The Pre-Production

Process

Garrod, Ben (55117)

55117@eastnorfolk.ac.uk
Ben Garrod, 55117 Unit 1 – Assignment 1

Contents

Types of Moving Image Production and Distribution Methods ...................................... 3

Films................................................................................................................................. 3
TV Shows ......................................................................................................................... 4
Music Videos ................................................................................................................... 5
Short Films ...................................................................................................................... 5
My Depict! Production .................................................................................................... 6
Finance and Sources of Funding ....................................................................................... 7
Production Companies ................................................................................................... 7
Public film funding .......................................................................................................... 7
Product Placement ......................................................................................................... 8
Self-Financed ................................................................................................................... 8
Production Requirements .................................................................................................. 9
Costumes ........................................................................................................................ 9
Cast .................................................................................................................................. 9
Props .............................................................................................................................. 10
Crew ............................................................................................................................... 10
Marketing and Advertising ........................................................................................... 10
Equipment...................................................................................................................... 11
Depict! Requirements ................................................................................................... 11
Personnel .......................................................................................................................... 12
Low Budget Films ......................................................................................................... 12
Medium to High Budget Films ..................................................................................... 12
A Television Programme .............................................................................................. 13
Hollywood Feature Film ................................................................................................ 13
Time ................................................................................................................................... 14
Depict! Film .................................................................................................................... 14
Deadlines in the professional media industry ............................................................ 14
Equipment and Facilities.................................................................................................. 15
Requirements ................................................................................................................ 15
Audio Visual Equipment ............................................................................................... 15
Depict! Production Equipment Requirements ............................................................ 15
Locations........................................................................................................................... 16

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Types of Locations ....................................................................................................... 16

Location Releases and Recces .................................................................................... 16
Depict! Locations .......................................................................................................... 17
Materials ........................................................................................................................... 18
Props .............................................................................................................................. 18
Costumes ...................................................................................................................... 18
Research/Testimonies ................................................................................................. 18
Music Copyright Fees ................................................................................................... 19
Travel/Transport ........................................................................................................... 19
Catering ......................................................................................................................... 19
Legal Considerations ....................................................................................................... 20
Copyright ....................................................................................................................... 20
Exclusive License .......................................................................................................... 20
Creative Commons ....................................................................................................... 20
Public Domain ............................................................................................................... 20
Depict! Production ........................................................................................................ 21
Filming People ............................................................................................................... 21
Filming at Locations ..................................................................................................... 21
Public Liability Insurance ............................................................................................. 21
Completion Guarantee/Insurance ............................................................................... 22
Regulation ......................................................................................................................... 23
Ofcom ............................................................................................................................ 23
BBC Regulation ............................................................................................................. 23
BBFC .............................................................................................................................. 23
Internet Video Regulation ............................................................................................. 24
Trade Unions and Trade Associations ........................................................................... 25
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 25
PACT .............................................................................................................................. 25
Bectu .............................................................................................................................. 25
Trade Associations - BIMA........................................................................................... 25
Writers Guild of America Strike (2007-08) .................................................................. 26
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 27

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Types of Moving Image Production and Distribution Methods

Before a media product can be produced, one of the first things to consider is what
form it will take and how it will reach an audience. Each type of media production is
designed with a target audience in mind; in order to reach an audience, the correct
avenue of distribution must be taken. The distribution method is generally defined by
the viewing preference of the target audience. For example, traditionally cinemas
show films and music videos are distributed via online platforms, such as YouTube. I
will discuss a range of different types of media productions in this section.

Films

Films are long length video productions that tell a story by the content in them. Most
popular films have large budgets, therefore giving them the scope to reach large,
global audiences. Mainstream, high-budget films generally are released to the
cinema first and then are distributed through DVD sales and online streaming
platforms. After a few months have passed since public release, it may become
available on TV (first on paid TV and then on free to air TV.)
For most films, a production company is used to fund and organise public
distribution. Often, multiple production companies will collaborate in order to share
responsibility and finances. Most British films are funded using multiple production
companies – for example Working Title and BBC Films.
Some films have a ‘straight to media’ release. This is generally due to
a low budget but can also be due to the film being controversial or
having negative reviews. Some examples of films which were not
released to cinemas are: Blood and Bone (2009), The Hit List (2011),
The Marine 2 (2009) and Belly of the Beast (2003.) For these films,
it’s likely that the production companies concluded that it would not
be financially viable to release to cinemas, due to a lack of public
interest in the films.
Occasionally, a film will be lucky enough to receive a distribution deal
from a production company after completion. This was the case for
Clerks (1993), which obtained a cinema release after Miramax gained
the distribution rights thanks to a successful screening at the
Sundance Film Festival.

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TV Shows

TV shows are medium length productions that are released as a series

of episodes. The first stage of distribution for TV Shows is on terrestrial
TV. Generally, this is followed by a release to ‘catch up’ services, such as
BBC iPlayer. Dependant on the popularity of the TV Show, it may be
available to view as a box set (either as a DVD or via online streaming
platforms.)
Different TV channels traditionally had a set audience; for example, BBC 1 was
considered a more formal channel than ITV. Although stereotypes are fading, most
TV channels are aimed at a specific audience, in order to maximise viewer loyalty
and profit. For example, BBC 4 airs documentaries whilst ITV focusses on reality TV
programs. In order to better cater for their diverse audiences, TV networks (e.g. ITV)
have expanded their channels and catch up services in recent years. Furthermore,
ITV have the ITVBe channel for less mainstream programming.
TV channels make decisions on based on their audience’s preferences; the more
people they can get to watch, the more profitable the channel is. For example, ITV
runs Family Guy episodes to run back to back late at night. This decision has likely
been made due to the Family Guy audience engaging with the show most at late
night, binge watching multiple episodes. Due to many Family Guy episodes being ‘re-
watchable’, because of their humour, the audience is likely to watch an episode again
– allowing ITV to profit from airing old seasons.
TV shows aired on terrestrial TV make profit by charging companies to advertise in
advert breaks. Furthermore, the BBC gain an income from the TV Licencing service.
Paid TV providers charge customers for viewing their TV channels, providing another
monetization channel. The number of people who watch the TV show will determine
the advert revenue and the overall profitability of the show.
Many TV shows are now being released directly to streaming
services, such as Netflix and Amazon Prime. Streaming services
charge their customers a monthly subscription, in return for ad-free
online video streaming. Netflix and Amazon Prime host a variety of
TV Shows and Movies from external production companies, as well
as offering their own productions. As these services are both
production companies and advertising platforms, it’s easy for them
to heavily promote their own shows. For example, Amazon’s ‘The Marvellous Mrs
Maisel’ has been heavily promoted by the company since its release. Platforms such
as Amazon also benefit from advertising to potential future customers, who have not
yet joined their streaming subscription.

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Music Videos

Music videos are short productions that accompany a piece of

music, with the visuals and narrative having a link to the lyrics.
Currently, music videos are primarily distributed using streaming
websites, such as YouTube, and via terrestrial TV channels, e.g. MTV.
In order to maximise profit, music videos are targeted at a specific demographic.
Different age groups enjoy listening to different genres of music. For example,
stereotypically, older generations are more likely to listen to Classical music.
Therefore, classical music videos would need to appeal to an older audience. Other
genres, such as Heavy Metal, have the scope to produce more ‘outrageous’ videos,
as their target audience likely has a more liberal outlook. Paul, by Girl Band has been
dubbed one of the “weirdest music videos of all time” (www.redbull.com,
15/12/2019) – a testament to streaming platforms which allow such diverse
content.
YouTube is one of the largest sources of music videos, providing a free, ad-
supported experience. Channels which upload music videos can monetize them and
gain an income from the ads that YouTube place on them. One of the major
providers of music videos on YouTube is Vevo. Vevo was founded in 2009, as a joint
venture between Universal Music Group, Sony Music Entertainment, EMI and Warner
Music Group. Vevo uploads a variety popular of music videos onto YouTube.
Although YouTube music videos are free to watch, copyrighted music is illegal to
download. Freely available music videos have resulted in an increase in illegal music
downloads – violating the artist’s copyright. Unfortunately, this has caused many
music videos to simply be abused as a tool to gain free music. In recent years,
YouTube ‘downloader’ websites have been prevented from downloading copyrighted
material on YouTube, limiting the damage caused by music video piracy.

Short Films

Short films convey a message in a concise manner. Low

budgets are often used for short films; the shorter length
allows for expenditure to be kept to a minimum. In terms of
distribution, short films are generally published online or
shown at film festivals/private screenings.
Many short films are used as a gateway into the film industry, as their lower
investment cost allows novice filmmakers to showcase their talent. Short films
produced to showcase a director’s talent are therefore generally not designed to
make profit. An example of a successful short film is ‘Sylvia.’ Directed by Norwich
based Richard and Rachel Prendergast, the explores a man trying to reunite a car
with its previous owner. This film has “won 12 film festival awards so far” and it has
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“been entered for Oscars” (www.bbc.co.uk, 15/12/2019) – showing that success is

possible from humble beginnings. This film has been primarily distributed through
film festivals and private screenings.
Short films are also used to convey messages. For example, political campaigns
generally use short, emotive films to gain public support. These films are distributed
on streaming websites, social media and TV. For the December 2019 election, the
Conservatives released a ‘Love Actually parody’ short film, which aimed to use
comedy to gain political support. The use of a short film allows for the
Conservative’s message to be conveyed quickly, in order to keep the audience
engaged.
As short films aren’t long enough to warrant a place in the TV schedule, they are
generally viewed: on streaming platforms, in private screenings or during advert
breaks.

My Depict! Production

My Depict! production is an example of a short film, with the

requirement of being no more than 90 seconds. Depict aims to
appeal to people who are in the “crucial early stage in their
career” (www.depict.org, 15/12/2019), offering them a gateway
into directing Oscar award winning films. Therefore, the target audience of Depict!
films is the Depict! judges and prospective production companies.
Depict! films are distributed online, via the Depict! website. Therefore, they are
available free for all to see, providing inspiration for future film creators and
providing entertainment to the public.

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Finance and Sources of Funding

Moving image productions come in many different forms and budgets. Large scale
productions can cost millions, making sufficient funding vitally important to the
success of a film. To be successful, a film must appeal to a wide audience and make
a profit.

Production Companies

Using a production company is the most common way to

obtain funding for a moving image production. Examples
of production companies include: Warner Bros., Sony
Pictures, Walt Disney and Universal Pictures. Production
companies fund people who want to make a film based on
numerous factors. As production companies are
businesses, their goal is to make a profit from each film they finance. Therefore, the
commercial viability of a film and the director’s track record must be carefully
considered before funding is approved. Once funding has been agreed, a contract
must be signed between the two parties. This contract stipulates the terms and
conditions that the filmmakers must abide by, for example this may include
deadlines.
Many films are funded by multiple production companies. Therefore, the financial
risk for each company is lowered and hence the responsibility is shared. Films
funded by multiple production companies generally have a higher risk factor or have
a potential to make less profit. For example, Yesterday used the following production
companies: Decibel Films, Dentsu, Etalon Film, Perfect World Pictures and Working
Title Films. Often, a film will use a major production company for most of its funding,
with other minor stakeholders also involved.

Public film funding

Public films funding is available through grants, charities or

government sources. A proportion of the money offered through
public funding schemes is designated to developing filmmakers,
who use public film funding to kickstart their careers.
For example, the BFI Film Fund “has a number of funding strands,
investing over £26m of Lottery funds per year to support film
development and production” (www.bfi.org.uk, 15/12/2019). Another source of
public funding is BBC Films, who “find and develop new talent” (www.bfi.org.uk,

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15/12/2019). The largest source of public funding for films is HMRC tax relief;
amounting to £206,000,000 (www.stephenfollows.com, 15/12/2019) in one year.

Based on film IMDb user ratings, publicly funded films are rated higher than those
which were funded by production companies, with an overall rating of 6.5 for those
funded publicly vs a rating of 6.1 for those funded with a production company. It’s
possible that films funded publicly have been through a more rigorous selection
process compared to those funded by production companies.

Product Placement

Product placement describes a venture between the film and a brand, in which the
brand pays the film company for including their products on set. This is a win-win
situation for the brand and film; the brand gets significant product exposure,
representing great value compared to traditional ads, and the film gets money to
cover production costs.
One example of successful film product placement was
in James Bond’s ‘Skyfall.’ Heineken contributed
£50,000,000 towards the film, in return for their drinks
being heavily featured.
Product placement generally works best for large scale productions with significant
‘pulling power.’ If the film only has a small, narrow audience, the product placement
is unlikely to be deemed worthy for the company.

Self-Financed

Self-financed films are funded in-part or wholly by the director or film conceptualiser.
For full-length films, this funding source is rare, as it involves significant risk and
expenditure for involved parties. A director may choose to fund the film in this way if
they don’t have the experience and track record for a production company to take
them on.
An example of a successful self-funded film is Kevin Smith’s ‘Clerks.’ The film had a
budget of $27,575 and was shot in the stores that Kevin Smith worked in. In order to
obtain the money for the film, Kevin Smith sold a large amount of comic books and
maxed out 10 credit cards. Therefore, the risk factor for Kevin Smith was huge. After
securing a deal with Miramax after the Sundance Film Festival, the film managed to
earn over $3 million in cinemas.
Although risky, self-financed films have the potential to secure a director’s career.

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Production Requirements

A moving image production requires a significant number of resources, personnel

and assets in order to get off the ground.

Costumes

Costumes are required for all moving image

productions. Dependent on the scale of production,
costumes can range from readily available to bespoke
and complex. They can either be hired or purchased;
dependent on the likelihood that they need to be reused.
For example, for ‘Downton Abbey,’ it makes financial
sense to purchase the costumes, as they need to be
reused for each series of the show. On the other hand,
one-off movies, such as Yesterday, usually hire costumes, as there is no need to
retain them after filming.
Period-correctness is a significant consideration when designing costumes. Every
character in the scene must be wearing period-correct clothing in order to maintain
continuity throughout the film.

Cast

The actors chosen for a film impact significantly on its expenditure, profits and
audience. Actors who are well-experienced and have a strong public image would
need to be paid more than those who are new to the industry. However, the film’s
investment in actors may pay off in terms of viewership numbers. Popular actors are
more likely to attract an audience, often increasing the film’s profit margin.
A significant consideration when choosing actors for a film is their contractual
obligations. For example, an actor may only have a small window to be in a film,
before they have their next contract. In this case, staying on schedule becomes
critically important.
In many films, extras are used for shots where many people are required. Extras are
payed much less than the main cast, as their role is often in the background.

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Props

Props are central to all films, providing context and realism to the
character’s actions.
Props can either be self-made or purchased. For many moving
image productions, it’s vital to produce self-made props, due to a
unique narrative. For example, the Harry Potter series utilised
mostly self-made props, as many – such as wands – were highly
unique to the series of films.

Crew

‘Crew’ describes personnel that are behind the scenes in a moving image production.
For example, the director, producer and camera operators are all ‘crew.’
In terms of pre-production, examples of crew include writers and costume designers.
A writer’s job is to shape a story, either by writing it from scratch or from a book
adaptation. Costume designers conceptualise and create/source the costumes worn
by the cast.
During production, crew include: the director, production manager and set dresser.
The director’s role is to oversee all creative aspects of a movie. For example, the
director will help hire actors, decide on locations and keep the film on schedule. The
production manager will deal with the production’s business aspects, such as
accommodation and renting equipment. Finally, the set dresser is responsible for the
background elements of a set, such as large-scale backdrops.

Marketing and Advertising

Marketing and advertising are possibly the most important aspect of a moving
image production, as without it the film would not be able to make any income.
The major marketing push for films comes from trailers. On average, a trailer is
released four months before the film is released (www.stephenfollows.com,
15/12/2019), allowing the audience time to gain excitement and momentum before
the film is released. However, there are exceptions to this, such as the 1998 version
of Godzilla, which had a very early trailer featuring no production footage, due filming
not being started. Trailers help viewers make informed choices about films they may
wish to watch; without them, the plot of a movie would be difficult to decipher before
release.

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Equipment

Equipment is another significant cost for moving image productions. Similarly, for
costumes, equipment can either be hired or purchased.
In terms of lighting, camera and sound equipment, most productions opt to hire. This
is due to the very high purchase cost of professional grade equipment, which can go
out of date very quickly. Another consideration is the timescale that the equipment is
needed for: if the production goes over-schedule, then significant additional hire
costs could be incurred. Finally, equipment backup and contingency are vital. Should
equipment fail without a spare, time delays could occur.

Depict! Requirements

For my Depict! production, we used basic camera

equipment, including a Canon EOS 700D, Tascam
handheld recorder, Manfrotto Tripod, pencil mic, boom
stand and mic interface. In total, this equipment costs
under £1000, making our Depict! production relatively
low budget. We did not use any props in our film, and
our cast were voluntary extras.

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Personnel

Personnel describes the different job roles involved in creating a moving image
production. Job roles differ based on the type of production and its budget.

Low Budget Films

For low budget films, personnel are often limited, so many job roles are often shared.
In our Depict! film, our group of four people carried out all aspects of the media
creation process. For example, we all played a part in completing the pre-production
paperwork, working together and collaborating in many aspects. During filming,
members of our group featured in the film and operated camera/sound equipment.
Overall, our group’s experience working with manual camera controls was limited.
Therefore, some of our shots had issues – such as poor focus/lighting. For larger
scale productions, experienced camera operators would be on hand to ensure that
the correct camera settings were selected. Moreover, in a more professional
scenario, footage would be checked for any flaws before the next shot began.
The actors in our film were all amateurs, with little experience in featuring in moving
image productions. Therefore, some of the interviews could have been more
polished – for example the responses could have been more uniform and rehearsed.
Finally, during post-production, we worked together on different parts of the editing. I
did most of the editing in my group, whilst the other three members focussed on
sorting through footage/audio and obtaining resources. I feel that my editing
experience is adequate, as I’ve had some experience with Premiere Pro in the past.
Sharing job roles in our Depict! film is representative of real-world low budget
filming. However, as a result, less scrutiny and quality control may occur; due to
fewer people checking over the film.

Medium to High Budget Films

For medium to high budget films, the crew consists of specific, niche job roles –
allowing for personnel to specialise in an area of filmmaking.
The creative team consists of a: producer, director and screenwriter. The producer
deals with more administrative aspects of the film, such as funding, hiring other
personnel and arranging distribution. The director oversees creative aspects of the
film, controlling the plot, performance, locations and cinematography. Finally, the
screenwriter is responsible for developing the narrative and writing the script.

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The key members of the production department are executive producer, production
manager and script supervisor. The executive producer is usually an investor in the
film and monitors the production of it. The production manager supervises
scheduling, budget, personnel and other critical aspects of the film. The script
supervisor focusses on continuity between the script and what’s being filmed. They
also are responsible for keeping track all details in a shot, making notes about each
take.
In terms of operating equipment, job roles include camera operator, digital imaging
technician, sound mixer and gaffer. The camera operator operates the camera, as
instructed by the cinematographer. The digital imaging technician sets the camera
settings, in order to get the lighting and focus of the shot accurate. The sound mixer
is responsible for mixing live sound/recording sound during filming. The gaffer is the
head electrician, largely responsible for lighting design.
Actors in medium to high budget films are cast to suit a character. Some directors
may choose to cast well-known actors, as they have the potential to increase the
film’s reach and increase the audience’s engagement. Certain actors are typically
associated with a genre or specific film. For example, Macaulay Culkin is
stereotypically associated with Home Alone, in which he plays a young boy trying to
defend his house after his family leave him alone. Therefore, it may be unwise to
cast Macaulay Culkin in another genre of film, such as a horror film. Overall, for
medium to high budget films, directors can afford to be selective when choosing
actors; choosing the correct actor for the role is highly important.

A Television Programme

A television programme is a medium budget media production, allowing for a wide

range of personnel, who specialise in a certain aspect of the film-making process.
Most of the personnel listed above will be present for a TV programme. Dependant
on the budget of the TV programme, the crew size may differ.

Hollywood Feature Film

Hollywood feature films are likely to have hundreds of crew members, due to their
large budgets. Therefore, each crew member’s work can come under great scrutiny
by their superiors, ensuring that the film is as polished as it can be. Specialist crew
members, such as stunt coordinators, are likely to be present for a Hollywood film.

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Time

Depict! Film

Our Depict! production managed to stay on schedule overall. In order to remain on

schedule, we cross-referenced our production schedule throughout the project. Our
group did have to use additional time that was not scheduled, in order to meet the
final deadline. For example, we filmed during free periods and lunch times.
Although we managed to meet the overall deadline, we were slightly behind in terms
of the pre-production paperwork. This slowed down the production process, as some
shots hadn’t been finalised. In order to mitigate this in the future, it’s important that
we set and meet smaller-scale deadlines, for each part of the pre-production
paperwork.
Another factor that caused delays was the weather. As we didn’t have a waterproof
camera, it would have been difficult to film shots in heavy rain. Therefore, some
shots had to be deferred until a later date.
Meeting deadlines for this project was important; missing the deadline would result
in the coursework not being marked on time.

Deadlines in the professional media industry

In our Depict! production, missing smaller targets was not critical; the final
submission was most important. In the professional industry, it’s essential that all
deadlines are met. For example, deadlines will be set for each series of shots at a
location. If deadlines are not met in the professional media industry, significant loss
of time and money can occur.
Actors in the creative industry are tied to time-limited contracts. Many actors have
very tight schedules; when one contract ends, another immediately begins. This
leaves no margin for error, showing the criticality of staying to a tight schedule. If
filming is behind schedule, the shooting order may have to change, in order to
accommodate a contract. If filming is not completed before an actor’s contract ends,
the actor may have to leave before filming is completed. Therefore, filming would
have to be completed later, hugely adding to the costs of hiring equipment, location
and personnel.
Furthermore, missing production deadlines may lead to the release of the film being
late. This can be catastrophic, especially for seasonal movies. For example, ‘Star
Wars’: ‘The Rise of Skywalker’ has been scheduled for release on the 19 December
2019, a prime time of year for releasing films. Many films, if they were released late,
would not be as popular and would lose revenue.

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Equipment and Facilities

Requirements

Equipment and facilities must be secured before shooting can begin. On top of the
requirements for a scene (props and backdrop etc.), productions require an array of
equipment behind the scenes. This equipment includes cameras, grips, lighting
setups and sound setups. Filming locations must be arranged, with the appropriate
facilities in place (such as sufficient power.)

Audio Visual Equipment

For moving image productions, equipment can either be obtained through purchase
or rental. For productions that are constantly being filmed, e.g. news broadcasts, the
equipment is likely to be purchased. This is because the constant need for audio
visual equipment makes hiring uneconomical. However, for films, AV equipment is
only required for a set length of time. Hiring makes more financial sense in this
scenario; it provides the latest cutting-edge camera equipment without the need of
an expensive investment.
The RED Ranger Monstro 8K VV is an example of a professional-
grade camera, that has been used in many Hollywood films. This
camera costs £73,800 – a large amount of money to spend on a
camera that would likely only be used for a few months. In
comparison, a camera equipment hire company – Pannyhire – can
hire the same camera for £800 per day.
Pannyhire is a professional audio-visual hire company, based around the UK and in
Los Angeles. They provide an array of professional audio-visual hiring options and
crew solutions. (www.pannyhire.co.uk, 16/12/2019) A local audio-visual hire
company is JPMS, who provide a range of products, such as camera, lighting and
sound equipment hire.

Depict! Production Equipment Requirements

In our Depict! production, our group used the following audio-visual equipment:
Canon EOS 700D, Tascam handheld recorder, Manfrotto Tripod, pencil mic, boom
stand and mic interface. As this equipment is in constant use by students, the
college has purchased it. The college loan out this equipment to students who
require it. The total purchase cost for the equipment that we used totals around
£900, a price that reflects the low budget of our film.
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Locations

Types of Locations

Locations for productions are generally either sound stages or

live sets.
Sound stages are soundproof ‘hanger-like’ buildings that can
often house many individual sets – many of which are on a
large scale. Sound stages allow for all filming conditions to be
controlled and fine-tuned. For example, the lighting of a shot
can be adjusted precisely to the requirements outlined in pre-
production. Furthermore, the soundproofing in a sound stage
allows for high quality audio to be recorded easily, without any
ambient noise or echoes.
An example of a sound stage is the Leavesden Studios in
Watford, London. This former aircraft manufacturing facility
was used for all the Harry Potter films. For example, many of
the sets for Harry Potter were made as permanent constructions – such as the Great
Hall.
Films can also be shot ‘on-location’, for example some scenes may need to be set in
a certain area or city. This presents far more challenges in terms of organisation,
shooting and legal issues. As sound and lighting conditions cannot be controlled as
easily, it may be necessary to shoot a scene at a certain time of day. For example, in
Danny Boyle’s ‘28 Days Later,’ one of the scenes featured the deserted streets of
London. This was very difficult to achieve, as the shots had to be filmed at a time
when the streets were empty. To achieve this, the shot was filmed at 4am on a
summer Sunday, with runners stopping motorists during filming. Another
disadvantage of filming on location is the numerous legal considerations.
Overall, sound stages are generally easier to shoot in compared to ‘on-location’
shooting. This is due to their predictable and adjustable conditions, e.g. lighting can
be set, and poor weather is not an issue. However, for most films, some shots must
be shot ‘on-location’; some locations cannot be replicated in a soundstage.

Location Releases and Recces

Before filming at a location can begin, it must be found and approved a location
scout. Location scouts travel the world searching for suitable locations for scenes to
be filmed in, according to the director’s vision and requirements. During a location
recce, areas to film will be identified and noted on a location recce form. Generally,

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this will include pictures of the location, showing exact places where shots can be
filmed. The recce form will then be handed over to the director and creative team,
who will judge if the location is suitable.
Once a location has been decided, the legal aspects must be considered. For
smaller-scale films (e.g. YouTube videos), filming in a public place does not require
clearance. However, for private locations (such as shops), location release forms
must be signed by the owner/manager before filming can take place. For large scale
films, it’s generally necessary to get clearance from a local council before filming in
public places. Some films also have special requirements for a public filming area.
For example, it may be necessary to close roads in order to film a scene; requiring
the further planning and council approval. Furthermore, a police letter may be needed
for some films, in order to alert them of any potential scenes that may arouse
suspicion.

Depict! Locations

In our Depict! production, most of our filming was

completed in college. This location due to its
multiple filming areas – including indoor and
outdoor shots. Clearance for filming in college could
be obtained easily by our teacher. Furthermore,
filming most of our production in college prevented
time wasted travelling between locations.
Another location for our film was in Gorleston high street. For example, our
concluding shots – showing time lapses outside clothing shops – were in this
location. The high street was chosen as it represented the spirit of Gorleston, and the
clothing shops tied in well with our film. As it was a public place, no clearance was
required to film.

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Materials

A range of materials – both physical and digital – are required for a moving image
production to be produced.

Props

Props are central to the narrative and production for most moving image
productions. Many props are the focus of a film’s plot; therefore, their design and
production must be to a high standard. An example of a highly significant prop is the
‘goblet of fire’ in Harry Potter and the ‘Goblet of Fire.’ In this film, the ‘Goblet of Fire’
chooses Harry’s name for the Triwizard Tournament. The design of this prop would
have gone through significant scrutiny by the director and creative team.
If a series of films, such as Harry Potter is made, it’s financially economical to
produce a prop once and re-use it, instead of hiring.

Costumes

Costumes are central to any production, providing visual interest and connotations
for the characters. According to “Den of Geek”, the most ingenious film for costume
design is the Wizard of Oz (www.denofgeek.com, 18/02/2019). Dorothy’s ruby
slippers are very iconic and stand out in terms of costume design. Before the dawn
of CGI in films, costumes had to be striking – the Wizard of Oz is a good example of
careful costume design.
Costumes are either custom-made or pre-made, dependant on the budget and
requirements for the film.

Research/Testimonies

Some films require research before the script is written. This is necessary for period
films, such as a historical documentary. For example, in ‘Schindler’s List,’ WW2
literature was used to research content for the script, props and costume design. In
period films, maintaining continuity is vital. Costumes and sets must be carefully
designed according to research, in order to be historically correct.

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Music Copyright Fees

Music is central to the majority of moving image productions, helping to establish a

mood and evoke emotion for the viewer.
Most music has copyright, meaning that in order to legally use it in a film, the creator
must be payed a royalty fee. These fees can often be substantial, dependant on the
music and scale of the film. For the film ‘Yesterday,’ it’s estimated that the rights to
17 Beatles songs cost $10 million. Therefore, the licenses for this music were
obtained as one of the first stages of production; without them the film would not
have been able to proceed.
Music copyright is one of the single most costly items for a film, so they must be
budgeted for accordingly.

Travel/Transport

Travel and transport are another significant requirement for a moving image
production. For high-budget productions, multiple locations across the world may be
used. Therefore, all equipment, crew and actors must travel from one location to
another. For most films, it makes financial sense to transport as little as possible,
instead hiring equipment that is already at the location.

Catering

Catering is required on location for most high-budget films,

due to the large number of cast and crew that can be
involved. Therefore, the production company often hire a
catering company to provide food at each location.

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Legal Considerations

Copyright

Copyright is one of the most significant legal considerations for a

moving image production, ensuring that the creator of any
included works (e.g. music) are appropriately paid and credited.
The Berne Convention states that copyright exists for a
minimum of 50 years after the creator’s death. However, some
countries, such as the US and UK have extended this up to 70
years. In the following sections, I will discuss the different types
of copyright that exist.

Exclusive License

An exclusive license describes when the licensee and copyright owner can only
make use of the content. For example, music may be granted an exclusive license
for a certain film, with the composer also holding a license. This type of license may
be time-limited or limited in another way.

Creative Commons

A creative commons license allows free use and access of a creator’s work. For
example, most YouTube videos are marked with a creative commons license,
allowing other YouTube users the right to reuse, edit and reupload the video. This
license allows for sharing and building on the work of others.

Public Domain

Public domain refers to work that has no copyright. This could be due to the work
either having no copyright eligibility or the copyright being expired. Therefore, work
under this license may be freely distributed and edited with permission from the
owner.

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Depict! Production

For our Depict! production, we used copyright free music, meaning that we did not
need to pay any royalty fees. However, this did mean that our choice of music was
relatively limited, therefore we couldn’t use many recognisable songs.

Filming People

All participants in a film must be aware of their involvement. For films which have a
wide reach, this should apply to all extras and members of the public. Each cast
member must sign a talent release form, stipulating the terms of their involvement.
Should the cast member not consent to their involvement, in order to protect their
privacy, they should not be included in the film.
Furthermore, personal details of actors should be kept private and out of the public
domain. For example, contact details should not be released to the public. “Wrongful
disclosure of private information” and “misuse of private information” breaches an
individual’s right to live a private life. (filmlondon.org.uk, 18/12/2019)

Filming at Locations

Whilst filming at locations, it’s important to gain the necessary clearance to do so.
Many locations which appear to be public are in fact private property, therefore the
consent of the landlord/owner needs to be obtained. The building landlord/owner
may set restrictions regarding how the film can be used, and which areas of the
building can be filmed. Furthermore, if a building needs to be replicated in a sound
stage, this also requires permission. Overall, all terms of filming need to be carefully
set out in an agreement between the production company and building owner, in
order to avoid any legal complications.

Public Liability Insurance

Professional media productions require Public Liability

Insurance in order to legally film. This insurance covers
any legal repercussions that may result from injury or
property damage involving a member of the public.
Throughout the production, health and safety regulations must be followed,
otherwise the insurance policy may become invalid. Generally, Public Liability
Insurance costs between £2 to £5 million.

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Completion Guarantee/Insurance

A completion guarantee insurance policy is used to ensure that the producer will
complete and deliver the film. Once the producer has agreed a deadline to deliver the
film, all parties will agree to the ‘completion bond agreement’, in which a percentage
of the film’s budget will be paid to the insurance company, in return for an insurance
pay-out should the film not be completed. An example of a film that was never
completed was The Man Who Killed Don Quixote, directed by Terry Gilliam. Jean
Rochefort, playing Quixote, was discovered to have a double herniated disc, so was
unable to continue filming. Gilliam decided to not complete the movie, so would have
likely claimed on completion guarantee insurance.

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Regulation

Ofcom

Ofcom is the UK regulating body for media services, including TV, radio, broadband,
mobile and post. Ofcom’s goal is to ensure that the media and communications
sector remains a fair and competitive market for consumers. Operating under acts of
parliament, e.g. the Communications Act 2003, they ensure that there’s appropriate
competition in the market, in order to protect consumer interests. They are funded by
money from communications providers and by the government.

BBC Regulation

As of 2017, the BBC is regulated by Ofcom, independent from direct government

control. Ofcom assess the performance of the BBC’s services and sets requirements
to ensure a fair and competitive TV and radio market. Furthermore, Ofcom regulate
the standards of the BBC’s content, according to their standards and fairness codes.
Overall, Ofcom ensure that the BBC operate fairly and effectively.

BBFC

The British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) sets age ratings for films, videos and
websites, in order to help people make the right decision about what to watch. They
are an independent, not-for-profit organisation; only charging enough to cover their
costs. In order to classify films, most are viewed by at least two Compliance Officers
and then recommended an age rating. In most cases, this is approved by the
Compliance Manager, whereas sometimes additional scrutiny may have to take
place (e.g. if the film is between two categories.) Films will then be classified as: U,
PG, 12A, 12, 15, 18 or R18. These ages represent the recommended minimum age
for viewing the film, with people under the rated age being unable to purchase or
attend a screening for the film. All films distributed in the UK must be rated by the
BBFC, in order to comply with the Video Recordings Act, 1984.

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Internet Video Regulation

Video-on-demand services, such as BBC iPlayer are regulated by Ofcom, being

governed in the same way as traditional terrestrial television. However, video
streaming websites, such as YouTube, are not regulated by any government backed
organisation. Therefore, these video streaming websites have free reign to allow
users to upload and distribute their content. Speaking to the BBC following the
Logan Paul scandal, YouTube’s chief business officer said that YouTube was
“different and didn’t have the same editorial hand of traditional TV.”
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/, 18/12/2019) In my opinion, his conclusion is true; websites
such as YouTube are impossible for governments to regulate due to the sheer
amount of content that they hold. However, since the Logan Paul scandal in 2018,
YouTube have promised to employ up to 10,000 more people to help regulate the
content on its site.
In terms of film classification, the BBFC can provide ratings for video-on-demand
websites upon request, however it’s not required by law. Instead, shows which would
normally be aired on terrestrial TV after the 9pm watershed is often marked with a ‘G’
(guidance) symbol, to alert the viewer. Streaming sites such as YouTube don’t
classify films, however if a video contains highly sensitive content, a warning is
displayed before playback begins.
Our Depict! project was published on YouTube, therefore Ofcom’s and the BBFC’s
guidelines do not affect it. However, YouTube’s ‘community guidelines’ must be
observed; as our video does not contain any offensive or copyrighted content, it
complies to these.

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Trade Unions and Trade Associations

Introduction

A trade union is a group of workers who form a legal unit to protect their worker’s
rights and interests. Trade unions bring about change in the workplace. They are
important as they allow workers to have their say and improve their employment
conditions. They can assist in improving pay, working conditions and organising
industrial action. Although trade unions are not connected to employers, most strive
to have a strong relationship with them.

PACT

Pact is a trade union representing workers in the TV and film industries. They
support their members with legal advice and additional services. They were a key
player in creating the Communications Act 2003, which gave independent UK
producers intellectual property rights. They promote fairness and equality
throughout the industry. (www.pact.co.uk, 18/12/2019) Membership starts at £350
per year.

Bectu

Bectu is a trade union representing workers in non-performing roles in broadcasting,

film and cinema, digital media, independent production, leisure, IT and telecoms,
theatre and the arts. They “support their members when something goes wrong at
work” and “protect their jobs.” (www.bectu.org.uk, 18/12/2019) In addition, Bectu
offers support outside of work, with legal and financial services and discounts on
energy bills. Membership is £10 per month.

Trade Associations - BIMA

A trade association is a collaboration between companies in the same industry, in

order to bring about innovation and change. Generally, trade associations participate
in PR activities (e.g. advertising and education) and are non-profit organisations.
BIMA is a trade association for “Britain’s digital community”. They aim to pursue
“innovation and excellence” in the digital industry, by holding award and conference
events throughout the year. They claim many advantages of joining, including

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“raising your profile in the digital community” and “learning how to embed
technology in your organisation.” (www.bima.co.uk, 18/12/2019)

Writers Guild of America Strike (2007-08)

Between November 5th, 2007 to February 12th, 2008, 12,000 media screenwriters of
the Writers Guild of America went on strike, calling for increased funding for writers,
in comparison to the significant profits of studios. One show which was affected by
the strike was the ‘Breaking Bad,’ forcing the show to cut a season down from nine
to seven episodes. Due to this, Jesse Pinkman, who was due to be killed in the script,
ended up remaining due to the missing episodes!

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Bibliography

(15/12/2019). Retrieved from www.bbc.co.uk.

(15/12/2019). Retrieved from www.redbull.com.
(15/12/2019). Retrieved from www.depict.org.
(15/12/2019). Retrieved from www.bfi.org.uk.
(15/12/2019). Retrieved from www.stephenfollows.com.
(16/12/2019). Retrieved from www.pannyhire.co.uk.
(18/02/2019). Retrieved from www.denofgeek.com.
(18/12/2019). Retrieved from filmlondon.org.uk.
(18/12/2019). Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/.
(18/12/2019). Retrieved from www.pact.co.uk.
(18/12/2019). Retrieved from www.bectu.org.uk.
(18/12/2019). Retrieved from www.bima.co.uk.

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