Watershed Science Centre. Trent University.

Symons Campus
1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 7B8.
www.trentu.ca/wsc

Hydrological Low Flow Indices and their Uses

WSC Report No. 04-2004

August 2004

Rich Pyrce, Ph.D.

Fluvial Geomorphologist/Hydrologist
Watershed Science Centre
Trent University, Symons Campus
1600 West Bank Dr.
Peterborough, Ontario
K9J 7B8
Email: richardpyrce@trentu.ca
Phone: 705.748.1011 x.7567
Fax: 705.755.2276
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Pyrce, R.S., 2004. Hydrological Low Flow Indices and their Uses. WSC Report No.04-2004.
Watershed Science Centre, Peterborough, Ontario, 33 p.

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© Watershed Science Centre, 2004.

 Table of Contents

Table of Contents......................................................................................................................................................... i
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................................. i
List of Tables................................................................................................................................................................ i
1.0 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................1
2.0 Hydrological Flow Methods ...........................................................................................................................1
3.0 Low Flow Indices and Exceedance Percentiles..............................................................................................5
3.1 The 7Q10 Flow.............................................................................................................................5
3.2 Other 7Q Low Flows....................................................................................................................8
3.3 Flow Duration Indices ..................................................................................................................9
3.4 Other Low Flow Indices.............................................................................................................11
4.0 Instream Methods and Low Flow Indices.................................................................................................... 14
5.0 Baseflow and Low Flow .............................................................................................................................. 15
6.0 Prediction of Low Flow Indices for Ungauged Catchments ....................................................................... 17
7.0 Ontario Low Flow Regionalisation.............................................................................................................. 19
8.0 Summary....................................................................................................................................................... 23
9.0 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... 25
10.0 References .................................................................................................................................................... 26

List of Figures

Figure 1. Hydrologically based low flow estimates using: a) flow indices, and b) flow duration values..... 13
Figure 2. Regionalisation of low flows for northern Ontario (Cumming Cockburn Limited, 1995a; Belore,
1995) and southern Ontario (Cumming Cockburn Limited, 1995a) ................................................... 22

List of Tables

Table 1. Environmental flow methodologies (adapted from Karim et al., 1995; Tharme, 2003)................... 2
Table 2. The Tennant (Montana) method (1976) ........................................................................................... 3
Table 3. Magnitude of low flow events .......................................................................................................... 3
Table 4. Frequency of low flow events .......................................................................................................... 4
Table 5. Duration of low flow events ............................................................................................................. 4
Table 6. Timing of low flow events ............................................................................................................... 5
Table 7. Uses of the 7Q10 flow...................................................................................................................... 6
Table 8. Uses of the other 7Q flows ............................................................................................................... 8
Table 9. Flow duration indices used for low flow study............................................................................... 10
Table 10. Other low flow indices ................................................................................................................. 11
Table 11. Hydrologically based instream flow methods .............................................................................. 15
Table 12. Determining stream baseflows using (low) flow indices.............................................................. 16
Table 13. Prediction of the 7Q10 and 4Q3 flows for ungauged catchments in U.S. states .......................... 17
Table 14. List of parameters to predict Ontario low flows (from Belore, 1995; CCL, 1990) ...................... 19
Table 15. Low flow results from the graphical index method (Belore, 1995; CCL, 1995a) ........................ 20
Table 16. Low flow regression results for the Central Region (Chang et al., 2002) .................................... 20
Table 17. Low flow regression results for the Southeastern Region (Chang et al., 2002)............................ 20
Table 18. Low flow regression results for the Southwestern & West Central Regions (Chang et al., 2002) 21
Table 19. Low flow regression results for the Northern Regions 1, 2, and 3 (Chang et al., 2002)............... 21
Table 20. Most commonly used low flow indices from review studies ....................................................... 24

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1.0 Introduction

Low flow investigations for the Province of Ontario have traditionally used
hydrologically based flow indices and exceedance percentiles to recommend low flow and
instream conditions for Ontario rivers and streams. Flow indices have been used extensively and
are considered appropriate at the planning level of water resource development, providing a
convenient desktop method to assess flow thresholds.

An examination of low flow indices revealed that there are typically numerous uses for a
specific index, and the uses may be conflicting and cover a wide range of engineering, physical,
and biological needs. These findings prompted this low flow summary and review, using
academic and government literature to uncover the various uses of the most common low flow
indices. The low flow indices reviewed include the various 7Q flows, other flow indices (e.g.
4Q3), and the flow duration indices. Instream flow methods and baseflow are also included in
this report as both these topics are closely related to low flows. To predict low flows at ungauged
catchments, various low flow regionalisations have been developed using multiple regression
techniques, and an overview of these methods for the Province of Ontario and many U.S. states
are included in this report.

2.0 Hydrological Flow Methods

Hydrological flow indices are arguably the most straight-forward of the four basic types
of environmental flow methods (Table 1). Hydrological methods are typically desktop
techniques that primarily rely on published hydrological data in the form of historical monthly or
daily flow discharge data, for making environmental flow recommendations (Tharme, 2003).
Hydrological methods often seek a specified minimum flow, and there are many regionalisation
techniques to derive results for gauged and ungauged rivers. Hydrological methods are
considered rapid and non-resource intensive, and appropriate at the planning level of water
resource development (Tharme, 2003).

For the Province of Ontario, hydrological methods provide a sensible way to estimate low
flows or instream flows which can be regionalised for any location within the Province. The
hydraulic rating, habitat rating, and holistic methods often provide more detailed results, but also
are more time, labour, and data intensive, requiring advanced knowledge about the watershed.

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Table 1. Environmental flow methodologies (adapted from Karim et al., 1995; Tharme, 2003)
Method Description
1. Hydrological • Environmental flow recommendations are made using simple desktop
methods primarily using hydrological data (daily or monthly flow
records)
• Typically a rapid, non-resource intensive method, providing low-
resolution environmental flow estimates
• Considered appropriate at the planning level of water resource
development, or in low controversy situations where used as a primary
flow target
• The most widely used hydrological method worldwide is the Tennant
(or modified Tennant) method (1976)
• The second most widely used method include various flow duration
exceedance percentiles (e.g. Q95, Q75), or single low flow indices (e.g.
7Q10, 7Q2)
2. Hydraulic Rating • Uses changes in hydraulic variables (such as river stage or wetted
perimeter) to assess habitat factors known or assumed to be limiting to
target biota, thus a threshold value of the selected hydraulic parameter
will sustain biota/ecosystem integrity
3. Habitat Rating • These methods attempt to assess environmental flow requirements on
the basis of detailed analyses of the suitability of instream physical
habitat under different flow discharges using integrated hydrological,
hydraulic and biological response data
• Flow is typically modelled using data on flow depth, channel slope,
cross-section shape, etc.. collected at multiple cross-sections within a
study reach
• The results usually take the form of habitat-discharge curves to predict
optimum flows as environmental flow requirements
4. Holistic • The requirements of the complete ecosystem are integrated and
considered (including the river channel, source areas, riparian zone,
floodplain, etc.)
• The natural regime of the river is the fundamental guide, and must be
incorporated into the modified flow regimes
• Critical flow criteria are identified for some or all major components of
the riverine ecosystem
• The basis for most approaches is a systematic construction of a
modified flow regime on a month-by-month and element-by-element
basis which defines features of the flow regime to achieve particular
ecological, geomorphological, water quality, social or other objectives
of the modified system
• Advanced holistic methods routinely utilize several of the tools found in
hydrologic, hydraulic and habitat rating methods

The Tennant (or Montana) method (1976) is the most common hydrological method
applied worldwide, and has been used by at least 25 countries in either the original or modified
form (Tharme, 2003). It’s appeal is in it’s simplicity and ease of use, as the Tennant method uses
a percentage of the mean annual flow (MAF) for two different six month periods to define
conditions of flow regarding “instream flow regimens for fish, wildlife, recreation, and related
environmental resources” (Table 2). Tennant (1976) used original headings of “Recommended
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base flow regimens Oct.-Mar. (and Apr.-Sept.)”, but it seems unlikely that he was referring to
actual baseflow, but rather a base or basic “excellent” or “good” flow condition associated with
perceived recreational and wildlife needs.

Table 2. The Tennant (Montana) method (1976)

Narrative description of general Recommended flow regimens Recommended flow regimens
condition of flow (% of MAF) October to March (% of MAF) April to September

Flushing or maximum 200% 200%

Optimum range 60-100% 60-100%
Outstanding 40% 60%
Excellent 30% 50%
Good 20% 40%
Fair or degrading 10% 30%
Poor or minimum 10% 10%
Severe degradation <10% <10%

Olden and Poff (2003) provided a list of hydrological indices used in riverine ecological
studies related to magnitude, frequency, duration, and timing of flow events. Those specific to
low flow are listed below in Tables 3 to 6. Many of the listed indices also have corresponding co-
efficients of variation also used in analyses of low flows, but are not included here.

Table 3. Magnitude of low flow events

Index Explanation Units Sources
Minimum monthly flows Mean minimum monthly flow for all m3s-1 Wood et al. (2000)
months
Annual minimum flows Mean of the lowest annual daily - Wood et al. (2000)
flow divided by median annual daily
flow averaged across all years
Median of the lowest annual daily - Clausen et al. (2000)
flows divided by median annual
daily flows averaged across all
years
Mean annual minimum flows m3s-1
divided by catchment area km-2
Low flow index Mean of the lowest annual daily - Poff and Ward
flow divided by mean annual daily (1989)
flow averaged across all years

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Baseflow index (1) Ratio of baseflow volume to total - Clausen and Biggs
flow volume (1997, 2000),
Clausen et al. (2000)
Baseflow index (2) Seven-day minimum flow divided by - Richter et al. (1998)
mean annual daily flows averaged
across all years
Baseflow index (3) Mean of the ratio of the lowest - Poff (1996)
annual daily flow to the mean
annual daily flow (*100) averaged
across all years

Table 4. Frequency of low flow events

Index Explanation Units Sources
-1
Low flood pulse count Number of annual occurrences yr Richter et al.
during which the magnitude of flow (1996, 1997, 1998)
remains below a certain threshold
Frequency of low flow Total number of low flow spells yr-1 Hughes and James
spells (threshold equal to 5% of mean (1989)
daily flow) divided by the record
length

Table 5. Duration of low flow events

Index Explanation Units Sources
Annual minima of daily Magnitude of minimum annual flow m3 s-1 Richter et al.
discharge of various duration (1-, 3-, 7-, 30-, (1996, 1997, 1998)
90-day), ranging from daily to
seasonal
Means of minima of daily Mean annual 1-day/7-day/30-day - Clausen et al. (2000)
discharge minimum, respectively, divided by
median flow
Low exceedence flows Mean magnitude of flows exceeded - Clausen and Biggs
75% and 90% of the time, divided (1997, 2000),
by Q50 over all years (Q75/Q50, Clausen et al. (2000)
Q90/Q50)
Low flow pulse duration Mean duration of low flood pulse days Richter et al. (1996,
count 1997, 1998)
Number of zero-flow Mean annual number of days yr-1 Poff and Ward
days having zero daily flow (1989), Poff (1996),
Richter et al. (1997)
Percent of zero-flow Percentage of all months with zero - Puckridge et al.
months flow (1998)

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Table 6. Timing of low flow events

Index Explanation Units Source
Julian date of annual The mean Julian date of the 1-day - Clausen et al.
minimum minimum flow over all years (2000), Richter et al.
(1996, 1997, 1998)
Seasonal predictability of Proportion of low-flow events - Poff (1996)
low flow greater than or equal to 5-year
magnitude falling in a 60-day
“seasonal” window
Seasonal predictability of Maximum proportion of the year - Poff (1996)
non-low flow during which no 5-year + low flows
have ever occurred over the entire
period of record

3.0 Low Flow Indices and Exceedance Percentiles

Low flow analysis in the Province of Ontario has made extensive use of single flow
indices or exceedance (flow duration) percentiles, which are the second most widely used
hydrological environmental flow method, after the Tennant method (Tharme, 2003). A flow
index, such as the 7Q10 flow can be interpreted as the 7-day low flow with a 10-year return
period, using daily discharge data. The exceedance percentile Q95 can be interpreted as the flow
discharge which can be expected to be exceeded 95% of the time. Previous analysis of Ontario
low flows focused primarily on the 7Q2, 7Q5, 7Q10, and 7Q20 flows (Cumming Cockburn
Limited 1989, 1990, 1995a, 1995b, 1995c).

An important question however is to examine the use of these indices. For example,
what is the reasoning behind choosing a 7Q10 flow, rather than a 7Q20 flow? Academic and
government literature were examined in an attempt to define flow indices and exceedance
percentiles presently in use, and the rationale for their use.

3.1 The 7Q10 Flow

The 7Q10 flow is the most commonly used single flow index. By the early 1970’s, U.S.
agencies which regulated stream pollution based their stream water quality standards on the 7-day
10-year low flow condition (Singh, 1974). By the mid-1970’s, minimum low flow releases in

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Pennsylvania were required from impoundments greater than 1.3 km2 (0.5 mi2) in size (Chiang
and Johnson, 1976). Initially a low flow of 0.01 m3 s-1 km-2 (or 0.5 ft3 s-1 mi-2) was recommended,
however this single criterion was criticized as it failed to consider watershed area, the size of the
impoundment, or the natural low flow yield of the regulated stream. The water quality of any
stream was considered to be acceptable unless the streamflow was below the 7-day, 10-year low
flow (7Q10); any diversion made beyond the 7Q10 could degrade the water quality of the stream
beyond the accepted standard (Chiang and Johnson, 1976).

Table 7 summarises the many uses of the 7Q10 flow. The sources reflect a wide range of
current and past guidelines to help manage watersheds in various parts of the world.

Table 7. Uses of the 7Q10 flow

Index Uses Reference
7Q10 • one of the most widely used (design or reference) Riggs et al. (1980),
low flow indices/instream flow methods Caissie et al. (1998),
Smakhtin and Toulouse (1998),
Caruso (2000),
Smakhtin (2001),
Tharme (2003)
• to protect/regulate water quality from wastewater Riggs et al. (1980),
discharges or waste load allocations (to prevent Diamond et al. (1994),
adverse biological/ecological impacts on the Schreffler (1998),
receiving water) Gu and Dong (1998),
Chaudhury et al. (1998),
Reis and Friesz (2000),
Mohamed et al. (2002),
Wallace and Cox (2002),
Deksissa et al. (2003),
Flynn (2003),
State of Massachusetts (2004)
• waste load allocation for discharges into flowing Ohio Environmental Protection
receiving waters for chronic aquatic life criteria Agency Division of Surface
(except for ammonia-nitrogen) Water (1997)
• stream design flow used to determine waste load
allocations to maintain water quality criteria for NH3-
N toxicity: May-November for summer acute aquatic
life, December-February for winter acute aquatic life
• used by the State of Georgia to regulate water Carter and Putnam (1978)
withdrawals and discharges into streams
• general indicator of prevalent drought conditions
which normally cover large areas
• default design low flow for calculating steady state Virginia Department of
waste load allocations for aquatic life: chronic Environmental Quality (2004)
criteria
• total maximum daily load to assess aquatic life New York State Department of
protection Environmental Conservation
(1996)

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• minimum quantity of streamflow necessary to Delaware Water Supply (2004)

protect habitat during a drought situation
• waste load allocation for Great Lakes Initiative Minnesota Office of the Revisor
pollutants in the absence of a Total Maximum Daily of Statutes (2004)
Load stream design flow
• continuous chronic criterion for aquatic life U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (1999)
• chronic criteria/estimate for aquatic life/habitat Flynn (2003)
maintenance or protection
• possible indicator of potential mortality of aquatic Imhof and Brown (2003)
life
• compared to whole effluent toxicity (WET) Diamond and Daley (2000)
compliance (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
– National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System)
• to compare the impacts of climate change and Eheart and Tornil (1999),
irrigation on low surface streamflows (related to Eheart et al. (1999)
total maximum daily loads)
• examined as an instream flow requirement for Caissie et al. (1998)
Atlantic salmon
• annual design low flow for effluent wastewater Cusimano (1992)
discharge and minimum flow periods and volumes
• used as a local extinction flow Ontario Ministry of Natural
Resources (1994)
• considered as the worst case scenario in water Mohamed et al. (2002)
quality modelling
• some use as a specific design application for Odom (2004, personal
stormwater holding facilities based on stormwater communication)
modelling

Table 7 indicates there are numerous and diverse reasons applied to the use of the 7Q10 flow for
regulation purposes, ranging from: i) protection or regulation of water quality from wastewater
discharges or waste load allocations, ii) habitat protection during drought conditions, iii) chronic
criteria for aquatic life, and iv) a local extinction flow. The original use of the 7Q10 flow is
related to stream water quality standards to regulate pollution, however the uses have expanded to
include and serve many other interests. There have been concerns about the suitability of
applying the 7Q10 flow as a design or index flow. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1981)
argued that the 7Q10 flow had been misused in the past as a minimum flow for protection of the
aquatic community, however it is not an acceptable instream flow method; the 7Q10 flow is a
flow statistic used in identifying the volume for dilution to set permit limits for wastewater
discharge, which does not protect aquatic life and its use to do so is inappropriate. Caissie and
El-Jabi (1995) warned that the use of the 7Q10 flow could significantly underestimate instream
flows, and harmful biological effects could arise from application of these methods, therefore the
use of this index for this purpose was not recommended. The State of Massachusetts (2004)

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stated that the 7Q10 flow statistic is sometimes claimed to represent an adequate streamflow for
maintaining a healthy ecosystem, when in fact, much higher streamflow levels are required.

3.2 Other 7Q Low Flows

Along with the 7Q10 flow there are a variety of other 7Q flows that have been used or are
currently in use, including the annual 7-day low flow (7Q1), the 7Q2, 7Q5, 7Q20, and 7Q25
flows. Table 8 details the uses of these flows.

Table 8. Uses of the other 7Q flows

7Q Flow Uses Source
7Q1 • known as the “dry weather flow” Smakhtin (2001)
• used for abstraction licensing Smakhtin (2001),
Smakhtin and Toulouse (1998)
• used to remove the effect of minor river Matalas (1963)
regulation
7Q2 • one of the most widely used design low flow Smakhtin (2001),
indices Smakhtin and Toulouse (1998)
• habitat maintenance flow (represents a period of Ontario Ministry of Natural
stress on the system that causes some reduction Resources (1994)
in populations)
• criteria for developing permits for wasteload Tortorelli (2002)
allocations
• used as an instream flow Caissie and El-Jabi (2003)
• some use as a specific design application for Odom (2004, personal
stormwater holding facilities based on stormwater communication)
modelling
• not defined Beran and Gustard (1977),
Hayes (1991),
Ries and Friesz (2000)
7Q5 • critical low flow for low quality fishery waters South Dakota Department of
(a stream classified for the beneficial use of Environment and Natural
warmwater semi-permanent fish life propagation Resources (1998)
or warmwater marginal fish life propagation)
7Q20 • used as a systems extinction flow (causes Ontario Ministry of Natural
significant stress on the system) Resources (1994)
• used as an indicator of the minimum flow needed Ontario Ministry of Natural
to maintain the ecosystem Resources et al. (2002)
• limiting condition for sewage treatment and Ontario Ministry of the
wastewater disposal for a receiving water body Environment (2000)
• indicator of potential mortality of aquatic life for Imhof and Brown (2003)
larger streams

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• summer design low flow for effluent wastewater Cusimano (1992)

discharge and drought flow periods and volumes
• flow for sustainable yield/carrying capacity for Shrivastava (2003)
eco-tourism
7Q25 • critical low flow for high quality fishery waters South Dakota Department of
(surface waters designated for the beneficial use Environment and Natural
of coldwater permanent fish life propagation, Resources (1998)
coldwater marginal fish life propagation, or
warmwater permanent fish life propagation)

From Table 8 it is apparent that the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR)
(1994), the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources et al. (2002) and Ontario Ministry of
Environment (MOE) (2000; Odom, 2004) both make use of 7Q20 and 7Q2 flows. The MNR
(1994, 2002) use the 7Q20 and 7Q2 flows as a measure of habitat or ecosystem maintenance or
systems extinction. The MOE (2000) use the indices as a design or limiting condition for
stormwater or wastewater discharges and water taking. For continuous and non-continuous point
source discharges, the 7Q20 is used as the basic design flow for the receiving stream (Ministry of
Environment and Energy, 1994). The 7Q20 is essentially a conservative approach to ensure that
sufficient streamflow is available to assimilate/dilute point source discharges (Stainton 2004,
personal communication). Odom (2004, personal communication), Hammond (2004, personal
communication), and Yang (2004, personal communication) confirmed that the 7Q20 flow is
used for most of the Ontario Ministry of the Environment’s assessments. Yang (2004)
specifically discussed the use of the 7Q20 flow with regard to: i) the Ontario Ministry of the
Environment’s Application for Certificate of Approval (C of A) for point source effluent to be
discharged into receiving waters, and ii) the Ontario Ministry of the Environment’s Application
for Permit to Take Water (PTTW). The 7Q5 and 7Q25 flows are used exclusively by the South
Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources (1998) with regard to critical low
flows for low and high quality fishery waters, respectively. The annual 7-day low flow (7Q1; or
MAM7, the mean annual 7-day average minimum flow) is used as an alternative index in the
United Kingdom for water abstraction licensing (Smakhtin and Toulouse, 1998).

3.3 Flow Duration Indices

A flow duration curve is one of the most informative means of displaying the complete
range of river discharges, from low flows to flood events (Smakhtin, 2001). Using average daily
discharge data, flow duration curves are cumulative frequency distributions that show the percent

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of time that a specified discharge is equaled or exceeded during a period of interest (daily,
monthly, annual, or entire period of record). Smakhtin (2001) indicated that the “design” low
flow range of a flow duration curve is the 70%-99% range, or the Q70 to Q99 range. The Q95 and
Q90 flows are most often used as low flow indices in the government literature and academic
sources, and the numerous uses are listed in Table 9. Q75, Q84, Q96, Q97, Q98, and Q99 flows are
occasionally noticed in the literature as well. Monthly median flows during summer months is
another common flow duration index and is included in Table 9.

Table 9. Flow duration indices used for low flow study

Flow Use Study
Index
Q95 • commonly used low flow index or indicator of Riggs (1980),
extreme low flow conditions Brilly et al. (1997)
Smakhtin (2001),
Wallace and Cox (2002),
Tharme (2003)
• minimum flow to protect the river Petts et al. (1997)
• minimum monthly condition for point discharges Michigan Department of
Environmental Quality (2002)
• licensing of surface water extractions and effluent Higgs and Petts (1988),
discharge limits assessment Smakhtin and Toulouse (1998)
• biological index for mean monthly flow Dakova et al. (2000)
• used to maintain the natural monthly seasonal Stewardson and Gippel (2003)
variation
• used to optimize environmental flow rules
Q90 • commonly used low flow index Smakhtin et al. (1995),
Smakhtin (2001)
• monthly value provides stable and average flow Caissie and El-Jabi (1995)
conditions
• monthly value gives minimum flow for aquatic Yulanti and Burn (1998)
habitat
• used to examine discharge-duration patterns of Ogunkoya (1989)
small streams
• threshold for warning water managers of critical Rivera-Ramirez et al. (2002)
streamflow levels
• describes limiting streamflow conditions, and is Wallace and Cox (2002)
used as a conservative estimator of mean baseflow
Monthly • aquatic baseflow policy for water resources Ries and Friesz (2000),
Q50 planning and management Ries (1997)
• used to protect aquatic biota U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(1981)
• used to recommend seasonal minimum discharges Metcalfe et al. (2003)
for waterpower rivers

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The uses of the Q95 and Q90 flows are varied and are similar to the 7Q low flow indices. Similar
to the 7Q10 flow, the Q95 flow has been used as a biological index, for the licensing of water
takings, and for effluent discharge limits.

3.4 Other Low Flow Indices

Numerous other low flow indices are found in the literature, and only the most frequent
are listed below in Table 10. Many of these indices are specific to certain U.S. states or regions,
assessing the chronic continuous criteria or chronic maximum criteria for aquatic life or human
health.

Table 10. Other low flow indices

Flow Use Source
Index
30Q10 • stream design flow used to determine waste load Ohio Environmental Protection
allocations to maintain water quality criteria for Agency Division of Surface
NH3-N toxicity: May-November for summer Water (1997)
chronic aquatic life, December-February for
winter chronic aquatic life
• default design low flow for calculating steady Virginia Department of
state waste load allocations for aquatic life: Environmental Quality (2004)
chronic criteria (ammonia)
• chronic criteria for aquatic life regarding ammonia U.S. Environmental Protection
or ammonia-nitrogen loadings Agency (1999)
• total maximum daily load to assess human health New York State Department of
protection of drinking water resources Environmental Conservation
(1996)
• the basis for monitoring the attainment of in- Tri-State Water Quality Council
stream water quality flow targets (2004)
4Q3 • waste load allocations for point sources Minnesota Office of the Revisor
• chronic criteria for aquatic life of Statutes (2004)
• design for total maximum daily loads for various Waltemeyer (2002)
water quality constituents
90Q10 • design flow for wildlife values such as mercury Michigan Department of
Environmental Quality (2002),
• waste load allocation for discharges into flowing Ohio EPA Division of Surface
receiving waters for wildlife criteria Water (1997)
• wildlife chronic standard or criterion for waste Minnesota Office of the Revisor
load allocations of Statutes (2004)
30Q2 • a reasonable estimate of annual average U.S. Environmental Protection
baseflow for any given year Agency (2003)

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• general indicator of initial drought conditions Carter and Putnam (1978)

which may cover large areas
• may be used by State regulators to determine
water use restrictions
1Q10 • the criterion maximum concentration (ammonia) U.S. Environmental Protection
for aquatic life Agency (1999)
• default design low flow for calculating steady Virginia Department of
state waste load allocations for aquatic life: acute Environmental Quality (2004)
criteria
• waste load allocation for discharges into flowing Ohio EPA Division of Surface
receiving waters for acute aquatic life criteria Water (1997)
(except for ammonia-nitrogen)
• maximum standard or criterion for waste load Minnesota Office of the Revisor
allocations of Statutes (2004)
30Q5 • design flow for the continuous chronic criterion U.S. Environmental Protection
for ammonia Agency (1999)
• default design low flow for calculating steady Virginia Department of
state waste load allocations for human health: Environmental Quality (2004)
non-carcinogens
Harmonic • waste load allocation for discharges into flowing Ohio EPA Division of Surface
mean flow receiving waters for agricultural water supply, Water (1997)
human health, and aesthetic criteria
• human health chronic standard or criterion for Minnesota Office of the Revisor
waste load allocations of Statutes (2004)
• to evaluate the effects from contaminated Schreffler (1998)
groundwater
• flow for implementing the human health criteria U.S. Environmental Protection
for carcinogens Agency (1999)
3Q20 • permissible rate of waste disposal into Bingham (1986)
Tennessee streams

The harmonic mean flow is a streamflow characteristic that describes an average daily discharge
for a stream (Rifai et al., 2000). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999) uses a
number of the non-7Q indices, recommending the 1Q10 flow as the design flow for the
continuous maximum criterion for aquatic life, and the 30Q10 or the 30Q5 flow for continuous
chronic criteria for ammonia.

Globally, the most widely used indices are the 7Q10 and Q95 flows. Figure 1 displays a
graph of the frequently used low flow and flow duration indices. Commonly used indices include
the 7Q2, 7Q20, 1Q10, 30Q10, Q90, and Q75 flows. However, for each of these eight indices there
are a number of uses found in literature (see Tables 8-10).

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Figure 1. Hydrologically based low flow estimates using: a) flow indices, and b) flow duration
values

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4.0 Instream Methods and Low Flow Indices

Instream flows have been defined as the minimum flows required to protect and maintain
aquatic resources in streams and rivers (Tennant, 1976; Reiser et al., 1989). Sactena (2004)
surveyed the current status of instream flow practices in the Caribbean Basin, and respondents
identified i) effluent discharges, ii) downstream water quality, and iii) existing extraction permits
as the most common sources of instream flow needs. The increasing demand for river water
conflicts with the environmental needs for sustaining flows during drought and low flow periods,
leads to competition between water taking and instream flow needs (Caissie and El-Jabi, 2003).
As instream flows are related to minimum river flows, low flow indices are often used as
instream methods. Table 11 lists four studies that reviewed and analysed flow indices for the
purpose of instream methods.

Reiser et al. (1989) detailed the instream flow methods most often used in North America
as: i) IFIM (Instream Flow Incremental Methodology), which is a component of the Physical
Habitat Simulation (PHABSIM) system, based on a modification of incremental assessments of
effects of flow reduction on fish habitat, through the collection of physical and biological data, ii)
the Tennant method (1976), iii) the Wetted Perimeter method (Gippel and Stewardson, 1998), iv)
the Aquatic Base Flow method, and v) the 7Q10 flow. The Wetted Perimeter method assumes
that there is a direct relation between the wetted perimeter in a riffle and fish habitat in streams
(Parker and Armstrong, 2001). Karim et al., (1995) detailed instream hydrological flow methods
used in Australia, including: i) the Tennant method, ii) flow duration (e.g. Q95, Q90), and iii) the
Constant Yield method, which uses a combination of median flow and constant yield statistics
(runoff per watershed area) to represent watershed hydrology. Caissie and El-Jabi (1995)
examined and compared five instream flow methods for 70 rivers in Atlantic Canada, which
included: i) the Tennant method, ii) 25% of the MAF (a derivation of the Tennant method), used
commonly throughout Atlantic Canada as a low minimum flow required to maintain aquatic life,
regardless of season or species, iii) the median monthly flow (Q50), developed for the New
England region by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which is considered sufficient to protect
aquatic biota, iv) the Aquatic Base Flow method (ABF), which is an August median monthly flow
of 0.0367 m3 s-1 km-2 (0.5 ft3 s-1 mi-2), recommended by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for
small ungauged basins, v) the Q90 flow, based on the Northern Great Plains Resource Program
(1974), where it is assumed that the Q90 will provide more stable and average hydrologic
conditions, and vi) the 7Q10 flow. Caissie and El-Jabi (1995) recommended the use of the Q50
flow for gauged basins, and the Tennant method, 25% of the MAF, and ABF were recommended

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Table 11. Hydrologically based instream flow methods

Study Purpose Indices Used
Reiser et al. (1989) Instream flow methods most often 1. IFIM
used in North America 2. Tennant method (1976)
3. Wetted Perimeter
4. Aquatic Base Flow Method
5. 7Q10 flow
Karim et al. (1995) Instream flow methods used in 1. Tennant method
Australia 2. Flow duration (Q95, Q90)
3. Constant yield
Caissie and El-Jabi (1995) To compare hydrologically based 1. Tennant method
instream flow methods in Atlantic 2. 25% of the MAF
Canada 3. Monthly Q50
4. Aquatic Base Flow method
5. Q90 flow
6. 7Q10 flow
Yulianti and Burn (1998) To examine links between climate 1. Seasonal 7-day low flow
warming and low streamflow in 2. Seasonal 25% of mean flow
the Canadian Prairies 3. Seasonal Q80
4. Monthly Q50
5. Monthly Q90

for ungauged basins. Investigating the Prairie region of Canada, Yulianti and Burn (1998)
examined links between climate warming and low streamflow, using the following seasonal (May
to August) and monthly methods: i) the seasonal 7-day low flow, ii) the seasonal 25% of the
mean flow, iii) the seasonal Q80, iv) monthly Q50, and v) monthly Q90. From a comparison of
methods, it is evident that the most frequently used instream flows are: i) the Tennant method (%
of MAF), ii) the seasonal or annual 7Q10, iii) the monthly Q50, and iv) the monthly Q90. The
7Q10 flow is a widely used index and Q90 flow is a commonly used index (Figure 1). The
monthly median flow (Q50) is also a common index (Table 9).

5.0 Baseflow and Low Flow

River baseflow is defined as water which enters a stream or river from persistent, slowly
varying sources, maintaining streamflow between water-input (precipitation, snowmelt) events
(Dingman, 1994). This contrasts with water that enters a stream or river promptly in response to
individual water-input events, called storm flow or event flow. Numerous studies have associated
low flow with base flow, including various ways to estimate base flow using flow indices (Table
12). Methods to estimate base flow include the Tennant method (1976), flow duration values

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(Wallace and Cox, 2002; Hayes and Nelms, 2002; Petts et al., 1997), the August median flow
(Ries, 1997), and flow indices (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2003).

Table 12. Determining stream baseflows using (low) flow indices

Study Flow Index Definition
Tennant (1976) 0.30*(ADF) 30% of the average daily flow (ADF)
U.S. Fish and Wildlife 0.50 ft3s-2mi-2 New England Aquatic Base Flow method
Service (1981) (based on the August median monthly flow)
Ries (1997) August median flow Considered as a uniform aquatic baseflow
policy for water resources
Wallace and Cox Q90 Used as a conservative estimator of mean
(2002) baseflow
Hayes and Nelms Q50 Estimator of mean baseflow in some regions
(2001) of Virginia
Q50/Q90 Baseflow variability index
Petts et al. (1997) Q10/Q95 Groundwater (baseflow) dominated streams
have values ranging from 2.5 to 6.5
U.S. Environmental 30Q2 The minimum 30-day flow with a two year
Protection Agency return period
(2003)

Petts et al. (1997) described the flows available for the environmental needs of the
channel as: i) a minimum flow to protect the river, ii) the unused part of the reliable baseflow, iii)
additional baseflow due to recharge in wetter years, iv) artificial baseflow due to sewage
discharges and recharge due to leakage, and v) all surface runoff. Over the past two decades,
increasing pressure on water resources and the increasing use of ‘stacking’ abstraction licenses
has led to greater exploitation of the reliable baseflow. Consequently, the flows available for the
environment have declined and the need has arisen to define environmental flow requirements
more precisely. Wilson (2000) estimated low flow frequencies from baseflow measurements
using data for streams in Indiana. Low flow frequencies were estimated by relating baseflow
measurements to concurrent daily flows at nearby streamflow gauging stations for which low
flow frequency curves had been developed, focusing on 7Q2 and 7Q10 flows. Furey and Gupta
(2000) derived an equation for low flow from baseflow, as a function of saturated hydraulic
conductivity, drainage density squared, and basin drainage area. Furey and Gupta’s low flow
equation indicated that QB/AB0.5 (where QB is average baseflow and AB is drainage basin area)
should be regressed onto AB0.5 for monthly single day minimum daily discharges (for the months
of August, September, and October) for unnested basins.

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6.0 Prediction of Low Flow Indices for Ungauged Catchments

Sivapalan (2003) indicated that the prediction of surface water flows in ungauged basins
is an urgent problem, of immediate relevance to society, dealing with questions such as the
impacts of land use and climatic change, biodiversity and sustainable development. There have
been numerous attempts to predict low flows using regression equations in the United States;
Table 13 lists some predictive equations from the literature that estimate the 7Q10 and 4Q3 low
flows for ungauged catchments within specific U.S. states. Most of the equations come from U.S.
Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Reports or Scientific Investigations Report
series. All actual constants and exponents have been replaced by letters (a, b, c, etc..) to focus on
the various parameters used in the predictions.

Table 13. Prediction of the 7Q10 and 4Q3 flows for ungauged catchments in U.S. states
Prediction Equation Source and Location
7Q10 = a *exp [b + c(CO) + d(CL) + e(WF) + f(LA) + g(EL)] Chang and Boyer (1977; West Virginia)
7Q10 = a (DA)b (G)c Bingham (1986; Tennessee)
log 7Q10 = C + a(log DA) + b(log PI) + c(GI) + d(log S) Ehlke and Reed (1999; Pennsylvania)
b c d d (REG)
7Q10 = a (DA) (SL) (DR/ST + 0.1) (10 ) Ries and Friesz (2000; Massachusetts)
log (7Q10 + a) = b + c(2y24) + d(DA) + e(S) + f(SO) Rifai et al. (2000; Texas)
b c d
4Q3 = a (DA) (PW) (SL) Waltemeyer (2002; New Mexico)
7Q10 = a (DA)b (ABT)c (SGP)d Flynn (2003; New Hampshire)
b c(SG)
7Q10 = a (DA) 10 Dudley (2004; Maine)
where: 7Q10 is the seven-day average low flow with 10-year recurrence, 4Q3 is the four-day average low
flow with 3-year recurrence, ABT is average mean annual basinwide temperature, C is a regression
constant, CL is main channel length, CO is basin perimeter, DA is drainage area, DR/ST is area of
stratified drift per unit of total stream length, EL is mean elevation, G is streamflow recession index, GI is
geological index, LA is mean latitude, PI is annual precipitation index, PW is average basin mean winter
precipitation, REG is region (0 for eastern, 1 for western), S is channel slope, SG is the fraction of the
basin underlain by significant sand and gravel aquifers, SGP is average summer precipitation at the
gauging station, SL is mean basin slope, SO is the predominant hydrologic soil group, 2y24 is the 2-year,
24-h precipitation, WF is a watershed form factor.

Chang and Boyer (1977) examined the hydrology of 12 unregulated tributaries of the
Monongahela River (West Virginia) and found that watershed perimeter alone accounted for 88%
of the spatial variability of the 7Q10 flows in the multiple regression analysis. The inclusion of
the four other parameters raised the R2 of the regression to 0.999. The standard error of estimate
was nearly 30% of the observed mean. Bingham (1986) regionalised low flow characteristics for
west and east Tennessee streams, resulting in a regression that included basin area and an index

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of streamflow recession. Standard error of estimate was 24%. Ehlke and Reed (1999) produced
regionalised 7Q10 values for Pennsylvania streams, modified from Flippo (1982) that used
drainage area, an annual precipitation index, a geologic index, and channel slope in the regression
analysis. For Massachusetts streams, Ries and Friesz (2000) determined the basin characteristics
that were statistically significant were drainage area, the area of stratified drift deposit per unit
stream length, mean basin slope, and an indicator variable. The standard error of prediction for
the 7Q10 flow was 70.7% (Ries and Friesz, 2000). Rifai et al. (2000) created regression
equations for the 7Q10 flow for Texas based on meteorological and physiographic data from 63
gauged streams. The regression parameters included drainage area, channel slope, predominant
hydrologic soil group, and the 2-year 24-hr precipitation; 7Q10 values ranged from 0 m3s-1 to
0.425 m3s-1. Waltemeyer (2002) estimated the 4Q3 low flow in mountainous regions of New
Mexico from the data for 40 gauging stations located above 7500 ft (2286 m) using drainage area,
average winter precipitation and mean basin slope; for this regression the standard error of
estimate was 94%. Using data from 60 gauging stations, Flynn (2003) used total drainage area,
mean summer precipitation, and average mean annual basinwide temperature to predict 7Q10
flows for New Hampshire streams. Finally, for ungauged rivers in Maine, Dudley (2004) used 26
gauging stations on unregulated rural rivers with >10 years of data to develop regression
equations. Sixty-two basin and climatic characteristics were reduced to 5 final explanatory
variables (drainage area, fraction of the drainage basin underlain by sand and gravel aquifers,
distance from the coast to the drainage basin centroid, mean annual precipitation, and mean
winter precipitation); the final 7Q10 regression equation used only the first two variables.

The 17 parameters used in the 8 regression equations (Table 13) can be grouped into four
general categories: i) physical character of the watershed (drainage area, channel length, basin
perimeter, mean elevation, mean latitude, channel slope, mean basin slope, watershed
morphology, region), ii) meteorological character of the watershed or region (annual precipitation
index, average basin winter precipitation, average summer precipitation, average basin
temperature), iii) geologic character of the watershed or region (area of stratified drift per total
stream length, geological index, fraction of the basin underlain by significant sand and gravel
aquifers), and iv) hydrology of the stream (streamflow recession index). Drainage area is the
most important variable, as it is used in seven of the eight regression equations.

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7.0 Ontario Low Flow Regionalisation

The Province of Ontario has also regionalised low flow data and results for ungauged
catchments. Chang et al. (2002) summarised the low flow results of Cumming Cockburn Limited
(CCL) (1995a, 1995b, 1995c) (further explained by Belore, 1995) to estimate low flows in
ungauged Ontario streams or rivers. The results from the regression analysis of physiographic
and hydrometeorological parameters (Cumming Cockburn Limited 1995a, 1995b, 1995c) were
integrated into the Ontario Flow Assessment Techniques (OFAT) software (Chang et al., 2002)
for six provincial sub-regions (Figure 2). Four types of regional models developed were: i)
multiple regression, ii) index method, iii) mapped isoline method, and iv) station proration
(Cumming Cockburn Limited 1995a), however only the multiple regression and index method
results will be covered here. The analysis produced results for the 7Q2 and 7Q20 low flows, and
also the 3Q2, 3Q20, 3Q50, 30Q2, 30Q20, and 30Q50 flows. Table 14 includes the parameters
considered for the analysis.

Table 14. List of parameters to predict Ontario low flows (from Belore, 1995; CCL, 1990)
Physiographic Description
Physiographic • Drainage area (DA, km2)
• Base flow index (BFI, dimensionless)
• Maximum groundwater fluctuation (m)
• Slope (m km-1)
• Stream length (LNTH, mm)
• Degree of regulation (0 for natural, 1 for regulated)
• Drainage area controlled by lakes and swamps
Hydrometeorological • Mean annual precipitation (mm)
• Mean annual snowfall (MAS, mm)
• Mean annual runoff (MAR, mm)
• Mean annual evaporation (mm)
Other parameters • Watershed location
• Soil index
• Quality of data (station density, record length,
measurement accuracy)

Cumming Cockburn Limited (1995a) concluded that drainage area (DA) is a good predictor of
low flows. Belore (1995) and Cumming Cockburn Limited (1995a) produced regionalised low
flow estimates using a graphical index method where the 7Q2 and 7Q20 flows are functions of
drainage area (Table 15):

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Table 15. Low flow results from the graphical index method (Belore, 1995; CCL, 1995a)
Flow (m3/s) = a0 + a1(DA)
Flow Region a0 a1
7Q2 North Region 1 8.681 0.002080
North Region 2 -2.494 0.003250
North Region 3 -1.341 0.003530
Central 0.383 0.001610
Southeastern -1.60 0.002510
7Q20 Central 0.209 0.000589
Southeastern -1.008 0.001460

Further work to regionalise Ontario low flows (specifically the 7Q10 and Q95 flows) used natural
flow gauges with greater than 20 years of record for ecoregions of Ontario to produce power
functions relating low flow to drainage area (7Q10 = a(DA)b) (Pyrce, unpublished work).

To estimate low flows, the regression method used four parameters: drainage area (DA,
2
km ), base flow index (BFI, dimensionless), length of the main channel (LNTH, m), and mean
annual runoff (MAR, mm). Varying combinations of parameters depending on the region
produced the regression results (Tables 16 to 19). Refer to Figure 2 for region location.

Table 16. Low flow regression results for the Central Region (Chang et al., 2002)
Flow (m3/s) = a0 + a1(DA) + a2(BFI)
Flow Region a0 a1 a2
7Q2 Central -0.7216 0.00180600 1.7386
7Q20 Central -0.2134 0.00066184 0.7022
3Q2 Central -0.5398 0.00162600 1.2856
3Q20 Central -0.1841 0.00058893 0.6295
30Q2 Central -0.7119 0.00223800 1.6806

Table 17. Low flow regression results for the Southeastern Region (Chang et al., 2002)
Flow (m3/s) = a0 + a1(DA)3 + a2(BFI)
Flow Region a0 a1 a2
7Q2 Southeastern -0.9018 1.3049E-10 2.2728
7Q20 Southeastern -0.5084 7.6323E-11 1.1460

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3Q2 Southeastern -1.0351 1.2409E-10 2.3828

3Q20 Southeastern -0.6133 7.0980E-11 1.2527
30Q2 Southeastern -1.0195 1.4637E-10 2.6144

Table 18. Low flow regression results for the Southwestern & West Central Regions (Chang et
al., 2002)
Flow (m3/s) = a0 + a1(DA)3 + a2(BFI)2 + a3(LNTH)2
Flow Region a0 a1 a2 a3
7Q2 Southwestern & West Central -0.190 1.24E-10 1.67 8.35E-5
7Q20 Southwestern & West Central -0.166 9.03E-11 1.10 4.67E-5
3Q2 Southwestern & West Central -0.183 1.21E-10 1.55 7.81E-5
3Q20 Southwestern & West Central -0.158 8.57E-11 0.99 4.30E-5
30Q2 Southwestern & West Central -0.233 1.29E-10 2.12 1.12E-4

Table 19. Low flow regression results for the Northern Regions 1, 2, and 3 (Chang et al., 2002)

Flow (m3/s) = a0 + a1(DA) + a2(DA)½ + a3(DA)2 + a4(LNTH) + a5(LNTH)½ + a6(MAR) +

a7(MAR)2
Flow Region a0 a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7
7Q2 1 -35.766 - 0.8628 - - -4.130 - 0.000353
2 21.65 0.00337 - - - -4.791 0.1088 -
3 7.506 - - 1.581E-7 - 0.5491 -0.0156 -
7Q20 1 -25.718 - 0.5587 - - -2.89 - 0.000272
2 8.124 0.00125 - - - -0.796 -0.0104 -
3 0.4185 - - 9.777E-8 - 0.3403 -0.0055 -

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Figure 2. Regionalisation of low flows for northern Ontario (Cumming Cockburn Limited,
1995a; Belore, 1995) and southern Ontario (Cumming Cockburn Limited, 1995a)

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8.0 Summary

Hydrologically based flow methods are desktop analysis techniques that have been
widely used internationally, and include low flow (e.g. 7Q10) and flow duration (e.g. Q95)
indices. Low flows diminish the assimilative capacity of rivers, adversely impacting water
quality downstream of point source discharges. Instream flow methods often rely on low flow
indices to assist in maintaining and protecting aquatic resources.

Low flow indices indicate when riverine water quality or aquatic habitat may be below an
accepted standard, however low flows are not entirely detrimental to rivers and streams. Poff et
al. (1997) detailed some ecological benefits related to low stream flows, which include: i)
recruitment opportunities for riparian plant species in regions where floodplains are frequently
inundated (Wharton et al., 1981), ii) invertebrate and fish species persistence in locations from
which they might be displaced by more dominant, but less tolerant species (Closs and Lake,
1996), and iii) low flow timing can provide cues for initiating life cycle transitions including
spawning, egg hatching, rearing, or migration (Sparks, 1995; Trepanier et al., 1996). Harris et al.
(2000) list ecological significance of low flows as: i) partitioning of habitat patches increases with
declining flows, and ii) habitat creation by species that can exploit exposed river margin
sediments. However Poff et al. (1997) stated that prolonged low flows can cause: i) the
concentration of aquatic organisms (Cushman, 1985; Petts, 1984), ii) diminished plant species
diversity (Taylor, 1982), iii) desertification of riparian species composition (Busch and Smith,
1995; Stromberg et al., 1996), and iv) physiological stress leading to reduced plant growth rate,
morphologic change, or mortality (Kondolf and Curry, 1986; Stromberg et al., 1996; Rood et al.,
1995).

The main findings of this report are listed below:

1. Previous reviews of low flow hydrology and environmental flow methods have identified the
most prominent low flow indices. The most common hydrological low flow indices based on
reviews by Riggs et al. (1980), Smakhtin (2001), and Tharme (2003) are the 7Q10, 7Q2, Q95, and
Q90 flows. The most widely used low flow indices based on this review are the 7Q10 and Q95
flows; commonly used indices include the 1Q10, 7Q2, 7Q20, 30Q10, Q90, and Q75 flows. In the
Province of Ontario, the use of the 7Q20 flow is predominant. The most popular instream flow
methods (Reiser et al., 1989; Karim et al., 1995; Caissie and El-Jabi, 1995, and Yulianti and
Burn, 1998) are the Tennant method (1976), the 7Q10 flow, and the monthly Q50 and Q90 flows

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(Table 20). Flows within the range Q70-Q99 are most widely used as design low flows (Smakhtin,
2001). There are numerous suggested uses for the most common low flow indices.

Table 20. Most commonly used low flow indices from review studies
Study Most Common Low Flow Indices
Riggs et al. (1980) 7Q10, 7Q2
Smakhtin (2001) 7Q10, 7Q2 Q75, Q90, Q95
Tharme (2003) 7Q10, 1Q1 (Q364) Q95, Q90
This study 7Q10 Q95
In Ontario 7Q20
Instream flows Tennant method, 7Q10,
(Reiser et al., 1989) monthly Q50, monthly Q90
(Karim et al., 1995)
(Caissie and El-Jabi, 1995)
(Yulianti and Burn, 1998)

2. The 7Q10 flow was originally used to indicate a threshold for wastewater discharge (e.g. Carter
and Putnam, 1978; Riggs et al., 1980; Diamond et al., 1994), however the 7Q10 now protects
aquatic life and stream habitats (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 1994; New York State
Department of Environmental Conservation, 1996; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999;
Imhof and Brown, 2003). There is a necessary connection between point source discharges and
their impact on the stream; since the 1970's the use of the 7Q10 flow reflects these linkages
between flow and habitat, perhaps to the detriment of riverine habitat (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, 1981; Caissie and El-Jabi, 1995; State of Massachusetts, 2004).

3. The 7Q indices (7Q2, 7Q10, and 7Q20) are used by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
and Ontario Ministry of the Environment. Generally, the MNR uses the indices to indicate
habitat maintenance and extinction flows, whereas the MOE generally uses the 7Q indices as
limiting or design conditions related to wastewater discharge or water taking.

4. Numerous studies (e.g. Chang and Boyer, 1977; Cumming Cockburn Limited, 1995a; Ehlke
and Reed, 1999; Rifai et al., 2000; Waltemeyer, 2002; Flynn, 2003) regionalise low flows for
prediction at ungauged locations using multiple regression methods that make use of physical,
meteorological, geological, and hydrological parameters. Regression relationships for Ontario
have been integrated into software to facilitate prediction of low flows for any location within the
Province (Chang et al., 2002). Drainage area is a prominent parameter used in almost all
regression relationships.

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9.0 Acknowledgements

Ian Cameron (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Water Resources Section, Peterborough,
Ontario) and Bob Metcalfe (MNR, Waterpower Project, Peterborough, Ontario) provided
guidance regarding this report. Discussions with Rebecca Tharme (International Water
Management Institute, Sri Lanka), Rob Fox (MNR, Peterborough, Ontario), Nick Jones (MNR,
Peterborough, Ontario), Aaron Todd (MOE, Etobicoke, Ontario), and Bastian Schmidt (WSC,
Peterborough, Ontario) assisted in considering flow needs and low flows in general. Paul Odom
(MOE, Hamilton, Ontario), Clyde Hammond (MOE, Kingston, Ontario), Zhiping Yang (MOE,
London, Ontario), and Ryan Stainton (WSC, Peterborough, Ontario) provided information
regarding the Ontario Ministry of the Environment’s use of low flow indices. Carrie Hoskins
(MNR, Peterborough, Ontario) and Valerie Von Zuben (MNR, Peterborough, Ontario) provided
information and support from the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Reviews by Sarah
Crabbe and Ryan Stainton (WSC, Peterborough, Ontario) improved the final version of this
report.

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10.0 References

Belore, H., 1995. Regionalization of low flows. Presentation given for the Ministry of
Environment and Energy, November 9, 1995.

Beran, M.A. and Gustard, A., 1977. A study into the low-flow characteristics of British rivers.
Journal of Hydrology, 35: 147-157.

Bingham, R.H., 1986. Regionalization of low-flow characteristics of Tennessee streams. U.S.

Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report No.85-4191. Prepared in cooperation
with the Tennessee Department of Health and Environment, Division of Water Management, 68p.

Brilly, M., Kobold, M., and Vidmar, A., 1997. Water information management system and low
flow analysis in Slovenia. FRIEND '97 - Regional Hydrology: concepts and models for
sustainable water resource management. Proceedings from the International Conference, 246:
117-124.

Busch, D.E. and Smith, S.D., 1995. Mechanisms associated with decline of woody species in
riparian ecosystems of the Southwestern US. Ecological Monographs, 65: 347-370.

Caissie, D. and El-Jabi, N., 1995. Comparison and regionalization of hydrologically based
instream flow techniques in Atlantic Canada. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 22: 235-
246.

Caissie, D. and El-Jabi, N., 2003. Instream flow assessment: from holistic approaches to habitat
modelling. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 28: 173-184.

Caissie, D., El-Jabi, N., and Bourgeois, G., 1998. Instream flow evaluation by hydrologically-
based and habitat preference (hydrobiological) techniques. Revue des Sciences de l’Eau, 11: 347-
363.

Carter, R.F. and Putnam, S.A., 1978. Low flow frequency of Georgia streams. U.S. Geological
Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report No.77-127, 104p.

Caruso, B.S., 2000. Evaluation of low-flow frequency analysis methods. Journal of Hydrology
New Zealand, 39: 19-47.

Chang, C., Ashenhurst, F., Damaia, S., and Mann, W., 2002. Ontario Flow Assessment
Techniques Version 1.0 User's Manual. NESI Technical Manual TM-011. Developed and
produced by the Northeast Science and Information Section of the Ontario Ministry of Natural
Resources, South Porcupine, Ontario.

Chang, M. and Boyer, D.G., 1977. Estimates of low flows using watershed and climatic
parameters. Water Resources Research, 13: 997-1001.

Chaudhury, R.R., Sobrinho, J.A.H., Wright, R.M., and Sreenivas, M., 1998. Dissolved oxygen
modeling of the Blackstone River (Northeastern United States). Water Research, 32: 2400-2412.

Chiang, S.L. and Johnson, F.W., 1976. Low flow criteria for diversions and impoundments.
Journal of the Water Resources Planning and Management Division, 102: 227-238.

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Clausen, B. and Biggs, B.J.F., 1997. Relationships between benthic biota and hydrological
indices in New Zealand streams. Freshwater Biology, 38: 327-342.

Clausen, B. and Biggs, B.J.F., 2000. Flow variables for ecological studies in temperate streams:
groupings based on covariance. Journal of Hydrology, 237: 184-197.

Clausen, B., Iversen, H.L., and Ovensen, N.B., 2000. Ecological flow indices for Danish streams.
In: Nilsson, T. (ed), Nordic Hydrology Conference, Uppsala, Sweden, p.3-10.

Closs, G.P. and Lake, P.S., 1996. Drought, differential mortality and the coexistence of a native
and an introduced fish species in a south east Australian intermittent stream. Environmental
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