Michael Psellos

Michael Psellos or Psellus (Greek: Μιχαὴλ Ψελλός,

romanized: Michaēl Psellos) was a Byzantine Greek monk,
savant, writer, philosopher, politician and historian. He was
born in 1017 or 1018, and is believed to have died in 1078,
although it has also been maintained that he remained alive
until 1096.

Contents
Michael Psellos (left) with his student,
Biography and political career
Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Doukas.
Chronographia
Other works
Personality
Pseudo-Psellos
References in literature
Editions
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Biography and political career

The main source of information about Psellos' life comes from his own works, which contain extensive
autobiographical passages. Michael Psellos was probably born in Constantinople. His family hailed from
Nicomedia and, according to his own testimony, counted members of the consular and patrician elite
among its ancestors. His baptismal name was Constantine; Michael was the monastic name he chose
when he entered a monastery later in life. Psellos ('the stammerer') probably was a personal by-name
referring to a speech defect.

Michael Psellos was educated in Constantinople. At around the age of ten, he was sent to work outside
the capital as a secretary of a provincial judge, in order to help his family raise the dowry for his sister.
When his sister died, he gave up that position and returned to Constantinople to resume his studies.
While studying under John Mauropus, he met the later Patriarchs Constantine Leichoudes and John
Xiphilinos, and the later emperor Constantine X Doukas. For some time, he worked in the provinces
again, now serving as a judge himself.[1] Some time before 1042 he returned again to Constantinople,
where he got a junior position at court as a secretary (ὑπογραμματεύς) in the imperial chancellery. From
there he began a rapid court career. He became an influential political advisor to emperor Constantine IX
Monomachos (reigned 1042–1055). During the same time, he became the leading professor at the
University of Constantinople, bearing the honorary title of "Chief of the Philosophers" (ὕπατος τῶν
φιλοσόφων hypatos tōn philosophōn).

Despite his leading eminence and prowess in learning, his knowledge of Latin was cloudy enough to
confuse Cicero with Caesar. This is cited as one prime example of the paradigm of how the Eastern
Roman Empire had lost nearly all of its connection to its nominal Roman roots by the High Middle
Ages.[2]

Towards the end of Monomachos' reign, Psellos found himself under political pressure for some reason
and finally decided to leave the court, entering the Olympus monastery on Mount Olympus in Bithynia in
1054. After Monomachos' death, however, he was soon recalled to court by his successor, Empress
Theodora (reigned 1055–1056). Throughout the following years, he remained active in politics, serving
as a high-ranking political advisor to several successive emperors. He played a decisive political role in
the transition of power from Michael VI to Isaac I Komnenos in 1057; then from Isaac Komnenos to
Constantine X Doukas (1059); and then again from Romanos IV Diogenes to Michael VII Doukas
(1071). As Psellos had served as Michael's personal teacher during the reign of Michael's father
Constantine, and as he had played an important role in helping Michael gain power against his adversary
and stepfather Romanos, Psellos probably entertained hopes of an even more influential position as a
teacher and advisor under him. However, Michael seems to have been less inclined towards protecting
Psellos and after the mid-1070s there is no more information about any role played by Psellos at court.
As his own autobiographic accounts cease at this point, there is little reliable information about his later
years. Some scholars believe that Psellos had to retreat into a monastery again at some time during the
1070s.[3] Following a remark by Psellos' fellow historian Joannes Zonaras, it is believed by most scholars
that Psellos died soon after the fall of Michael VII in 1078,[4] although some scholars have also proposed
later dates.[5] What is known is that Theophylaktos of Bulgaria wrote a letter to Psellos's brother
comforting him on the death of his brother saying that, "Your brother has not died, but has departed to
God released of both a painful life and disease".[6]

Chronographia
Probably Psellos' best known and most accessible work is the Chronographia. It is a history of the
Byzantine emperors during the century leading up to Psellos' own time. It covers the reigns of fourteen
emperors and empresses, beginning with the almost 50-year-long reign of Basil II, the "Bulgar-Slayer"
(976–1025), and ending some time during the reign of Michael VII Doukas (1071–1078). It is structured
mainly as a series of biographies. Unlike most other historiographical works of the period, it places much
more emphasis on the description of characters than on details of political and military events. It also
includes very extensive autobiographical elements about Psellos' political and intellectual development,
and it gives far greater weight to those periods when Psellos held an active position in politics (especially
the reign of Constantine IX), giving the whole work almost the character of political memoirs. It is
believed to have been written in two parts. The first covers the emperors up to Isaac I Komnenos. The
second, which has a much more strongly apologetic tone, is in large parts an encomium on Psellus'
current protectors, the emperors of the Doukas dynasty.

Other works
Psellos left many other writings:
 1. "Historia syntomos", a shorter, didactic historical text in
the form of a world chronicle.
2. A large number of scientific, philosophical and religious
treatises. One well-known example of these is De
Operatione Daemonum, a classification of demons as
part of an anti-Manichaean dialogue.[7] He wrote or
compiled an important work on philosophy, the De
omnifaria doctrina. Other works deal with topics such as
astronomy, medicine, music, jurisprudence, physics,
and laography.
3. Various didactic poems on topics such as grammar and
rhetorics.
4. Three Epitaphioi or funeral orations over the patriarchs
Michael Keroularios, Constantine III Leichoudes and
John Xiphilinos.
5. A funeral oration for his mother, including a large
amount of autobiographic information.
6. Several panegyrics, persuasive speeches (including Rulers of the Byzantine Empire in the
works against the Bogomils and Euchites) and 11th century. Based on
speeches addressed to his patron emperors at court. Chronographia
7. Several hundred personal letters.
8. Rhetorical exercises and essays on set themes.
9. Occasional, satirical, and epigrammatic verse.

Personality
Psellos was universally educated and had a reputation for being one of the most learned men of his time.
He prided himself on having single-handedly reintroduced to Byzantine scholarship a serious study of
ancient philosophy, especially of Plato. His predilection for Plato and other pagan (often Neoplatonic)
philosophers led to doubts about the orthodoxy of his faith among some of his contemporaries, and at one
point he was forced to make a public profession of faith in his defense. He also prided himself on being a
master of rhetoric, combining the wisdom of the philosopher and the persuasiveness of the rhetorician.
This made him the model of a political leader and advisor. Among modern commentators, Psellos'
penchant for long autobiographical digressions in his works has earned him accusations of vanity and
ambition. At the same time, his political career and the contents of his Chronographia have led
commentators to characterize him as obsequious and opportunistic, because of his ostensibly uncritical
stance towards some of the emperors and because of the many shifts in his political loyalty over the
course of his life. However, other commentators argue that there is a powerful ironic undercurrent
running through his work, especially the Chronographia, transmitting highly critical and subversive
messages about the emperors portrayed,[8] or even about Byzantine Christian beliefs and morality at
large.[9]

As mentioned above, serious questions were raised during Psellos' lifetime concerning his religious
beliefs. For example, according to Byzantinist Anthony Kaldellis, "In 1054 he [Psellos] was accused by
his erstwhile friend, the future Patriarch John Xiphilinos, of forsaking Christ to follow Plato."[9] Even
stronger doubts arose concerning Psellos' student, John Italos, who succeeded Psellos as Chief of the
Philosophers. Italos was publicly accused of teaching such "Hellenizing" ideas as metempsychosis and
the eternity of the world. Italos faced such accusations twice, and both times he confessed and
recanted.[10]
Pseudo-Psellos
It was once thought that there was another Byzantine writer of the same name, Michael Psellos the
Elder (now also called Pseudo-Psellos), who lived on the island of Andros in the 9th century, and who
was a pupil of Photius and teacher of emperor Leo VI the Wise. Michael Psellos himself was also called
"the younger" by some authors. This belief was based on an entry in a medieval chronicle, the Σύνοψις
Κεδρηνοῦ-Σκυλίτση, which mentions the name in that context. It is now believed that the inclusion of
the name Psellos in this chronicle was the mistake of an ignorant copyist at a later time, and that no
"Michael Psellos the elder" ever existed.[11]

The term "Pseudo-Psellos" is also used in modern scholarship to describe the authorship of several later
works that are believed to have been falsely ascribed to Psellos in Byzantine times.

References in literature
In the gloss of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, there is a reference to
"the Platonic Constantinopolitan, Michael Psellus" as an authority on "the invisible inhabitants of this
planet, neither departed souls nor angels".

The British poet Christopher Middleton includes a poem about Psellus in his 1986 collection, Two Horse
Wagon Going By, 'Mezzomephistophelean Scholion'.

Psellos appears also in Tim Severin's novel Viking: King's Man, the final piece of the Viking trilogy.

Editions
Psellus, Michael (1647). Compendium mathematicum
(http://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid
=185241&search_terms=DTL4) (in Latin). Lugd. Batav:
Bonaventura Elzevier, Abraham Elzevier. Retrieved
2015-06-19.
Chronographie ou histoire d'un siècle de Byzance
(976–1077). Ed. Émile Renauld. 2 vols. Paris 1926/28.
[Standard modern edition].
Imperatori di Bisanzio (Cronografia). Ed. Salvatore
Impellizzeri. 2 vols. Vicenza 1984. [New critical edition
and Italian translation.]
Chronographia, ed. E. R. A. Sewter. London 1953.
English translation, Full online text (http://www.fordham.
edu/halsall/basis/psellus-chronographia.html)
Chronographia, ed. Vrasidas Karalis. 2 vols. Athen
1992/96 [Modern Greek translation].
Vidas de los emperadores des Bizancio (Cronografia).
Ed. Juan Signes Codoñer. Madrid 2005 [Spanish
translation]. Compendium mathematicum, 1647
Autobiografia (Encomio per la madre. Ed. Ugo
Criscuolo. Naples 1989.
De omnifaria doctrina. [Διδασκαλία παντοδαπή] Ed. Leendert G. Westerink. Utrecht 1948.
De operatione daemonum. Ed. Jean-François Boissonade. Nürnberg 1838, reprint
Amsterdam 1964.
 De operatione daemonum. Tr. Marcus Collision. Sydney 1843. Full online text (http://www.e
sotericarchives.com/psellos/daemonibus.pdf)
'"Éloge inédit du lecteur Jean Kroustoulas." Ed. Paul Gautier. Rivista di studi bizantini e
neoellenici, n.s. 17–19 (27–29), 1980–1982: 119–147.
Epistola a Giovanni Xifilino. Ed. Ugo Criscuolo. Naples 1990.
Epistola a Michele Kerulario. Ed. Ugo Criscuolo. Naples 1990.
Historia Syntomos. Ed. Willem J. Aerts. Berlin 1990.
Orationes hagiographicae. Ed. Elizabeth A. Fisher. Stuttgart/Leipzig 1994.
Orationes panegyricae. Ed. George T. Dennis. Stuttgart/Leipzig 1994.
Oratoria minora. Ed. Antony R. Littlewood. Leipzig 1984.
Orazione in memoria di Constantino Lichudi. Ed. Ugo Criscuolo. Messina 1983.
Philosophica minora I. Ed. John M. Duffy. Stuttgart/Leipzig 1992.
Philosophica minora II. Ed. Dominic J. O'Meara. Leipzig 1989.
Poemata. Ed. Leendert G. Westerink. Stuttgart/Leipzig 1992.
Scripta minora magnam partem adhuc inedita. 2 vols. Ed. Eduard Kurtz, Franz Drexl. Milan
1936/41.
Essays on Euripides and George of Pisidia and on Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius. Ed.
Andrew R. Dyck. Wien 1989.
Theologica I. Ed. Paul Gautier. Leipzig 1989.
Theologica II. Ed. Leendert G. Westerink, John M. Duffy. München/Leipzig 2002.

See also
Byzantine Aristotelianism

References
1. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Michael Psellus" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Cathol
ic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Michael_Psellus). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
2. "The Great Schism: The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom" (http://orthod
oxinfo.com/general/greatschism.aspx). orthodoxinfo.com. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
3. Perikles P. Joannou: "Psellos et le monastère *Τὰ Ναρσοῦ". Byzantinische Zeitschrift 44:
283–290.
4. Herbert Hunger: Die hochsprachliche profane Literatur der Byzantiner. 2 vols. München
1978.
5. Ioannes Polemis: "When did Psellos die?" Byzantinische Zeitschrift 58: 73–76.
6. P. Gautier, Theophylacte d'Achrida. Lettres. Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae. Series
Thessalonicensis 16.2. Thessalonica: Association for Byzantine Research, 1986. Letter 132
7. De operatione daemonum. Tr. Marcus Collisson. Sydney 1843. Full online text (http://www.e
sotericarchives.com/psellos/daemonibus.pdf).
8. Efthymia Pietsch: Die "Chronographia" des Michael Psellos: Kaisergeschichte,
Autobiographie und Apologie. Wiesbaden 2005.
9. Anthony Kaldellis: The argument of Psellos' Chronographia. Boston 1999.
10. Lowell Clucas: "The Trial of John Italos and the Crisis of Intellectual Values in Byzantium in
the Eleventh Century", München 1981
11. Paul Lemerle: Le premier humanisme byzantin: Notes et remarques sur enseignement et
culture à Byzance des origines au Xe siècle. Paris 1971. (ch. 6)
Further reading
A. Kaldellis, Anthony Kaldellis: The argument of Psellos' Chronographia, Boston 1999.
Cerqueiro, Daniel. Michael Psellos, La Escuela de Atenas y el Sentido de Conócete a ti
mismo. P.Ven., Buenos Aires 2001. ISBN 978-987-9239-21-6.
E. Pietsch: Die "Chronographia" des Michael Psellos: Kaisergeschichte, Autobiographie und
Apologie, Wiesbaden 2005.
S. Papaioannou, Michael Psellos: Rhetoric and Authorship in Byzantium, Cambridge 2013.
F. Lauritzen, Depiction of Character in the Chronographia of Michael Psellos, Turnhout
2013.
D. Walter, Michael Psellos – Christliche Philosophie in Byzanz. Mittelalterliche Philosophie
im Verhältnis zu Antike und Spätantike. De Gruyter, Berlin, Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-
052597-7

External links
(in Latin) (in Greek) (in English) Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with
analytical indexes (http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/30_20_1017-1078-_Michae_Ps
ellos.html)

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