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Common feature of oscillatory behavior: ⇔
type 1 type 2
Oscillations require {
energy storing mechanisms
energy exchange mechanism(s)
energy storing energy exchange
example medium
mechanisms mechanism(s)
mass-spring system 1 mv 2 , 1 kx 2 restoring force mass & spring
2 2
bound electrons: ω j ≠ 0
Divide the e's into ®
¯free electrons: ω j = 0, f j = f 0 , γ j = γ 0
Ne 2 fj Ne2 f 0
(7.51) ε = ε 0 + m ¦ +i (7.56)
2 2
j (bound) ω j −ω −iωγ j mω (γ 0 −iω )
εb σω
= εb + i σ
ω σ is due to free electrons.
(7.56)
short form
Ne 2 fj Ne2 f 0
(iv) ε = ε 0 + m ¦ +i [(7.56)]
2 2 mω (γ 0 −iω )
j (bound) ω j −ω −iωγ j
(ω ) E(ω )e −iωt d ω
∞
= 21π ³−∞ εN (3)
Ne 2 fj Ne2 f 0
ε (ω ) = ε 0 + m ¦ +i [(7.56)]
2 2
j (bound) ω j −ω −iωγ j mω (γ 0 −iω )
in general
However, there are 2 special cases where (3) gives D(t ) = ε E(t )
in t -space for a dielectric medium [see items (vi) and (vii) below]. 17
(vi) Rewrite D(t ) = 21π ³−∞ D(ω )e −iωt d ω = 21π ³−∞ ε (ω )E(ω )e −iωt dω [(3)]
∞ ∞
∇× { }
(13)
(14)
∇2 { }
E( x )
B( x)
+ μεω 2 { }
E( x )
B ( x)
=0 (15)
(15) has the same form as (7.3), which is derived from the source-
free Maxwell equations [(7.1)] for a non-conducting medium (σ = 0).
However, (15) is applicable to both dielectric and conducting media.
In (7.3), ε = ε b . In (15), ε = ε b + i σ
ω . The solution of (15) takes the
same algebraic steps as (7.3). But with ε = ε b + i σ ω , the solution of
(15) will be applicable to both dielectric and conducting media.
Question: What information have we lost in Assumption 3?
27
{ }{ }
Assumption 4 :
E( x )
B ( x)
E
= 0 e ik ⋅ x
B0
E0, B0 here are E, B
in (7.8)-(7.12)
∇2 { } μεω { } (
E( x )
B ( x)
+ 2 E( x )
B ( x)
= 0 −k 2 + μεω 2
E0
B0 ){ }
= 0 k = ± μεω.
° 1 Re
¯ 2ω {μ1 [k E 0
2
− E0 (k ⋅ E∗0 )]ei (k −k
∗
)⋅x
} (20b)
29
k = μεω [(16)]
°°n ⋅ E = 0 [(25)]
A note about notations: Rewrite ® 0
°n ⋅ B 0 = 0 [(26)]
°¯B0 = με n × E0 [(27)]
This set of equations is equivalent to (7.9)-(7.11) in Jackson, with
ε in (7.9)-(7.11) interpreted as the generalized ε . The difference is in
notation k. Both here and in (7.9)-(7.11), k = kn. However, in (7.9)-
(7.11), k is a real number and n = n R + in I is a complex unit vector
subject to the conditions: n ⋅ n = 1, nR2 − nI2 = 1, & n R ⋅ n I = 0 [(7.15)]
But elsewhere in Jackson, n is treated as a real unit vector [e.g.
Secs. 7.3, 7.4] while k as a complex number [e.g. (7.53)]. Here, for
consistency, we always treat k (= kr + iki ) as a complex number
and n as real unit vector (with no additional condition on n). Thus,
− kin⋅x ikr n⋅x −iωt
ik ⋅x −iωt e e [Lecture notes]
e = ® − kn I ⋅x ikn R ⋅x−iωt
¯e e [Jackson, p. 298]
38
III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and
Conductors [A unified treatment of Secs. 5.18, 7.1, 7.2,
7.5, and 8.1 using the generalized ε in (7.51)]
In Sec. II, under Assumptions 1-5, we have obtained the familiar
plane-wave solution for a linear, uniform, and isotropic medium:
E(x, t ) = E0eik⋅x−iωt k: wave vector or
° with k = kn propagation vector
° ik ⋅x−iωt n: direction of wave
® B ( x, t ) = B 0 e
° propagation
° S = 1 Re ε E0 2 e −2kin⋅x n [valid for real ω ] [(28)]
¯ t 2 μ
where the complex constants μ , ε , ω , k , E0 , and B0 must satisfy
k = μεω [ k : wave number or propagation constant ] [(16)]
°
°n ⋅ E0 = 0 E0 [(25)]
®
°n ⋅ B0 = 0 kn [(26)]
°̄B 0 = με n × E0 B0 [(27)]
39
ε σω
b
Case 1. Waves in a dielectric medium E0
Case 2. Waves in a good conductor kn
Case 3. Waves at optical frequencies and beyond B0
Case 4. Waves in a plasma
B 0 = με n × E0 with E0 , B0 , n mutually orthogonal. For all
cases, we need n (e.g. e z ) & only one amplitude (e.g. E0e x ) to specify
°E( z , t ) = E0e ± ikz −iωt e x ª upper sign: n = ez º
a plane wave, e.g. ®
°̄B( z , t ) = ± με E0e
± ikz −iωt
e y ¬«lower sign: n = −e z ¼»
40
III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
Re[ε ]
index of
refraction
of water Im[ε ]
vs
frequency 0 ω 41
Case 1.1 : Lossless dielectric (μ and ε are real. Secs. 7.1 and 7.2)
Plane wave propertities in a dielectric medium, governed by Eqs.
(16), (25)-(28), are most clearly illustrated by the simple case of no
medium loss (i.e. μ and ε are both real).
1. Time-averaged quantities:
average power º
(25) S t = 12 με E0 n ªintensity:
2
(7.13)
¬ unit area ¼
The time-averaged energy density is given by
u t = 14 [ε E(x) ⋅ E∗ (x) + μ1 B(x) ⋅ B∗ (x)] = ε2 E0
2
(7.14)
Ex ( z , t ) = E0 cos ( kz − ωt ) E
® x
¯ E y ( z , t ) = B E0 sin ( kz − ωt )
E( z , t ) rotates in t as shown to the right. E0 (e x − ie y )eik ⋅x−iωt
Exercise : Show that the instantaneous S of y
a circularly polarized plane wave is indep. of t . E
x
Medium property:
k = μεω [(16)] gives the phase velocity: E0 (e x + ie y )eik⋅x−iωt
1 με
v=ω = = nc , where n = μ ε [index of refraction ] (7.5)
k με 0 0
Next, consider plane waves in a lossy dielectric, where E, B differ
only slightly from those in a lossless dielectric (e.g. E, B slightly out
of phase). However, there is a qualitative difference: the medium can
absorb the wave. So, our emphsis will be on the medium properties.
45
Case 1.2 : Lossy dielectric [μ and/or ε = complex, Sec. 7.5 (Part B)]
k = μεω = Re μεω + i Im μεω = β + i α , (7.53)
2
where β [= Re μεω ] gives (for arbitrary μ and ε ) the
wavelength: λ = 2π See comment above (16) for the
° β
°phase velocity: v = ω = 1 sign choice of the root of εμ .
® β Re με
° c με
°̄index of refraction: n = v = Re μ0ε 0 [ used on p. 314] (32)
To find the meaning of α , we set ki = α and n = e z in
2
S t = 12 Re με E e−2 ki n⋅x n [(28)]
2
0
2
− b 2 + i 2N
ab [a and b are real]
ε′ ε ′′
Re ε = ± a
ε = ±(a + ib) ®
¯I m ε = ±b 12ε ′′
2 −α z
P
= ab ω E0 e −α z
2
ploss = Im ε Re εω E0 e
= 12 ε ′′ω E0 e −α z [no restriction on ε ′ and ε ′′]
2
(35)
47
°
° p = average power lost to the medium = − dP = 1 ε ′′ω E 2 e−α z
°̄ loss unit volume dz 2 0
ε σω
b
For bound e′s, we have γ j ω j (p. 310) Re[ε b ] Im[ε b ]
° ε ≈ real. For Cu (p.312)
b
1
THz
°
°For free e′s, assume ω γ 0 ( 4 × 1013 / s ) or f ( = ω ) < 1012 Hz
® 2π
2f 2
° σ = Ne n
0 ≈ 0 e
[n0 = Nf 0 = free electron density]
° m(γ 0 −iω ) γ 0m
° i.e. σ ≈ real and indep. of ω for f ( = 2ωπ ) < 1012 Hz
¯
σ
We define the good-conductor JJJJJJM as ωε b 1
criterion
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ (37)
ε = εb + i σ σ
ω ≈ i ω , i.e. free e′s dominate over bound e′s. 51
61
εb Ne2 f 0
≈−
mω 2
Ne2 f 0 (' ω γ 0 )
≈ εb − (55)
mω 2
In Case 2 (ω <<γ0), the free electron term is predominantly
imaginary. Here, we have ω >>γ0 and the free electron term becomes
predominantly real. This is a qualitative departure from Case 2,
which will radically change the metal’s response to EM waves. See
examples below and in Case 3.2.
63
ε
Rewrite E( z ) = E0e − k z e x ; H( z ) = i E e− k ze y
μ 0
[(59a,b)]
E(z), H (z) are evanescent "fringe fields" in the metal left behind
by a totally-reflected incident wave. It carries no power because
Re[E(z) × H*(z)] = 0. This explains the "light reflection off mirrors".
In comparison, in microwave reflection off a good conductor
(Case 2), E(z) and H (z) are "wave fields" 45o out of phase. Hence,
Re[E(z) × H*(z)] ≠ 0 There is power flowing into the conductor.
2. Propagating regime : ultraviolet transparency of metals
ω 2pε 0 x
Rewrite k = μ (ε b − ) ω [(58)] Free Metal
ω2 ε
space (ω > ε 0 ω p )
ε
k = real, if ω > ε 0 ω p ª propagating º b
b ¬« regime ¼»
propagating
Thus, the wave can propagate without wave
attenuation inside the metal. This explains z
0
the "ultraviolet transparency of metals".
66
III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
Case 3.2: ω >>γj and ω >> ωj for all electrons in the medium,
applicable to X-ray frequencies and beyond
Under the conditions ω >>γj (including γ0) and ω >>ωj, we may
neglect γj and ωj in (7.51),
2 f Ne2 f
ε = ε 0 + Ne ¦
j
+i 0 (7.56)
m j (bound) ω 2j −ω 2 −iω γ j mω ( γ 0 −iω )
NZ e2
≈− 2 ( ¦ f j =Z )
ωp2 mω j ( all )
εε = 1 − 2 , (7.59)
0 ω
2 ª NZ is the density of all electrons º
where ω 2p ≡ NZe
mε 0 «¬(bound and free) in the medium. ¼» (7.60)
67
70
III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
2
negligible Ne f 0
≈− (γ 0 →0)
mω 2
2
ω ªsame equation as (7.59) but with º
εε = 1 − p2 «a much smaller ω than in (7.59) » (61)
0 ω ¬ p ¼
where ω p is the plasma frequency defined as
2 ª n = Nf0 = plasma electron density, normally º
ω 2p ≡ εnem «¬ much smaller than the density of solids. (62)
0 ¼» 71
ε ω 2p
Sub. ε = 1 − 2 [(61)] into k = μεω , we obtain
0 ω
1/ c 2
P
2 2 ω 2p 2
k = μεω = μ0ε 0 (1 − 2 )ω (μ = μ0 for plasmas)
ω
ªsame equation as (7.61) but º
2
ω = k c 2 2
+ ω 2p « with an arbitrary and usually » (63)
« much smaller ω 2 »
¬ p ¼
(63) is the well known dispersion ω
relation for electromagnetic waves in a
plasma in the absence of an externally ωp
applied static magnetic field (Sec. 7.6 k
considers the dispersion relation for a magnetized plasma). When Ȧ
is extremely large (such as the gamma ray), all materials have a
dispersion relation given by (63) (Case 3.2). But for the plasma, (63)
is valid for all frequencies (e.g. MHz). 72
III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
Rewrite ω 2 = k 2c 2 + ω 2p [(63)] x
Free Plasma
1. Cutoff regime: ω < ω p k is purely space (ω < ω p )
imaginary (k = i | k | ). Hence, E( z ), H ( z ) evanescent
are evanescent fields (not a wave) given by fields
z
0
ε
E( z ) = E0e − k z e x ; H ( z ) = i E e− k z e y
μ 0
[as in (59a,b)] (64)
An incident wave with ω < ω p will be totally reflected.
Reflections of "short
waves" (approx. 3-30 MHz)
off the ionospheric plasma
(F-layer, ~200 km above Waves enter
the earth surface) are into a plasma of
exploited for long-distance increasing ω p
communications. before it is totally
reflected.
73
°k = μεω = ω n ªc = 1 , n = με , n′ = μ ′ε ′ º .
c
with ® μ0ε 0 μ0ε 0 »¼
ω «¬ μ0ε 0
°̄k ′ = μ ′ε ′ω = c n′
°k x = k x′′ i = r ′ (angle of incidence = angle of reflection)
Then, ® sin i k ′ n′
°̄k x = k x′ sin r = k = n (Snell's law) (7.36)
77
Calculation of iB :
Rewrite n′2 cos iB = n n′2 − n 2 sin 2 iB [(83)]
n′4 cos 2 iB = n 2 (n′2 − n 2 sin 2 iB )
n′4 (1 − sin 2 iB ) = n 2 n′2 − n 4 sin 2 iB
(n 4 − n′4 ) sin 2 iB = n′2 (n 2 − n′2 )
2 z
sin 2 iB = 2n′ 2 Refracted wave
n + n′
tan iB = nn′ k′ (7.43)
n′
Typical example : x
n k iB iB k ′′
iB = 56 if nn′ = 1.5
o
Incident wave Reflected wave
ª mixed polarization º ªlinearly polaried º
n′ «¬E0 ⊥ and & x-z plane »¼ «¬ E0 ⊥ x-z plane »¼
iB
n 87
{cos(ω1t − k1 x)
+ cos(ω2t − k2 x)
→
⎯⎯⎯
v
→
ph
↓
Fig. 2
90
7.8 Superposition of Waves in One Dimension; Group Velocity (continued)
92
7.8 Superposition of Waves in One Dimension; Group Velocity (continued)
ª In u ( x,0) = 1 ³−∞∞
A( k )eikx dk [(57)], º
= u ( x − v g t ,0) « 2π »
¬« change x to x − vg t ¼»
i ( k0 vg −ω0 )t
= u ( x − vg t ,0)e (7.85)
(7.85) represents a wave packet propagating at vg with its shape
unchanged in time [ ' high order terms in (7.83) are neglected]. 94
7.8 Superposition of Waves in One Dimension; Group Velocity (continued)
Discussion :
(i) The pulse shape give by (7.85) is undistorted in time. However, if
2
high order terms (e.g. d ω2 ) are included in the expansion of ω ( k )
dk
[(7.83)], the pulse will broaden with time. ω Plasma
2
Reason: d ω2 ≠ 0 d vg ≠ 0 Waves with
dk dk
ωp
different k travel at different vg . k
Example : A light pulse consists of a continuous distribution of
frequencies. When it propagates in glass, we have vg (red) > vg (blue)
ªfrom º
« Del Mar »
«¬ Photonics »¼
°∂
−iω (k ) A(k )eikx −iω ( k )t dk Assume ω* = ω
∞
® u ( x, t ) = 1 1 ³−∞
∂t 2 2π
° and k * = k , i.e.
1 1 ∞ −ikx + iω ( k )t
°
¯
+2 ³ iω (k ) A * (k )e
2π −∞
dk no dissipation
Note: A(k ) is not the Fourier transform of u ( x, t ) because, in (7.90),
ikx −iω ( k )t
e is not of the simple eikx form. Hence, the "realty condition"
A(k ) = A * (− k ) [see Sec. 2.8 of lecture notes] is not applicable here.
96
7.9 Illustration of the Spreading of a Pulse… (continued)
°
= 1 ³0 ª¬E (ω ) e −iωt + E ( −ω ) eiωt º¼ d ω
∞
° (A.2)
¯ 2π
Note: If E ( t ) is real (a physical quantity in t -space must be
a real quantity), then,
E ( −ω ) = E∗ (ω ) (A.3)
100
Appendix A. t-space and ω-space (continued)
phase constant
Example 1: E ( t ) = E0 cos(ω +
t θ) (A.4)
a single-frequency amplitude phase angle
real quantity (real vector)
Sub. (A.4) into E (ω ) = ³−∞ E ( t ) eiωt dt
∞
∗
= π [Eωδ (ω ′ − ω ) + Eω δ (ω ′ + ω )]
where Eω ≡ E0e −iθ (A.5)
(A.2) E ( t ) = 1 π −iω ′t
∞ ∗
2π ³−∞ ω (
[E δ ω ′ − ω ) + Eωδ (ω ′ + ω )]e dω ′
= 12 [Eω e −iωt + Eω
∗ iωt
e ] = Re[Eω e −iωt ] (A.6)
In linear equations, we may omit the "Re" sign and write (A.6) as
E ( t ) = Eω e −iωt ( LHS = Re[RHS]) (A.7) 101
Discussion :
(i) A complex number carries twice the information as a real
number, e.g. E0 in (A.4) gives the amplitude of E ( t ) , whereas
Eω (= E0e−iθ ) in (A.7) gives both the amplitude and phase
angle of E ( t ) . Hence, the algebra is simpler in the ω -space.
This is the reason why we often work in the ω -space.
(ii) In (A.8), Dω and Eω are phasors. But ε [derived in (7.51)] is
a complex number derived in the ω -space. It is not a phasor.
Hence, Re[ε e−iωt ] is not a corresponding t -space quantity.
(iii) The same mathematics can be found in circuit theory:
ªV , I ⇔ D, E º
V = IZ in circuit theory ⇔ D = ε E here « »
¬ Z ⇔ε ¼
103
104
Appendix A. t-space and ω-space (continued)
Discussion:
Examining the phasors Eω ≡ E0e−iθ (A.5) and Eω ≡ E 0 (e x + ie y )
(A.12), we find that the phasor, an Ȧ-space quantity, may or may
not have a clear geometric direction. For example, Eω in (A.5) has
the same geometric direction as E0 , but Eω in (A.12) does not
have a clear geometric direction. The reason is that, in the time
space, E(t ) = E0 (cos ωte x + sin ωte y ) has a geometric direction
which rotates with time. When E(t) is transformed into the Ȧ-
space, in which t is no longer a variable, we obtain a phasor Eω
without a clear geometric direction.
105