-film between M1 and M’2 is of
constant thickness, so that we get circular fringes of equal inclination (Fig.3.6)
b) Localized Fringes: If M1 and M2 are not perfectly perpendicular; the reflecting
surfaces M1 and M’2 are inclined to each other. Hence air film between M1 and M’2 is a
wedge-shaped. The shape of fringes depends on the thickness of the film and angle of
incidence. The shapes of fringes for various values of path difference are shown in Fig. 3.6.
When the two mirrors M1 and M’2 intersect in the middle, straight fringes are
observed. When two mirrors are inclined, curved fringes are observed.
M1
M’2
Fig. 3.6
3.3.1 Determination of Refractive Index of Thin Film: To determine the refractive index
 of thin film, the Michelson’s interferometer is adjusted for producing localized fringes of
white light. First of all, the cross-wire is set on a central bright fringe. Now, the thin film
whose refractive index is to be measured is introduced in one of the interfering rays. On the
inclusion of a thin film of thickness t and refractive index  , the path will increase by a
distance 2(  − 1)t . Thus, the fringes shift from their positions. The mirror M1 is now moved
ICEEM Page 5
backward or forward till the central bright fringe again coincides with the cross-wire. The
distance x moved by mirror M1 is measured by micrometer. Hence,
2 x = 2(  − 1)t .
x
 = +1
t
Thus, by knowing the thickness of thin film and the distance x , we can calculate the
refractive index of the thin film with the help of Michelson’s interferometer.
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4.1 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT: When light falls on obstacles or small apertures whose
size is comparable with the wavelength of light, there is a departure from straight line
propagation, the light bends round the corners of the obstacles or apertures and enters in
the geometrical shadow. This bending of light is called diffraction.
There are two classes of the diffraction phenomenon:
A) Fresnel’s Diffraction: In this class of diffraction, source and screen are placed at
finite distances from the aperture having sharp edge. In this case no lenses are used for
making the rays parallel or convergent. The incident wavefront are either spherical or
cylindrical.
B) Fraunhofer’s Diffraction: In this class of diffraction, source and screen are
effectively at infinity from the aperture. In this case lenses are used for making the rays
parallel or convergent. The incident wavefront is plane.
4.2 THEORY OF PLANE TRANSMISSION GRATING:
Construction: Diffraction grating is formed by an arrangement having a large
number of parallel slits of same width, separated by equal opaque spaces. Grating is
constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a transparent material like glass, with the
help of fine diamond point. The space between any two lines is transparent to light and acts
as a slit while ruled lines are opaque to light. This type of grating is known as plane
transmission grating.
Theory: Fig. 4.1 shows the section of a plane transmission grating placed
perpendicular to the plane of paper. Let a is the width of each slit and b is the width of
Y
A
B
P1
C N
K
θ
H X
L
Fig.4.1
each opaque part between two consecutive slits. The sum of the width of a slit and the
adjoining opaque part (a + b) is known as grating element. The points between adjoining
transparencies separated by a distance (a + b) are known as corresponding points. The
screen XY is placed perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
Consider a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength  is incident
normally on the grating. Most of the light from the spaces go straight, but a part of it gets
diffracted in various directions. This diffracted light is focused by a convex lens L on the
screen, where alternate dark and bright bands are formed on both sides of the central
maximum.
All the rays starting from AH reach P in phase with each other, so reinforce each
other producing central maximum. The rays which are diffracted at an angle  reach P1 on
passing through the lens in different phases. If AK is drawn perpendicular to the direction of
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the diffracted ray, then CN will correspond to the path difference between the two diffracted
rays from the corresponding points A and C at an angle  . So path difference
CN = AC sin 
Now condition for maxima
(a + b) sin  = n
And condition for minima is

(a + b) sin  = (2n + 1)
2
So diffracted ray from any pair of corresponding points of the slits will produce
constructive or destructive interference at point P1 according as path difference is even or

odd multiple of . This condition holds for all the pairs of rays from corresponding points of
2
the total grating surface.
For n =0,  =0 and (a + b) sin  =0, which corresponds to central maxima at P.
For n =1, (a + b) sin  =  , which corresponds to the first order principal maxima P1
on either side of the central maxima at P.
Also for n =0, (a + b) sin  =  2 , which will corresponds to the first order minima on
either side of the central maxima at P.
4.3 RESOLVING POWER OF DIFFRACTION GRATING:

The resolving power of a diffraction grating is defined as the capacity to form
separate diffraction maxima of two wavelengths which are very close to each other. Two
lines of wavelengths  and (  + d ) are said to be just resolved if the central maxima due
to (  + d ) falls on the first minima of  . The resolving power is measured by  d .
Expression for Resolving Power: Let AB represents the surface of a plane
transmission grating having grating element (a + b) and N total number of slits, as shown
in Fig.4.2. Let a beam of light having two wavelengths
 and (  + d ) is normally incident on the grating. XY A X
represents the field of view of the telescope. P1 is the
n th primary maxima of a spectral line of wavelength   + d P2
at an angle of diffraction  and P2 is the n th primary  P1
maxima of a spectral line of wavelength  + d at an dθ
angle of diffraction ( + d ) . According to Rayleigh θ
criterion, the two wavelengths will be resolved if the
position of P2 corresponds to the first minimum of P1
i.e. the two lines will be resolved if the principle
maximum of  + d in a direction ( + d ) falls over
Y
the first minimum of  in the same direction ( + d ) . B
Now we shall consider the first minimum of  in Fig.4.2
the direction ( + d ) in the following way-
The principal maximum of wavelength  in the direction  is given by
(a + b) sin  n = n ----------- [ 1 ]
The equation of minima is
N (a + b) sin  = m
where m has all values except 0 , N , 2 N ,------- nN .
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Thus the first minimum adjacent to n th principal maximum in the direction ( + d ) can be
obtained by substituting the value of m as (nN + 1) . Therefore first minimum in the direction
( + d ) is given by
N (a + b) sin( + d ) = (nN + 1)  ----------- [ 2 ]
Now the principal maximum of wavelength (  + d ) in the direction ( + d ) is given by
(a + b) sin( + d ) = n (  + d ) ----------- [ 3 ]
Multiplying eq.(3) by N , we have
N (a + b) sin( + d ) = nN (  + d ) ----------- [ 4 ]
Equating eq.(2) and eq.(4), we get
(nN + 1)  = nN (  + d )
nN  +  = nN  + nN d
 = nN d

= nN ----------- [ 5 ]
d
This is the required expression for the resolving power of grating with total slits N and
diffraction order n . Thus, we conclude from the expression that the resolving power is
directly proportional to (i) the order n of the spectrum and (ii) the total number of lines N on
the grating surface.
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5.1 QUARTER WAVE PLATE:

When a plane polarised light falls normally on a thin plate of uniaxial crystal (eg.
calcite) cut parallel to its optic axis, the light splits up into ordinary and extra-ordinary plane
polarised lights. They travel along the same path but with different velocities. The velocity
of extra-ordinary ray is greater than the velocity of ordinary ray. As a result a phase
difference is introduced between them. If thickness of the crystal plate is such that it
introduces a phase difference of  2 (i.e. 900) or a path difference of  4 , then it is called
a quarter wave plate.
Let us calculate the thickness of such a plate. Suppose t is the thickness required of
such plate. If  0 and  e are the refractive indices of the crystal for ordinary and extra-
ordinary waves, then the path difference between O and E waves is  0t -  e t =
(  0 −  e )t
For a quarter wave plate this distance should be  4 .
∴ (  0 −  e )t =  4

i.e. t = for negative crystal (eg. calcite)
4(  0 −  e )
Quarter wave plate is used for production and detection of circularly polarised light. in
conjunction with a nicol prism it is used for analyzing all kinds of polarised light.
5.2 HALF WAVE PLATE:
If the thickness of a calcite crystal plate, cut with its faces parallel to optic axis, is
such that it introduces a phase difference of  (i.e. 1800) or a path difference of  2 , then it
is called a half wave plate.
Let us calculate the thickness of such a plate. Suppose t is the thickness required of
such plate. If  0 and  e are the refractive indices of the crystal for ordinary and extra-
ordinary waves, then the path difference between O and E waves is  0t -  e t =
(  0 −  e )t
For a half wave plate this distance should be  2 .
∴ (  0 −  e )t =  2

i.e. t = for negative crystal (eg. calcite)
2(  0 −  e )
Half wave plate is used to produce plane polarised light.
5.3 PRODUCTION OF PLANE, CIRCULARLY AND ELLIPTICALLY POLARISED LIGHT:
1) Plane Polarised Light: A beam of monochromatic light is incident on a nicol
prism, which splits it into O and E-ray. The O-ray is totally internally reflected by the nicol
while E-ray passes through the nicol prism. So, emergent beam is plane polarised.
2) Circularly Polarised Light: Circularly polarised light is the resultant of two waves
of equal amplitudes, vibrating at right angles to each other and having a phase difference of
 2.
To obtain circularly polarised light, the experimental arrangement shown in Fig.5.1is
used. A beam of monochromatic light is allowed to fall on a nicol prism N1. The emergent
light from nicol N1 is plane polarised light. Another nicol prism N2 is placed at a certain
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distance in a crossed position. As no light transmits through N 2, the field of view after N2 will
be dark.
Now a quarter wave plate Q mounted on a tube T 1 is introduced between two nicols
and hold normal to incident beam. The tube T 1 can rotate about the outer fixed tube T 2.
Thus the  4 plate can be rotated about a horizontal axis through any desired angle. By
the introduction of  4 plate, the field of view after N2 may be bright. The quarter wave plate
is now rotated till the field of view is again dark. Now  4 is rotated through 450 so that the
vibrations of light incident on it make an angle 450 with its optic axis. At this position
amplitude of O and E-ray become equal. According to property of  4 plate a phase
difference of  2 is introduced between O and E ray so that the resultant beam after  4
plate will be circularly polarised light.
QWP
P T1 T2 A T
Unpolarised Light
Plane Polarised Light Circularly or Elliptically

Q Polarised Light
Fig. 5.1
3) Elliptically Polarised Light: Elliptically polarised light is the resultant of two
waves of unequal amplitudes vibrating at right angles to each other and having a phase
difference of  2 .
To obtain elliptically polarised light, the experimental arrangement shown in Fig.5.1
is used. A parallel beam of monochromatic light is allowed to fall on two nicols in crossed
position. In this case field of view is dark. A quarter wave plate QWP is introduced between
two nicols and hold normal to incident beam. By the introduction of  4 plate, the field of
view after N2 may be bright. The  4 plate is now rotated till the field of view is again dark.
Again  4 is rotated such that the vibrations of light incident on it make an angle other than
450 with its optic axis. At this position amplitude of O and E-ray become unequal. According
to property of  4 plate a phase difference of  2 is introduced between O and E-ray so
that the resultant beam after  4 plate will be elliptically polarised light.
5.4 DETECTION OF PLANE, CIRCULARLY AND ELLIPTICALLY POLARISED LIGHT:

In practice light may exhibit any one of three types of polarisation or may be
unpolarised or a mixed type. The actual type of polarisation of a light beam can be
ascertained by using a polariser and a quarter wave plate. The following steps are used in
the analysis of the type of the polarisation.
A) Using a Polariser: The given light is passed through a nicol and by rotating it,
the intensity of emergent light is observed. The following three cases may arise-
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i) The intensity becomes maximum and zero alternatively. In this case light will be plane
polarised.
ii) The intensity becomes maximum and minimum (not zero) alternatively. In this case light
is either elliptically polarised or partially polarised.
iii) The intensity shows no variation. In this case the incident light is either unpolarised or
circularly polarised.
B) Using a Quarter Wave Plate: The rotating nicol fails to differentiate between
elliptically polarised and partially polarised or unpolarised or circularly polarised light. To
distinguish between elliptically polarised and partially polarised or unpolarised or circularly
polarised light, we put a quarter wave plate (  4 plate) in the path of the beam followed by
the rotating nicol and the change in intensity is observed. The light is first allowed to
incident on  4 plate and then allowed to pass through the polariser.
i) If the incident light is elliptically polarised,  4 plate converts it into a plane polarised light
and after analysis by rotating nicol shows variation in intensity with minimum as zero.
On the other hand, if the intensity of light transmitted through rotating nicol varies
between maximum and minimum without becoming zero, then the incident light is partially
polarised.
ii) If the incident light is circularly polarised,  4 plate converts it into a plane polarised light
and after analysis by rotating nicol shows variation in intensity with minimum as zero.
On the other hand, if the intensity of light transmitted through rotating nicol remains
unchanged, then the incident light is unpolarised.
We may summarise the scheme of analysis in the form of a table as shown below.
Incident Light
Rotating Nicol
No change in intensity Change of intensity with Change in intensity but

[Conclusion:either unpolarised minimum intensity zero minimum intensity not zero
or circularly polarised] [Conclusion : plane polarised] [Conclusion : either elliptically
polarised or partially polarised]
Incident on  4 plate on any position Incident on quarter wave plate
Rotating Nicol Rotating Nicol
Change in intensity with No change in intensity Change in intensity Change in intensity

minimum intensity zero Conclusion : unpolarised with minimum but minimum intensity
Conclusion : circularly intensity zero is not zero
polarised Conclusion : Conclusion : partially
elliptically polarised polarised
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5.5 OPTICAL ACTIVITY:

When a beam of plane polarised light propagates through certain substances like
quartz, sugar solution; the plane of vibration of plane polarised light is slowly rotates about
the direction of propagation. This property of rotating the plane of vibration of plane
polarised light about its direction of travel by a
crystal is known as optical activity.
Substances having ability of rotating the
plane of vibration of plane polarised light
passing through them are called optically
active substances and angle through which
plane of vibration is rotated is known as angle
of rotation. Fig.5.2
There are two types of optically active
substances. The substances which rotate the plane of vibration in clockwise direction are
called as dextro-rotatory or right-handed. While the substances which rotate the plane of
vibration in anticlockwise direction are called as laevo-rotatory or left-handed.
5.6 SPECIFIC ROTATION:

The specific rotation of a substance at a particular temperature and for a given
wavelength is defined as the rotation produced by a path of one decimeter length in a
substance of unit density. Thus

Specific rotation (S) =
lc
where  is the angle of rotation in degrees, l the length of solution in decimeter and c is
the concentration of solution in gm per c.c.
5.7 LARUENT’S HALF SHADE POLARIMETER:
A polarimeter is an instrument used for measuring the angle of rotation of solution.
Construction: The essential parts of a Laurent’s half shade polarimeter are shown
in Fig. 5.3. S is a monochromatic source of light and L is a convex lens which renders the
incident light into a parallel beam. N1 and N2 are two nicol prisms. N1 acts as polariser while
N2 acts as analyser. N2 is capable of rotation about a common axis of N1 and N2. The
rotation of N2 can read on a graduated circular scale SC. Light after passing through
polariser N1 becomes plane polarised. This plane polarised light is now passes through a
L N1 SC
S
Fig. 5.3
half shade device HSP and a tube G containing solution. of optically active crystal (eg.
sugar). The emergent light from T on passing through analyser N2 is viewed through a
telescope T. the telescope is focused on half shade device.
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Working: The incident light after passing through A

polariser N1 is allowed to incident on half shade plate HSP.
Half shade plate consists of semicircular half wave plate ABC Q P
of quartz and a semicircular plate ADB of glass, as shown in
θθ
Fig. 5.4. The half wave plate ABC introduces a phase
C D
difference of  (i.e. 180 ) between O and E rays passing
0
through it. The thickness of glass plate is such that it Quartz Glass
transmits the same amount of light as the quartz plate. The
optic axis of the quartz plate lies along the line AB.
Let the plane polarised light coming from N1 be B
incident normally on the plate, with its vibrations parallel to Fig.5.4
OP. The half wave plate turns its plane of vibration through
an angle 2 . Therefore, the vibrations of the beam emerging from the half wave plate will
be along OQ, whereas the vibrations of the beam emerging from glass plate will be along
OP. Consequently the two halves of the plate are unequally illuminated. They look equally
bright when the principle plane of the analyser N2 is parallel to AB.
Determination of Specific Rotation: First of all the tube is filled with water. The
analyser is rotated till equal brightness position is obtained. Then the tube is filled with
optically active solution of known concentration. The field of view in this position is not
equally bright. The analyser N2 is rotated till the field of view becomes equally bright. The
difference between two positions of analyser read on circular scale SC gives the angle of
rotation produced by the solution. Knowing the values of  , l and c , the specific rotation
can be determined.
To find out the strength of the given sugar solution, the experiment is performed in a
similar way as to determine the specific rotation. The concentration of given solution is
then calculated using the formula.

c =
Sl
5.8 PHOTOELASTICITY:
It is an experimental technique for measuring and visualizing stresses in structures
by using polarised light. It has been observed that certain transparent materials like glass,
bakelite etc. are not normally double refracting but they shows this phenomenon when they
are subjected to mechanical stress. The two crossed nicols ordinarily do not transmit light.
If the specimens of these materials are placed between two crossed nicols they do not
change the field of view i.e. field of view remains dark. But when stress is applied to these
specimens the emergent light is elliptically polarised and hence some light will be
transmitted through analyzing nicol. Under this situation a coloured fringe pattern is
obtained.
The stress distribution in complex engineering structures such as bridges, girders
can be analysed by photoelasticity studies of transparent models. The scale models of
these structures are constructed by transparent materials like bakelite. They are subjected
to loads and stresses to be investigated when placed between crossed nicols. From study
of interference patterns, the position and extent of stresses in various parts are calculated.
This helps to determine the stresses to be expected in actual practice.
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Unit –V Superconductivity Engineering Physics
1. Superconductivity
Certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero resistivity (i.e. infinite conductivity),
when they are cooled to sufficiently low temperatures. This effect is called
superconductivity. This phenomenon was first of all discovered by H. K. Onnes in 1911
when measuring the electrical conductivity of metals at low temperatures.
20
ρ
10
2 4 6 8
T (K)
Critical or transition temperature

(Or)
Transition temperature
The temperature at which the transition from normal state to superconducting state
takes place on cooling in the absence of magnetic field is called critical temperature or
transition temperature.
2. General properties of Superconductors:-

Properties of superconductors:-
1. It is a low temperature phenomenon.

2. The transition temperature is different for different substances.
3. Materials having high normal resistivities exhibit superconductivity.
4. Materials for which Zρ = 106 (where Z is a atomic number and ρ is resistivity) show
superconductivity.
5. For chemically pure and structurally perfect specimen, the superconductivity is very
sharp.
6. Ferro magnetic and Anti ferromagnetic materials are not superconductors.
7. Below the transition temperature the magnetic flux lines are rejected out of the
superconductors.
8. Superconducting elements, in general, lie in the inner columns of the periodic table.
9. Those metallic elements having their valence electrons lies between 2 to 8 exhibit
superconductivity.
10. Below the transition temperature the specific heat curve is discontinuous.
Dr. P.Sreenivasula Reddy M.Sc, PhD Website: www.engineeringphysics.weebly.com Page 1

3. The Meissner effect
When a weak magnetic is applied to a superconducting specimen at a

temperature below transition temperature TC the magnetic flux lines are expelled.
This phenomenon is called Meissner effect.
Under normal state the magnetic induction inside the specimen is

B = µ0 ( H + I )
Where H is the external applied magnetic field and I is the magnetization produced inside
the specimen.
When the specimen is in superconducting state B = 0 (Meissner effect)

0 = µ0 (H + I )
Or H = −I
I
χ = = −1
H
Thus the material is act as a perfectly diamagnetic (for diamagnetic material χ = −1 ).
Let us consider a superconducting material is in normal state. From ohms law, the
electric field E = Jρ
On cooling the material to its transition temperature ρ tends to zero. If J is held finite E
must be zero.
From Maxwell’s equations
− dB
∇× E =
dt
dB
Under superconducting condition since E is zero = 0 or B=constant.
dt
This means that the magnetic flux passing through the specimen should not
change on cooling to the transition temperature. The Meissner effect contradicts the
result.
4. Type I and type II superconductors. Or types of superconductors
Based on the diamagnetic response superconductors can be classified into two

types, they are
1. Type I superconductors
2. Type II superconductors.
Type I superconductors
Superconductors which one follows a complete Meissner effect is called type I
superconductors (also is known as soft superconductors).
When the magnetic field strength is gradually increased from its initial value
H < H C , at H C the diamagnetism is abruptly disappear and the transition from
superconducting state to normal state is sharp as shown in figure. These
superconductors are known as soft superconductors
Examples: - Al, Zn, Hg and Sn
Super
M Normal
conducting
state state
H Hc
Type II superconductors:-
Superconductors which does not follow the complete Meissner effect is called type
I superconductors (also is known as hard superconductors).
In type II superconductors, the specimen is in pure superconducting state up to the
field (lower critical field) when the field is increased beyond (upper critical state)
the magnetic flux lines start penetrating. The specimen is in mixed state between
and . Above , the specimen is in normal state. This means that the Meissner
effect is incomplete in the region between and . This region is known as vertex
region. These superconductors are known as hard superconductors.
Examples: - Zr, Nb
Normal
Super state
M
conductin
Vortex
g state
region
H C1 H C2
5. Differences between type I and Type II superconductor
Type I superconductor Type II superconductor
1. It follows complete Meissner effect. 1. It does not follow the complete Meissner
effect
2. It has single critical field value H C 2. It has two critical field values and
3. There no mixed state. 3. There is a mixed state
4. They are soft superconductors 4. They are hard superconductors
5. Materials with pure form are type I 5. Materials with impurities or alloys are
superconductors type II superconductors
6. Examples; Zn, Al, Hg and Sn 6. Examples: Zr, Nb
5. Penetration depth
According to London’s equations, the magnetic flux does not suddenly drop to zero
at the surface of the type I superconductor, but decreases exponentially.
The penetration of magnetic field through one face of the superconductor is shown in
figure. According to Meissner effect the field inside the superconductor is zero, but in
practice a small portion of field Ho penetrates a small distance into the superconductor.
The penetration of field at a distance x form the face is given by

/
Where λ =penetration depth

When x= λ, then

The penetration depth is the distance inside the superconductor at which the penetrating
magnetic field is equal to 1/e times of the surface magnetic field H0. Generally λ ranges
from 10 to 100 nm.
The variationof H w.r.t x is shown in figure.
The penetration depth depends upon the temperature is given by the relation
λ (0 )
λ (T ) = 1
 T4 2
1 − 4 
 TC 
Where λ (0 ) is the penetration depth at T = 0 K
6. Josephson Effect
Let us consider a thin insulation layer is sandwiched between the two superconductors in
addition to normal tunneling of electrons, the super electrons tunnel through the insulation
layer from one superconductor to another with dissociation, even at zero potential
difference across the junction. Their wave functions on both sides are highly correlated.
This is known as Josephson Effect.
D.C Josephson effect
According to Josephson when tunneling across through the insulator it introduces

a phase difference φ 0 between the two parts of the function on opposite sides of the
junction as shown in figure
The tunneling current is given by el

I = I 0 Sin(φ 0 )
Where I 0 is the maximum current that flows through the junction without any potential
difference across the junction. This effect is called D.C Josephson effect.
A.C Josephson effect

Let a static potential difference is applied across the junction, an additional phase
is introduced by the cooper pairs during tunneling across the junction. This additional
phase change ( ∆φ ) at any time t can be calculated using quantum mechanics.
Et
∆φ =
h
Where E denotes the total energy of the system. In present case E = 2eV0 . Hence
2eV0 t
∆φ =
h
The tunneling current can be written as
( )
 2eV0 t 
I = I 0 Sin φ 0 + 
 h 
I = I 0 Sin(φ 0 + ω t )
2eV0
Where ω =
h
This represents alternating current with angular frequency ω . This is A.C Josephson
effect.
Current voltage characteristic of a junction is shown in figure.
1. When Vo = 0 there is a constant flow of dc current through the junction. This current is
called superconducting current and the effect is called Josephson effect.
2. When Vo < Vc, a constant dc current Ic flows.
3. When Vo > Vc, the junction has finite resistance, and the current oscillates with
some frequency.
Applications of Josephson Effect

2eV0
1. Josephson effect is used to generate micro waves frequency with ω =
h
2. A.C Josephson effect is used to define standard volt.
3. A.C Josephson effect is used to measure very low temperatures based on the
variation of frequency of the emitted radiation with temperature.
4. A.C Josephson effect is used for switching of signals from one circuit to another.
7. BCS theory
BCS theory of superconductor was put forward by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer
in 1957 and hence named as BCS theory. This theory could explain the effects such as
zero resistivity, Meissner effect, isotopic effect etc.
Electron lattice interaction via lattice deformation.
Let us consider an electron is passing through the lattice positive ions. The electron is
attracted by the neighboring lattice positive ions as shown in figure 1. Due to the
attraction of electron and ion core, the lattice gets deformed on scale. So electron get
partially positive charge. Now if another electron passes by the side of assembly of said
electron and ion core, it gets attracted towards the assembly.
The second electron interacts with the first electron due to the exchange of virtual
photon q, between two electrons. The interaction process can be written in terms the
wave vector k as
k1' = k1 − q and k 2' = k1 + q
These two electrons together form a cooper pair and is known as cooper electron.
Cooper pairs
To understand the mechanism of cooper pair formation, let us consider the distribution of
electrons in metals as given by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function. .
1
F (E ) = E − EF
1+ e kT
At T= 0K, all the Fermi energy states below the Fermi level are completely filled and all
the states above are completely empty. Let us see what happens when two electrons are
added to a metal at absolute zero. Since all the quantum states E < E F , are filled, they
are forced to occupy states having E > E F . Cooper showed that if there an attraction
between the two electrons, they are able to form a bound state so that their total energy is
less than 2 E F . These two electrons are paired to form a single system. These two
electrons form a cooper pair and is known as cooper electron.
8. Flux quantization
According to quantum mechanics matter, energy and charge is quantized.

Similarly the magnetic flux passing the superconducting ring is also quantized.
Consider a superconducting conducting ring in a magnetic field. If the temperature
of the superconductor is greater than its critical temperature, the magnetic flux lines are
passed through it as shown in figure (1).
When the super conducting ring temperature cooled less than of it s critical
temperature, it obeys Meissner effect. As a result, persistent current comes into existence
so that H= - M and all the magnetic flux lines are repelled by the superconductor as
shown in figure (2). In this case we observe the flux is only inner of hollow sphere and
outside of ring only.
Even when the applied magnetic field is removed, some magnetic flux is inside the
hollow ring as shown in figure.
The flux inside the ring is given by

1,2,3,4, …
2
Where h is Planck’s constant and e is charge of electron.
Thus the flux passing through the superconducting ring is equal to integral multiple

of or quantized.

Critical parameters of superconductivity

Effect of magnetic field
Superconductivity of a metal mainly depends on the temperature and strength of

the magnetic field in which the metal is placed. Superconductivity disappears if the
temperature of the specimen is raised above Tc or a strong enough magnetic field is
applied. At temperatures below Tc , in the absence of magnetic field, the material is in
superconducting state. When the strength of the magnetic field is applied to a critical
value H c the superconductivity disappears.
The dependence of critical field upon the temperature is given by
  T 2 
( ) ( )
H C T = H C 0 1 −   

  TC  
()
The variation of HC w.r.t. T is shown in figure.
Effect of current
An electric current is passing through the superconducting material it self may gives rise
to necessary magnetic field. For example, when the current is passing a superconducting
ring, it gives rise to its own magnetic field. As the current increases to critical value I c , the
associated magnetic field becomes H C . And the superconductivity disappears.
I C = 2π rH C
Isotopic effect
In superconducting materials the transition temperature varies with the average
isotopic mass of their constituents. The variation is found to be in general form
TC ∝ M −α
−α
Or TC M = constant
Where α is the isotopic effect coefficient and is defined as
∂ ln TC
α=
∂ ln M
The value of α is approximately 0.5. For example, the average mass varies from 199.5
to 203.4 atomic mass units and accordingly the transition temperature varies from 4.185K
to 4.146K.
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Unit –IV Magnetic properties Engineering Physics
Introduction
Magnetic materials plays an important role in industrial and scientific research fields.
Based on the response of materials in the external field, they ar4e divided classified into
three types which are further classified into five important groups depending on the alignment
of magnetic moments with in the material. Thus, they are known as diamagnetic,
paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic.
1. Basic definitions
Magnetism: -
The attracting property exhibited by the magnet is known as magnetism.

Magnetic dipole: -
A magnet consists north and south poles. Any two opposite poles are separated by a finite
distance constitute a dipole.
Magnetic dipole moment or magnetic moment: -
The product of pole strength (m) and the length of the magnet (or distance between the
dipoles) is called magnetic moment.
When an electric current I ampere is flowing through the single turn circular wire having area
of cross section A m2 , the magnetic moment produced by the coil is

Units: - Am2
It is a vector quantity. The direction of magnetic moment is south to north pole.
Magnetic field: -
The space surrounding the magnet upto which its attracting influences is felt is known as
magnetic field.
Magnetic field strength (H): -
The force experienced by a unit North Pole at any point in the field is called magnetic field
strength.
Units: - A/m
Magnetization or intensity of magnetization (M): -
The magnetic moment per unit volume is called Magnetization or intensity of magnetization.
Units: - A/m
Magnetic susceptibility (): -
Magnetic susceptibility is defined as the ratio of magnetization produced in the sample to the
magnetic field strength.

It has no units

Magnetic induction field strength or magnetic flux density (B): -

The number of magnetic lines of force passing through the unit area of cross section is called
Magnetic induction field strength or magnetic flux density.
If Φ is the number of magnetic lines of forces are passing through the area A of cross section
, then

Units: - Wb/m2 or Tesla
Magnetic permeability (µ): -
It is a measure of magnetic lines of forces penetrating through the medium.
It is the ratio of magnetic flux density in the material to applied magnetic field strength.
B
µ
H
Units: - H/m
Magnetic permeability of free space (µo): -
It is a measure of magnetic lines of forces penetrating through the air medium
It is the ratio of magnetic flux density of free space or air to applied magnetic field strength.
B
µ
H
Units: - H/m
Relative magnetic permeability : -
It is defined as the ratio of permeability medium to the permeability of free space.

µ
µ
µ
Relation between B, H and M

µ H

µ µ H

µ µ H µ H µ H
But µ 1

µ H µ M

µ H M
Relation between

µ H M
H M
µ
B
⁄
B HH M⁄H
µ
µ
µ
H M M
µ 1 1χ
M H
µ 1 χ
2. Origin of magnetic moment in atom

Materials are made up of atoms. In atoms the permanent dipole moments can arise due to
the orbital and spins motion of electrons and spin motion of nucleus.
Orbital magnetic moments of electrons:-
Consider an electron of mass ‘m’, charge ‘e’ revolving around the nucleus in a circular orbit of
radius ‘r’ in anticock sire direction. Let ‘v’ be the linear velocity of electron and ‘ω’ be the
angular velocity (angular frequency) of a revolving electron.
2!"
#
Linear frequency of the revolving electron "
$%
$%
Time period #
The current developed by the electron in the orbit is

Charge 3
I
Time period 2!
The coil is similar to the orbit, so the magnetic moment produced by the current I is
456789:
3
456789: ! ;$
2!
3 ;$
456789:
2
3 3
456789: < ; $ =
2< 2<
= < ; $ Orbital angular momentum of electron
The –ve sing indicates that orbital magnetic momentum and orbital angular momentum both
are in opposite directions.
@
According to quantum mechanics = > ?$%A
Where > orbital quantum number

B @
So 456789: $C > ?$%A D >
B@
Where D E%C is afundamental unit of magnetic moment known as Bohr magneton.
D 9.27 I 10K$E <$

Spin magnetic moments of electrons:

electrons:-
Substituting the spin angular momentum S in the orbital angular momentum = of electron we
get the expression for the spin magnetic
magnet momentum of electrons
3
NO7P L M
2<
Where L is called spin gyro magnetic ratio.
L 2.002
@
According to quantum mechanics M
E%
3 S
NO7P L . 9.4 I 10K$E <$
2< 4!
Spin magnetic moments of nucleus
Due to spin motion of nucleus, it also produces some magnetic moment. The spin moment
produced by the nucleus is
3S
PQR:BQN 5.05 I 10K$V <$
4!O
Where O is the mass of the proton.
3. Classification of magnetic materials:-

materials:
The magnetic materials have been classified into five types based on the influence of
external filed on them. They are
I. Diamagnetic materials
II. Paramagnetic materials
III. Ferromagnetic materials
IV. Ferrimagnetic materials
V. Antiferromagnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials
The substances which when placed in a magnetic field acquire a week magnetism
opposite to the direction to the field are known as diamagnetic materials.
Properties
1. These materials are repelled by the magnets
magnets.
2. When the diamagnetic materialerial is suspended in a uniform magnetic field they set their
longest axis at right angles to the field.
3. In a non-uniform
uniform magnetic material, these substances move from stronger parts of the
field to the weaker parts
parts.
4.
7P W
4Q8
5. Susceptibility value is negative for diamagnetic materials

materials.
6. Susceptibility value is independent on temperature in diamagnetic materials.
7. Relative permeability µ W 1 for diamagnetic materials
8. Example: Bismuth, antimony, copper, gold, quartz, mercury, water, alcohol, air,
hydrogen etc.
.Paramagnetic materials
The substances which when placed in a magnetic field acquire a week magnetism in
the direction to the field are known as paramagnetic materials.
Properties:
1. paramagnetic materials are attracted by the magnets
2. When the paramagnetic
magnetic material is suspended in a uniform magnetic field they set
their longest axis at parallel to the field.
3. In a non-uniform
uniform magnetic material, these substances move from weaker parts of the
field to the stronger parts
4.
7P X
4Q8
5. Susceptibility value is low and positive for paramagnetic materials

6. Susceptibility value is d
dependent on temperature in paramagnetic
magnetic materials
C
χ
T
Where C= curie constant and T= temperature
7. Relative permeability µ X 1 for paramagnetic materials

8. Example: Aluminum, platinum, chromium, manganese, copper sulphate, oxygen etc.
Ferromagnetic materials
The substances which when placed in a magnetic field, become strongly magnetized
in the direction to the field are known as d
diamagnetic materials.
Properties:
1. These materials are strongly attracted by the magnets
2. When the ferromagnetic
3. In a non-uniform
4.
7P Z
4Q8
5. Susceptibility value is high and positive for ferromagnetic materials

6. Susceptibility value is dependent on temperature in ferromagnetic materials
[
χ \]\
^
7. Relative permeability µ Z 1 for ferromagnetic materials

8. Example: Iron, cobalt, nickel and number of alloys
Ferrimagnetic materials
The materials which consist of antiparallel magnetic moments of different magnitudes
are known as ferrimagnetic materials. The align
alignment of ferrimagnetic
ic materials as shown in
figure
Properties:
1. These materials are strongly attracted by the magnets
2. When the diamagnetic material is suspended in a uniform magnetic field they set their
longest axis at parallel to the field.
3. In a non-uniform
4.
7P Z
4Q8
5. Susceptibility value is high and positive for ferri

ferrimagnetic
magnetic materials
6. Susceptibility value is d
dependent on temperature in ferrimagnetic
magnetic materials
C
χ
T ] T[
where C= curie constant, T[ curie
curie temperature and T= temperature.
7. Relative permeability µ Z 1 for ferromagnetic materials

8. Examples: Oxides of Ni, Cr, ferrous,
ferrous etc.
Antiferromagnetic materials
The materials which consist of antiparallel magnetic moments are known as
ferrimagnetic materials. The alignment of ferromagnetic materials as shown in figure
Properties:
1. These materials are attracted by the magnets
2. When the antiferromagnetic
3. In a non-uniform
4.
7P X
4Q8
5. Susceptibility value low and positive for paramagnetic materials

6. Susceptibility value is dependent on temperature in antiferromagnetic
ferromagnetic materials
C
χ
T T[
where C= curie constant, T[ curie
curie temperature and T= temperature.
7. Relative permeability µ X 1 for ferromagnetic materials

8. Examples: Complex oxides – XFe2SO4 where X=Mn, Mg, Ni, Co, Zn.
4. Hysteresis:
The lagging of B behind H is called hysteresis.
When a specimen ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the variation in B with
variation in H is shown in figure.
In the figure o represents initially unmagnified specimen and zero magnetic intensity.
As H is increased, B also increases in the path oa. If H is now decreased, B also decreases
but it does not follow original the path ‘oa’. It follows another path ‘ab’. Thus B lags behind H.
when H becomes zero, B still have some value ‘ob’. The magnetic flux density remaining in
the specimen in the absence of external field is called the “residual magnetization”. The
power of retaining this magnetization is called “retentivity” or “remanance”. Thus “The
retentivity Br of a specimen is a measure of the magnetic flux remaining inside the specimen
when the magnetizing force is removed”.
If the magnetic intensity H is increased in the reverse direction, the value of B further
decreases and B becomes zero when H is equal to ‘oc’. This value of magnetic intensity is
called the coercive force or coercivity of the specimen. Thus coercivity Hc is a measure of the
magnetic intensity required to destroy the residual magnetization of the specimen.
If H is increased beyond ‘oc’, the specimen is magnetized in the opposite direction and
it follows ‘cd’ path. If the magnetic intensity H is increased in the forward direction, the curve
followed ‘defa’ path.
The lagging of B behind H is called hysteresis. The closed curve ‘abcdefa’ represents the
cycle of magnetization of the specimen is known as ‘hysteresis curve (or loop)’ of the
specimen.
Hysteresis loss is the loss of energy in taking a ferromagnetic body through a complete cycle
of magnetization and this loss is represented by the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop.

5. Hard and soft magnetic materials

Based on the area of hysteresis, ferro magnetic materials can be classified into soft and hard
magnetic materials.
Soft magnetic materials
The magnetized materials which are easily magnetized and demagnetized are known
as soft magnetic materials.
Properties:
Soft magnetic materials have small hysteresis loop area.
Soft magnetic materials have low hysteresis loss.
Soft magnetic materials have small retentivity values.
Soft magnetic materials have small coercivity values
Soft magnetic materials require low magnetic field for magnetization.
Soft magnetic materials have high values of susceptibility and permeability.
Examples:- Iron-silicon alloys, Nickel-iron alloys, Iron-cobalt alloys.
Applications:
They are used in electrical equipments and magnetic cores and transformers.
They are used in motors, relays and sensors.
They are used in microwave isolators.
Hard magnetic materials
The magnetized materials which are hard to magnetize and demagnetize are known
as hard magnetic materials.
Properties:
Hard magnetic materials have large hysteresis loop area.
Hard magnetic materials have large hysteresis loss.
Hard magnetic materials have large retentivity values
Hard magnetic materials have large coercivity values
Hard magnetic materials require large magnetic field for magnetization
Hard magnetic materials have low values of susceptibility and permeability
Examples:- carbon steel, tungsten steel, chromium steel.
Applications:
They are used into make permanent magnets.

They are used in dc meters and measuring devices.
They are used in speedometers and sensors in auto mobiles.
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8.1 Energy Band Structure of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor:

A) Intrinsic Semiconductor: A semiconductor is
characterized by a conduction band and valence band Ec Conduction Band
separated by a smaller energy gap. At normal
temperatures, a significant number of electrons are Forbidden Band
thermally excited from valence band to conduction band;
an equal number of holes are produced in the valence Ev
band. These two bands are separated by a forbidden band, Valence Band
in which no allowed energy levels present.
Fig.8.1
B) Extrinsic Semiconductor:
I) p-type semiconductor: A p-type semiconductor is produced by doping an intrinsic
semiconductor with trivalent element, such as boron and aluminium. The added impurity
atoms which accept the electrons from valence band are called acceptor atoms. They
produce holes without producing electrons in the conduction band.
The effect of acceptor impurity on the energy band
structure of the intrinsic semiconductor is shown in fig. 8.2. Ec Conduction Band
As valence electrons readily jump from valence band to
trivalent impurity (eg. boron) atoms after acquiring a small
Forbidden Band
amount of energy, it may be concluded that the acceptor
E
levels are situated closer to and above the top edge of the Ev A
valence band in forbidden band, as shown by dotted line.
II) n-type Semiconductor: An n-type semiconductor is Fig.8.2
produced when a intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a
pentavalent impurity, such as phosphorous, arsenic. The Ec Conduction Band
added impurity atoms which contribute the electrons to the ED
conduction band are called donor atoms. They produce
Forbidden Band
electrons without producing holes in the valence band.
The effect of donor atoms on the energy band Ev
Valence Band
structure of the intrinsic semiconductor is shown in fig. 8.3.
Since the valence electrons are weakly bound to the donor Fig.8.3
atoms, hence their energy levels are shown by dotted line
in forbidden band slightly below the bottom of the conduction band.
8.2 FERMI- DIRAC PROBABILITY FUNCTION:
Electrons are quantum mechanical particles and obey Pauli’s exclusion principle. They
cannot crowd in particular energy level. An energy level can at best be occupied by two
electrons only. The distribution of electrons among the various energy levels is described
through the Fermi-Dirac distribution function f (E ) . It is given by expression.
1
f (E ) = ( E − E F ) / kT
--------------[ 1 ]
1+ e
where k = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature, and E F = Fermi energy.
The function f (E ) gives the probability that an electron occupies a level of energy E . It
is a number whose value ranges from 0 to 1. f (E ) = 0 means that the energy level E is
vacant. f (E ) = 1, implies that level E is occupied by the electron.
ICEEM Page 2
The Fermi level can be defined as the upper most filled energy level in a metal at 0 K.
The Fermi energy E F can also be defined as the maximum energy that an electron can
possess in a metal at 0 K. Fermi level E F may or may not correspond to an allowed energy
level, but it provides a reference with which other energy can be compared. In metals, it is
an allowed energy level.
From expression (1),
A] At T = 0 K,
i) For energy levels below E F , E < E F
1 1
f (E ) = −∞
=
1+ e 1+ 0
=1
This shows that at T = 0 K, the probability of finding an electron with energy less than
Fermi energy is unity. In simple words, at T =0 K, all energy levels between zero and
Fermi level E F are occupied.
ii) For energy levels above E F , E > E F
1 1
f (E ) = +∞
= =0
1+ e 1+ ∞
It means that, there is no probability of finding an electron in the energy level above
Fermi level. In other words, there are no electrons having energy greater that E F or
occupying an energy level higher than Fermi level.
B) At T > 0 K and E = E F ,
1 1
f (E ) = = = 1/2
1+ e 0
1+1
This result shows that for any finite temperature other than 0K, probability that an
electron occupies the Fermi level is ½ or 50%.
8.3 POSITION OF FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

In a semiconductor the electron and hole concentration is given by the relation
n = N C e −( Ec − EF ) kT -------[ 1 ]
and p = N V e −( EF − Ev ) kT -------[ 2 ]
where N C and N V are effective densities of states in conduction and valence band. While
E C is the bottom level at the conduction band E V is the top level of the valance band.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, concentration of electrons in conduction band is equal
to the concentration of holes in valence band. i.e. n = p
∴ N C e −( Ec − EF ) kT = N V e −( EF − Ev ) kT
Taking logarithm on both sides,
ICEEM Page 3
EC − E F E F − EV
log e N C - = log e N V -
kT kT
EC − E F N E F − EV
∴ = - log e V +
kT NC kT
NV
∴ EC - E F = - kT log e + EF - EV
NC
E C + E V kT N
∴ EF = + log e V -- -------- [ 3]
2 2 NC
If the effective masses of hole and electron are same, then N C = N V
EC + E V
∴ EF = ---------[ 4 ]
2
Hence the Fermi level lies in the center of the forbidden energy band as shown in Fig.8.4.
The above Eq. (4) can be written as
Conduction Band
E + EV + EV − EV Ec
EF = C
2
EC − E V
= + EV EF
2
But, E g = EC - E V Ev
Eg Valence Band
∴ EF = + EV ------[ 5 ]
2
Fig.8.4
If the top of valence band E V is taken as zero level, then
Eg
EF = ------[ 6 ]
2
Eq. (6) implies that, Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor lies in the middle of the
energy gap.
8.4 POSITION OF FERMI LEVEL IN EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

8.4.1 N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor:
The free electron concentration in n-type semiconductor varies with temperature. It
implies that the probability of occupancy of conduction band level and hence the position of
Fermi level varies with temperature. The variation in the position of Fermi level can be
deduced by studying the three regions separately.
A) Ionisation-region: At low temperatures only some of the donor atoms get ionized
and their electrons are transferred to the conduction band. Let N D be the concentration of
donor atoms and n D be the donor atoms, which are not yet ionized. Then, the
concentration of the ionized donor atoms is ( N D - n D ). That is, the concentration of electrons
ICEEM Page 4
promoted to the conduction band is equal to ( N D - n D ). The electron concentration may be

expressed as
nn = N D - n D = N D e −( EF − ED ) kT ---[ 1 ]
The number of electrons in the conduction band is given by
nn = N C e −( EC − EF ) kT -----[ 2 ]
Equating Eq. (1) and (2)
N C e −( EC − EF ) kT = N D e −( EF − ED ) kT
EC − E F E F − ED
log e N C - = log e N D -
kT kT Conduction Band
Ec
EC − E F N E F − ED EF
∴ = - log e D + ED
kT NC kT
ND
∴ E C - E F = - kT log e + E F - ED
NC
Ev
E + E D kT N
∴ EF = C + log e D -- [3 ] Valence Band
2 2 NC
At absolute zero temperature, ( i.e. T = 0 K) Fig.8.5(a)
EC + E D
EF = ---[ 4 ]
2
Thus in n-type semiconductor at T = 0 K, Fermi level lies midway between the bottom of the
conduction band and donor level as shown in Fig.8.5 (a).
B) Saturation-region: As the temperature rises, all donor atoms get ionized. At this
stage the electron concentration in conduction band ( nn ) is approximately equal to the
donor atoms concentration ( N D ) i.e. nn = N D .
The concentration of electrons in the
conduction band is given by Conduction Band
Ec
EF
nn = N C e −( EC − EF ) kT ED
∴ N D = N C e −( EC − EF ) kT EFi
NC 1
∴ = − ( E C − E F ) kT
= e ( EC − EF ) kT Ev
ND e
Valence Band
NC EC − E F Fig.8.5(b)
loge =
ND kT
NC
∴ E F = E C - kT log e -----[ 5 ]
ND
ICEEM Page 5
With increasing temperature, Fermi level shifts away from the conduction band and
moves towards the center of forbidden band as shown in Fig.8.5 (b).
C) Intrinsic region: In this region, the excitation of electrons from valence band
predominates and the intrinsic electron concentration exceeds the donor electron
concentration. Fermi level in this region is given by
E C + E V kT N
EF = + log e V ---[6 ]
2 2 NC
Thus the Fermi level approaches the intrinsic value with growing temperature and
reaches middle of the forbidden gap as shown in Fig.8.5 (b). The behaviour of the extrinsic
semiconductor transforms into that of an intrinsic type.
8.4.2 P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor:

The nature of variation of concentration of holes with temperature led us to distinguish
three regions. The position of Fermi level and its variation with temperature in these regions
can be deduced as follows.
A) Ionization-region: At low temperatures only some of the acceptor atoms get
ionised. Let N A be the concentration of acceptor atoms and n A is the concentration of
acceptor atoms yet to be ionized. Then, the concentration of the ionised acceptor atoms is (
N A - n A ).
Then the concentration of the holes in valence band
p p = N A - n A = N A e −( E A − EF ) kT -----[1 ]
The hole concentration is also given by

p p = N V e −( EF − Ev ) kT ---- [ 2 ]
Equating Eq.s(1) and (2)

N A e −( E A − EF ) kT = N V e −( EF − Ev ) kT
Conduction Band
Ec
E A − EF E F − EV
log e N A - = log e N V -
kT kT
E A − EF N E F − EV
∴- = log e V -
EA
EF
kT NA kT
Ev
Valence Band
N
∴ E A - E F = - kT log e V + E F - EV
NA Fig.8.6(a)
E A + E V kT N
∴ EF = + log e V ---- [3 ]
2 2 NA
At absolute zero temperature, ( i.e. T = 0 K)
E A + EV
EF =
2
ICEEM Page 6
Thus in p-type semiconductor at T=0 K, the Fermi level lies midway between the top of
the valence band and acceptor level as shown in Fig.8.6(a).
B) Saturation-region: In saturation-region, the hole
concentration is nearly equal to the acceptor impurity Conduction Band
concentration. Thus Ec
pp = NA
The hole concentration is also given by Eq. (2). EFi
Therefore we have
EA
N A = N V e −( EF − Ev ) kT EF
Ev
Valence Band
Taking logarithm on both sides and simplifying the
expression, we get
Fig.8.6(b)
N
E F = E V + KT log e V -------[ 5 ]
NA
With increasing temperature, Fermi level shifts away from valence band and moves
towards the center of forbidden band as shown in Fig. 8.6(b).
C) Intrinsic region: In the intrinsic region, the Fermi level position is same as in the
intrinsic semiconductor
Eg
∴ EF = ------ [ 6 ]
2
Thus originally Fermi level is at the middle of the region between valence band top level
and acceptor levels at 0 K. With rise in temperature, it approaches the intrinsic value as
shown Fig. 8.6(b).
8.5 Hall effect:
If a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carrying current ‘I’ is placed in a transverse
magnetic field B, an electric field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to both the
current ‘I’ and magnetic field B. This phenomenon is known as Hall effect.
Consider a block of current carrying conductor is placed in the transverse magnetic
field. Let current ‘I’ is flowing in the positive x-direction and B is in the z-direction as shown
in Fig.8.7. If we assume that, current is carried by electrons, then external magnetic field B
applied perpendicular to current ‘I’ will exert a
transverse magnetic force on the electrons Y
along negative y-direction. This magnetic
force will force the electrons to drift
downwards to the lower edge of the block. d
Consequently, lower surface becomes
negatively charged and upper surface ++++++++++ w
positively charged. Hence a potential VH, B I X
called Hall voltage, appears between the --- -----------
lower and upper surface. Due to this
potential, electric field EH is induced and Z Fig.8.7
which opposes the downward drifting of
ICEEM Page 7
electrons. Ultimately, equilibrium is reached. In which, the force due to induced electric field
on the electron becomes equal to the magnetic force and so the flow of electrons stops.
Hence in equilibrium state,
eEH = Bev --------[ 1 ]
where e is the magnitude of the charge on carriers and v is the drift speed.
From Eq. (1), EH = Bv
But EH = VH/d, where d is the distance between lower and upper surface.
VH
EH = Bv =
d
VH = Bvd ----[ 2 ]
VH is known as Hall Voltage.
Let the number of free electrons per unit volume of the specimen be n and then the current
density J is given by relation,
J=nev --------[ 3 ]
The current density J is also given by the relation,
I
J= = I / ωd ---------[ 4 ]
A
where ω is the width of block in the direction of magnetic field.
From Eq. (3) and (4) we have
nev= I / ωd
vd= I/neω = I / ρω
where ρ is the charge density (ρ=ne)
Substituting equation (5) in Eq. (2)
BI BI where the factor R is called Hall coefficient for the substance.
VH = = RH , H
 
RH = 1/ρ =1/ne =
VH
BI
The Hall coefficient is a constant for metal and is negative for free electrons. If the
charge carriers are positive (holes), then Hall coefficient (RH= 1/ne) is positive.
Thus, measurement of Hall constant (Hall voltage) gives the information about the sign
of charge carriers. In other words, it helps to determine whether a semiconductor is n or p-
type. Also we can determine the number of conduction electrons per unit volume (n) by
measuring Hall coefficient.
*********************
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9.1 PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES:

The wavelength associated with a moving particle of mass m and velocity  is given
by the relation  = h . Accordingly the properties of matter waves are-
m
1. As  ∝ 1 , lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
m
2. As  ∝ 1 , smaller is the velocity of particle, greater is the wavelength associated with

it.
3. The matter waves are produced whether the particles are charged or uncharged
(because  = h is independent of charge). The fact reveals that these waves are not
m
electromagnetic waves but they are new kind of waves.
4. If the particle is stationary, the de-Broglie wavelength associated with it is infinite and for
infinite velocity it is zero. Therefore matter waves are generated by the motion of
particles.
5. Matter waves are capable of propagating in vacuum, so they are not mechanical waves.
2
6. Velocity of matter waves ( u = c ) depends on the velocity of matter particle i.e. it is

not constant,
7. As particle velocity (  ) cannot exceed the velocity of the light (c), the velocity of matter
waves ( u ) is greater than velocity of light.
8. Matter wave is not a physical phenomenon. But it is only a symbolic representation of
what we know about the particle. It is wave of probability.
9. Wave and particle duality of matter is not exhibited simultaneously.
9.2 G.P. THOMSON’S EXPERIMENT ON MATTER WAVES:
G.P. Thomson performed experiments with electrons accelerated from 10000 to
50000 volts. His experiment gave diffraction patterns exactly analogous to x-ray patterns.
Such diffraction patterns are only possible in case of waves associated with the material
particle. Hence his experiment supported the concept of matter waves.
Apparatus: The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig.9.1. The electron beam
is produced in a discharge tube by cathode C. The beam is accelerated with the potentials
varying upto 50000 volts, maintained between cathode and cylindrical anode A. Fine beam
of electrons is obtained by passing them through the hole in the anode tube. The
accelerated fine beam of electrons falls on a thin film F of gold or aluminum. The emergent
beam is received on a photographic plate P. Whole of apparatus is exhausted to high
vacuum, so that electrons may not loose their energy in collision with molecules of the gas.
C F
- A P
+
Fig. 9.2
Fig 9.1
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Experimental Procedure: A beam of electrons of known velocity is made to fall on

the photographic plate after traversing the thin gold foil. When plate is developed, a
symmetrical pattern consisting of concentric rings about a central spot is obtained (Fig.9.2).
The pattern is similar to the diffraction pattern produced by x-rays. Since high velocity
electrons are able to excite fluorescence, a fluorescence screen may be used in place of
photographic plate for visual examination. When the electron beam in the discharge tube is
deflected by magnetic field, the entire pattern on the screen is found to shift
correspondingly. Thus the pattern is confirmed due to the diffracted electrons and not due
to x-rays generated by the electrons going through the foil (x-rays pattern is not affected by
electric or magnetic field). As diffraction pattern can only be produced by waves and not by
particle, so Thomson concluded that electrons behave like waves.
Thus Thomson’s experiment clearly demonstrated the existence of matter waves.
He also calculated the associated wavelengths and observed that, it depends only on the
accelerating voltage and is independent of material target. The wavelengths obtained by
diffraction pattern agree with the wavelengths obtained by de-Broglie relation.
9.3 HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
According to classical mechanics, every moving particle at any instant has a fixed
location (position) in space and a definite momentum, which can be determined very
accurately if the initial values are known.
According to wave mechanics, a particle is described by collection or group of
waves, called a wave packet. According to probability interpretation, the particle may be
found anywhere within the wave packet. When the wave packet is small, the position of the
particle can be easily fixed, but it becomes difficult to determine momentum. On the other
hand, when wave packet is large, momentum can be easily determined but the particle
position cannot be determined easily.
In this way precise determination (i.e. certainty) of position introduces an uncertainty
in the determination of the momentum and vice-versa. This shows that, it is impossible to
know the exact position of particle within the wave packet and also its exact momentum.
This led to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, which states that. It is impossible to
specify precisely and simultaneously the values of both members of particular pairs of
physical variables which describe the behaviour of an atomic system.
Taking ∆x as the error (uncertainty) in determining the position of particle and ∆p
the error in determining its momentum at the same instant, these quantities are related as
∆x ∆p = h
The product of two errors (uncertainties) is approximately of the order of Plank’s
constant h .
Thus if ∆x is small, ∆p will be large and vice-versa. It means that, if one quantity is
measured accurately the other quantity becomes less accurate. Thus, any instrument
cannot measure the quantity more accurately than predicted by Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle.
EXPERIMENTAL ILLUSTRATION OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
Consider the case of measurement of the position of an electron in the field of
gamma-ray microscope. The resolving power (i.e. the smallest distance between two points
that can be just resolved by microscope) of the microscope is given by
∆x =  --------- [ 1 ]
(2 sin  )
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where  is the wavelength of light used,  is the semivertical angle of the cone of light and
∆x the uncertainty in determining the position of the particle.
In order to observe the electron it is necessary

that, at least one photon must strike the
electron and scatter inside the microscope i.e
Observer
within the angle 2 . The x-component of
momentum ( p x ) of the photon may lie
between p sin  and - p sin  . As the
momentum is conserved in collision (for
elastic collision), the uncertainty in the x-
component of momentum is given by
∆p x = p sin  - (- p sin  ) = 2 p sin 
2h
= sin  ------- [ 2 ]

By eqn. (1) and (2), we have
 2h p p
∆x ∆p x = . sin  Incident θ θ
2 sin   Photon
=h ------- [ 3 ] Electron
This shows that, the product of uncertainties
Fig. 9.3
in position and momentum is of the order of
Plank’s constant h .
9.4 SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION:
I) Schrodinger time-independent wave equation:
According to de-Broglie theory, a particle of mass m is always associated with a
wave. If the particle of mass m has wave properties, it is expected that there should be
some sort of wave equation, which describes behaviour of the particle.
In order to obtain this equation, consider a system of stationary waves associated
with a moving particle. If the position coordinates of the particle are ( x , y , z ) and Ψ be the
periodic displacement of the wave at any instant of time t , then the classical differential
equation of the wave motion is given by
∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ 1 ∂ 2Ψ
+ + = -------- [1]
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 u 2 ∂t 2
where u is the velocity of wave associated with a moving particle.
The solution of eq. (1) gives Ψ as a periodic displacement in terms of time as
Ψ ( x , y , z , t ) = Ψ 0 ( x , y , z ) e − it -------- [2]
where Ψ0 is the amplitude of the wave at the point ( x , y , z ), which independent of time t .
Differentiating eq.(2) twice with respect to t , we get
∂Ψ
= − i  Ψ 0 e − i t
∂t
∂ 2Ψ
= −  2 Ψ 0 e − i t
∂t 2
= −  2Ψ
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∂ 2Ψ
Substituting value of in eq.(1) we get
∂t 2
∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ 1
+ + = 2 ( −  2Ψ )
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2
u
∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ
Taking + + = ∇ 2 Ψ , we have
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
1
∇2Ψ = 2 ( −  2Ψ )
u
But  = 2 and u = 
1
∇2Ψ = [ − (2 ) 2 Ψ ]
 2
2
1
= [ − 4 2 2 Ψ ]
 2
2
1
= − [ 4 2 Ψ ]
 2
4 2
∇2Ψ + Ψ =0 ---------- [ 3 ]
2
Substituting de-Broglie relation  = h in eq. (3),
m
4 2 2 2
∇2Ψ + m  Ψ =0 ---------- [ 4 ]
h2
If E and V are the total and potential energies of the particle respectively, then the kinetic
1
energy is given by m  2 = E - V
2
∴ m  = 2m ( E - V )
2 2
Substituting in eq.(4), we have

4 2
∇ 2 Ψ + 2 2m ( E - V ) Ψ = 0
h
h
Put  = ,
2
2m
∇2Ψ + 2 ( E - V ) Ψ = 0 ----------[ 5 ]

Equation (5) is known as Schrodinger time-independent wave equation.
II) Schrodinger time-dependent wave equation:
The Schrodinger time-dependent wave equation may be obtained from Schrodinger time-
independent wave equation (5) by eliminating E .
The wave function Ψ is expressed as
Ψ = Ψ 0 e − it
Differentiating Ψ with respect to t , we have
∂Ψ
= − iΨ0 e − it = − i 2 Ψ
∂t
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E iE
= − i 2 Ψ = − Ψ
h 
 ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
∴ EΨ = − = i
i ∂t ∂t
Substituting the value of EΨ in Schrodinger time-independent wave equation (5),
2m
∇2Ψ + (E Ψ - V Ψ ) = 0
2
2m ∂Ψ
∇ 2 Ψ + 2 ( i - V Ψ)=0
 ∂t
2m ∂Ψ
∇2Ψ = - ( i - V Ψ)
 2
∂t
∂Ψ 2 2
i = − ∇ Ψ + V Ψ) ----------[ 6 ]
∂t 2m
This equation is known as Schrodinger time-dependent wave equation because it involves

time.
9.5 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WAVE FUNCTION Ψ :
Waves represent the propagation of a disturbance in a medium, for eg. light waves,
sound waves. They are all characterized by some quantity that varies with position and
time. Light waves are represented by electromagnetic field variation and sound waves are
represented by pressure variations. In case of de-Broglie waves associated with a particle,
we cannot specify in similar manner. Particles sometimes behave like classical particles
and sometimes like classical waves, depending on the experimental arrangement. Since
particles have wave properties, it may be assumed that a quantity Ψ represents a de-
Broglie wave. The quantity Ψ is called wave function.
The wave function Ψ is to be defined or interpret the significance in such way that,
any meaningful question about the result of an experiment performed upon the system can
be answered if the wave function is known.
In Schrödinger wave equation of a particle, the wave function Ψ ( x , y , z , t ) gives the
behaviour of the particle at a given position ( x , y , z ) and at a given time t . Its magnitude is
large in the region where the probability of finding the particle is high and its magnitude is
small where the probability of finding the particle is low. Thus we can regard Ψ as a
measure of probability of the particle around a particular position.
A satisfactory interpretation of wave function Ψ was given by Max Born. The wave
function can be either real or complex. The only quantity having physical meaning is the
square of its magnitude, Ψ Ψ ∗ = Ψ , (where Ψ ∗ being the complex conjugate of Ψ ). The
2
quantity Ψ gives the probability of finding the particle in state Ψ , i.e. Ψ 2 is a measure of
2
probability density. The probability of finding a particle in volume dxdydz is given by Ψ

2
∫∫∫ Ψ
2
dxdydz . As the particle is certain to be found somewhere in space dxdydz = 1
The above equation is called the normalization condition and a wave function that obeys
this equation is said to be normalized.
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Thus wave function Ψ gives the probability of finding the particle at a given place in
space at given instant.
= = = = = = = = = = = = x x x x x x x x x xx = = = = = = = = = = =
ICEEM Page 7
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10.1 ZEEMAN EFFECT:

Zeeman effect is an magneto-optical phenomenon, in which spectral lines are
affected by an applied magnetic field and split into several components distributed
symmetrically about the original lines.
Let the magnetic field is applied in the plane of paper direction.
When the spectral lines are observed longitudinally (i.e. in the direction
parallel to applied magnetic field), it is found that the each spectral line
splits into two components, Fig.10.2. One line having slightly shorter
wavelength and other having slightly longer wavelength than that of the
original line. The original line is no longer seen. The components that Fig. 10.1
appear are found to be symmetrically situated about the position of
original line.
When the lines are observed transversally (i.e. in the direction
perpendicular to the applied magnetic field), the each spectral line
splits into three components, Fig. 10.3. In which the central line having Fig. 10.2
same wavelength as original line and outer two having symmetrically
situated about the position of original line.
The results described above are obtained with strong magnetic
field and is known as normal Zeeman effect. A more complex
resolution of greater number of lines is produced in weak magnetic
fields and is known as anomalous Zeman effect. Fig. 10.3
10.1.1 Classical Expression for Zeeman Shift:

Consider an electron moving in a circular orbit of radius r with velocity v round the
mv 2
nucleus. The centripetal force acting on the electron F =
r
If an external magnetic field is applied, an additional force acts on
the electron, which is directed perpendicular to the direction of motion of
electron. This force is also perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic r
field and is along the radius. When this force acts inwards along the
radius, the velocity of electron increases and vice versa. Suppose this O
force due to magnetic field is F1 and let velocity of electron be increased
to v1 by the application of magnetic field. Then
Fig. 10.4
F1 = Bev1
Let this force is directed towards the centre, then total force acting along
mv 2
the radius= F + F1 = + Bev1
r
2
mv1
Due to the circular motion, this total force must be equal to
r
2 2
∴ mv1 = mv + Bev1
r r
But we know, v = r and v1 = r1 , where  and  1 are angular velocities
respectively.
∴ mr  1 = mr  + Ber
2 2 2 2
1
r r
∴ mr 12 - mr  2 = Ber1
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∴ 12 -  2 = Be  1
m
∴ 1 -  = Be  1 = Be  1 ( 1 +  ≅ 21 )
m ( 1 +  ) m (2  1 )
= eB
2m
∴ 1 =  + eB
2m
If  , 1 and  2 are frequencies, then  = 2 and 1 = 21
∴ 21 = 2 + eB
2m
1 =  + eB --------- [ 1 ]
4 m
 1 -  = ∆ = eB --------- [ 2 ]
4 m
When electron moves in opposite direction, the magnetic field produces a force in opposite
direction and velocity decreases to v 2 . In this case, total force = F - F1
2
mv 2 mv 2
∴ = - Bev 2
r r
∴  22 -  2 = - Be  2
m
∴ 2 -  = - Be  2 = - eB (  2 +  ≅ 2 2 )
m ( 2 +  ) 2m
∴  2 =  - eB
2m
 2 =  - eB --------- [ 3 ]
4 m
 2 -  = ∆ = - eB --------- [ 4 ]
4 m
From Eqn. (2) and (4), it is clear that two lines are equally displaced from original line in two
opposite sides.
In general, ∆ = ± eB --------- [ 5 ]
4 m
The quantity eB is known as normal Zeeman shift.

4 m
We know,  = c

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Differentiating, d = ( - c2 ) d

d =  d  = ± eB 
2 2
--------- [ 6 ]
c 4  mc
The Eqn.(6) gives the Zeeman shift in terms of wavelength. This shows that a spectral line
of wavelength  will be resolved under the action of applied magnetic field into the
components symmetrically situated on either side of the original line with a shift given by
Eqn. (6).
10.2 RAMAN EFFECT:
When an intense beam of monochromatic light is allowed to pass through solid,
liquid or gas; the scattered radiations contains lines whose frequencies are greater or less
than the incident radiation. This effect is known as Raman effect.
The lines whose frequencies are modified in Raman effect are called Raman lines.
The lines having frequencies less than that of incident frequency are called Stokes lines
and those having greater frequencies are called anti-Stokes lines. The Raman lines are
symmetrically displaced about the parent line, known as Rayleigh line.
Experimental arrangement: The basic apparatus used for obtaining Raman

spectrum is shown in fig.10.5. C is a glass tube, which acts as a container for liquid to be
investigated, 1 or 2 cm in diameter and 10 to 15 cm long. The one end of tube is projected
Fig. 10.5
outwards in the shape of horn and is painted black. Other end W is plane and is closed with
an optically plane glass plate, through which scattered light is transmitted. The tube C is
placed in a water jacket so that it may not get heated. S is a mercury arc lamp. The light is
passed through a glass tube A filled with solution of sodium nitrate. This tube acts as a filter
to get a monochromatic beam. The light is focused at the axis of the tube C. R is a reflector
around the tube C, which increases the intensity of the incident light. The scattered light is
focused at the slit of the spectrograph by a lens L. In the spectrograph we obtain the
Raman spectrum on either side of the central intense line (Rayleigh line).
Certain modifications in the apparatus are necessary for the excitation of Raman
effect in solids and gases.
Results: Raman lines are fainter than the Rayleigh line. The Stokes lines are more
intense than corresponding anti-Stokes lines. As temperature increases, the Raman lines
become more intense and move inward towards the Rayleigh line.
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QUANTUM THEORY OF RAMAN EFFECT: When light (photon of energy h ) falls

on a molecule, the photon will undergo a collision with molecule. There are different
possibilities of collision –
A) Elastic collision: In this case, there will not be exchange of energy between the
molecule and the striking photon. So that energy of the photon will not change. It means
that the frequency of the scattered photon will be same as that of the incident photon. This
is the reason for the presence of unmodified line in the scattered light spectra.
B) Inelastic collision: In this case there are two possibilities –
I) The molecule in ground state will absorb the energy from the incident photon and
goes to the excited state. Let ∆E be the energy absorbed by the molecule during collision
and let 1 be the frequency of scattered photon, then from the law of conservation of
energy, we have
h = h1 + ∆E
 = 1 + ∆ E
h
1 =  -  ′ --------- [ 1 ]
where  ′ = ∆ E
h
Eqn (1) shows that, the frequency of the scattered photon is less than the frequency
of the incident photon. This is the reason for the presence of Stokes line in the scattered
light spectra.
II) The molecule in the excited state will impart some of its energy to the incident
photon during collision. Let ∆E be the energy lost by the molecule during collision and let
h 2 be the frequency of scattered photon, then from the law of conservation of energy, we
have
h 2 = h + ∆E
2 =  + ∆ E
h
2 =  +  ′ --------- [ 2 ]
Eqn (2) shows that, the frequency of the scattered photon is greater than the
frequency of the incident photon. This is the reason for the presence of anti-Stokes line in
the scattered light spectra.
===================== xxxxxxxx ==================
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Engineering Physics LASER TECHNOLOGY
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LASER TECHNOLOGY

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=========================================================
The word laser is an abbreviation for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. Laser is one of the outstanding inventions of the second half of the last century.
Laser is a light source but it is very much different from many of traditional light sources.
Laser is not used for illumination purpose as we use other light sources. Laser produces a
highly directional and high intensity beam with a narrow frequency range than that available
from the common types of light sources. Laser has become a valuable tool in all the fields;
which is affecting our lives in many ways.
11.1 INTRACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER
The understanding of the working principle of a laser requires an appreciation of
quantum processes that take place in a material when it is exposed to radiation. A material
medium is composed of identical atoms or molecules, each of which is characterized by a
set of discrete allowed energy states. An atom can move from one energy state to another,
when it receives or releases an amount of energy equal to the energy difference between
those two states. Let us restrict our attention to two energy states E 1 and E2 of an atom. E1
is the lower energy state while E2 is the excited state. As the constituent atoms of the
medium are identical, the energy states E1 and E2 will be common to all atoms in the
medium. Let a monochromatic radiation of frequency v be incident on the medium. The
radiation may be viewed as a stream of photons, each photon carrying energy hv . If hv
=(E1-E2), the interaction or radiation with atoms leads to the following three distinct
competing processes in the medium.
I) Stimulated Absorption: In an atom, all the electrons exist in their normal state of energy
E1 before radiation is incident on it. When external radiation is incident on an atom, the
incident photon energy ( hv ) is absorbed by electron. As a result of this, the electron is
raised to higher energy state E2; which is known as excited state of atom. This process is
called stimulated absorption or simply absorption.
Normally the number of atoms (N1) in ground state is greater than the number of atoms
(N2) in the excited state i.e. N1 > N2.
E2
hv = E2 - E1
E1
Before absorption After absorption
Fig 11.1
Time during which an atom can exist in the ground state is unlimited. On the other
hand, atom can remain in the excited state for a limited time known as lifetime. After being
in the excited state, the atom returns to ground state by emitting a photon of energy hv .
The emission process can take one of the two forms: namely spontaneous emission or
stimulated emissions.
II) Spontaneous Emission: An excited atom can stay in the excited level for an average
lifetime. This excited atom drops back to lower state E 1 without the action of an external
agency. During the transition, it gives off the excess energy ( hv = E2 - E1) in the form of a
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photon. Such emission of radiation, which is without any external influence, is known as
spontaneous emission. It is shown in Fig. 11.2.
E2
hv = E2 - E1
E1
Before emission After emission
Fig.11.2
The important features of spontaneous emission are:

1) It is independent of outside circumstances and hence cannot be controlled from
outside.
2) The instant of transition, direction of propagation, the initial phase and plane of
polarization of each photon are all random, they are different for different photons
emitted by various atoms.
3) The light is not monochromatic and is incoherent.
4) Because of lack of directionality, the light spreads in all directions around the
source.
III) Stimulated Emission:
Einstein predicted that, an atom in the excited state need not wait for spontaneous
emission to occur. There must be another mechanism by which an excited atom can return
to the ground state immediately. If a photon with appropriate energy ( hv = E2 - E1) interacts
with the excited atom, it can trigger the excited atom to make a transition to the ground
state E1. The transition emits a second photon, which would be identical to the triggering
photon in respect of frequency, phase, propagation direction and polarization. This process
of emission of photons by an excited atom under the influence of an external agent is called
stimulated emission.
This process is the key to the operation of laser. The important features of stimulated
E2
hv = E2 - E1 hv = E2 - E1
hv = E2 - E1
E1
Before emission After emission
Fig.. 11.3
emission are:
1) The emission process can be controlled from outside.
2) The photon emission in this process is identical to the stimulating photon in respect
of frequency, phase, plane of polarization and direction of propagation.
3) The light emitted in this process is directional, coherent and monochromatic.
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4) Multiplication of photons (i.e. light amplification) is possible in this process.

Under normal conditions, all three processes (absorption, spontaneous emission and
stimulated emission) occur simultaneously.
11.2 POPULATION INVERSION:

The number of active atoms occupying an energy state is called population of the state.
Thus N1 and N2 are the populations of the lower (E1) and upper (E2) energy levels
respectively.
In a state of thermal equilibrium, the populations of energy levels E 2 and E1 are related
by the relation
N2
= e −( E2 − E1 ) / kT -----[ 1 ]
N1
The negative exponent in this equation indicates that, N 2 << N1 at equilibrium. It means
that more atoms are in the lower energy level E 1. This state is called normal state. As a
result the number of stimulated emissions is very little as compared to absorption.
Therefore laser action will not take place. If somehow the number of atoms in excited state
are made larger than that in the ground state (i.e. N2 > N1); the process of stimulated
emission dominates and laser action can be achieved.
The state in which the population of atoms in higher state is larger than that in the
ground state is known as population inversion. Thus when the general condition (N1 > N2)
is inverted the population inversion (N2 > N1) is achieved.
11.3 PUMPING MECHANISM:
For realizing and maintaining the condition of population inversion the atoms have to
be raised continuously to excited state. It requires energy to be supplied to the system. The
process of supplying energy to the medium in order to achieve the state of population
inversion is called pumping.
There are many techniques of pumping process. Most commonly used are optical
pumping, electrical discharge and direct conversion. In optical pumping a light source such
as a flash discharge tube is used. This method is adopted in solid state lasers. In electric
discharge method, the electric field causes ionization of the medium and raises it to the
excited state. This technique is used in gas lasers. A direct conversion of electrical energy
into light takes place in semiconductors lasers.
Pumping Schemes: Atoms in general are characterized by a large number of energy
levels. Among these energy levels; two, three or four levels will be relevant to the pumping
process. Accordingly, pumping schemes are classified as two level, three level and four
level schemes. Among them the two level schemes will not lead to the laser action. The
three level and four level schemes are important. Here we discuss the three level and four
level schemes.
I) Three level pumping scheme: Let us assume that an atomic system has three
energy levels as shown in Fig.11.4. The state E1 is the ground state and E2 and E3 are the
excited states. In the scheme, the energy states are such that atoms are readily excited to
ICEEM Page 4
uppermost state E3 (known as pumping level) when light of frequency v p (known as

pumping frequency) is incident on them. The pump level E3 is not a stable state.
E3 Pumping Level
Non-radiative transition
E2
hv = E3 - E1
hv = E2 - E1
E1 Ground state
Fig.11.4
Atoms do not stay at the E3 level and undergo downward transitions either to E 1 or
E2 levels. The probability of spontaneous transition E 3 to E1 is comparable to that E3 to E2.
The E2 is a metastable state; hence the probability of spontaneous transition E 2 to E1 is
extremely small. When the medium is exposed to radiation of frequency v p , a large number
of atoms will be excited to the higher energy level E 3. Some of these atoms make
spontaneous transition to the lowest level E 1, but many them make spontaneous transition
to the metastable level E2 through a non-radiative transition. As spontaneous transitions
from E2 to E1 occur rarely, the atoms get trapped in the state E 2. The process continues
because of pumping and after a short time there will be a large accumulation of atoms at
E2. When more than half of the ground state atoms accumulate at E 2 the population
inversion is achieved between the states E 1 and E2. Now a photon of energy hv = E2 – E1
can trigger stimulated emission of atoms at E2.
In this scheme, the terminal state of laser transition is simultaneously the ground
state. To achieve population inversion more than half of the ground state atoms must be
pumped to the upper state. Therefore a very high pump power is required in this type of
pumping scheme.
II) Four level pumping schemes: A typical
four-level pumping scheme is shown in Fig.11.5. E4 Pumping level
Pump frequency lifts the active centers from the n-type
ground level E1 to the uppermost level E 4. From Non-radiative transition
the pump level E4 the atoms rapidly fall to the
metastable state E3. The population at this state E3 Metastable State
grows rapidly while the level E2 is virtually hv = E3 - E2
empty. Therefore, population inversion is hv = E4 - E1
achieved between the states E2 and E3. A
photon of energy hv = E3 –E2 can start a chain E2
of stimulate emission, bringing the atoms into
the state E2. From there the atoms undergo non- E1
radiative transitions subsequently to the ground
states E1 and will be available once again to Fig.11.5
participate in the process.
For better pumping efficiency, the pumping levels E4, E3, E2 of the atom must not be a
narrow level. It should be a band of energy levels. It allows use of a pumping radiation of
wider bandwidth to excite more atoms.
11.4 PRINCIPLE OF A LASER:
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A laser is a device to produce an intense, strictly monochromatic, unidirectional and

highly coherent beam of light. A laser is based for its action on the principle of population
inversion followed by stimulated emission.
An excited atom emits energy in the form of light when the excited electrons in the
atom drop back to a lower energy level. Such an emission of light is known as spontaneous
emission. In which the radiation is emitted in all directions and has energy given by the
difference between the excited state and the lower energy state. If, however, during the
excited state of atoms, it is exposed to a matching photon (which has exactly the same
frequency as the emitted by this atom in spontaneous emission.) it stimulates the atom in
excited state to decay by emitting an identical photon. Such a photon travels in the direction
of incident photon and for every incident photon we have two outgoing photons. Thus
number of identical photon goes on increasing i.e. light amplification takes place. In other
words in intense beam of identical photons is produced.
In practice, to increase the intensity of the beam, resonant cavity is used. When beam
reaches the partially reflecting mirror it gets emitted from this end, which is the laser beam.
In such a way a unidirectional intense beam of identical photons are produced.
11.5 LASER PROPERTIES
1) Coherence:
Conventional light sources produce incoherent light; since they emit random
wavelength light waves with no common phase relationship. On the other hand, the waves
emitted by a laser source will be in phase and are of the same frequency. Therefore, light
generated by a laser is highly coherent.
2) Directionality:
The conventional sources emit light in all directions. Laser emits light only in one
direction as the photons traveling along the optical axis of the system are selected and
augmented with the help of the optical resonator.
3) Divergence:
Light from conventional sources spreads out in the form of spherical wave fronts
and hence it is highly divergent. The divergence of angular spread of the laser beam is
extremely small.
4) Intensity:
The intensity of light from a conventional source decreases rapidly with distance as it
spreads in the form of spherical waves. One can look at the source without any harm to his
eyes. In contrast a laser emits light in the form of a narrow beam, which propagates in the
form of a plane waves. As the energy is concentrated in a very narrow region, its intensity
would be tremendously high. The intensity of the laser beam stays nearly constant with
distance as the light travels in the form of plane waves.
5) Monochromaticity:
The light from normal monochromatic sources spreads over a wavelength range of the
order of 100 A0-1000A0. The laser light is highly monochromatic.
11.6 RUBY LASER
It is the first working solid state laser developed by Maiman in 1960.
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Construction:
It consists of three essential parts – i] Active material, ii] Resonant cavity and iii] Optical
pumping. These are shown in Fig.11.6
I) Active material: It is a ruby crystal. Ruby is an Al2O3 crystal, doped with 0.05%
Cr2O3. Thus some of the Al3+ ions are replaced by Cr3+ ions in the crystal lattice. The Cr3+
ions constitute the active centers where as the aluminum and oxygen atoms are inert.
II) Resonant cavity: For this purpose, a ruby is taken in the form of a cylindrical rod of
4cm in length and 0.5cm in diameter. Its ends are cut and polished such that the ends
faces are optically flat and exactly parallel to each other and are strictly perpendicular to the
axis of the rod. One of its end is completely silvered to become fully reflecting while the
other is only partially silvered hence it is partially reflecting.
III) Optical pumping system: Generally the optical pumping is done by a helical xenon
flash tube. Ruby rod is surrounded by flash tube, which provides the optical energy to raise
the Cr3+ ions to upper energy level. The system is cooled with the help of a coolant
circulating around the ruby rod.
Operation:
Ruby laser employs a three-level pumping scheme. The active material in the ruby is
3+
Cr ions. The energy level diagram for these ions is shown in Fig.11.7 There are two wide
energy bands E3 and E3’ and pair of closely spaced levels at E2. When ruby rod is irradiated
with light emitted from xenon flash, the ground state Cr 3+ ions are excited by absorption of
photons to the broad upper bands E 3 and E3’. The excited Cr3+ ions rapidly (<10-8 sec.) lose
some of their energy the crystal lattice and undergo non-radiative transitions to E2. Since
the metastable state E2 has very long lifetime (3 X 10-3 sec.) as compared to E3’ the number
of atoms in this state keep on increasing and ultimately exceeds the ground state E 1. Thus
the level E2 becomes more populated than the level E1 and hence population inversion is
established between E2 and E1.
Such system with population inversion is very unstable. When an atom decays
spontaneously from E2 to E1, photon of wavelength 6943A0 is emitted. This spontaneously
emitted photon may stimulate an excited atom in state E 2 to emit an identical photon.
When these photons move parallel to the axis of the rod, get reflected back and forth
between the two ends of the crystal and grow in strength. After enough strength is attained
the laser beam emerges out of the partially silvered end. The beam is of red color having a
wavelength of 6943A0.
E3
Fully Reflecting E3’

Flash Tube Partially Reflecting
Mirror Mirror E2
LASER
Metal contact
6943 Ao
Ruby Rod Power Supply E1

Fig.11.6 Fig.11.7
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A stage is reached where the population inversion caused by one flash of xenon tube is
used up.
The laser beam then ceases till the next flash of tube repeats the process. Thus, ruby
laser is a pulsed laser. It is its major disadvantage.
11.7 Helium Neon Laser:
Construction:
Mixture of He-Ne LASER
Power Supply Partial

Perfect Reflector
Reflector
Fig.11.8
The construction of a typical He-Ne laser is shown in Fig. 11.8. It consists of a glass
discharge tube of about 80 cm long and 1.5 cm diameter. The tube is filled with mixture of
helium (He) and neon (Ne) in the ratio 10:1 at a pressure of 1mm of Hg.
The excitation of helium and neon atoms is obtained by means of a discharge; which is
produced by the application of a high voltage between the two electrodes sealed into the
discharge tube.
The tube is sealed with glass windows oriented at a Brewster angle to axis of tube. The
cavity mirrors are arranged externally. One of the mirrors is perfect reflector while the other
is partial reflector.
Working:
Atomic
collisions
Metastable state
F3 E6
E5 3.39 μm
F2 E4 Metastable state
1.15 μm
6328 Ao
E3
Excitation by Spontaneous
collision with emission
electrons
E2
Deexcitation by
collision
F1 E1
Helium Neon
Fig. 11.9
He-Ne laser employs a four-level pumping scheme The energy level diagrams for
helium and neon are shown in Fig.11.9. When an electric discharge passes through the
gas mixture, the He atoms are excited to the levels F 2 and F3 through the inelastic collisions
with accelerated electrons. These two levels are metastable and excited atoms cannot
return to ground state through spontaneous emission. The excited helium atoms can return
ICEEM Page 8
to the normal state by transferring their energy to neon atoms through collision. Such an
energy transfer can take place when two colliding atoms have identical energy states. Neon
energy levels E6 and E4 coincide with F3 and F2 levels respectively of the He atoms.
Therefore when helium atoms in metastable state F 2 and F3 collides with neon atoms in
ground state, the neon atoms is excited to E 4 and E6 levels respectively and the helium
atom drops to ground state. Thus role of helium atom is to excite neon atoms and cause
population inversion in the neon atom. The E4 and E6 levels of neon atoms are also
metastable states. Therefore as the collisions go on, neon atoms accumulate in E 4 and E6
levels. Thus the population of E4and E6 levels happens to be much more than those in
lower levels E3 and E5. Thus a state of population inversion is achieved and any
spontaneously emitted photon can trigger laser action any of the three transitions shown in
Fig.11.9.
The neon atoms then drop down from the lower energy level E 5 or E3 to the level E2
through spontaneous emission. From level E 2 the neon atoms are brought back to ground
state through collisions with wall.
The transitions from E6 to E5, E4 to E3 result in the emission of laser beam in the
infrared region having wavelengths 1.15**m (11500A o) and 33900 Ao respectively. While
transition from E6 to E3 results in emission of laser beam of wavelength 6328Ao . A proper
selection of the different frequencies may be made by choosing end mirrors having high
reflectivity over only the required wavelength range.
The helium-neon laser operates continuously. It is also stable and relatively less
expensive. Therefore it is widely used in physics labs.
11.8 SEMICONDUCTOR LASER:

Construction:
The basic structure of the layers of the simplest laser diode is shown in fig. 11.10.
The layers of the semiconductor material like GaAs are arranged such that at the p-n
junction an active region is created. The top and bottom faces are metallized and ohmic
contacts are provided to apply the external voltage. The resonant cavity is provided by
polishing front and rear faces of the GaAs crystal. The other two opposite faces are
roughened to prevent the lasing action in that direction. The pumping is done by passing
+
Perfect Reflector
p-type LASER
Active region
n-type
Metalic contact
Roughened face
-
Fig.11.10
electrical current in forward bias condition.
Working:
Charge carriers in a semiconductor laser diode are both the free electrons in the
conduction band and the holes in the valence band.
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When no potential difference is applied across the junction, a potential barrier exists in the
form of a depletion layer of junction diode and no current flows across the junction. When
current is passed through a p-n junction diode in forward bias, holes move from p-region to
n-region and the electrons move from n-region to p-region. Hence in the depletion layer the
injected electrons and holes appear in high concentrations, giving rise to population
inversion. The narrow region where the state of population is achieved is called active
region. These electrons and holes are recombined in the junction region. Their energy is
released in a form of photons due to the transition of electrons from the conduction band to
the valence band.
If the condition of population inversion (which is required for the laser action) does not exist,
the photons will be emitted by spontaneous emission. That is the basis of the operation of a
LED. At low bias currents, the spontaneous emission is dominant. The condition for
population inversion is achieved by increasing the forward current. Consequently
stimulated emission is now become dominant.
Advantages:
The main advantages are their high efficiency, high reliability, very long lifetime, and
very chief price. The other advantages are small size, light weight, very low energy
consumption, and narrow spectrum band.
ICEEM Page 10
Engineering Physics FIBER OPTICS
LECTURE NOTES ON
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
FIBER OPTICS

Tel.: 0240-2558101, Fax: 0240-2558111
ICEEM Page 1
=========================================================
12.1 INTRODUCTION:
Soon after the discovery of the laser some preliminary experiments on
propagation of information carrying light waves through the open atmosphere
were carried out. But it was realized that because of the vagaries of the
terrestrial atmosphere, in order to have an efficient and dependable
communication system, one would require a guiding medium in which the
information carrying light waves could be transmitted. This guiding medium is
the optical fiber, which guides the light beam from one place to another.
12.2 BASIC STRUCTURE OF OPTICAL FIBER:
An optical fiber is a wave-guide that operates at optical frequencies. This
fiber wave-guide is normally cylindrical in shape. It confines electromagnetic
energy in the form of light to within its surfaces and guides the light in the
direction parallel to its axis. The transmission properties of an optical wave-
guide are dictated by its structural characteristics.
Cladding
Core
Sheath
Core Cladding Sheath
Fig. 12.1
Physically an optical fiber is a very thin and flexible medium having a

cylindrical shape (Fig.12.1). It consists of three coaxial sections: i) core ii)
cladding and iii) jacket.
Out of these, the core is the innermost section and is made up of glass or
plastic. This is the actual light guiding region, through which light is guided by
total internal reflection. The range of core diameter is 5 to 100 μm. It is
surrounded by a coaxial region known as cladding. Cladding is made up of
glass or plastic. The cladding has very different optical property from those of
the core. Cladding helps to keep the light within the core with the help of
successive total internal reflection. The cladding diameter is usually 125 μm.
The outer section is called the jacket or sheath made of plastic or polymer and
other materials. The jacket is provided for the protection against moisture,
absorption, crushing etc. and it also increases the mechanical strength of the
fiber.
The core acts like a continuous layer of two parallel mirrors. A signal is
first encoded into a light beam, which is then passed in between the two
boundaries and propagated as a result of multiple internal reflections. For this
purpose the refractive indices of core and cladding are different, the refractive
.
indices of core is greater than cladding. i.e. ncore > ncladding
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12.3 CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBER:

Depending on the variation in material composition of the core, the fibers
can be classified in to two classes: single mode fiber (SMF) and multimode
fiber (MMF)
A single mode fiber has a smaller core diameter and can support only one
mode of propagation. On the other hand, a multimode fiber has a large core
diameter and supports a large number of modes.
Multimode fibers are further classified on the basis of index profile. An
index profile is a graph of refractive index drawn on x-axis versus the distance
from the core axis drawn on the y-axis. The index profile of a multimode fiber
can be either a step index (SI) type or a graded index (GRIN) type. The index
profile of a single mode fiber is usually a step index type.
A) Step Index Fiber: In step index fiber the refractive index undergoes
abrupt change at the core cladding boundary, because of which it is known as
a step index fiber. Step index fibers are classified into single mode and
multimode classes.
i) Single Mode Step Index Fiber:
A single mode step index fiber has a very fine thin core of uniform
refractive index and undergoes an abrupt change (or step) at the core-
cladding boundary as shown in Fig.12.2. In single mode fiber, only one mode
is transmitted. Light travels along a single path, which is along the axis. This
fiber has very small core diameter
of order of 4 to 10 μm. Cladding
The single mode step index Core
fiber has several advantages such
as lower signal loss, a higher
information capacity or large n1
bandwidth and their low cost as n2
compared to multimode fibers. Fig.12.2
This type of fiber exhibits
minimum dispersion loss and hence the highest transmission bandwidth.
In spite of its so many good advantages, the use of very thin core fibers
creates mechanical difficulties in the manufacture, handling and splicing the
fiber.
ii) Multimode Step Index Fiber:
A multimode step index fiber is very much similar to the single mode step
index fiber except that its core is of
larger diameter. A typical fiber has a
core diameter around 50 to 100 μm, Cladding
through which many modes can be Core
transmitted. The number of
propagating modes depends on the
ratio of core diameter and the n1
wavelength. Light follows zigzag n2
path inside the fiber. Such a fiber is Fig.12.3
shown in Fig.12.3.
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Multimode fibers have several advantages compared with single mode fiber:
i) The larger core radii of multimode fiber make it easier to launch optical
power into the fiber and facilitate easier coupling to optical sources.
ii) Light can be launched in multimode fiber using incoherent optical
sources.
iii) Lower tolerance requirements on fiber connectors.
A disadvantage of multimode fiber is that, due to the differing group
velocities of the propagation modes; the several modes arrive at the fiber end
at slightly different times. So the effect of dispersion gets increased
(spreading of transmitted light pulses).
B) Graded Index Fiber:
A graded index fiber is a
Cladding
multimode fiber with a core
consisting of concentric layers of
different refractive indices.
Therefore, the refractive index of
core varies with distance from the n1
axis of fiber. The refractive index n2
is more at the center and Fig.12.4
decreases gradually as the radial
distance increases from axis.
Therefore, the light waves in outer zone of the core travel faster than those in
the centre of the core. This lowers the arrival time disparity because all modes
arrive at about the same time. Thus the dispersion of the modes is
compensated by this type of fiber design. Under this situation, the light waves
travel in a sinusoidal path. So periodic focusing of the light propagating
through the fiber takes place. A typical structure and its profile are shown in
Fig.12.4.This type of fiber has core diameter around 50-100 μm.
The advantage of the graded index fiber in comparison with multimode
step index fiber is the considerable decrease in modal dispersion.
12.4 PROPOGATION OF LIGHT

The main function of an optical fiber is to accept and transmit as much
light from the source as possible. The light gathering ability of a fiber depends
on two factors, namely core size and numerical aperture. The numerical
aperture is determined by the acceptance angle and fractional refractive
change.
Acceptance Angle, Acceptance Cone and Numerical Aperture:
Let us consider an optical fiber into which light is launched. The end at
which light enters the fiber is called the launching end. Fig.12.5 shows the
conditions at the launching end. Let the refractive index of the core is n1 and
of the cladding is n2, where n2 > n1. Let no be the refractive index of (air)
medium from which light is launched into the fiber.
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Let a light ray enter the fiber at an angle  i to the axis of fiber. The ray
refracts at an angle  r and strikes the core-cladding interface at an angle  . If
 is greater than critical angle  c , the ray undergoes total internal reflection at
the interface. As long as the angle  is greater than  c , the light will stay
θi
core
Fig.12.5
within the fiber.

The maximum value of  i for which the ray will be totally reflected can be
derived form Snell's law and simple trigonometry.
Appling Snell’s law to the launching face of the fiber, we get
nosin  i = n1sin  r - ------[ 1 ]
If  i is increased beyond a limit,  will be less than  c and the ray will
escape from the side walls of the fiber. The largest value of  i occurs when 
= c
In right angled triangle ABC we have,
sin  r = sin(  2 -  ) = cos  -----[ 2 ]
Hence Eq (1) becomes
nosin  i = n1cos  ------[ 3 ]
= n1(1- sin2  )½ -----[ 4 ]
When the limiting case for total internal reflection is considered, 
becomes equal to  c . Also in this limiting case  i becomes the acceptance
angle (  0 ) for the fiber.
Combining these limiting cases into Eq (4) we get,
nosin  0 = n1(1- sin2  c )½
But, it is well known that, the total internal reflection takes place at the
interface between two dielectric media at the critical angle given by the
relation
n2
Sin  c =
n1
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1
 n 2 
2
nosin  0 = n1 1 −  2  
  n 1  
(
= n 12 − n 22 ) 1
2
When incident ray is launched from air medium, we have no = 1
sin  0 (
= n 12 − n 22 ) 1
2
-------------[ 5 ]
 0 = sin-1 (n 12 − n 22 ) 2
1
-------------[ 6 ]
i) The angle  0 is called the acceptance angle of the fiber. Acceptance angle
may be defined as the maximum angle
that a light ray can have relative to the
axis of the fiber for its propagation
through the fiber. Acceptance
Fiber
II) The light rays contained within the cone cone
having a full angle 2  0 are accepted
and transmitted along the fiber. Fig.12.6
Therefore, the cone is called the
acceptance cone (Fig.12.6).
Light incident at an angle beyond  0 refracts through the cladding and the
corresponding optical energy is lost. It is obvious that the larger the
diameter of the core, the larger the acceptance angle.
iii) The numerical aperture (NA) is defined as the sine of the acceptance
angle. Thus
NA = sin  0
(
= n 12 − n 22 ) 1
2
-------------[ 6 ]
The numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the
fiber. It is a measure of the amount of light that can be accepted by a
fiber. It is seen from Eq.(6) that, NA is dependent on the refractive indices
of the core and cladding material. It is a dimensionless quantity, which is
less than unity. Large NA implies that a fiber will accept large amount of
light from the source.
12.5 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER:
A fiber optic communication system is capable of handling a large
number of channels because it has a large bandwidth that provides wide
applications in communications.
1. The military applications of fiber optic communication systems are
communications, command and control links on ships, aircraft and
missiles, and data links for satellite earth stations.
2. Fiber optic systems are particularly suitable for transmission of digital
data like that are generated by computers.
ICEEM Page 6
3. The fiber optic system maintains high privacy, so it is widely used in

defense services.
4. Cable television, space vehicles, ships and submarine cables use fiber
optic systems.
5. Fiber optic systems are also used for signaling purpose.
6. Fiber optic sensors are used for sensing some typical quantities like
temperature, pressure, liquid levels, mechanical strain, acceleration,
voltage and current.
7. Hydrophones are used to measure acoustic disturbances in water.
8. A smoke detector and pollution detectors can be built using fibers.
9. It has wide engineering applications like security and alarm systems,
electronic instrumentation systems, industrial automation and process
control.
10. Many parts of the human body which are otherwise inaccessible can
be studied by illumination with fiber optics. A bundle of MMF is used to
illuminate a part of human organ and other bundle to collect the
reflected light. This fiberscopic technique is employed for endoscopic
applications.
11. Laser beam guided by fibers is used to reattach a detached retina or to
rectify defects in vision.
ICEEM Page 7
Engineering Physics ACOUSTICS
LECTURE NOTES ON
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
ACOUSTICS

Tel.: 0240-2558101, Fax: 0240-2558111:
ICEEM Page 1
The branch of the science which deals with the planning of a building or a
hall with a view to provide best audible sound to the audience is called
acoustics of building or architectural acoustics.
13.1 ECHO: An echo is produced when the sound reflected from an obstacle
reaches the ear after the sound from the source has been already heard. Thus
there is a repetition of the sound in this case. The sensation of the sound
persists for about 1/10 sec after the source stopped giving sound. Hence in
order that an echo may be heard as distinctly separate, it must reach the ear
1/10 sec later than the direct sound. When the distance of the obstacle from the
source is 17m or more, echo will be heard distinctly. When sound is reflected
from a number of reflecting surfaces, multiple echoes are heard.
13.2 REVERBERATIONS AND REVERBERATION TIME:
The walls, floor and ceiling of hall reflect the sound with only a small loss in
its energy. When sound is generated in a hall, the sound waves travel towards
the walls, floor, and ceiling are reflected back again. So the listener receives
series of sound of diminishing intensity.
The result of this repeated reflection is that, even if sound is cut off at the
source, it does not stop immediately. So far as the listener is concerned, he will
continue to listen the successive reflections until they are too weak to stimulate
his ears (i.e. sound becomes inaudible). This prolongation or persistence of
audible sound in a hall even when sound source has stopped to emit sound is
called Reverberation.
The time during which sound persists in the hall after source has stopped to
emit the sound is called Reverberation time. The time is measured from the
instant the source stops emitting sound.
Reverberation time is also defined as –
1) The time taken by the sound to fall to one millionth of its intensity just
after the source is cut off.
2) The time taken by the sound in a room to fall from its average intensity to
inaudibility.
Sabine found that the reverberation time (T) depends upon the size of the
hall, absorption of sound, loudness of the sound and upon the kind of music or
0.165V
sound for which the hall is to be used. He derived a formula as T = ,
A
where V is the volume of the hall and A is the effective absorbing surface area
of the hall.
13.3 ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT:
When sound energy is incident on any surface, a part of it is absorbed part
of it is transmitted and the remaining part is reflected. The property of a surface
by which sound energy is converted into other form of energy is known as
absorption. The effectiveness of a surface in absorbing sound energy is
expressed with the absorption coefficient.
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The absorption coefficient (coefficient of absorption) of a material is defined

as the ratio of the sound energy absorbed by the surface to that of the total
sound energy incident on the same surface.
Sound energy absorbed by the surface
Absorption coefficient [a] =
Total sound energy incident on the same surface
.The amount of energy absorbed depends on the nature of the surface. All
the sound energy falling on an open window is fully transmitted without any
reflection. Therefore, open window is considered as an perfect absorber of
sound. And hence the unit area of an open window is taken as a standard unit
of absorption. In terms of this, absorption of all other substances can be
measured.
The absorption coefficient is measured in open window unit and written as
O.W.U. or Sabine.
13.4 SABINE FORMULA:

Let Eo be the energy per unit volume in an enclosure when sound is
stopped. Let its value fall to E at time t. It can be proved statistically that, the
energy falling on a unit area inside the enclosure in one second is vE/4 at the
time, where v is the velocity of sound. If the different areas S 1, S2, S3, etc.
inside the enclosure have absorption coefficients a1,a2, a3, etc, then the energy
absorbed by these area per second = ( vE/4) (a1S1+a2S2+….)
= ( vE/4 ) ∑ aS ------- [ 1 ]
Let V be the volume of space inside the enclosure. Then,

the energy in the space at time t = VE.
dE
The rate of decay of energy = - V ------ [ 2 ]
dt
Evidently this rate of decay of energy is equal to the rate of absorption of
energy.
dE vE
Thus, -V
dt
=
4
∑ aS
1 dE v
E dt
= -
4V
∑ aS
v
Let
4V
∑ aS = k
1 dE
 =-k
E dt
On integration, we get
loge E = - kt + A, where A is constant of integration.
At t = 0, E = Eo
 loge Eo = A
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 loge E = - kt + loge Eo
E
loge = - kt
Eo
E
According to the definition of reverberation time, when t =T, then = 10-6
Eo
loge (10-6 ) = - kT
v
=-
4V
∑ aS T
4Vlog e (10 -6 )
T=-
v∑ aS
Substituting v = 340 m/s and loge10-6 = (-6 x 2.30)
4V(-6 x 2.30)
T=-
340∑ aS
0.165V 0.165V
T= =
∑ aS A
This is Sabine Formula.
13.5 ACOUSTICAL DESIGN OF A HALL:

Following are the essential requirements about the good acoustics:
1) The sound heard must be sufficiently loud in every part of the hall and
no echoes should be present.
2) The total quality of speech and music must be unchanged.
3) For the sake of clarity, there must be no confusion due to overlapping of
syllables or notes or music.
4) There should be no concentration of sound in any part of hall.
5) Reverberation should be quite proper.
6) There should no resonance within the building.
7) There should be no Echelon effect.
8) The boundaries should be sufficiently sound proof to exclude the
extraneous noise
While constructing the acoustically good hall the following factors must be
considered carefully, which affect the architectural acoustics.
1) Loudness:
Sufficient loudness in every portion of hall is an important factor for
satisfactory hearing.
It can be maintained by using large sounding boards behind the speaker and
facing the audience. Large polished wooden reflecting surfaces immediately
ICEEM Page 4
above the speaker are also helpful. In case of vary big hall, it is necessary that
the speech must be amplified with the help of loudspeakers.
2) Uniform distribution of sound:

If there are focusing surfaces on the walls, floor or ceiling of the hall, they
produce concentration of sound into particular regions while in some other
parts no sound reaches at all. In this way, there will not be uniform distribution
of sound in the hall, which is highly undesirable.
For uniform distribution of sound energy in hall, there should be no curved
surfaces [concave, special or cylindrical]. If such surfaces are present, they
should be covered with absorbent materials. A parabolic reflector arranged with
a speaker at the focus is most helpful in sending a uniform reflected beam of
sound in the hall.
3) Absence of echoes:
An echo is heard when direct and reflected sound waves coming from the
same source reach the listener with a time interval of 1/10 second. Such echo
formation causes the confusion. This should be avoided by use of suitable
absorbents.
4) Reverberation:
In hall, when reverberation is large, there is overlapping of successive
sounds, which results in loss of clarity in hearing. On the other hand, if the
reverberation is very small, the loudness is inadequate. Thus the reverberation
time for a hall should neither be too large nor too small. It must have a definite
value, which may satisfactory both to speaker as well as to the audience. This
preferred value of the reverberation time is called the optimum Reverberation
time. It should be between 0.75 – 1.25 sec for speech and 1.25 to 1.5 sec for
music.
The reverberation can be controlled by the following factors: (i) By providing
windows and ventilators which can be opened and closed to make the value of
the reverberation time optimum (ii) Using heavy curtains with folds (iii) By
covering the walls and floor by absorbents (iv) By providing acoustic tiles.
5) Resonance:
Some times the window pans, door pans etc. are thrown in vibrations and
they create unwanted sound. If the frequency of vibration of this unwanted
sound is same as that of audio frequency, resonance is created. Due to this,
original sound is distorted. Such resonant vibrations should be suitably
damped.
Enclosed air in hall also causes resonance. The resonant frequency of a
large hall is proportional to square root of the volume of the hall. For ordinary
size hall, this frequency comes out to be below the audible limit.
6) Echelon effect:
If there are large numbers of reflecting surfaces of a structure like a flight of
stairs, then a sharp sound produced infront of it may produce a musical note.
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Due to regular succession of reflections reaching the listener, he will repeatedly

hear a note of this frequency. This effect is known as Echelon effect, which
makes the original sound confused.
This effect can be reduced or completely eliminated by breaking at intervals
the regularity of equal spacing between the stairs.
7) Extraneous noise:
In a good hall no noise should reach form outside. Generally there are three
types of noises which are very troublesome.
I. Air borne noise: Noise, which commonly reaches the hall from outside
through open windows, doors and ventilators, is known as air borne noise.
This can be minimized i) by avoiding opening of pipes, ventilators ii) by
allotting proper places for doors and windows and iii) using double doors
and windows.
II. Structure borne noise: The noises which are conveyed through the
structure of the building are known as structural noises.
These can be minimised by i) breaking the continuity by interposing layers of
some acoustical insulators and ii) by using double walls with air space
between them.
III. Inside noise: The noises, which are produced inside the hall by machinery,
typewriters etc. are called inside noises.
These can be reduced by i) placing the machinery like typewriters on the
absorbent pad ii) affecting the smooth running of machinery and by placing the
curtains near the machines.
13.6 LIMITS OF AUDIBILITY:

In order that sound may be heard, the vibrations must have certain strength
and a certain frequency. The strength or intensity of sound waves can be
measured by means of pressure variation.
The minimum intensity which a sound wave must have in order to be audible
is called threshold of audibility and the upper limit of intensity so that sound
may be heard without producing a sensation of pain in ear is called threshold of
feeling. If the intensity of sound is increased to certain value, a sensation of
pain is produced in ear.
Further the vibrations must have a frequency above a certain minimum value
(lower pitch limit of audibility), this limit is 20 Hz. The frequency of vibrations
must have a frequency below a certain maximum value (upper pitch limit of
audibility) this limit is 20 kHz. Vibrations having frequencies higher than 20 kHz
are inaudible.
The graph (Fig.13.1) shows the range of intensities to which ear responds at
various frequencies. The lower cure gives the lower limit of threshold of
audibility and the upper curve gives the upper limit of threshold of feeling.
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The range of audibility lies between two curves and the area enclosed is
described as auditory sensation area. 3
10
From graph it is clear that, the greatest 140
sensitivity of ear for small sound
Pressure(log)
intensities lies at frequency of about 2300 Auditory
Dynes/cm2
Intensity dB
sensation
Hz. This sensitivity is extremely high but area
the ear can respond to a difference of
pressure 10-3 dyne/sq.cm above or below
the atmospheric pressure. It can also 10 10-3
respond to a difference of pressure 103 Frequency
dyne/sq.cm. Due to high range of 20 20 KHz
intensities to which ear responds, the log Fig.13.1

scale of intensities is employed.
13.7 ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS
Common building material absorbs sound only to a small extent. Therefore,
to meet the acoustical demands, material with better sound absorption property
is to be incorporated in the hall. Such material having more capacity to absorb
the incident sound or reduces the reflection of sound waves is called absorbent
or acoustical material.
In general the acoustical materials are soft and porous. They work on the
principle that, the sound waves penetrate into the pores and the sound energy
is converted into other forms of energy. The absorbing capacity of the material
depends on the thickness of material, its density and on the frequency of the
incident sound wave.
The acoustical material should have the following requirements-
1) It should be cheap, easily available, easy to fix, good looking, durable,
light in weight, sufficient structural strength, water proof, economical in
maintenance, etc.
2) It should have good resistance to fire.
3) It should be efficient over a wide range of frequencies.
4) It should have high sound absorbing efficiency.
The acoustical materials can be broadly classified as: (i) porous materials (ii)
resonant panels (iii) cavity resonators and (iv) composite types.
(i) Porous materials:
Frictional losses contribute to absorption in porous materials. The sound
waves cause the air particles to vibrate down in the pores and the resulting
losses convert some of the sound energy into heat energy. Porous materials
are effective in the higher frequencies. Curtains, woods, wool, drilled fiber
boards and acoustic plasters are examples of porous acoustical materials.
(ii) Resonant panels:
Non-perforated panels of wood, pressed wood fibers and plastic etc. are
fixed on a framing with air space between the framing and the wall. When
sound waves strikes on the panel, the panel vibrates and absorbs energy. This
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type of material absorbs sound at lower frequencies in the range from 50 to 200
Hz.
(iii) Cavity resonators:
Perforated panels constitute this category of materials. Each cavity acts as a
resonator and absorbs energy due to resonance of air column in the cavity. A
perforated panel is thus equivalent to a great number of acoustically resonant
systems. It can be designed to absorb sound of any frequency.
The drawback of the cavity resonator is that it is suitable for a particular
frequency only.
(iv) Composite absorbers:
These absorbers combine the functions of all the above three types of
material. They consist of a perforated panel fixed over an air space containing
a porous absorbent. The panels may be of metal, wood, plywood, hard board,
plaster board etc. When sound waves strike the panel, they pass through it and
damped by resonance of the air in the cavity.
================ x x x x x x x x x x x ==================
ICEEM Page 8
Engineering Physics ULTRASONICS
LECTURE NOTES ON
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
ULTRASONICS

Tel.: 0240-2558101, Fax: 0240-2558111:
ICEEM Page 1
ULTRASONICS
Sound waves, whose frequencies are above the limits of human audibility
i.e. greater than 20000 Hz are called ultrasonics. Ultrasonic waves being
inaudible have little or no effect on the ear even at high intensities.
14.1 PRODUCTION:
The ultrasonic waves cannot be produced by usual methods of producing
audible sound waves. This is due to their high frequencies. Commonly
ultrasonic waves are produced by using piezo –electric effect or
magnetostriction effect.
14.1.1 Piezo-Electric Method:
I) Piezo –electric effect: If the mechanical pressure is applied to the
opposite faces of certain crystal slices cut suitably, then pair of opposite faces
perpendicular to them would develop equal and opposite electric charges with
consequent difference of potential, their magnitudes being proportional to the
pressure. But when the crystal slice is under tension, instead of compression
the sign of charges is reversed. This phenomenon is known as Piezo-Electric
Effect.
The converse effect also occurs - If a potential difference is applied to the
opposite faces of the crystal, a change in dimensions, compression or
extension, would take place in other pair of face. The change in dimensions is
proportional to the applied potential difference.
The frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration of crystal is given by
the relation
1 Y 1 Y
f= or f=
2l  2t 
where l is the length of crystal plate, t the thickness of crystal plate , Y the
Young’s modulus and ρ the density of the material.
II) Piezo-electric transducer: The experimental arrangement is shown in
Fig.14.1.
RF Choke
Cb
P
G Cg L
HT
C C Q
Rg
Fig.14.1
Hartley Circuit
The high frequency alternating voltage, which is applied to the crystal, is

obtained by Hartley oscillatory circuit. The Hartley circuit consists of a tuned
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oscillatory circuit (inductance L and variable condenser C in parallel). One

end of the tuned circuit is connected to the plate P of the triode valve, while
the other is connected to the grid G. the coil L is tapped near center and
connected to the cathode. The quartz crystal Q is connected in parallel to the
variable condenser C.
The proper grid bias is obtained by means of grid leak resistor R g and grid
condenser Cg. The dc voltage is applied to the plate through radio frequency
choke. The radio frequency choke prevents the radio frequency current to
pass through high tension battery. Cb is blocking capacitor, which prevents the
direct current to pass through the tank circuit, while bypasses the radio
frequency currents. The capacity of the variable condenser C is adjusted so
that the frequency of the oscillating circuit is tuned to the natural frequency of
the crystal. Now the quartz crystal is set vigorously into mechanical vibrations
due to resonance, thereby producing the ultrasonic waves.
The ultrasonic waves up to a frequency of 500 kHz can be produced by
quartz crystal.
14.1.2 Magnetostriction Method:
I) Magnetostriction effect: According to this principle, if a ferromagnetic
material [iron or nickel] in the form of bar is subjected to alternating magnetic
field parallel to its length; the bar expands and contracts in length
alternatively. The frequency of expansion or contraction is twice the frequency
of alternating magnetic field.
The alternating magnetic field is produced with the help of an oscillating
circuit. Due to longitudinal contraction and expansion of bar, longitudinal
compression waves are produced in the medium surrounding the bar. The
frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration is given by the relation
1 Y
f =
2l 
where l is the length of rod, Y the Young’s modulus and ρ the density of the
material.
II) Magnetostriction transducer: The Fig.14.2 shows the
magnetostriction oscillator.
L2 L1
mA C
G P HT
G
C
Fig.14.2
The iron bar in which the vibrations have to be excited is clamped in the
middle and placed inside two coaxial coils L1 and L2. The exciting coil L1 forms
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the inductance in the tuned plate circuit of valve. The grid circuit contains the
coil L2, which is coupled to the plate coil L1. By suitably adjusting the variable
condenser C, high frequency oscillation current is set up in the plate circuit.
The plate current is measured by milliammeter (mA). This high frequency
current flowing round the coil L1 provides a periodically varying magnetic field,
which produces changes in the length of bar causing it to compress and
stretch alternately. The coil L2 serves to detect the variations of magnetization
due to alternating stress in bar by having induced emf set up in it [converse
magnetostriction effect]. This induced emf is fed to the grid which reacting on
plate circuit produces large variations in plate current, i.e. in the coil L 1, thus
increasing the magnetostriction effect in bar. By the adjustment of the variable
condenser, these alternations in the length of bar can be made to induce
varying currents in the grid coil L2 in unison with the coil L1. Evidently, the
combined result of these action and reaction is to maintain resonant
longitudinal vibrations of bar. When the frequency of the circuit becomes
equal to the frequency of the rod, resonance occurs and the sound waves of
maximum amplitude are generated. The variations in the deflection of the grid
galvanometer give definite indication of this resonance.
It should be noted that best effects are obtained when the bar is previously
magnetized by placing a powerful permanent magnet near it or by passing
direct current through the coil wound on it.
By adjusting the length of rod and the capacity of the variable condenser
high frequency waves can be produced. Ultrasonic waves of frequency
varying from 8 kHz to 300 kHz can be produced by this method.
14.2 PROPERTIES:
1. The speed of propagation of ultrasonic waves increases with increases
with increase in frequency.
2. They are highly energetic.
3. They show negligible diffraction due to their small wavelengths.
4. They can be travel over long distances as a highly directional beam and
without any appreciable loss of energy.
5. Intense ultrasonic radiation has a disruptive effect on liquids by causing
bubbles to be formed.
14.3 APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC WAVES:
A) Scientific Applications:
1. Signaling: Because of very small wavelength in comparison to audible
sound, the ultrasonic have been utilized in directional signaling.
Ultrasonic waves of 40 kHz can be obtained in the form of narrow beam,
which can travel many kilometers in water before being absorbed.
Hence, they have been found very suitable for direction signaling in
submarines and for talking from one vessel to another.
2. Depth of sea: In measurement of depth of sea, a beam of ultrasonic
waves is directed towards the bottom of the sea from the surface. This
beam is reflected from the bottom of sea and is received by a suitable
receiver.
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The time taken by the waves to go and come back is recorded

accurately. As the velocity of waves in water is known, the depth can be
calculated using relation d = v t / 2
3. Detection of submarines, air-crafts etc: The same principle as sea
depth measurement is used for finding the distance and direction of
submarine or a shoal of fish in the sea or aircraft in sky.
4. Photographic emulsions: ultrasonic waves have been used to
improve the homogeneity and stability of photographic emulsions.
5. Ultrasonic mixing: A colloid solution or emulsion of two non-mixable
liquids like oil and water or water and mercury can be formed by
simultaneously subjecting to ultrasonic waves.
6. Determination of internal symmetries of solid: It has been found that,
a solid traversed by ultrasonic waves acts like three-dimensional
diffraction grating. The diffraction patterns so obtained reveal the internal
symmetries of the crystalline solid.
B) Engineering Applications:
1. Detection of flaws in metals: For this purpose, the waves are sent
through the metal to be tested and the reflected waves are received.
These reflected waves are fed to a CRO. Two distinct peaks are
observed in case of specimen with flaw, one from the flaw and other
from the back surface of the metal. Comparison of these peaks with a
standard specimen will give the position and nature of the flaw.
2. Soldering, drilling and welding: Ultrasonic waves can be used for
soldering where ordinary methods of soldering are not successful e.g.
aluminum soldering. Drilling is made possible by making the drilling tool
to vibrate very quickly using ultrasonic waves. Similarly metal cutting is
also possible. Ultrasonic welding can be also done easily.
3. Formation of alloys: Many metal such as iron-lead, zinc-lead etc. which
can not be alloyed in their liquid state can be brought together for
uniform mixing when subjected to high intensity ultrasonic wave.
4. Coagulation and crystallization: By passing ultrasonic waves,
particles of suspended liquid can be brought close to each other, so that
coagulation takes place. The crystallization rate is also affected by
ultrasonic waves.
C) Medical and Biological Applications
1. Biological effect: The animals like rat, frog etc can be killed or injured
by high intensity ultrasonic waves. Yeast cell lose their reproduction
power when exposed to ultrasonic waves.
2. Dental cutting: Ultrasonic waves are very useful in dental cutting
3. Treatment of neuralgic pain: The body parts affected due to neuralgic
or rheumatic pains on being exposed to ultrasonic waves gets great
relief from pain.
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4. Detection of abnormal growth: Abnormal growth of the brain, certain

tumors which cannot be detected by x-rays can be detected by
ultrasonic waves.
5. Cleaning and washing: Ultrasonic waves are used for washing of
clothes; especially silken fabric in hospitals, factories and in textiles
industries. Other uses include cleaning of utensils, removing dust from
paper during its manufacture.
==================+++++++++++++++====================
ICEEM Page 6
Engineering Physics NANOTECHNOLOGY
LECTURE NOTES ON
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
NANOTECHNOLOGY

Tel.: 0240-2558101, Fax: 0240-2558111:
ICEEM Page 1
15.1 What is Nanoscience?
Nanoscience is study of material behavior at nanoscale.
15.2 What is nanoscale?
Dimension which is of the order of 1nm to 100nm is called nanoscale. Any material whose
dimension is less than 100nm can be considered as nano material. 1nm = 10−9m
15.3 What is nanotechnology?
The term nanotechnology was coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1947. Nanotechnology is the
manipulation of matter at nanoscale to create novel structure, devices and systems.
Ex:
Structure:- Carbon nano tubes, graphene, bucky ball.
Devices:- nanodiodes, capacitors,..etc..
Systems:- NEMS-nano electro mechanical systems.
15.4 What is the basic principle of nanotechnology?
The properties of a material depends on the arrangement of atoms and molecules. Arrange-
ment of atoms and molecules in nanoscale materials differ from that of bulk arrangement of
same material. Hence when arrangement changes material behavior changes.
Number of physical phenomenon became noticeably different as the size of the system
decreases. This is the basic principle of nanotechnology. Ex:- Nano gold and Bulk gold
exhibit different properties.
Bulk Gold
1. It is yellow in colour.
2. It has the property of luster.
3. It is inert.
4. It is a good conductor.
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Nano Gold
1. Depending on scale, they turn red, blue, yellow and other colours.
2. It loses luster property.
3. It is a good catalyst.
4. It is a semiconductor.
15.5 Mention different types of nanomaterials. Give an example for each.
There are three types. Namely,
1. One dimensional nanomaterials. Ex:- Graphene.
2. Two dimensional nanomaterials. Ex:- nanofibres, wires, CNT.
3. Three dimensional nanomaterials. Ex:- Fullernes, quantum dots, quantum drivers.
15.6 PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES
Nanoparticles have the structural features in between of those of atoms and the bulk materials.
While most microstructured materials have similar properties to the corresponding bulk materials, the
properties of materials with nanometer dimensions are significantly different from those of atoms and
bulks materials. This is mainly due to the nanometer size of the materials which render them: (i) large
fraction of surface atoms; (ii) high surface energy; (iii) spatial confinement; (iv) reduced imperfections,
which do not exist in the corresponding bulk materials.
Due to their small dimensions, nanoparticles have extremely large surface area to volume ratio,
which makes a large to be the surface or interfacial atoms, resulting in more “surface” dependent
material properties.
Mechanical properties of nanoparticles:

Mechanical properties like strength, melting point etc. also shows drastic change at nano scale level.
1) Bulk level steel is highly stronger than carbon (graphite) but at nanoscale cylinders of carbon are
100 times stronger than steel and very flexible. Young’s modulus varies rapidly with size and
governed by Hall Petch equation. The nanoparticles have higher strength. The reason for such
increased strength is there are more gain boundaries which resist dislocation.
2) The mechanical properties such as hardness, elasticity and ductility depend upon the bonds between
the atoms. The bond strength affected by defects and impurities in material. Nanoparticles are
highly pure and defect free hence they show better hardness, elasticity and ductility.
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3) Melting point goes on decreasing with decrease in size. It is defined as the temperature at which
molecules in it posses just enough energy to overcome intermolecular forces that hold them in a
fixed position in a solid. Atoms on the surface of a nano substance require less energy to move
because these are in contact with lesser number of atoms of substance. While atoms inside the bulk
of sample are surrounded by large number of atoms and require more energy to move. Due to this
melting point starts depending on the size of object and melting point goes on decreasing with
decrease in size.
Electrical Properties of nanoparticles:

The properties like conductivity or resistivity are come under category of electrical properties. These
properties are observed to change at nanoscale level. The examples of the change in electrical properties
in nanoparticles are:
1) Conductivity: We know that all conducting materials in bulk obey Ohm’s law but certain
nanoparticles do not obey the Ohm’s law. Conductivity of a bulk or large material does not depend
upon dimensions like diameter or area of cross section and twist in the conducting wire. However it
is found that in case of carbon nanotubes conductivity changes with change in area of cross section.
It is also observed that conductivity also changes when some shear force (in simple terms twist) is
given to nanotube. The carbon nanotubes can act as conductor or semiconductor in behaviour but
we all know that large carbon (graphite) is good conductor of electricity.
2) Resistivity: The resistivity in bulk matter is mainly due to scattering of electrons by ions or crystal
defects. The path which an electron travels between any two collisions is called as mean free path.
In nanoparticles the size of the particles is less than mean free path between the collisions hence it
depends upon the scattering from grain boundaries of the nanoparticles. The numbers of clusters of
nanoparticles in the materials are large. Thus there are large numbers of grain boundaries hence the
resistivity is high in nanoparticles.
Optical properties of nanoparticles:

The properties of a substance are also measured by taking large or bulk sample (for example of size
1023 atoms/ molecules) volume? But when these properties were checked for same material at
nanoscale level then large differences were observed in many physical properties. This means at
nanoscale level, physical properties become size dependent.
The properties like colour and transparency are considered as optical properties. These properties are
observed to change at nanoscale level. For example bulk gold appear yellow in colour while in nanosize
gold appear red in colour.
Bulk silicon appears grey in colour while nanosized silicon appears red in colour.
Zinc oxide, which at bulk scale blocks ultraviolet light and scatters visible light and gives white
appearance. While nanoscale zinc oxide is very small in particle size compared with wavelength of
visible light and it does not scatters it. Thus it appears transparent.
The main reason for change in optical properties at nanoscale level is that nanoparticles are so small that
electrons in them are not as much free to move as in case of bulk material. Due to this restricted
movement of electrons, nanoparticles react differently with light as compared to bulk material.
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Chemical properties of nanoparticles:

Chemical properties of nanoparticles also change at nanoscale. As the percentage of surface atoms in
nanoparticles is large compared with bulk objects, therefore reactivities of nanoparticles are more than
bulk materials. The following are the some of the chemical properties are:
1.) The atoms in nanoparticles have a higher average energy than atoms in longer structures, because of
the larger proportion of surface atoms. For example, catalytic materials have a greater chemical activity
per atom of exposed surface as the catalyst is reduced in size at the nanoscale.
2.) Defects and impurities may be attracted to surfaces and interfaces, and interactions between particles
at those small dimensions can depend on the structure and nature of chemical bonding at the surface.
3.) Molecular monolayers can change or control surface properties and to mediate the interaction
between nanoparticles.
Magnetic properties of nanoparticles:

Magnetic nanoparticles are those which can be affected using magnetic field. These particles usually
contain magnetic elements like iron, nickel, cobalt etc. Magnetic nanoparticles show a variety of
unusual magnetic behaviour when compared to the bulk materials, mostly due to surface or interface
effects, including symmetry breaking, electronic environment or charge transfer and magnetic
interactions.
1) The physical and chemical properties of magnetic nanoparticles mainly depend upon the chemical
structure and method of synthesis. For example, nano scale particles of magnetite show super-para-
magnetism at a transition temperature, which is smaller than the transition temperature of bulk
material.
2) Nanocomposite magnets consisting of uniform mixture of magnetically hard and soft phases have
been extensively investigated in recent years due to their useful hard magnetic properties.
3) The large surface area to volume ratio results in a substantial proportion of atoms having different
magnetic coupling with neighboring atoms leading to differing magnetic properties. Bulk gold and
platinum are non magnetic but at the nano size they act as magnetic particles. Au nanoparticles
become ferromagnetic when they are capped with the appropriate molecules such as thiol.
4) Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) is a phenomenon observed in nanoscale multilayers consisting of
strong ferromagnet (Fe, Co, Ni) and a weaker magnetic or non magnetic buffer (Cr, Cu). It is
usually employed in data storage and sensing.
15.7 Explain different types of preparation/synthesis of nanomaterials?
Basically there are two methods of preparation of nanomaterials, namely
1. Bottom-up approach.
These approaches include the miniaturization of materials components (up to atomic
level) with further self assembly process leading to the formation of nanostructures.
During self-assembly the physical forces operating at nanoscale are used to combine basic
units into larger stable structures. Typical examples are quantum dot formation during
epitaxial growth and formation of nanoparticles from colloidal dispersion.
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2. Top-down approach.
These approaches use larger (macroscopic) initial structures, which can be externally-
controlled in the processing of nanostructures. Typical examples are etching through the
mask, ball milling, and application of severe plastic deformation.
Synthesis of nanoparticles can also be classified into physical and chemical methods. Physical
Methods
Ball milling method:- Top Down method

This method is basically used to prepare nanoparticles of metals and alloys in the form of
powder. Ball mills are equipped with grinding media composed of hardened steel balls. Ball mills
rotate around a horizontal axis, partially filled with the material to be ground plus the grinding
medium. The balls rotate with high speed inside a drum and then fall on the solid with the gravity
force, the necessary energy is transferred to the powder which in turn reduces the material
grain-sized structure to ultrafine or nano range particles. Depending on the material either
refractory balls or steel balls or plastic balls are used. The energy transferred to the material
from the balls depends on many factors such as rotational speed of the balls, number of
balls, milling time and the milling medium.
The significant advantage of this method is that it can be readily implemented commercially.
Ball milling can be used to make carbon nanotubes. It is commonly used to prepare metal oxides
nano crystals like Cerium Oxide(CeO2) and Zinc oxide(ZnO).
Chemical Vapour deposition Method:-

In chemical vapour deposition is a well known process in which a solid is
deposited on a cooled surface via chemical reaction from vapor or gas phase. The basic
steps involved in this process are (i) Generation of vapour by boiling or subliming a source
material (ii) Transformation of the vapour from the source to the substrate and (iii)
Condensation of vapour on the cool substrate.
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In this method, the atoms are molecules are in gases state allowed to
react homogenously or heterogeneously depending on the applications. This method is an
excellent method which is used to control the particle size, shape and chemical
compositions. This method is used to produce the nano powders of oxides and carbides of
metals. Production of pure metal powders is also possible using this method.
Sol-Gel method:- Bottom up

The sol-gel process is a wet technique i.e., chemical solution deposition
technique used for the production of high purity and homogeneous nanomaterials. In
solutions the molecules of nanometer size are dispersed and move around randomly and
hence the solution are clear. In colloids the molecules of size ranging from 20 to 100 nm are
suspended in a solvent. When mixed with a liquid is called as sol. A suspension that
keeps its shape is called a gel. Thus the colloids are suspensions of colloids in liquids that
keep their shape. Gelling agents are added under controlled viscosity, temperature, molar ratio and
PH value. The sol-gel formation occurs in four stages:
• Hydrolysis
• Condensation
• Growth of particles
• Agglomeration of particles
The particles in solution are polymerized through the removal of the stabilizing components and
produces a gel. The final heat treatment (evaporation of liquid) pyrolyze the remaining organic and
inorganic components and form a nano particles coating on a substrate.
Electrodeposition :
Electrodeposition is a long-established way to deposit metal layers on a conducting substrate.
Ions in solution are deposited onto the negatively charged cathode, carrying charge at a rate that is
measured as a current in the external circuit. The process is relatively cheap and fast and allows
complex shapes. The layer thickness simply depends on the current density and the time for which
the current flows. The deposit can be detached if the substrate is chosen to be soluble by dissolving it
away.
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The principle of electrodeposition is inducing chemical reactions in an aqueous electrolyte

solution with the help of applied voltage, e.g. this is the process of using electrical current to coat an
electrically conductive object with a relatively thin layer of metal. This method is relevant to
deposition of nanostructured materials include metal oxides and chalcogenides.
Electrodeposition is relatively cheap and can be performed at low temperatures which will
minimize interdiffusion of materials in the case of a multilayered thin film preparation. The film
thickness can be controlled by monitoring the amount of charge delivered, whereas the deposition
rate can be followed by the variation of the current with time. The final films can range in thickness
from a few nanometers to tens of microns and can be deposited onto large specimen areas of
complex shape, making the process highly suitable for industrial use.
Sputtering:
When a surface is bombarded with high velocity positive ions, it is possible to cause ejection of
the surface atoms. This process of ejecting atoms from the surface by bombardment of positive ions
(usually inert gas ions), by momentum transfer process between the sputter gas and target atoms is
commonly known as sputtering (cathode sputtering). Argon is commonly used as the sputtering gas.
The ejected atoms can be made to condense on a substrate at an optimal distance from the target to
form a film. Apart from the neutral atoms, charged atoms and electrons are also emitted from the
surface. The sputtering yield (number of atoms ejected from the target surface per incident ion)
depends on the target material composition, binding energy, characteristics of the incident ion and
the experimental geometry. It also depends on the voltage and current (sputter power) at which
sputtering takes place. Schematic of a conventional sputtering process is given in Figure. The target
is connected to a negative voltage supply (cathode) and the substrate holder along with the chamber
maintained at ground potential acts as the anode and faces the target during sputtering. The plasma is
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maintained between the target and the substrate. The process deals with energy of few tens of eV and
hence adhesion of the film on substrate is better in sputtering.
Laser Ablation/ vaporization:

Laser ablation is a top down approach. Laser ablation means the removal of material from a
surface by means of laser irradiation. The term “laser ablation” is used to emphasize the
nonequilibrium vapor/plasma conditions created at the surface by intense laser pulse, to distinguish
from “laser evaporation,” which is heating and evaporation of material in condition of
thermodynamic equilibrium. A typical schematic diagram of laser ablation is shown in the following
figure. Briefly, there are two essential parts in the laser ablation device, a pulsed laser (CO 2 laser,
Nd-YAG laser, etc) and an ablation chamber. The high power of the laser beam induces large light
absorption on the surface of target, which makes temperature of the absorbing material increase
rapidly. As a result, the material on the surface of target vaporizes into laser plume. In some cases,
the vaporized materials condensate into cluster and particle without any chemical reaction. In some
other cases, the vaporized material reacts with introduced reactants to form new materials. The
condensed particle will be either deposited on a substrate or collected through a filter system
consisting of a glass fiber mesh. Then, the collected nanoparticles can be coated on a substrate
through drop-coating or screen-printing process.
Ablation
Chamber
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15.8 Applications of nanomaterials
Nano materials posses unique and beneficial, physical, chemical and mechanical
properties, they can be used for a wide verity of applications.
Material technology
• Nanocrystalline aerogel are light weight and porous, so they are used for insulation in
offices homes, etc,.
• Cutting tools made of nanocrystalline materials are much harder, much more wear- resistance,
and last stranger.
• Nanocrystalline material sensors are used for smoke detectors, ice detectors on air crfr wings, etc.
• Nanocrystalline materials are used for high energy density storage batteries.
• Nanosized titanium dioxide and zinc dioxide are used in sunscreens to absorb and reflect
ultraviolet rays.
• Nano coating of highly activated titanium dioxide acts as water repellent and antibacterial.
• The hardness of metals can be predominately enhanced by using nanoparticles.
• Nanoparticles in paints change colour in response to change in temperature or chemical
environment, and reduce the infrared absorption and heat loss.
• Nanocrystalline ceramics are used in automotive industry as high strength springs, ball
bearings and valve lifters.
Information technology
• Nanoscale fabricated magnetic materials are used in data storage

• Nano computer chips reduce the size of the computer.
• Nanocrystalline starting light emitting phosphors are used for flat panel displays.
• Nanoparticles are used for information storage.
• Nanophotonic crystals are used in chemical optical computers.
Biomedicals
• Biosensitive nanomaterials are used for ragging of DNA and DNA chips.
• In the medical field, nanomaterials are used for disease diagnosis, drug deliveryaand
molecular imaging.
• Nanocrystalline silicon carbide is used for artificial heart valves due to its low weight and high
strength.
Energy storage
• Nanoparticles are used hydrogen storage.

• Nano particles are used in magnetic refrigeration.
• Metal nanoparticles are useful in fabrication of ionic batteries.
Textile
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Nanomaterials can be used to create fabrics with superior performance without

compromising the look, feel or comfort of the fabric. For instance, nanomaterials can be added to
the fabric and make them stain resistant.
In the textile field, nanomaterials based upon common elements, such as carbon, gold, silver,
and associated compounds and composites, can provide technical and value-added textiles with
improved functionality for a broad range of applications. Nano-enabled functionalities for textiles
may include antimicrobial performance; flame, shrink, wrinkle and stain resistance; material
strength; ultraviolet (UV) protection; luminescence; sensing; energy production and electrical
properties.
Cosmetics
It has been found out from different surveys that almost all the major cosmetic manufacturers
use nanotechnology in their various products. The nanocosmetic aims products intended for
application to the skin of the face and body, with anti-aging action and photo protection, capable of
penetrating into the deep layers of the skin, potentiating the effects of the active. Fronza and
collaborators in 2007 defined nanocosmetic as "a cosmetic formulation that carries actives or other
nanostructured ingredients, which has superior properties regarding its performance if compared
with conventional products". In the cosmetic industry, the nanoparticles are present in shampoos,
conditioners, toothpastes, anti-wrinkle creams, anti-cellulite creams, whitening skin, moisturizing,
face powders, aftershave lotions, deodorants, soaps, sunscreens, make up in general, perfumes and
nail polishes.
Some cosmetic products, such as sunscreens, use mineral-based materials and their
performance depends on their particle size. In sunscreen products, titanium dioxide and zinc oxide,
in the size range of 20 nm, are used as efficient UV filters. Their main advantage is that they provide
broad UV-protection and do not cause cutaneous adverse health effects.
Defence
Nanotechnologies promise revolutionary technological changes for a wide range of military

applications and platforms. Technologies to be incorporated within the platforms which are directly
relevant to the defence area, including; aerodynamics, mobility, stealth, sensing, power generation
and management, smart structures and materials, resilience and robustness etc. In addition,
nanotechnologies will impact battlespace systems concerned with information and signal processing,
autonomy and intelligence. With regards to information technology, in particular, substantial
advantages are expected to be gained from this new enabling capability which includes threat
detection, novel electronic displays and interface systems, as well as a pivotal role for the
development of miniaturized unmanned combat vehicles and robotics. Finally, nanotechnology will
enable the development of novel materials providing the basis for the design and development of
new properties and structures which will result in increased performance (for example through nano-
energetics and new types of catalysts), reduced cost of maintenance (for example through wear
reduction, self-healing and self-repair), enhanced functionality (for example through adaptive
materials), and new types of electronic / opto-electronic /magnetic material properties.
• Clothing with greater tolerance for temperature changes

• Increase surveillance for better protection
• Smaller cameras
• Cheap, small, and more effective weapons
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• Exploration of the oceans

• Augmenting human performance
• Scratch resistant surfaces
• Stronger, thinner and cheaper glass
• Change shape of objects, i.e. armor-like fabric
• Coatings that don't degrade (doesn't need repainting)
• "Invisibility"
• Faster intensive medical help
• Lighter, faster aircraft which use less fuel
• Submarines and planes that can go undetected by radar
Space Developments and Systems
Nanotechnological improvements of space technology and systems are to be considered both

in a short to medium-term time scale as well as on a long-term basis in view of visionary
applications of molecular nanotechnology, which might be realized- if at all- only in the distant
future. Examples of such visionary applications of molecular nanotechnology in space are the
terraforming of other planets through raw material extraction and material synthesis, the
construction of a „space elevator“ by applying ultrastrong carbon nanotube materials or the extreme
miniaturization and integration of space systems in the sense of a "flying chip".
Meanwhile however, various applications of nanotechnology in space technology appear to be
feasible, which could lead to major improvements in the area of lightweight and strong space
structures, improved systems and components of energy production and storage, data processing and
transmission, sensor technology as well as life support systems. Appropriate research and
development projects have already been performed in particular by NASA for some years with
substantial financial measures.
15.9 What are Carbon nanotubes (CNT)? Mention different types of CNTs.
Carbon nanotubes is a graphite sheet consisting of covalently bonded carbon atoms in

hexagonal type arrangement. The sheet is rolled up into a cylinder with the ends closed
by hemispherical graphite domes. These cylindrical carbon molecules have interesting
properties that make them potentially useful in many applications in nanotechnology,
electronics, optics and other fields of materials science, as well as potential uses in
architectural fields. They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties,
and are efficient conductors of heat.
Figure 8.1: SWNT and MWNT
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Carbon nanotubes can be divided into two basic classes namely
1. Single wall nanotubes (SWNT)
2. Multi wall nanotubes (MWNT)
SWNT‘s are formed from the single graphite layer with typical diameter in the range
1 to 5 nm and are usually 1 mm in length.
MWNT‘s include structures formed in coaxial arrangement of several (2-100)
graphite cylinders and their external diameter ranges from 2.5 to 50 nm and are usually 1
mm in length.
15.10 Important properties of CNT
1. Stronger and most flexible molecular material because of C-C covalent bonding and
hexagonal network architecture.
2. Young’s modulus of over 1 Tpa vs 70 Gpa for Aluminium. 100 GPA for carbon fiber.
3. Strength to weight ratio 500 times greater than that for Al. similar improvements on steel
and Titanium. One order of magnitude improvement over graphite.
4. Maximum strain is 10% much higher than any material.
5. Thermal conductivity is 3000W/mk in the axial direction with small values in the
radial direction.
6. Electrical conductivity in order of magnitude higher than copper.
7. Can be metallic or semiconducting depending on chirality. Band gap can be adjusted.

Electrical properties can be controlled through application of external magnetic field and
mechanical force.
8. Very high current carrying capacity.
Electrical Properties
Generally the carbon nanotubes produced both in metallic and semiconducting in their
electrical behavior depending on molecular structure. Band gap of carbon nanotubes can be
adjusted. Electrical properties can be controlled through application of external magnetic field
and mechanical force. It has very high current carrying capacity. The conductivity of some carbon
nanotubes higher than copper while other carbon nanotubes behave better semiconducting
properties than silicon. The strong bonds between carbon atoms also allow carbon nanotubes to
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withstand higher electric currents than copper. Electron transport occurs only along the axis of the
tube. Single walled nanotubes can route electrical signals at speeds up to 10 GHz when used as
interconnects on semi-conducting devices.
Magnetic Properties
The carbon nanotube displays the magneto-resistive effects at lower temperature i.e.,
the resistance of the carbon nanotube is changed by the application of dc magnetic field. The
observed magnetoresistance effect is negative. This is due to the decrease in resistance
with increase in magnetic field.
Thermal Properties
The strength of the atomic bonds in carbon nanotubes allows them to withstand high
temperatures. Carbon nanotubes conduct heat by vibrations of the covalent bonds between carbon
atoms. The atoms wiggle around themselves and transmit heat through the material. Due to elastic
nature of the bonds in the molecule the vibrations occur. These vibrations transmit quickly
through the tube due to stiffness of the nanotube. Because of this, carbon nanotubes have been
shown to be very good thermal conductors. When compared to copper wires, which are
commonly used as thermal conductors, the carbon nanotubes can transmit over 15 times the
amount of watts per meter per Kelvin.
Mechanical properties
The strength of the sp2 carbon-carbon bonds gives carbon nanotubes amazing
mechanical properties. This bond is even stronger than the sp³ bond found in diamond. The
stiffness of the material is measured in terms of its Young’s modulus. The Young’s modulus
value of single walled nanotube is about 1Tera Pascal, which is approximately 5 times greater
than steel. The tensile strength or breaking strain of nanotube is about 60 Giga Pascal,
which is approximately 50 times greater than steel. Carbon nanotubes are not only strong, they
are also elastic. You can press on the tip of a nanotube and cause it to bend without damaging to the
nanotube and the nanotube will return to its original shape when the force is removed. A nanotube's
elasticity does have a limit, and under very strong forces, it is possible to permanently deform to
shape of a nanotube.
Optical Properties
Carbon nanotubes have useful absorption, photoluminescence (fluorescence), and Raman
spectroscopy properties.
Nanotubes are promising candidates for nanoscale light-emitters and many other optical
applications, especially in the infrared wavelength. Semiconducting single-walled carbon
nanotubes emit near-infrared light upon photo excitation.
The nonlinear optical properties and electro-optic properties has been found in nanotubes.
These properties are very important for applications such as lasers, high-field emitters, saturable
absorbers and electro-optic modulators.
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15.1 Potential applications of CNT
1. Because of high mechanical strength CNT are used to make spherical stab-proof and
bullet proof clothes.
2. They are used to make field effect transistors which are capable of digital switching
using a single electron.
3. Because of high electrical conductivity they are used for thermal management of
electronic circuits.
4. They are used for making high efficient solar cells.
5. In medicine, SWNT are inserted around cancerous cells, and then excited with radio
waves, which cause them to heat up and kill the cells.
6. They are used for making NEM‘s.
Field emission
When a small electric field is applied parallel to the axis of a nanotube, electrons are
emitted at a very high rate from the ends of the tube. This is called field emission. The electron
emission of carbon nanotubes is used in electronic industries like flat panel displays.
Electronics
The single walled carbon nanotube can be act as a transistor. Pairs of carbon
nanotubes show as logic structures. A single nanotube with natural junction acts as a
rectifying diode. Electrically conductive coatings based on CNT have potential applications in
devices such as solar cells, touch sensitive displays and others. By incorporating CNT into well-
established microelectronics manufacturing processes the new NRAMs have higher storage density
compared to existing technologies.
Energy sector and Hydrogen storage
The energy sector has a long tradition for using carbon materials in electrodes or as
conductive fillers in electrochemical systems. Carbon nanofibers and MWCNT are currently used as
anode and cathode materials in commercial Li-ion batteries. In this application the CNT increase the
durability of the battery compared to traditional graphite materials.
CNT have potential application in fuel cells for electricity generation. In the fuel cell, CNT is
used as catalyst supports where they serve as high surface area materials for the support of the
expensive platinum particles
Carbon nanotubes can store hydrogen and also helium, oxides and metals like copper.
Mechanical/ Automotive sector
Carbon nanotubes can act as axels in nanomachines. The automotive sector has a very high
consumption of thermoplastic parts. Addition of MWCNT into thermoplastic material parts enables
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electrostatic painting without any use of conductive primers on the surfaces. The CNT replace the
former use of carbon black, where less CNT is required to achieve the anti-static effect. CNT in
thermoplastics also reduce brittleness and tendency to give off dust particles as compared to carbon
black. CNT addition in thermoplastic base resins also increases their toughness, which is critical in
many automotive applications. Adding CNT into resins also eliminates the need for impact
modifiers (e.g., rubber) and thereby also results in preservation of heat resistance in critical body
parts. CNT can improve the structural properties of fiber-reinforced composites used for e.g.
windmill blades. General implementation will result in a very high use of CNT in this sector.
Space elevators
Like graphite, carbon nanotubes with stand high temperature, so they are used for
thermal protection of spacecraft during re-entry of into the atmosphere. Carbon
nanotubes have high Young’s modulus, so they with stands aeronautical strains.
Medical Sector
Carbon nanotubes are thin, so they can penetrate the skin without pain. Blood can be
drawn from the patients through nanostraws to know glucose levels and to inject insulin
whenever required. The SWNT can act as carriers for small molecules in biological systems. Due to
their large specific surface area CNT can carry more active drug molecules per weight unit
compared to vesicles and other vehicles typically used for targeted drug delivery. CNT based drug
delivery systems is targeted at cancer therapy.
Textiles sector
Uses of CNT in textiles can be electromagnetic shielding and microwave reflectors as well
as armor (body and structural composites). Future uses have been envisioned within ‘intelligent’
clothing e.g. for work, medical and winter sports applications. Textiles containing CNT can also
be strain sensitive such that the electrical conductivity changes when the textile fibers are
stretched. This is used in some cars to monitor which seats are occupied.
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Department of Applied Science

Department of Applied Science

1.1 Positive rays:

The condition necessary for focusing can be derived as follow. Let q , m , v be

1.3 Electron Refraction - Bethe’s law:

1.4 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO):

Y-input Vert. Amplifier

Time Base HT To CRT

X-input Horz. Amplifier

=================== xxxxxxx ====================

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1.0 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO):

Time Base HT To CRT

X-input Horz. Amplifier

=================== xxxxxxx ====================

Department of Applied Science

Experiment: Let a collimated fine beam of x- A1

Subtraction Eq. (6) from (7)

2.7 Applications of X-Rays:

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3.1 NEWTON’S RINGS:

scale and on which a highly polished mirror M1 is T

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4.3 RESOLVING POWER OF DIFFRACTION GRATING:

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5.1 QUARTER WAVE PLATE:

Plane Polarised Light Circularly or Elliptically

5.4 DETECTION OF PLANE, CIRCULARLY AND ELLIPTICALLY POLARISED LIGHT:

No change in intensity Change of intensity with Change in intensity but

Incident on  4 plate on any position Incident on quarter wave plate

Rotating Nicol Rotating Nicol

Change in intensity with No change in intensity Change in intensity Change in intensity

5.5 OPTICAL ACTIVITY:

5.6 SPECIFIC ROTATION:

Working: The incident light after passing through A

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Critical or transition temperature

2. General properties of Superconductors:-

1. It is a low temperature phenomenon.

Dr. P.Sreenivasula Reddy M.Sc, PhD Website: www.engineeringphysics.weebly.com Page 1

When a weak magnetic is applied to a superconducting specimen at a

Under normal state the magnetic induction inside the specimen is

When the specimen is in superconducting state B = 0 (Meissner effect)

4. Type I and type II superconductors. Or types of superconductors

Based on the diamagnetic response superconductors can be classified into two

The penetration of field at a distance x form the face is given by

Where λ (0 ) is the penetration depth at T = 0 K

According to Josephson when tunneling across through the insulator it introduces

The tunneling current is given by el

A.C Josephson effect

Applications of Josephson Effect

Electron lattice interaction via lattice deformation.

According to quantum mechanics matter, energy and charge is quantized.

The flux inside the ring is given by

Critical parameters of superconductivity

Superconductivity of a metal mainly depends on the temperature and strength of

Department of Applied Science

The attracting property exhibited by the magnet is known as magnetism.

Dr. P.Sreenivasula Reddy M.Sc, PhD Website: www.engineeringphysics.weebly.com Page 1

Magnetic induction field strength or magnetic flux density (B): -

It is defined as the ratio of permeability medium to the permeability of free space.

Relation between B, H and M

Relation between

D 9.27 I 10K$E <$

Where O is the mass of the proton.

5. Susceptibility value is negative for diamagnetic materials

5. Susceptibility value is low and positive for paramagnetic materials

7. Relative permeability µ X 1 for paramagnetic materials

5. Susceptibility value is high and positive for ferromagnetic materials

7. Relative permeability µ Z 1 for ferromagnetic materials

5. Susceptibility value is high and positive for ferri

7. Relative permeability µ Z 1 for ferromagnetic materials

5. Susceptibility value low and positive for paramagnetic materials

7. Relative permeability µ X 1 for ferromagnetic materials