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AT502 - AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS SYSTEMS

B.E - AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
V semester

Prepared By: Mr. S.Chermadurai,

Assistant Professor -I,
Department of Automobile Engineering,
Velammal Engineering College.
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AT502 AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS SYSTEMS L T P C

3003
OBJECTIVES
 Knowledge in vehicle electrical and electronics components for engine operation.
 Enhancing the knowledge of sensor and microprocessor applications in vehicle
control systems.
 Gaining information's on modern safety system in vehicle braking.

UNIT I BATTERIES AND STARTING SYSTEM 10

Different types of Batteries – principle, rating, testing and charging. Starter motors
characteristics,capacity requirements. Drive mechanisms. Starter switches.

UNIT II CHARGING SYSTEM LIGHTING AND ACCESSORIES 9

DC Generators and Alternators their characteristics. Control unit – cut out, electronic
regulators.Vehicle interior lighting system. Vehicle exterior lighting system. Wiring
requirements. Lighting design. Dashboard instruments. Horn, trafficator.

UNIT III ELECTRONIC IGNITION AND INJECTION SYSTEM 9

Spark plugs. Advance mechanisms. Different types of ignition systems. Electronic fuel injection
systems, mono and multi point fuel injection system (MPFI).

UNIT IV SENSORS AND MICROPROCESSORS IN AUTOMOBILES 9

Basic sensor arrangements. Types of sensors – oxygen sensor, hot wire anaemometer
sensor,vehicle speed sensor, detonation sensor, accelerometer sensor, crank position
sensor.Microprocessor and microcomputer controlled devices in automobiles such voice warning
system,travel information system, keyless entry system, automatic transmission system,
electronic steering system.

UNIT V SAFETY SYSTEMS 8

Antilock braking system, air bag restraint system, voice warning system, seat belt system, road
navigation system, anti theft system.

TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
 The student will have to know about all theoretical information and about electrical
components used in a vehicle.

TEXTBOOK:
1. Judge. A.W., "Modern Electrical Equipment of Automobiles", Chapman & Hall, London,
1992

REFERENCES:
1. Young.A.P., & Griffiths.L., "Automobile Electrical Equipment", English Language Book
Society & New Press, 1990
2. Spreadbury. F.G., "Electrical Ignition Equipment", Constable & Co Ltd., London, 192
3. Robert N Brady "Automotive computers and Digital Instrumentation". A Reston Book,
Prentice Hill, Eagle Wood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1988.
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UNIT I
BATTERIES AND STARTING SYSTEM
Different types of Batteries – principle, rating, testing and charging. Starter motors
characteristics,capacity requirements. Drive mechanisms. Starter switches.

Batteries have become one of the most important and most used equipments these days.
Batteries are used where power supply is not regular, where low voltage is required (i.e. lower
than supply voltage); watches, mobiles and many other small equipments that require lesser
voltage, mainly run on battery. The main advantage of battery are that, they can be charged and
used if the capability of supplying power reduces. Cells are the unit of battery, many cells
complete a battery. There are mainly two types of battery,
1. Lead-acid battery
2. Alkaline battery.

Lead-acid battery
In lead acid battery there is a group of cells and in each cell there is one group of positive plates
and one group of positive plates and one group of negative plates. The positive plates are made of lead
peroxide (PbO2) and negative plate is made of spongy lead. Thus for identification the positive plate as
the color of dark brown, whereas the negative plate as the color of light salty,

Construction of lead acid battery

1. Separator.
It is most important part of lead acid battery. Which separate the positive and negative plates
from each other and prevents the short circuit? The separators must be porous so that the electrolyte
may circulate between the plates . The separators must have higher insulating resistance and
mechanical strength. The material used for separators are wood, rubber, glass wood mate, pvc.

2. Electrolyte
In lead acid battery dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4)is used as an electrolyte. For this purpose one
part concentrated sulphuric acid is mixed with three parts of distilled water.

3. Container.
Container is a box of vulcanized rubber, molded rubber, molded plastic, glass or ceramic , on the base
of this box there are supports block on which the positive and negative plates are established. Thus
between this supports there are grooves which works like a mud box. The active material separated from
the plates get collected in this mud box and it cannot make the contact with the plates thus the internal
faults due to the mud are avoided.

4. Cover of cell.

In lead acid battery it is also made of the same material which is used is used for making container. It is
used to cover th complete cell after the installation of the plates in it . it protects the cell from the dust as
well as other external impurities.

5. Vent plug.
The vent plug are provide in the cover plate of the cell which are used to fill up the electrolyte in
the cell or the inspection of internal condition of the cell the vent plugs are aslo use for to exhaust the
gases generated in the cell to the atmosphere.

. Connecting bar.
It works like a link and used to connect the two cells in series. Terminal of one cell and negative
terminal of another cell.
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7.Terminal posts
There are the terminals of the battery which are connected to charging circuit as well as the load. For
identification the diameter of the positive terminal is design more as compared to the negative
terminal.

lead acid battery, working

Dilute sulfuric acid used for lead acid battery has ration of acid: water = 1:3.
This lead acid storage battery is formed by dipping lead peroxide plate and sponge lead plate in dilute
sulfuric acid.
A load is connected externally between these plates. In diluted sulfuric acid the molecules of the acid
split into positive hydrogen ions and negative sulfate ions .
The hydrogen ions when reach at PbO2 plate, they receive electrons from it and become hydrogen
atom which again attack PbO2 and form PbO and H2O (water). This PbO reacts with H2SO4 and forms
PbSO4 and H2O (water).
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Alkaline Batteries

The first Alkaline battery was brought into market by Eveready Battery, Toronto. It was
developed by Lew Urry who was attached to this company as a chemical engineer.
Lew Urry developed the small alkaline battery in 1949. The inventor was working for the
Eveready Battery Co. at their research laboratory in Parma, Ohio. Alkaline battery last five to
eight times as long as zinc-carbon cells, their predecessors.
Alkaline Batteries
In any kind of battery, electrolysis is the main method that supports the running of a battery.
Electrolysis basically means chemical reaction while conducting current through a mixture.
Electrolysis is used not only for making battery, but for various purposes also. These battery are
introduced to overcome the weight and mechanical weakness of the lead plates.

The main working principle of the alkaline battery is based on the reaction between zinc (Zn)
and manganese dioxide (MnO2). Alkaline battery is so named because the electrolyte used in it is
potassium hydroxide, a purely alkaline substance.
Advantages of Alkaline Battery
1. This has high energy density.
2. This battery performs equally well in both continuous and intermittent applications.
3. This performs equally well in low and as well as high rate of discharge.
4. This also performs equally well at ambient temperature as well as at low temperature.
5. Alkaline battery has also low internal resistance.
6. It has enough longer self life.
7. Leakage is low in this battery.
8. It has better dimensional stability.
Disadvantage of Alkaline Battery
Practically this type of battery does not have any disadvantage accept its high cost.
Construction of Alkaline Battery
The body of the battery is made of a hollow steel drum. This drum
contains all materials of the battery and it also serves as cathode of the battery.
The positive terminal of the battery is projected from the top of this drum. Fine grained
manganese dioxide (MnO2) powder mixed with coal dust is molted to the inner peripheral
surface of the empty cylindrical drum. This molded mixture serves as cathode mixture of
the alkaline battery.
The inner surface of the thick layer of cathode mixture is covered with paper separator. The
central space, inside this paper separator is filled by zinc powder with potassium hydroxide
electrolyte. The zinc serves as anode and its powder form increases the contact surface.
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The paper separator soaked with potassium hydroxide, holds the electrolyte in between cathode
(MnO2) and anode(Zn). A metallic pin (preferably made of brass) is inserted along the central
axis of the alkaline battery to collect negative charge. This pin is called negative collector pin.
This pin is in touch with metallic end sealed cap. There is a plastic cover just inside the Metallic
end sealed cap and this plastic cover electrically separates positive steel drum and negative end
cap of alkaline battery.

In an alkaline battery cell, the powder zinc serves as anode, manganese dioxide serves as cathode
and potassium hydroxide serves as electrolyte.
First half reaction is,

Second half reaction is,

Overall reaction,

n alkaline battery cell is rated for 1.5 V. A new non discharged alkaline cell shows a voltage of
1.50 to 1.5 V. The average voltage under load condition may be 1.1 to 1.3 V. AA alkaline cell is
generally rated for 700 mA.
There are various types of alkaline battery depending on various parameters.
Depending on the composition of the active materials of the plates, there are four types of
battery. They are as follows,
1. Nickel iron (or Edison).
2. Nickel- cadmium (or Nife).
3. Silver zinc.
4. Alkum battery.
Depending on the method of assembling, these battery are classified as sealed and non-sealed
cells or battery.
Depending on the design plates, alkaline battery are classified as enclosed pocket and open
pocket type battery.
Use of Alkaline Batteries
Various types of these battery are there and different battery are used for different
purposes.
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Like, nickel iron battery are used for propulsion of industrial trucks and mine
locomotives. In air conditions also, this type of battery are used. Another type of alkaline
battery is Nickel-cadmium battery, they get used in commercial airlines, military aeroplane for
initiating main engine. So, we can say that the alkaline battery are mainly used in moving
vehicles and industrial purposes.

Nickle-Cadmium battery is a rechargeable battery with Nickle Oxide-Hydroxide and Cadmium

as electrodes and Alkaline Potassium Hydroxide as electrolyte.Nickle-Cadmium battery was
invented by Swedish inventor Waldemar Jungner in 1899, and popularized and widely
manufactured only during 1940’s and 1950’s. The Nickle-Cadmium batteries are recently
loosing the popularity because of other superior batteries and negative environmental impact of
cadmium byproduct in used cells and batteries, In-fact in EU the use of Nickle-Cadmium
batteries have been restricted except for some specific purposes.

Active Materials of Nickel–Cadmium Battery:

The active materials in a Nickle-Cadmium Battery are:

* Nickel Hydroxide Ni(OH)2 acts as the positive plate , It’s preparation and composition is same
as the positive plate in Nickle-Iron battery.
* The spongy Cadmium (Cd) acts as the negative plate.
* Although the electrolyte does not enter into chemical reaction with plates or any other
chemical, it is made up of Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) solution with specific gravity of 1.2.

Construction:
The construction of a Nickle-Cadmium battery is almost exactly same as that of Nickle –
Iron battery, except that a nickle cadmium-cell contains one more positive plate as opposite to
that of one more negative plate in nickle-iron battery. The positive plates are placed in extreme
ends.

Working Principle:
The chemical reaction in the Nickle-Cadmium battery or cell is perfectly reversible.
When fully charged the positive plate is Ni(OH)2 and Negative plate is Cd(OH)2 ,

While discharging the Positive plate converts into Ni(OH)3 and the negative plate is converted
into pure Cd. The chemical conversion is reverted when a discharged battery is charged again.
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While Charging:

2Ni(OH)2 + 2KOH + 2Cd(OH)2 + Electrical Energy = 2Ni(OH)3 + 2KOH + Cd

And while discharging:

2Ni(OH)3 + 2KOH + Cd = 2Ni(OH)2 + 2KOH + 2Cd(OH)2 + Electrical Energy

Electrical Characteristics:

The average EMF of Nickle-Cadmium battery is 1.2 V per cell. However, the EMF of a
cell can go as high as up to 1.4 v , when the cell is fully charged.
The average charging voltage of Nickle-Cadmium battery is 1.45 V and trickle charging rating is
1.35 V. The Ampere-hour efficiency under normal operating conditions is about 80% and watt-
hour efficiency is about 5%. The self discharge rate is about 10% per month and energy density
is about 40-0 watt-hour per kg.

Advantages / Disadvantages:
A Nickle-Cadmium battery is superior in most aspects as compared to the lead acid
battery. They have Low internal resistance , Can tolerate deep discharge cycle and can also get
charged rapidly (usually from 2 hours – 20 minutes) but optimal charging time is about 5 hours.
These batteries also have long life time and low maintenance cost.
But Nickle-Cadmium batteries are also costlier than Lead Acid battery also the Cadmium used
in the battery causes severe environmental pollution.

Nickel Metal Hydride(NiMH)

3.1 NiMH Principles of Operation

The principles in which NiMH cells operate are based on their ability to absorb, release, and
transport (move) hydrogen between the electrodes within the cell. The following sections will
discuss the chemical reactions occurring within the cell when charged and discharged and the
adverse effects of overcharge and overdischarge conditions.
The success of the NiMH battery technology comes from the rare earth, hydrogen-absorbing
alloys (commonly known as Misch metals) used in the negative electrode. These metal alloys
contribute to the high energy density of the NiMH negative electrode that results in an increase
in the volume available for the positive electrode. This is the primary reason for the higher
capacity and longer service life of NiMH batteries over competing secondary batteries.

3.2 Charging Chemical Reaction

When a NiMH cell is charged, the positive electrode releases hydrogen into the
electrolyte. The hydrogen in turn is absorbed and stored in the negative electrode. The reaction
begins when the nickel hydroxide (Ni(OH)2) in the positive electrode and hydroxide (OH¯) from
the electrolyte combine. This produces nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) within the positive
electrode, water (H20) in the electrolyte, and one free electron (e¯). At the negative electrode the
metal alloy (M) in the negative electrode, water (H20) from the electrolyte, and an electron (e¯)
react to produce metal hydride (MH) in the negative electrode and hydroxide (OH¯) in the
electrolyte. See Figure

3.2 Chemical Equations and Figure 3.3 Transport Diagram.

Because heat is generated as a part of the overall chemical reaction during the charge of a
NiMH cell, the charging reaction described above is exothermic. As a cell is charged, the
generation of heat may not accumulate if it is effectively dissipated. Extreme elevated
temperatures may be experienced if a cell is excessively overcharged.
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Figure 3.2 Chemical Equations

charge
Positive Electrode: Ni(OH)2 + OH - ⇄ NiOOH + H2O + e -
discharge

charge
Negative Electrode: M + H2O + e- ⇄ MH + OH -
discharge

charge
Overall Reaction: Ni(OH)2 + M ⇄ NiOOH + MH
discharge
Figure 3.3 Transport Diagram

3.3 Discharge Chemical Reaction

When a NiMH cell is discharged, the chemical reactions are the reverse of what occurs
when charged. Hydrogen stored in the metal alloy of the negative electrode is released into the
electrolyte to form water. This water then releases a hydrogen ion that is absorbed into the
positive electrode to form nickel hydroxide. See Figure 3.2 Chemical Equations and Figure 3.3
Transport Diagram. For NiMH cells, the process of moving or transporting hydrogen from the
negative electrode to the positive electrode absorbs heat and is therefore endothermic. Heat
continues to be absorbed until the cell reaches a state of over discharge, where a secondary
reaction occurs within the cell resulting in a rise in temperature. See Section 3.5 Over discharge.

3.4 Overcharge
Nickel Metal Hydride cells are designed with an oxygen-recombination mechanism that
slows the buildup of pressure caused by overcharging. The overcharging of a cell occurs after
the positive electrode 1) no longer has any nickel hydroxide to react with the hydroxide from the
electrolyte, and 2) begins to evolve oxygen. The oxygen diffuses through the separator where the
negative electrode recombines the oxygen with stored hydrogen to form excess water in the
electrolyte. If this oxygen-recombination occurs at a slower rate than the rate at which oxygen is
evolved from the positive electrode, the result is in a buildup of excess oxygen (gas) resulting in
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an increase in pressure inside the cell. To protect against the first stages of overcharge, NiMH
cells are constructed with the negative electrode having a capacity (or active material) greater
than the positive electrode. This helps to slow the buildup of pressure by having more active
material available in the negative electrode to effectively recombine the evolved oxygen. See
Figure 3.4, Useable Capacity Diagram.

Excessive overcharging of a NiMH cell can result in permanent loss in capacity and
cycle life. If a cell is overcharged to the point at which pressure begins to build up, elevated
temperatures are experienced and can cause the separator to lose electrolyte. The loss of
electrolyte within the separator (or “separator dry out”) inhibits the proper transport of hydrogen
to and from the electrodes. Furthermore, if a cell is severely overcharged and excessive amounts
of oxygen (gas) are evolved, the pressure may be released through the safety vent in the positive
terminal. This removes elements from within the cell needed for proper function. To protect
against the damaging effects of overcharging, proper charge terminations must be used. See
Section 3.8.2 NiMH Charge Termination.

Figure 3.4 Useable Capacity Diagram

Battery Ratings
Battery ratings were developed by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the
Battery Council International (BCI). They are set according to national test standards for
battery performance. They let the mechanic compare the cranking power of one battery to
another. The two methods of rating lead-acid storage batteries are the cold-cranking rating
and the reserve capacity rating.

COLD-CRANKING RATING.-
The cold-cranking rating determines how much current in amperes the battery can deliver for
thirty seconds at 0° F while maintaining terminal voltage of 7.2 volts or 1.2 volts per cell.
This rating indicates the ability of the battery to crank a specific engine (based on starter
current draw) at a specified temperature.
For example, one manufacturer recommends a battery with 305 cold-cranking amps for a
small four-cylinder engine but a 450 cold-cranking amp battery for a larger V-8 engine. A
more powerful battery is needed to handle the heavier starter current draw of the larger
engine.
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RESERVE CAPACITY RATING.-

The reserve capacity rating is the time needed to lower battery terminal voltage below 10.2 V
(1.7 V per cell) at a discharge rate of 25 amps. This is with the battery fully charged and at
80° F. Reserve capacity will appear on the battery as a time interval in minutes.For example,
if a battery is rated at 90 minutes and the charging system fails, the operator has
approximately 90 minutes (1 1/ 2 hours) of driving time under minimum electrical load before
the battery goes completely dead.

BATTERY CHARGING
Under normal conditions, a hydrometer reading below 1.240 specific gravity at 80° F is a
warning signal that the battery should be removed and charged. Except in extremely warm
climates, never allow the specific gravity to drop below 1.225 in tropical climates. This
reading indicates a fully charged battery.
When a rundown battery is brought into the shop, you should recharge it immediately.
There are several methods for charging batteries; only direct current is used with each
method. If only alternating current is available, a rectifier or motor generator must be used to
convert to direct current. The two principal methods of charging are (1) constant current and
(2) constant voltage (constant potential).
Constant current charging is be used on a single battery or a number of batteries in
series. Constant voltage charging is used with batteries connected in parallel. (A parallel
circuit has more than one path between the two source terminals; a series circuit is a one-path
circuit). You should know both methods, although the latter is most often used.

CONSTANT CURRENT CHARGING.-

With the constant current method, the battery is connected to a charging device that
supplies a steady flow of current. The charging device has a rectifier (a gas-filled bulb or a
series of chemical disks); thus, the alternating current is changed into direct current. A
rheostat (resistor for regulating current) of some kind is usually built into the charger so that
you can adjust the amount of current flow to the battery. Once the rheostat is set, the amount
of current remains constant. The usual charging rate is 1 amp per positive cell. Thus a 21-plate
battery (which has 10 positive plates per cell) should have a charging rate no greater than 10
amps. When using this method of charging a battery, you should check the battery frequently,
particularly near the end of the charging period. When the battery is gassing freely and the
specific gravity remains constant for 2 hours, you can assume that the battery will take no
more charge.
The primary disadvantage of constant current charging is that THE CHARGING
CURRENT REMAINS AT A STEADY VALUE UNLESS YOU CHANGE IT. A battery
charged with too high current rate would overheat and damage the plates, making the battery
useless. Do NOT allow the battery temperature to exceed 110° while charging.

CONSTANT VOLTAGE CHARGING.-

Constant voltage charging, also known as constant potential charging, is usually done
with a motor generator set. The motor drives a generator (similar to a generator on a vehicle);
this generator produces current to charge the battery.
The voltage in this type of system is usually held constant. With a constant voltage, the
charging rate to a low battery will be high. But as the battery approaches full charge, the
opposing voltage of the battery goes up so it more strongly opposes the charging current. This
opposition to the charging current indicates that a smaller charge is needed. As the battery
approaches full charge, the charging voltage decreases. This condition decreases the ability to
maintain a charging current to the battery. As a result, the charging current tapers off to a very
low value by the time the battery is fully charged. This principle of operation is the same as
that of the voltage regulator on a vehicle.
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BATTERY MAINTENANCE
If a battery is not properly maintained, its service life will be drastically reduced. Battery
maintenance should be done during every PM cycle. Complete battery maintenance includes
the following:

 Visually checking the battery.

 Checking the electrolyte level in cells on batteries with caps. Adding water if the
electrolyte level is low.
 Cleaning off corrosion around the battery and battery terminals.

Figure 2-5.- Electrolyte mixing chart.

Checking the condition of the battery by testing the state of charge.

VISUAL INSPECTION OF THE BATTERY.- Battery maintenance should always begin
with a thorough visual inspection. Look for signs of corrosion on or around the battery, signs
of leakage, a cracked case or top, missing caps, and loose or missing hold-down clamps.

CHECKING ELECTROLYTE LEVEL AND ADDING WATER.-

On vent cap batteries, the electrolyte level can be checked by removing the caps. Some
batteries have a fill ring which indicates the electrolyte level. The electrolyte should be even
with the fill ring. If there is no fill ring, the electrolyte should be high enough to cover the
tops of the plates. Some batteries have an electrolyte-level indicator (Delco Eye). This gives a
color code vi sual indication of the electrolyte level, with black indicating that the level is
okay and white meaning a low level.
If the electrolyte level in the battery is low, fill the cells to the correct level with DISTILLED
WATER (purified water). Distilled water should be used because it does not contain the
impurities found in tap water. Tap water contains many chemicals that reduce battery life.
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The chemicals contaminate the electrolyte and collect in the bottom of the battery case. If
enough contaminates collect in the bottom of the case, the cell plates SHORT OUT, ruining
the battery.
If water must be added at frequent intervals, the charging system may be overcharging the
battery. A faulty charging system can force excessive current into the battery. Battery gassing
can then remove water from the battery.
Maintenance-free batteries do NOT need periodic electrolyte service under normal
conditions. It is designed to operate for long periods without loss of electrolyte.

CLEANING THE BATTERY AND TERMINALS.

If the top of the battery is dirty, using a stiff bristle brush, wash it down with a mixture of
baking soda and water. This action will neutralize and remove the acid-dirt mixture. Be
careful not to allow cleaning solution to enter the battery.
To clean the terminals, remove the cables and inspect the terminal posts to see if they are
deformed or broken. Clean the terminal posts and the inside surfaces of the cable clamps with
a cleaning tool before replacing them on the terminal posts.

AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND WIRING

Electrical problems drawing current out of the battery with the ignition OFF defective battery
can be found by using a hydrometerto check each cell. If the specific gravity in any cell varies
excessively from other cells (25 to 50 points), the battery is bad. Cells with low readings may
be shorted. When all of the cells have equal specific gravity, even if they are low, the battery
can usually be recharged.
On maintenance-free batteries a charge indicator eye shows the battery charge. The charge
indicator changes color with levels of battery charge. For example, the indicator may be green
with the battery fully charged. It may turn black when discharged or yellow when the battery
needs to be replaced. If there is no charge indicator eye or when in doubt of its reliability, a
voltmeter and ammeter or a load tester can also be used to determine battery condition
quickly.

STARTER MOTOR
The starting motor (fig. 2-37) converts electrical energy from the battery into mechanical or
rotating energy to crank the engine. The main difference between an electric starting motor
and an electric generator is that in a generator, rotation of the armature in a magnetic field
produces voltage. In a motor, current is sent through thearmature and the field; the attraction
and repulsion between the magnetic poles of the field and armature coil alternately push and
pull the armature around. This rotation (mechanical energy), when properly connected to the
flywheel of an engine, causes the engine crankshaft to turn.

Construction
The construction of the all starting motors is very similar. There are, however, slight design
variations. The main parts of a starting motor are as follows:

ARMATURE ASSEMBLY- The windings, core, starter shaft, and commutator assembly that
spin inside a stationary field.

COMMUTATOR END FRAME- The end housing for the brushes, brush springs, and shaft
bushings.
.
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PINION DRIVE ASSEMBLY- The pinion gear, pinion drive mechanism, and solenoid.

FIELD FRAME- The center housing that holds the field coils and pole shoes.
DRIVE END FRAME- The end housing around the pinion gear, which has a bushing for the
armature shaft.

ARMATURE ASSEMBLY.- The armature assembly consists of an armature shaft, armature

core, commutator, and armature windings.

The armature shaft supports the armature assembly as it spins inside the starter housing. The
armature core is made of iron and holds the armature windings in place. The iron increases
the magnetic field strength of the windings.The commutator serves as a sliding electrical
connection between the motor windings and the brushes and is mounted on one end of the
armature shaft. The commutator has many segments that are insulated from each other. As the
windings rotate away from the pole shoe (piece), the commutator segments change the
electrical connection between the brushes and the windings. This action reverses the magnetic
field around the windings. The constant changing electrical connection at the windings keeps
the motor spinning.

COMMUTATOR END FRAME.-

The commutator end frame houses the brushes, the brush springs, and the armature shaft
bushing. The brushes ride on top of the commutator. They slide on the commutator to carry
battery current to the spinning windings. The springs force the brushes to maintain contact
with the commutator as it spins, thereby no power interruptions occurs. The armature shaft
bushing supports the commutator end of the armature shaft.

PINION DRIVE ASSEMBLY

The pinion drive assembly includes the pinion gear, the pinion drive mechanism, and
solenoid. There are two ways that a starting motor can engage the pinion assembly-( 1) with a
moveable pole shoe that engages the pinion gear and (2) with a solenoid and shift fork that
engages the pinion gear.
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The pinion gear is a small gear on the armature shaft that engages the ring gear on the
flywheel. Most starter pinion gears are made as part of a pinion drive mechanism. The pinion
drive mechanism slides over one end of the starter armature shaft. The pinion drive
mechanism found on starting motors that you will encounter are of three designs-Bendix
drive, overrunning clutch, and Dyer drive.
The BENDIX DRIVE (fig. 2-38) relies on the principle of inertia to cause the pinion gear to
mesh with the ring gear. When the starting motor is not operating, the pinion gear is out of
mesh and entirely away from the ring gear. When the ignition switch is engaged, the total
battery voltage is applied to the starting motor, and the armature immediately starts to rotate at
high speed.
The pinion, being weighted on one side and having internal screw threads, does not rotate
immediately with the shaft but because of inertia, runs forward on the revolving threaded
sleeve until it engages with the ring gear. If the teeth of the pinion and ring gear do not
engage, the drive spring allows the pinion to revolve and forces the pinion to mesh with the
ring gear. When the pinion gear is engaged fully with the ring gear, the pinion is then driven
by the starter through the compressed drive spring and cranks the engine. The drive spring
acts as a cushion while the engine is being cranked against compression. It also breaks the
severity of the shock on the teeth when the gears engage and when the engine kicks back due
to ignition. When the engine starts and runs on its own power, the ring gear drives the pinion
at a hi gher speed than does the starter. This action causes the pinion to turn in the opposite
direction on the threaded sleeve and automatically disengages from the ring gear. This
prevents the engine from driving the starter.

The OVERRUNNING CLUTCH (fig. 2-39) provides positive meshing and demeshing of
the starter motor pinion gear and the ring gear. The starting motor armature shaft drives the
shell and sleeve assembly of the clutch. The rotor assembly is connected to the pinion gear
which meshes with the engi ne ring gear. Spring-loaded steel rollers are located in tapered
notches between the shell and the rotor. The springs and plungers hold the rollers in position
in the tapered notches. When the armature shaft turns, the rollers are jammed between the
notched surfaces, forcing the inner and outer members of the assembly to rotate as a unit and
crank the engine.

Figure 2-38.- Starting motor with a Bendix drive.

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Figure 2-39.- Typical overrunning clutch.

After the engine is started, the ring gear rotates faster than the pinion gear, thus tending to
work the rollers back against the plungers, and thereby causing an overrunning action. This
action prevents excessive speed of the starting motor. When the starting motor is released, the
collar and spring assembly pulls the pinion out of mesh with the ring gear.

The DYER DRIVE (fig. 2-40) provides complete and positive meshing of the drive pinion
and ring gear before the starting motor is energized. It combines principles of both the Bendix
and overrunning clutch drives and is commonly used on heavy-duty engines.
starter solenoid is used to make the electrical connection between the battery and the starting
motor. The starter solenoid is an electromagnetic switch; it is similar to other relays but is
capable of handling higher current levels. A starter solenoid, depending on the design of the
starting motor, has the following functions:

 Closes battery-to-starter circuit.

 Rushes the starter pinion gear into mesh with the ring gear.

 Bypass resistance wire in the ignition circuit.

Figure 2-40.- Dyer drive.

 17

The starter solenoid may be located away from or on the mounted away from the starter, the
solenoid only makes connection. When mounted on the starter, it also slides the flywheel.In
operation, the solenoid is actuated when the ignition switch is turned or when the starter
button is depressed. The action causes current to flow through the solenoid (causing a
magnetic attraction of the plunger) to ground. The movement of the plunger causes the shift
lever to engage the pinion with the ring gear. After the pinion is engaged, further travel of the
plunger causes the contacts inside the solenoid to close and directly connects the battery to the
starter.
If cranking continues after the control circuit is broken, it is most likely to be caused by either
shorted solenoid windings or by binding of the plunger in the solenoid. Low voltage from the
battery is often the cause of the starter making a clicking sound. When this occurs, check all
starting circuit connections for cleanliness and tightness.

FIELD FRAME
The field frame is the center housing that holds the field coils and pole shoes.
The field coil (winding) is a stationary set of windings that creates a strong magnetic field
around the motor armature. When current flows through the winding, the magnetic field
between the pole shoes becomes very large. Acting against the magnetic field created by the
armature, this action spins the motor with extra power. Field windings vary according to the
application of the starter motor. The most popular configurations are as follows (fig. 2-41):
TWO WINDINGS, PARALLEL- The wiring of the two field coils in parallel will increase
their strength because they receive full voltage. Note that two additional pole shoes are used.
Though they have no windings, their presence will further strengthen the magnetic field.
FOUR WINDINGS, SERIES-PARALLEL- The wiring of four field coils in a series-parallel
combination creates a stronger magnetic field than the two field coil configuration.
FOUR WINDINGS, SERIES- The wiring of four field coils in series provides a large amount
of low-speed torque, which is desirable for automotive starting motors. However, series-
wound motors can build up excessive speed if allowed to run free to the point where they will
destroy themselves.

Figure 2-41.- Field winding configurations.

 18

SIX WINDINGS, SERIES-PARALLEL

Three pairs of series-wound field coils provide the magnetic field for a heavy-duty starter
motor. This configuration uses six brushes.

THREE WINDINGS, TWO SERIES, ONE SHUNT

The use of one filled coil that is shunted to ground with a series-wound motor controls motor
speed. Because the shunt coil is not affected by speed, it will draw a steady heavy current,
effectively limiting speed.

DRIVE END FRAME

The drive end frame is designed to protect the drive pinion from damage and to support
the armature shaft. The drive end frame of the starter contains a bushing to prevent wear
between the armature shaft and drive end frame.

Types of Starting Motors

There are two types of starting motors that you will encounter on equipment. These are
the direct drive starter and the double reduction starter. All starters require the use of gear
reduction to provide the mechanical advantage required to turn the engine flywheel and
crankshaft.

DIRECT DRIVE STARTERS

Direct drive starters make use of a pinion gear on the armature shaft of the starting
motor. This gear meshes with teeth on the ring gear. There are between 10 to 1 teeth on the
ring gear for every one on the pinion gear. Therefore, the starting motor revolves 10 to 1
times for every revolution of the ring gear. In operation, the starting motor armature revolves
at a rate of 2,000 to 3,000 revolutions per minute, thus turning the engine crankshaft at speeds
up to 200 revolutions per minute.

DOUBLE REDUCTION STARTER

The double reduction starter makes use of gear reduction within the starter and the
reduction between the drive pinion and the ring gear. The gear reduction drive head is used on
heavy-duty equipment.
Figure 2-42 shows a typical gear reduction starter. The gear on the armature shaft does
not mesh directly with the teeth on the ring gear, but with an intermediate gear which drives
the driving pinion. This action provides additional breakaway, or starting torque, and greater
cranking power. The armature of a starting motor with a gear reduction drive head may rotate
as many as 40 revolutions for every revolution of the engine flywheel.

Figure 2-42.- Gear reduction starter.

 19

NEUTRAL SAFETY SWITCH

Vehicles equipped with automatic transmissions require the use of a neutral safety
switch. The neutral safety switch prevents the engine from being started unless the shift
selector of the transmission is in NEUTRAL or PARK. It disables the starting circuit when
the transmission is in gear. This safety feature prevents the accidental starting of a vehicle in
gear, which can result in personal injury and vehicle damage.
The neutral safety switch is wired into the circuit going to the starter solenoid. When the
transmission is in forward or reverse gear, the switch is in the OPEN position (disconnected).
This action preve nts current from activating the solenoid and starter when the ignition switch
is turned to the START position. When the transmission is in neutral or park, the switch is
closed (connected), allowing current to flow to the starter when the ignition is turned.
A misadjusted or bad neutral safety switch can keep the engine from cranking. If the
vehicle does not start, you should check the action of the neutral safety switch by moving the
shift lever into various positions while trying to start the vehicle. If the starter begins to work,
the switch needs to be readjusted.
To readjust a neutral safety switch, loosen the fasteners that hold the switch. With the
switch loosened, place the shift lever into park (P). Then, while holding the ignition switch in
the START position, slide the neutral switch on its mount until the engine cranks. Without
moving the switch, tighten the fasteners. The engine should now start with the shift lever in
park or neutral. Check for proper operation after the adjustment.
If by adjusting the switch to normal operation is not resumed, it may be required to test
the switch. All that is required to test the switch is a 12-volt test light.

UNIT-II
CHARGING SYSTEM LIGHTING AND ACCESSORIES
DC Generators and Alternators their characteristics. Control unit – cut out, electronic
regulators.Vehicle interior lighting system. Vehicle exterior lighting system. Wiring
requirements. Lighting design. Dashboard instruments. Horn, trafficator.

GENERATORS
 20

The generator is a machine that applies the principle of electromagnetic induction to

convert mechanical energy, supplied by the engine, into electrical energy. The generator
restores to the battery the energy that has been used up in cranking the engine. Whether the
energy required for the rest of the electrical system is supplied directly by the generator, by
the battery, or by a combination of both depends on the conditions under which the generator
is operating.
The two types of generators are as follows:

 The dc generator supplies electrical energy directly to the battery and or electrical
system through various regulating devices.
 The ac generator (alternator) has the same function as the dc generator but because only
direct current can be used to charge a battery, a component, called a rectifier,must be
used to convert from alternating to direct current. The ac generator (alternator) will be
explained in further detail later in this chapter.

Direct-Current (dc) Generator

The dc generator (fig. 2-12) essentially consists of an armature, a field frame, field coils,
and a commutator with brushes to establish electrical contact with the rotating element. The
magnetic field of the generator usually is produced by the electromagnets or poles magnetized
by current flowing through the field coils. Soft iron pole pieces (or pole shoes) are contained
in the field frame that forms the magnetic circuit between the poles. Although generators may
be designed to have any even number of poles, two-and four-pole frames are the most
common. The field coils are connected in series. In the two -pole type frame, the magnetic
circuit flows through only a part of the armature core; therefore. the armature must be
constructed according to the number of field poles because current is generated when the coil
(winding on the armature) moves across each magnetic circuit.

Figure 2-12.- Sectional view of a dc generator.

The current is collected from the armature coils by brushes (usually made of carbon) that
make rubbing contact with a commutator. The commutator consists of a series of insulated
copper segments mounted on one end of the armature, each segment connecting to one or
more armature coils. The armature coils are connected to the external circuits (battery, lights,
or ignition) through the commutator and brushes. Current induced in the armature coils thus
is able to flow to the external circuits.
There are two types of field circuits, determined by the point at which the field circuit is
grounded, which are as follows:One circuit, referred to as the "A" circuit, shunts the field
current from the insulated brushes through the field winding grounding externally at the
 21

regulator.In the other, the "B" circuit, the field current is shunted from the armature series
winding in the regulator to the generator field windings, grounding internally within the
generator.

The three basic design factors that determine generator output are (1) the speed of armature
rotation, (2) the number of armature conductors, and (3) the strength of the magnetic field.
Any of these design factors could be used to control the generator voltage and current.
However, the simplest method is to determine the strength of the magnetic field and thus limit
the voltage and current output of the generator.

REGULATION OF GENERATOR OUTPUT

The fields of the generator depend upon the current from the armature of the generator
for magnetization. Because the current developed by the generator increases in direct
proportion to its speed, the fields become stronger as the speed increases and,
correspondingly, the armature generates more current. The extreme variations in speed of the
automotive engine make it necessary to regulate output of the generator to prevent excessive
current or voltage overload. On the average unit of CESE, a charging current in excess of 12
to 15 amperes is harmful to a fully charged battery if continued for too long.
Regulators are of two types, functioning to regulate either voltage or current. The voltage
regulator regulates the voltage in the electric system and prevents excessive voltage, which
can cause damage to the electric units and overcharge the battery. The current regulator is a
current limiter; it prevents the generator output from increasing beyond the rated output of the
generator.
Regulation of voltage only might be satisfactory from the standpoint of the battery; however,
if the battery were badly discharged or if a heavy electrical load were connected, the heavy
current might overload itself to supply the heavy current demand. Therefore, both current and
voltage controls are used in a charging system.
In most applications, a regulator assembly consists of a cutout relay, current regulator, and
voltage regulator (fig. 2-13). Each unit contains a separate core, coil, and set of contacts. The
regulator assembly provides full control of the shunt-type generator under all conditions.
Either the current regulator or the voltage regulator may be operating at any one time, but in
no case do they both operate at the same time.

When the electric load requirements are high and the battery is low, the current regulator will
operate to prevent the generator output from exceeding its safe maximum. In this case, the
voltage is not sufficient to cause the voltage regulator to operate. But if the load requirements
are reduced or the battery begins to come up tocharge, the line voltage will increase to a value
sufficient to cause the voltage regulator to operate. When this happens, the generator output is
reduced; it is no longer sufficiently high to cause the current regulator to operate. All
regulation is then dependent on the voltage regulator. Figure 2-14 shows a schematic wiring
diagram of a typical dc charging circuit. In this circuit, two resistances are connected in
parallel into the generator field circuit when the current regulator points open.

This provides a low value of resistance, which is sufficient to prevent the generator output
from exceeding its safe maximum. When the voltage regulator contact points open, only one
resistance is inserted into the generator field circuit, and this provides a higher value of
resistance. The voltage regulator must employ a higher resistance because it must reduce the
generator output as it operates, and it requires more resistance to reduce the output than
merely to prevent the output from going beyond the safe maximum of the generator.
 22

Figure 2-13.- Regulator assembly with cover removed.

For some special applications, you may find a combined current-voltage regulator. In
this case, the regulators are combined in a single unit. The regulator assembly will consist of
two (regulator and circuit breaker) instead of three units.
The regulators just described are known as electromagnetic vibrating-contact regulators.
The points on the armatures of the regulators may open and close as many as 300 times in one
second to achieve the desired regulation.
The transistor type regulator is being used in late model equipment. This regulator has no
moving parts. It consists of transistors, diodes, condensers, and resistors. Some models have
two filter condensers, while others have only one.
Adjustments are provided on some types of regulators and should be made only with the
use of the manufacturer's instructions and the recommended testing equipment. TRIAL AND
ERROR METHOD OF REPAIR WILL NOT WORK.

Figure 2-14.- Schematic wiring diagram of a typical dc charging circuit.

ALTERNATORS
The alternator (fig. 2-21) has replaced the dc generator because of its improved efficiency. It
is smaller, lighter, and more dependable than the dc generator. The alternator also produces
more output during idle which makes it ideal for late model vehicles.
 23

The alternator has a spinning magnetic field. The output windings (stator) are stationary. As
the magnetic field rotates, it induces current in the output windings.

Alternator Construction
Knowledge of the construction of an alternator is required before you can understand the
proper operation, testing procedures, and repair procedures applicable to an alternator.

Figure 2-22.- Rotor assembly.

 24

The primary components of an alternator are as follows:

ROTOR ASSEMBLY (rotor shaft, slip rings, claw poles, and field windings)
STATOR ASSEMBLY (three stator windings or coils, output wires, and stator core)
RECTIFIER ASSEMBLY (heat sink, diodes, diode plate, and electrical terminals)
ROTOR ASSEMBLY (fig. 2-22).- The rotor consists of field windings (wire wound into a
coil placed over an iron core) mounted on the rotor shaft. Two claw-shaped pole pieces
surround the field windings to increase the magnetic field.
The fingers on one of the claw-shaped pole pieces produce south (S) poles and the other
produces north (N) poles. As the rotor rotates inside the alternator, alternating N-S-N-S
polarity and ac current is produced (fig. 2-23). An external source of electricity is required to
excite the magnetic field of the alternator.
Slip rings are mounted on the rotor shaft to provide current to the rotor windings. Each end of
the field coil connects to the slip rings.
STATOR ASSEMBLY (fig. 2-24).- The stator produces the electrical output of the alternator.
The stator, which is part of the alternator frame when assembled, consists of three groups of
windings or coils which produce three separate ac currents. This is known as three-phase
output. One end of the windings is connected to the stator assembly and the other is connected
to a rectifier assembly. The windings are wrapped around a soft laminated iron core that
concentrates and strengthen the magnetic field around the stator windings. There are two
types of stators- Y -type stator and delta-type stator.

Figure 2-23.- Simple alternator illustrating reversing magnetic field and resulting current flow.

Figure 2-24.- Stator assembly.

 25

The Y-type stator (fig. 2-25) has the wire ends from the stator windings connected to a neutral
junction. The circuit looks like the letter Y. The Y-type stator provides good current output at
low engine speeds.
The delta-type stator (fig. 2-2) has the stator wires connected end-to-end. With no neutral
junction, two circuit paths are formed between the diodes. A delta-type stator is used in high
output alternators.

RECTIFIER ASSEMBLY.
The rectifier assembly, also known as a diode assembly, consists of six diodes
used to convert stator ac output into dc current. The current flowing from the winding is
allowed to pass through an insulated diode. As the current reverses direction, it flows to
ground through a grounded diode. The insulated and grounded diodes prevent the reversal of
current from the rest of the charging system. By this switching action and the number of
pulses created by motion between the windings of the stator and rotor, a fairly even flow of
current is supplied to the battery terminal of the alternator.The rectifier diodes are mounted in
a heat sink (metal mount for removing excess heat from electronic parts) or diode bridge.
Three positive diodes are press-fit in an insulated frame. Three negative diodes are mounted
into an uninsulated or grounded frame.

Figure 2-25.- Electrical diagram indicating a Y-type stator.

Figure 2-2.- Electrical diagram indicating a delta- type stator.

When an alternator is producing current, the insulated diodes pass only outflowing current to
the battery. The diodes provide a block, preve nting reverse current flow from the alternator.
Figure 2-27 shows the flow of current from the stator to the battery.
cross-sectional view of a typical diode is shown in figure 2-28. Note that the figure also
shows the diode symbol used in wiring diagrams. The arrow in this symbol indicates the only
direction that current will flow. The diode is sealed to keep moisture out.
Alternator Operation
The operation of an alternator is somewhat different than the dc generator. An alternator
has a rotating magnet (rotor) which causes the magnetic lines of force to rotate with it. These
lines of force are cut by the stationary (stator) windings in the alternator frame, as the rotor
turns with the magnet rotating the N and S poles to keep changing positions.
 26

When S is up and N is down, current flows in one direction, but when N is up and S is
down, current flows in the opposite direction. This is called alternating current as it changes
direction twice for each complete revolution. If the rotor speed were increased to 0
revolutions per second, it would produce 0-cycle alternating current.

Figure 2-27.- Current flow from the stator to the battery.

Figure 2-28.- Typical diode.

 27

Since the engine speed varies in a vehicle, the frequency also varies with the change of speed.
Likewise, increasing the number of pairs of magnetic north and south poles will increase the
frequency by the number pair of poles. A four-pole generator can generate twice the
frequency per revolution of a two -pole rotor.

ALTERNATOR OUTPUT CONTROL

A voltage regulator controls alternator output by changing the amount of current flow
through the rotor windings. Any change in rotor winding current changes the strength of the
magnetic field acting on the stator windings. In this way, the voltage regulator can maintain a
preset charging voltage. The three basic types of voltage regulators are as follows:

 Contact point voltage regulator, mounted away from the alternator in the engine
compartment
 Electronic voltage regulator, mounted away from the alternator in the engine
compartment
 Electronic voltage regulator, mounted on the back or inside the alternator
The contact point voltage regulator uses a coil, set of points, and resistors that limits system
voltage. The electronic or solid-state regulators have replaced this older type. For operation,
refer to the "Regulation of Generator Output" section of this chapter.
The electronic voltage regulators use an electronic circuit to control rotor field strength and
alternator output. It is a sealed unit and is not repairable. The electronic circuit must be sealed
to prevent damage from moisture, excessive heat, and vibration. A rubber like gel surrounds
the circuit for protection.An integral voltage regulator is mounted inside or on the rear of the
alternator. This is the most common type used on modern vehicles. It is small, efficient,
dependable, and composed of integrated circuits.
An electronic voltage regulator performs the same operation as a contact point regulator,
except that it uses transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors to regulate voltage in the
system. To increase alternator output, the electronic voltage regulator allows more current into
the rotor windings, thereby strengthen the magnetic field around the rotor. More current is
then induced into the stator windings and out of the alternator.
To reduce alternator output, the electronic regulator increases the resistance between the
battery and the rotor windings. The magnetic field decreases and less current is induced into
the stator windings.
Alternator speed and load determines whether the regulator increases or decreases charging
output. If the load is high or rotor speed is low (engine at idle), the regulator senses a drop in
system voltage. The regulator then increases the rotors magnetic field current until a preset
output voltage is obtained. If the load drops or rotor speed increases, the opposite occurs.
 28

LIGHTING CIRCUIT
Learning Objective: Identify lighting-circuit components, their functions, and maintenance
procedures.

The lighting circuit (fig. 2-54) includes the battery, vehicle frame, all the lights, and various
switches that control their use. The lighting circuit is known as a single-wire system since it
uses the vehicle frame for the return.

The complete lighting circuit of a vehicle can be broken down into individual circuits, each
having one or more lights and switches. In each separate circuit, the lights are connected in
parallel, and the controlling switch is in series between the group of lights and the battery.
The marker lights, for example, are connected in parallel and are controlled by a single
switch. In some installations, one switch controls the connections to the battery, while a
selector switch determines which of two circuits is energized. The headlights, with their high
and low beams, are an example of this type of circuit.
In some instances, such as the courtesy lights, several switches may be connected in parallel
so that any switch may be used to turn on the light.

When a wiring diagram is being studied, all light circuits can be traced from the battery
through the ammeter to the switch (or switches) to the individual light.

Figure 2-55.- Lamp construction and configurations.

 29

LAMPS
Small gas-filled incandescent lamps with tungsten filaments are used on automotive and
construction equipment (fig. 2-55). The filaments supply the light when sufficient current is
flowing through them. They are designed to operate on a low voltage current of 12 or 24
volts, depending upon the voltage of the the vehicle will be of the single-or double-contact
small one-half-candlepower bulbs to large 50- candlepower bulbs. The greater the
candlepower of the lamp, the more current it requires when lighted. Lamps are identified by a
number on the base. When you replace a lamp in a vehicle, be sure the new lamp is of the
proper rating. The lamps within Lamps are rated as to size by the candlepower (luminous
intensity) they produce. They range from types with nibs to fit bayonet sockets, as shown in
lamp is also whiter than a conventional lamp, which increases lighting ability.

Figure 2-5.-( A) Single-contact bulb; (B) Double-contact bulb.

Figure 2-58.- Dash-mounted headlight switch.

 30

HEADLIGHTS HEADLIGHT SWITCH

The headlights are sealed beam lamps (fig. 2-57) that illuminate the road during
nighttime operation. Headlights consist of a lens, one or two elements, and a integral
reflector. When current flows through the element, the element gets white hot and
glows. The reflector and lens direct the light forward.
Many modern passenger vehicles use halogen headlights. A halogen headlight contains a
small, inner halogen lamp surrounded by a conventional sealed housing. A halogen
headlamp increases light output by 25 percent with no increase in current. The headlight
switch is an ON/ OFF switch and rheostat (variable resistor) in the dash panel (fig. 2-58)
or on the steering column (fig. 2-59). The headlight switch controls current flow to the
lamps of the headlight system. The rheostat is for adjusting the brightness of the
instrument panel lights.

Military vehicles that are used in tactical situations are equipped with a headlight switch
that is integrated with the blackout lighting switch (fig. 2-0). An important feature of this
switch is that it reduces the possibility of accidentally turning on the lights in a blackout.

Figure 2-57.- A typical sealed beam headlight assembly.

 31

Figure 2-59.- Steering column mounted headlight switch.

Figure 2-0.- Blackout light/ headlight switch.

With no lights on, the main switch can be turned to the left without operating the
mechanical switch to get blackout marker lights (including blackout taillights and
stoplights) and blackout driving lights. But for stoplights for daylight driving or
headlights for ordinary night driving, you must first lift the mechanical switch lever and
then turn the main switch to the right. The auxiliary switch gives panel lights when the
main switch is in any of its ON positions. But it will give parking lights only when the
main switch is in service drive (to the extreme right). When the main switch is off, the
auxiliary switch should not be moved from the OFF position.

DIMMER SWITCH
The dimmer switch controls the high and low headlamp beam function and is normally
mounted on the floorboard (fig. 2-1) or steering column (fig. 2-2). When the operator
activates the dimmer switch, it changes the electrical connection to the headlights.
 32

Figure 2-2.- Steering column mounted dimmer switch.

In one position, the high beams are turned on, and, in the other position, the dimmer
changes them to low beam.

Aiming Headlights
The headlights can be aimed using a mechanical aimer or a wall screen. Either
method assures that the headlight beams point in the direction specified by the vehicle
manufacturer. Headlights that are aime d too high can blind oncoming vehicles.
Headlights that are aimed too low or to one side will reduce the operator's visibility.o
ensure that the headlights are properly aimed, you should have a half a tank of fuel, the
correct tire pressure, and only the spare tire and jack in the vehicle. Some manufacturers
recommend that someone sit in the operator and passenger seats while aiming the lights.
HEADLIGHT AIMERS are a device for pointing the vehicle headlights in a specified
position. They may be permanently installed on a track or may be portable. Some
require a level floor, and others have internal leveling mechanisms to allow for uneven
shop floors. To use the aimer, follow the instructions for the specific type of equipment.
The HEADLIGHT AIMING SCREEN is a series of measured lines marked on a shop
wall or on a framed easel for aiming the headlights of a vehicle. The screen should be no
less than 10 feet wide and 42 inches high. When it is mounted on an easel with casters,
the screen should be no more than 12 inches from the floor. To comply with regulations
of most localities, you should place the screen 25 feet ahead of the vehicle.The accepted
driving beam pattern for passenger vehicles will show the high intensity portion
(hotspot) of the light rays centered on a horizontal line that is 2 inches below the center
 33

or horizontal reference line on the screen (fig. 2-3). This means that there will be a 2-
inch drop of the light beam for every 25 feet of distance from the headlight.Headlights
on large trucks present a special problem because of the effect of a heavy load. At the
same 25 feet, truck headlights should be aimed so that none of the high intensity portion
of the light will project higher than a level of 5 inches below the center on the headlight
being tested. This is necessary to compensate for the variations in loading.
When using a screen for aiming the headlights on a vehicle that uses a four-headlight
system, adjust the hotspots of the No. 1 (inboard) lights so that they are centered on the
vertical lines 2 inches below the horizontal line (fig. 2-4). The low beam of the No. 2
(outboard) lights is aimed so that the hotspot does not extend to the left of straight ahead
or extend more than inches to the right of straight ahead. The top of the hotspot of the
No. 2 lights is aimed at the horizontal line. When the No. 2 lights are properly adjusted,
the high beam will be correct.

Figure 2-3.- Accepted beam pattern for aiming passenger vehicle headlights.

Figure 2-4.- Accepted beam pattern for a four-headlight system.

 34

BLACKOUT LIGHTS
Blackout lighting is a requirement for certain combat operations. The purposes of
blackout lighting are as follows:

To provide the ve hicle operator with sufficient light to operate the vehicle in total
darkness

To provide minimum lighting to show vehicle position to a leading or trailing vehicle

when illumination must be restricted to a level not visible to a distant enemy

The three types of blackout lighting are as follows: The BLACKOUT DRIVING LIGHT
(fig. 2-5) is designed to provide a white light of 25 to 50 candlepower at a distance of 10
feet directly in front of the light. The light is shielded so that the top of the low beam is
directed not less than 2 degrees below the horizon. The beam distribution on a level road
at 100 feet from the light is 30 feet wide.

Figure 2-5.- Blackout driving light.

The BLACKOUT STOP/ TAILLIGHT and MARKER LIGHT (fig. 2-) are designed to
be visible at a horizontal distance of 800 feet and not visible beyond 1,200 feet. The
lights also must be invisible from the air above 400 feet with the vehicle on upgrades
and downgrades of 20 percent. The horizontal beam cutoff for the lights is 0 degrees
right and left of the beams center line at 100 feet.

The COMPOSITE LIGHT (fig. 2-7) is currently the standard light unit that is used on
the rear of tactical military vehicles. The composite light combines service stop, tail, and
turn signals with blackout stop and taillighting.
 35

Figure 2-.- Blackout stop/ taillight and marker light.

Figure 2-7.- Military composite light.

Blackout lighting control switches are designed to prevent the service lighting from
being turned on accidentally. Their operation is described in the "Headlight Switch"
section of this TRAMAN.

TURN-SIGNAL SYSTEMS
Vehicles that operate on any public road must be equipped with turn signals. These
signals indicate a left or right turn by providing a flashing light signal at the rear and
front of the vehicle.The turn-signal switch is located on the steering column (fig. 2-8). It
is designed to shut off automatically after the turn is completed by the action of the
canceling cam.
 36

Figure 2-8.- Typical turn-signal switch.

A wiring diagram for a typical turn-signal system is shown in figure 2-9. A common
design for a turn-signal system is to use the same rear light for both the stop and turn
signals. This somewhat complicates the design of the switch in that the stoplight circuit
must pass through the turn-signal switch. When the turn-signal switch is turned off, it
must pass stoplight current to the rear lights. As a left or right turn signal is selected, the
stoplight circuit is open and the turn-signal circuit is closed to the respective rear light.
The turn signal flasher unit (fig. 2-70) creates the flashing of the turn signal lights.
It consists basically of a bimetallic (two dissimilar metals bonded together) strip
wrapped in a wire coil. The bimetallic strip serves as one of the contact points.When the
turn signals are actuated, current flows into the flasher- first through the heating coil to
the bimetallic strip, then through the contact points, then out of the flasher, where the
circuit is completed through the turn-signal light. This sequence of events will repeat a
few times a second, causing a steady flashing of the turn signals.

BACKUP LIGHT SYSTEM

The backup light system provides visibility to the rear of the vehicle at night and a
warning to the equipped vehicles is combined with the neutral safety switch pedestrians,
whenever the vehicle is shifted into reverse. The backup light system has fuse, gearshift-
or transmission-mounted switch, two backup lights, and wiring to connect these
components.

Figure 2-9.- Typical turn-signal wiring diagram.

 37

Figure 2-70.- Turn signal flasher.

The backup light switch closes the light circuit when the transmission is shifted into
reverse. The most common backup light switch configurations are as follows:

 The backup light switch mounted on the transmission and operated by the shift
lever.
 The backup light switch mounted on the steering column and operated by the
gearshift linkage.
 The transmission-or gearshift-mounted backup light switch on many automatic
transmission-

STOPLIGHT SYSTEM
All vehicles that are used on public highways must be equipped with a stoplight system.
The stoplight system consists of a fuse, brake light switch (fig. 2-71), two rear warning
lights, and related wiring.

The brake light switch on most automotive equipment is mounted on the brake pedal.
When the brake pedal is pressed, it closes the switch and turns on the rear brake lights.
On construction and tactical equipment, you may find a pressure light switch. This type
of switch uses either air or hydraulic pressure, depending on the equipment. It is
mounted on the master cylinder of the hydraulic brake system or is attached to the brake
valve on an air brake system. As the brakes are depressed, either air or hydraulic
pressure builds on a diaphragm inside the switch. The diaphragm closes allowing
electrical current to turn on the rear brake lights.

FUEL GAUGE
Most fuel gauges are operated electrically and are composed of two units- the gauge,
mounted on the instrument panel; and the sending unit, mounted in the fuel tank. The
 38

ignition switch is included in the fuel gauge circuit, so the gauge operates only when the
ignition switch is in the ON position. Operation of the electrical gauge depends on either
coil action or thermostatic action. The four types of fuel gauges are as follows:

Figure 2-75.- Low voltage warning lamp schematic.

The THERMOSTATIC FUEL GAUGE, SELF-REGULATING (fig.
2-77), contains an electrically heated bimetallic strip that is linked to a pointer. A
bimetallic strip consists of two dissimilar metals that, when heated, expand at different
rates, causing it to deflect or bend. In the case of this gauge, the deflection of the
bimetallic strip results in the movement of the pointer, causing the gauge to give a
reading. The sending unit consists of a hinged arm with a float on the end. The
movement of the arm controls a grounded point that makes contact with another point
which is attached to an electrically heated bimetallic strip. The heating coils in the tank
and the gauge are connected to each other in series.

The THERMOSTATIC FUEL GAUGE, EXTERNALLY REGULATED (fig. 2-78),

differs from a self-regulating system in the use of a variable resistance fuel tank sending
unit and an external voltage-limiting device. The sending unit controls the gauge
through the use of a rheostat (wire wound resistance unit whose value varies with its
effective length). Theeffective length of the rheostat is controlled in the sending unit by
a sliding brush that is operated by the float arm. The power supply to the gauge is kept
constant through the use of a voltage limiter. The voltage limiter consists of a set of
contact points that are controlled by an electrically heated bimetallic arm.
The THERMOSTATIC FUEL GAUGE, DIFFERENTIAL TYPE (fig. 2-79), is similar
to the other type of thermostatic fuel gauges, except that it uses two electrically heated
bimetallic strips that share equally in operating and supporting the gauge pointer. The
pointer position is obtained by dividing the available voltage between the two strips
(differential). The tank unit is a rheostat type similar to that already described; however,
 39

it contains a wire-wound resistor that is connected between external terminals of one of

the gauges of the bimetallic strip. The float arm moves a grounded brush that raises
resistance progressively to one terminal, while lowering resistance to the other. This
action causes the voltage division and resulting heat differential to the gauge strips
formulating the gauge reading.
The MAGNETIC FUEL GAUGE (fig. 2-80) consists of a pointer mounted on an
armature. Depending upon the design, the armature may contain one or two poles. The
gauge is motivated by a magnetic field that is created by two separate magnetic coils
that are contained in the gauge. One of these coils is connected directly to the battery,
producing a constant magnetic field. The other coil produces a variable field, whose
strength is determined by a rheostat-type tank unit. The coils are placed 90 degrees
apart.

Figure 2-77.- Thermostatic fuel gauge, self-regulating. PRESSURE GAUGE

 40

Figure 2-78.- Thermostatic fuel gauge, externally regulated.

Figure 2-79.- Thermostatic fuel gauge, differential type.

A pressure gauge is used widely in automotive and construction applications to keep
track of such things as oil pressure, fuel line pressure, air brake system pressure, and the
pressure in the hydraulic systems. Depending on the equipment, a mechanical gauge, an
electrical gauge, or an indicator lamp may be used.
 41

Figure 2-80.- Magnetic fuel gauge.

The MECHANICAL GAUGE (fig. 2-81) uses a thin tube to carry an actual pressure
sample directly to the gauge. The gauge basically consists of a hollow, flexible C-shaped
tube, called a bourbon tube. As air or fluid pressure is applied to the bourbon tube, it will
tend to straighten out. As it straightens, the attached pointer will move, giving a reading.
The ELECTRIC GAUGE may be of the thermostatic or magnetic type as previous
discussed. The sending unit (fig. 2-82) that is used with each gauge type varies as
follows:

1. The sending unit that is used with the thermostatic pressure gauge uses a flexible
diaphragm that moves a grounded contact. The contact that mates with the grounded
contact is attached to a bimetallic strip. The flexing of the diaphragm, which is done
with pressure changes, varies the point tension. The different positions of the diaphragm
produce gauge readings.

Figure 2-81.- Mechanical pressure gauge.

2. The sending unit that is used with the magnetic-type gauge also translates pressure
into the flexing of a diaphragm. In the case of the magnetic gauge sending unit,
however, the diaphragm operates a rheostat.
 42

The INDICATOR LAMP (warning light) is used in place of a gauge on many vehicles.
The warning light, although not an accurate indicator, is valuable because of its high
visibility in the event of a low-pressure condition. The warning light receives battery
power through the ignition switch. The circuit to ground is completed through a sending
unit. The sending unit consists of a pressure-sensitive diaphragm that operates a set of
contact points that are calibrated to turn on the warning light whenever pressure drops
below a set pressure.

TEMPERATURE GAUGE
The temperature gauge is a very important indicator in construction and automotive
equipment. The most common uses are to indicate engine coolant, transmission,
differential oil, and hydraulic system temperature. Depending on the type of equipment,
the gauge may be mechanical, electric, or a warning light.
The ELECTRIC GAUGE may be the thermostatic or magnetic type, as described
previously. The sending unit (fig. 2-83) that is used varies, depending upon application.

1. The sending unit that is used with the thermostatic gauge consists of two bimetallic
strips, each having a contact point. One bimetallic strip is heated electrically. The other
strip bends to increase the tension of the contact points. The different positions of the
bimetallic strip create the gauge readings.

2. The sending unit that is used with the magnetic gauge contains a device called a
thermistor. A thermistor is an electronic device whose resistance decreases
proportionally with an increase in temperature.

The MAGNETIC GAUGE contains a bourbon tube and operates by the same principles
as the mechanical pressure gauge.

The INDICATOR LAMP (warning light) operates by the same principle as the indicator
light previously discussed.
 43

Figure 2-82.- Types of sending units for pressure gauges.

Figure 2-83.- Types of temperature gauge sending units.

SPEEDOMETER AND TACHOMETERS
Speedometers and tachometers in some form are used in virtually all types of self-
propelled equipment. Speedometers are used to indicate vehicle speed in miles per hour
(mph) or kilometers per hour (kph). In most cases, the speedometer also contains the
odometer which keeps a record of the amount of mileage (in miles or kilometers
depending on application) that a vehicle has accumulated. Some speedometers also
contain a resetable trip odometer so those individual trips can be measured.

A tachometer is a device that is used to measure engine speed in revolutions per minute
(rpm). The tachometer may also contain an engine-hour gauge which is installed on
equipment that uses no odometer to keep a record of engine use. Speedometers and
tachometers may be driven either mechanically, electrically, or electronically.

MECHANICAL SPEEDOMETERS AND TACHOMETERS

Both the mechanical speedometer and the tachometer consist of a permanent magnet that
is rotated by a flexible shaft. Surrounding the rotating magnet is a metal cup that is
attached to the indicating needle. The revolving magnetic field exerts a pull on the cup
that forces it to rotate. The rotation of the cup is countered by a calibrated hairspring.
The influence of the hairspring and the rotating magnetic field on the cup produces
accurate readings by the attached needle. The flexible shaft consists of a flexible outer
 44

casing that is made of either steel or plastic and an inner drive core that is made of wire-
wound spring steel. Both ends of the core are molded square, so they can fit into the
driving member at one end and the driven member at the other end and can transmit
torque.
Gears on the transmission output shaft turn the flexible shaft that drives the
speedometer. This shaft is referred to as the speedometer cable. A gear on the ignition
distributor shaft turns the flexible shaft that drives the tachometer. This shaft is referred
to as the tachometer cable.
The odometer of the mechanical speedometer is driven by a series of gears that originate
at a spiral gear on the input shaft. The odometer consists of a series of drums with digits
printed on the outer circumference that range from zero to nine. The drums are geared to
each other so that each time the one furthest to the right makes one revolution, it will
cause the one to its immediate left to advance one digit. The second to the right then will
advance the drum to its immediate left one digit for every revolution it makes. This
sequence continues to the left through the entire series of drums. The odometer usually
contains six digits to record 99,999.9 miles or kilometers. However, models with trip
odometers do not record tenths, thereby contain only five digits. When the odometer
reaches its highest value, it will automatically reset to zero. Newer vehicles incorporate
a small dye pad in the odometer to color the drum of its highest digit to indicate the total
mileage is in excess of the capability of the odometer.

Electric Speedometers and Tachometers

The electric speedometer and tachometer use a mechanically driven permanent magnet
generator to supply power to a small electric motor (fig. 2-84). The electric motor then is
used to rotate the input shaft of the speedometer or tachometer. The voltage from the
generator will increase proportionally with speed, and speed will likewise increase
proportionally with voltage enabling the gauges to indicate speed.
The signal generator for the speedometer is usually driven by the transmission output
shaft through gears. The signal generator for the tachometer usually is driven by the
distributor through a power takeoff on gasoline engines. When the tachometer is used
with a diesel engine, a special power takeoff provision is made, usually on the camshaft
drive.
Electronic Speedometers and Tachometers
Electronic speedometers and tachometers are self-contained units that use an electric
signal from the engine or transmission. They differ from the electric unit in that they use
a generated signal as the driving force. The gauge is transistorized and will supply
information through either a magnetic analog (dial) or light-emitting diode (LED) digital
gauge display. The gauge unit derives its input signal in the following ways:
 45

Figure 2-84.- Electric speedometer and tachometer operation.

An electronic tachometer obtains a pulse signal from the ignition distributor, as it
switches the coil on and off. The pulse speed at this point will change proportionally
with engine speed. This is the most popular signal source for a tachometer that is used
on a gasoline engine.
A tachometer that is used with a diesel engine uses the alternating current generated by
the stator terminal of the alternator as a signal. The frequency of the ac current will
change proportionally with engine speed.

An electronic speedometer derives its signal from a magnetic pickup coil that has its
field interrupted by a rotating pole piece. The signal units operation is the same as the
operation of the reluctor and pickup coil described earlier in this TRAMAN. The pickup
coil is located strategically in the transmission case to interact with the reluctor teeth on
the input shaft.

HORN
The horn currently used on automotive vehicles is the electric vibrating type. The
electric vibrating horn system typically consists of a fuse, horn button switch, relay,
horn assembly, and related wiring. When the operator presses the horn button, it closes
the horn switch and activates the horn relay. This completes the circuit, and current is
allowed through the relay circuit and to the horn.
Most horns have a diaphragm that vibrates by means of an electromagnetic. When the
horn is energized, the electromagnet pulls on the horn diaphragm. This movement opens
a set of contact points inside the horn. This action allows the diaphragm to flex back
towards its normal position. This cycle is repeated rapidly. The vibrations of the
diaphragm within the air column produce the note of the horn.

Tone and volume adjustments are made by loosening the adjusting locknut and turning
the adjusting nut. This very sensitive adjustment controls the current consumed by the
horn. Increasing the current increases the volume. However, too much current will make
the horn sputter and may lock the diaphragm.
 46

When a electric horn will not produce sound, check the fuse, the connections, and test
for voltage at the horn terminal. If the horn sounds continuously, a faulty horn switch is
the most probable cause. A faulty horn relay is another cause of horn problems. The
contacts inside the relay may be burned or stuck together.

WINDSHIELD WIPERS
The windshield wiper system is one of the most important safety factors on any piece of
equipment. A typical electric windshield wiper system consists of a switch, motor
assembly, wiper linkage and arms, and wiper blades. The description of the components
is as follows:
The WINDSHIELD WIPER SWITCH is a multiposition switch, which may contain a
rheostat. Each switch position provides for different wiping speeds. The rheostat, if
provided,
operates the delay mode for a slow wiping action. This permits the operator to select a
delayed wipe from every 3 to 20 seconds. A relay is frequently used to complete the
circuit between the battery voltage and the wiper motor.
The WIPER MOTOR ASSEMBLY operates on one, two, or three speeds. The motor
(fig. 2-85) has a worm gear on the armature shaft that drives one or two gears, and, in
turn, operates the linkage to the wiper arms. The motor is a small, shunt wound dc
motor. Resistors are placed in the control circuit from the switch to reduce the current
and provide different operating speeds.
The WIPER LINKAGE and ARMS transfers motion from the wiper motor transmission
to the wiper blades. The rubber wiper blades fit on the wiper arms.
The WIPER BLADE is a flexible rubber squeegee-type device. It may be steel or plastic
backed and is designed to maintain total contact with the windshield throughout the
stroke. Wiper blades should be inspected periodically. If they are hardened, cut, or split,
they are to be replaced.
When electrical problems occur in the windshield wiper system, use the service manual
and its wiring diagram of the circuit. First check the fuses, electrical connections, and all
grounds. Then proceed with checking the components.
AUTOMOTIVE WIRING
Learning Objective: Identify the basic types of automotive wiring, types of terminals,
and wiring diagrams.

Electrical power and control signals must be delivered to electrical devices reliably and
safely so that the electrical system functions are not impaired or converted to hazards.
To fulfill power distribution military vehicles, use one-and two -wire circuits, wiring
harnesses, and terminal connections.
 47

Among your many duties will be the job of maintaining and repairing automotive
electrical systems. All vehicles are not wired in exactly the same manner; however, once
you understand the circuit of one vehicle, you should be able to trace an electrical circuit
of any vehicle using wiring diagrams and color codes.

ONE-AND TWO-WIRE CIRCUITS

Tracing wiring circuits, particularly those connecting lights or warning and signal
devices, is no simple task. By studying the diagram in figure 2-72, you will see that the
branch circuits making up the individual systems have one wire to conduct electricity
from the battery to the unit requiring it and ground connections at the battery and the
unit to complete the circuit. These are called ONE-WIRE CIRCUITS or branches of a
GROUND RETURN SYSTEM.
In automotive electrical systems with branch circuits that lead to all parts of the
equipment, the ground return system saves installation time and eliminates the need for
an additional wiring to complete the circuit. The all-metal construction of the automotive
equipment makes it possible to use this system.

Figure 2-85.- Wiper motor assembly.

The TWO-WIRE CIRCUIT requires two wires to complete the electrical circuit- one
wire from the source of electrical energy to the unit it will operate, and another wire to
complete the circuit from the unit back to the source of the electrical power.
 48

Two-wire circuits provide positive connection for light and electrical brakes on some
trailers. The coupling between the trailer and the equipment, although made of metal and
a conductor of electricity, has to be jointed to move freely. The rather loose joint or
coupling does not provide the positive and continuous connection required to use a
ground return system between two vehicles. The two -wire circuit is commonly used on
equipment subject to frequent or heavy vibrations. Tracked equipment, off-road vehicles
(tactical), and many types of construction equipment are wired in this manner.

WIRING ASSEMBLIES
Wiring assemblies consist of wires and cables of definitely prescribed length, assembled
together to form a subassembly that will interconnect specific electrical components
and/ or equipment. The two basic types of wiring assemblies are as follows:
The CABLE ASSEMBLY consists of a stranded conductor with insulation or a
combination of insulated conductors enclosed in a covering or jacket from end to end.
Terminating connections seal around the outer jacket so that the inner conductors are
isolated completely from the environment. Cable assemblies may have two or more
ends.
WIRING HARNESS assemblies (fig. 2-8) serve two purposes. They prevent chafing and
loosening of terminals and connections caused by vibration and road shock while
keeping the wires in a neat condition away from moving parts of the vehicle. Wiring
harnesses contain two or more individual conductors laid parallel or twisted together and
wrapped with binding material, such as tape, lacing cord, and wire ties. The binding
materials do not isolate the conductors from the environment completely, and conductor
terminations may or may not be sealed. Wiring harnesses also may have two or more
ends.

WIRING IDENTIFICATION
Wires in the electrical system should be identified by a number, color, or code to
facilitate tracing circuits during assembly, troubleshooting, or rewiring operations. This
identification should appear on wiring schematics and diagrams and whenever practical
on the individual wire. The assigned identification for a continuous electrical connection
should be retained on a schematic diagram until the circuit characteristic is altered by a
switching point or active component.
 49

Figure 2-8.- A typical wiring harness.

Wiring color codes are used by manufacturers to assist the mechanics in identifying the
wires used in many circuits and making repairs in a minimum of time. No color code is
common to all manufacturers. For this reason, the manufacturer's service manual is a
must for speedy troubleshooting and repairs.

Wiring found on tactical equipment (M-series) has no color. All the wires used on these
vehicles are black. Small metal tags (fig. 2-87), stamped with numbers or codes, are used
 50

to identify the wiring illustrated by diagrams in the technical manuals. These tags are
securely fastened near the end of individual wires.

Figure 2-87.- Metal tag wire identification.

WIRING DIAGRAMS
Wiring diagrams (fig. 2-88) are drawings that show the relationship of the electrical
components and wires in a circuit. They seldom show the routing of the wires within the
electrical system of the vehicle.

Often you will find ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS used in wiring diagrams to simulate
individual components. Figure 2-89 shows some of the symbols you may encounter
when tracing individual circuits in a wiring diagram.

WIRE TERMINAL ENDS

Wire terminals are divided into two major classes- the solder type and the solderless
type, which is also known as the pressure or crimp type. The solder type has a cup in
which the wire is held by solder permanently. The solderless type is connected to the
wire by special tools. These tools deform the barrel of the terminal and exert pressure on
the wire to form a strong mechanical bond and electrical connection. Solderless type
terminals are gradually replacing solder type terminals in military equipment.
 51

Figure 2-89.- Wiring diagram symbols.

Wire passing through holes in the metal members of the frame or body should be
protected by rubber grommets. If rubber grommets are not available, use a piece of
rubber hose the size of the hole to protect the wiring from chafing or cutting on sharp
edges.
 52

UNIT III
ELECTRONIC IGNITION AND INJECTION SYSTEM
Spark plugs. Advance mechanisms. Different types of ignition systems. Electronic fuel
injection systems, mono and multi point fuel injection system (MPFI).

IGNITION CIRCUIT
Learning Objective: Identify ignition-circuit components, their functions, and
maintenance procedures.

The ignition circuit supplies high voltage surges (some as high as 50,000 volts in
electronic ignition circuits) to the spark plugs in the engine cylinders. These surges
produce electric sparks across the spark plug gaps. The heat from the spark ignites the
compressed air-fuel mixture in the combustion chambers. When the engine is idling, the
spark appears at the spark plug gap just as the piston nears top dead center (TDC) on the
compression stroke. When the engine is operating at higher speeds, the spark is
advanced. It is moved ahead and occurs earlier in the compression stroke. This design
gives the compressed mixture more time to bum and deliver its energy to the pistons.

 The functions of an ignition circuit are as follows:

 Provide a method of turning the ignition circuit ON and OFF.

 Be capable of operating on various supply voltages (battery or alternator voltage).

 Produce a high voltage arc at the spark plug electrodes to start combustion.

 Distribute high voltage pulses to each spark plug in the correct sequence.
 53

 Time the spark so that it occurs as the piston nears TDC on the compression stroke.

 Vary spark timing with engine speed, load, and other conditions.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CIRCUITS

The ignition circuit is actually made of two separate circuits which work together to
cause the electric spark at the spark plugs. These two circuits are the PRIMARY and
SECONDARY.
The primary circuit of the ignition circuit includes all of the components and wiring
operating on low voltage (battery or alternator voltage). Wiring in the primary circuit
uses conventional wire, similar to the wire used in other electrical circuits on the vehicle.
The secondary circuit of the ignition circuit is the high voltage section. It consists of
the wire and components between the coil output and the spark plug ground. Wiring in
the secondary circuit must have a thicker insulation than that of the primary circuit to
prevent leaking (arcing) of the high voltage.

IGNITION CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Various ignition circuit components are designed to achieve the functions of the
ignition circuit. Basic ignition circuit components are as follows:
BATTERY- provides power for the circuit. (This was discussed earlier in this chapter.)

IGNITION SWITCH- allows the operator to turn the circuit and engine ON and OFF.

IGNITION COIL- changes battery voltage to high ignition voltage (30,000 volts and
greater).

IGNITION DISTRIBUTOR- distributesignition voltage to the spark plug. Contains

either mechanical contact points or an electronic switching circuit.

PARK PLUG- device that provides an air gap in the combustion chamber for an electric
arc.

Ignition Switch
The ignition switch (fig. 2-43) enables the operator to turn the ignition on for starting
and running the engine and to turn it off to stop the engine. Most automotive ignition
switches incorporate four positions, which are as follows:

OFF
The OFF position shuts off the electrical system. Systems, such as the headlights, are
usually not wired through the ignition switch and will continue to operate.

ACCESSORY
 54

The ACCESSORY position turns on power to the entire vehicle electrical system with
the exception of the ignition circuit.

IGNITION ON
The IGNITION-ON position turns on the entire electrical system including the ignition
circuit.

START
The START position will energize the starter solenoid circuit to-crank the engine. The
START position is spring-loaded to return to the IGNITION-ON position when the key
is released automatically.

IGNITION COIL
The ignition coil (fig. 2-44) produces the high voltage required to make current jump the
gap at the spark plugs. It is a pulse type transformer capable of producing a short burst
of high voltage for starting combustion.
The ignition coil is made of two sets of windings (primary and secondary), two primary
terminals (low voltage connections), an iron core (long piece of iron inside the
windings), and a high voltage terminal (coil wire connection).
The primary winding is the outer winding and is made up of several hundred turns of
heavy wire, wrapped around or near the secondary winding. The secondary winding is
the inner winding and is made up of several thousand turns of heavy wire located inside
or near the primary winding. The secondary windings are wound in the opposite
direction of the primary, and the ends are attached internally to the primary windings
and the high voltage terminal. Both windings are wrapped around an iron core and are
housed inside the coil case.
To obtain the high current required for ignition, battery current flows through the
ignition coil primary windings producing a strong magnetic field. The action of the iron
core strengthens the magnetic field.

Figure 2-43.- Ignition switch and positions.

 55

Figure 2-44.- Sectional view of an ignition coil.

When the current flowing through the coil is broken (the primary circuit is opened), the
magnetic field collapses across the secondary windings. As the magnetic field collapses,
a high electrical voltage is induced into the secondary circuit.
Since both the primary and secondary windings of the coil are stationary, some means
other than movement of the windings must be found to change the magnetic field
surrounding the coils. In practice, a switching device in the primary circuit creates this
effect. There are two common methods to break current flow and fire the coil-
mechanical contact points or an electronic switching device.

IGNITION DISTRIBUTOR
An ignition distributor can be a contact point or pickup coil type, as shown in figure 2-
45. A contact point distributor is commonly found in older vehicles, whereas the pickup
coil type distributor is used on many modern vehicles. The ignition distributor has
several functions, which are as follows:

It actuates the ON/ OFF cycles of current flow through the primary windings of the coil.

It distributes the high voltage surges of the coil to the spark plugs.

It causes the spark to occur at each spark plug earlier in the compression stroke as speed
increases.
 56

It changes spark timing with the changes in engine load. As more load is placed on the
engine, the spark timing must occur later in the compression stroke to prevent spark
knock.

In some cases, the bottom of the distributor shaft powers the engine oil pump.
In some electronic distributors, the distributors house the ignition coil and the electronic
switching unit.

Figure 2-45.- Comparison of a (A) contact point distributor and a (B) pickup coil
distributor.

DISTRIBUTOR CAP.- The distributor cap is an insulating plastic component that

covers the top of the distributor housing. Its center terminal transfers voltage from the
coil wire to the rotor. The distributor cap also has outer terminals that send electric arcs
to the spark plugs. Metal terminals are molded into the plastic cap to provide electrical
connections.
 57

DISTRIBUTOR ROTOR.- The distributor rotor transfers voltage from the coil wire to
the spark plug wires. The rotor is mounted on top of the distributor shaft. It is an
electrical switch that feeds voltage to each spark plug wire in turn.

A metal terminal on the rotor touches the distributor cap center terminal. The outer end
of the rotor ALMOST touches the outer cap terminals. Voltage is high enough that it can
jump the air space between the rotor and cap. Approximately 4,000 volts are required for
the spark to jump this rotor-to-cap gap.

SPARK PLUG
The spark plug consists of a porcelain insulator in which there is an insulated electrode
supported by a metal shell with a grounded electrode. They have a simple purpose of
supplying a fixed gap in the cylinder across which the high voltage surges from the coil
must jump after passing through the distributor.
The spark plugs use ignition coil high voltage to ignite the fuel mixture. Somewhere
between 4,000 and 10,000 volts are required to make current jump the gap at the plug
electrodes. This is much lower than the output potential of the coil.

Spark plug gap is the distance between the center and side electrodes. Normal gap
specifications range between .030 to .00 inch. Smaller spark plugs gaps are used on
older vehicles equipped with contact point ignition systems.

Spark plugs are either resistor or non-resistor types (fig. 2-4). A resistor spark plug has
internal resistance (approximately 10,000 ohms) designed to reduce the static in radios.
Most new vehicles require resistortype plugs. Non-resistor spark plug has a solid metal
rod forming the center electrode. This type of spark plugs is NOT commonly used
except for racing and off-road vehicles.

Spark Plug Heat Range and Reach

The heat range of the spark plug determines how hot the plug will get. The length and
diameter of the insulator tip and the ability of the spark plug to transfer heat into the
cooling system determine spark plug heat range.
A hot spark plug has a long insulator tip that prevents heat transfer into the waterjackets.
It will also bum off any oil deposits. This provides a self-cleaning action.

A cold spark plug has a shorter insulator tip and operates at a cooler temperature. The
cooler tip helps prevent overheating and preignition. A cold spark plug is used in
engines operated at high speeds.Vehicle manufacturers recommend a specific spark plug
heat range for their engines. The heat range is coded and given as a number on the spark
 58

plug insulator. The larger the number on the plug, the hotter the spark plug tip will
operate. For example, a 54 plug would be hotter than a 44 or 34 plug.
The only time you should change from spark plug heat range specifications is when
abnormal engine or operating conditions are encountered. For instance, if the plug runs
too cool, sooty carbon will deposit on the insulator around the center electrode. This
deposit could soon build up enough to short out the plug. Then high voltage surges
would leak across the carbon instead of producing a spark across the spark plug gap.
Using a hotter plug will bum this carbon deposit away or prevent it from forming.
Spark plug reach is the distance between the end of the spark plug threads and the seat
or sealing surface of the plug. Plug reach determines how far the plug reaches through
the cylinder head. If spark plug reach is too long, the spark plug will protrude too far
into the combustion chamber and the piston at TDC may strike the electrode.
However, if the reach is too short, the plug electrode may not extend far enough into the
cylinder head and combustion efficiency will be reduced. A spark plug must reach into
the combustion chamber far enough so that the spark gap will be properly positioned in
the combustion chamber without interfering with the turbulence of the air-fuel mixture
or reducing combustion action.

Figure 2-4.- Sectional view of a (A) non-resistor and (B) resistor spark plug.

SPARK PLUG WIRES

 59

The spark plug wires carry the high voltage electric current from the distributor cap side
terminals to the spark plugs. In vehicles with distributorless ignition, the spark plug
wires carry coil voltage directly to the spark plugs. The two types of spark plug wires
are as follows:
SOLID WIRE- Solid wire spark plug wires are used on older vehicles. The wire
conductor is simply a strand of metal wire. Solid wires cause radio interference and are
no longer used on vehicles.
RESISTANCE WIRE- Resistance spark plug wires consist of carbon-impregnated
strands of rayon braid. They are used on modern vehicle because they contain internal
resistance that prevents radio interference. Also known as radio interference wires, they
have approximately 10,000 ohms per foot. This prevents high-voltage- induced popping
or cracking of the radio speakers.
On the outer ends of the spark plug wires, boots protect the metal connectors from
corrosion, oil, and moisture that would permit high voltage to leak across the terminal to
the shell of the spark plug.

CONTACT POINT IGNITION SYSTEM

Before studying today's electronic ignition systems, you should have a basic
understanding of the contact point ignition system. The two systems use many of the
same components. These include the battery, the ignition coil, the ignition distributor,
the spark plugs, and wires and cables that connect them.

Contact Point Ignitions System Components

The internal components of the distributor for a contact point ignition consist of the
following:
DISTRIBUTOR CAM- The distributor cam is part of, or is attached to, the distributor
shaft and has one lobe for each cylinder. As the cam rotates with the shaft at one half of
engine speed, the lobes cause the contact points to open and close the primary circuit.
CONTACT POINTS- The contact points, also called breaker points, act like spring-
loaded electrical switches in the distributor. Its function is to cause intermittent current
flow in the primary circuit, thus causing the magnetic field in the coil to build up and
collapse when it reaches maximum strength. Wires from the condenser and ignition coil
primary circuit connect to the points.
CONDENSER- The condenser, also known as a capacitor, is wired in parallel with the
contact points and grounded through the distributor housing. The condenser prevents
arcing or burning at the distributor contact points when the points are first open. The
condenser provides a place where current can flow until the contact points are fully
open.

Contact Point Ignition System Operation

 60

With the engine running, the distributor shaft and distributor cam rotate. This action
causes the distributor cam to open and close the contact points.

With the contact points wired to the primary windings of the ignition coil, the contact
points make and break the ignition coil primary circuit. With the contact points closed,
the magnetic field builds up in the coil. As the points open, the magnetic field collapses
and voltage is sent to the spark plugs.
With the distributor operating at one half of engine speed and with only one cam for
each engine cylinder, each spark plug only fires once during a complete revolution of
the distributor cam.
To ensure that the contact points are closed for a set time, point dwell, also known as
cam angle, is set by using a dwell meter. Point dwell is the amount of time given in
degrees of distributor rotation that the points remain closed between each opening.
A dwell period is required to assure that the coil has enough time to build up a strong
magnetic field. If the point dwell is too small, the current will have insufficient time to
pass through the primary windings of the ignition coil, resulting in a weak spark.
However, if the point dwell is too great, the contact points will not open far enough,
resulting in arcing or burning of the points.

ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEM

The basic difference between the contact point and the electronic ignition system is in
the primary circuit. The primary circuit in a contact point ignition system is open and
closed by contact points. In the electronic system, the primary circuit is open and closed
by the electronic control unit (ECU).
The secondary circuits are practically the same for the two systems. The difference is
that the distributor, ignition coil, and wiring are altered to handle the high voltage
produced by the electronic ignition system.

One advantage of this higher voltage (up to 0,000 vo lts) is that spark plugs with wider
gaps can be used. This results in a longer spark, which can ignite leaner air-fuel
mixtures. As a result engines can run on leaner mixtures for better fuel economy and
lower emissions.

Electronic Ignition System Compone nts

The components of an electronic ignition system regardless of the manufacturer all
perform the same functions. Each manufacturer has it own preferred terminology and
location of the components. The basic components of an electronic ignition system are
as follows:
 61

TRIGGER WHEEL- The trigger wheel, also known as a reluctor, pole piece, or
armature, is connected to the upper end of the distributor shaft. The trigger wheel
replaces the distributor cam. Like the distributor cam lobes, the teeth on the trigger
wheel equal the number of engine cylinders.
PICKUP COIL- The pickup coil, also known as a sensor assembly, sensor coil, or
magnetic pickup assembly, produces tiny voltage surges for the ignition systems
electronic control unit. The pickup coil is a small set of windings forming a coil.
ELECRTONIC CONTROL UNIT AM-PLIFIER- The ignition system electronic control
unit amplifier or control module is an "electronic switch" that turns the ignition coil
primary current ON and OFF. The ECU performs the same function as the contact
points. The ignition ECU is a network of transistors, capacitors, resistors, and other
electronic components sealed in a metal or plastic housing. The ECU can be located
(1) in the engine compartment, (2) on the side of the distributor, (3) inside the
distributor, or (4) under the vehicle dash. ECU dwell time (number of degrees the circuit
conducts current to the ignition coil) is designed into the electronic circuit of the ECU
and is NOT adjustable.
Electronic Ignition System Operation
With the engine running, the trigger wheel rotates inside the distributor. As a tooth of the
trigger wheel passes the pickup coil, the magnetic field strengthens around the pickup
coil. This action changes the output voltage or current flow through the coil. As a result,
an electrical surge is sent to the electronic control unit, as the trigger wheel teeth pass the
pickup coil.
The electronic control unit increases the electrical surges into ON/ OFF cycles for the
ignition coil. When the ECU is ON, current passes through the primary windings of the
ignition coil, thereby developing a magnetic field. Then, when the trigger wheel and
pickup coil turn OFF the ECU, the magnetic field inside the ignition coil collapses and
fires a sparkplug.

Hall-Effect Sensor
Some electronic distributors have a magnetic sensor using the Hall effect. When a steel
shutter moves between the two poles of a magnet, it cuts off the magnetism between the
two poles. The Hall-effect distributor has a rotor with curved plates, called shutters.
These shutters are curved so they can pass through the air gap between the two poles of
the magnetic sensor, as the rotor turns. Like the trigger wheel, there are the same number
of shutters as there are engine cylinders.

Each time a shutter mo ves through the air gap between the two poles of the magnetic
sensor, it cuts off the magnetic field between the poles. This action provides a signal to
the ECU. When a shutter is not in the way, the magnetic sensor is producing voltage.
This voltage is signaling the ECU to allow current to flow through the ignition coils
primary winding. However, when the shutter moves to cut off the magnetic field, the
 62

signal voltage drops to zero. The ECU then cuts off the current to the ignition coils
primary winding. The magnetic field collapses, causing the coil secondary winding to
produce a high voltage surge. This high voltage surge is sent by the rotor to the proper
spark plug.

IGNITION TIMING DEVICES

Ignition timing refers to how early or late the spark plugs fire in relation to the position
of the engine pistons. Ignition timing must vary with engine speed, load, and
temperature.

Timing advance happens when the spark plugs fire sooner than the compression strokes
of the engine. The timing is set several degrees before top dead center (TDC). More
time advance is required at higher speeds to give combustion enough time to develop
pressure on the power stroke.
Timing retard happens when the spark plugs fire later on the compression strokes. This
is the opposite of timing advance. Spark retard is required at lower speeds and under
high load conditions.

Timing retard prevents the fuel from burning too much on the compression stroke,
which would cause spark knock or ping.

The basic methods to control ignition system timing are as follows:

CENTRIFUGAL ADVANCE (controlled by engine speed)
VACUUM ADVANCE (controlled by intake manifold vacuum and engine load)
COMPUTERIZED ADVANCE (controlled by various sensors- speed, temperature,
intake, vacuum, throttle position, etc.)

Centrifugal Advance
Centrifugal advance makes the ignition coil and spark plugs fire sooner as engine speed
increases, using spring-loaded weights, centrifugal force, and lever action to rotate the
distributor cam or trigger wheel. Spark timing is advanced by rotating the distributor
cam or trigger wheel against distributor shaft rotation. This action helps correct ignition
timing for maximum engine power. Basically the centrifugal advance consists of two
advance weights, two springs, and a advance lever.

During periods of low engine speed, the springs hold the advance weights inward
towards the distributor cam or trigger wheel. At this time there is not enough centrifugal
force to push the weights outward. Timing stays at its normal initial setting.

As speed increases, centrifugal force on the weights moves them outwards against spring
tension. This movement causes the distributor cam or trigger wheel to move ahead. With
this design, the higher the engine speed, the faster the distributor shaft turns, the farther
 63

out the advance weights move, and the farther ahead the cam or trigger wheel is moved
forward or advanced. At a preset engine speed, the lever strikes a stop and centrifugal
advance reaches maximum.
The action of the centrifugal advance causes the contact points to open sooner, or the
trigger wheel and pickup coil turn off the ECU sooner. This causes the ignition coil to
fire with the engine pistons not as far up in the cylinders.

Vacuum Advance
The vacuum advance provides additional spark advance when engine load is low at part
throttle position. It is a method of matching ignition timing with engine load. The
vacuum advance increases FUEL ECONOMY because it helps maintain idle fuel spark
advance at all times. A vacuum advance consists of a vacuum diaphragm, link, movable
distributor plate, and a vacuum supply hose.
At idle, the vacuum port from the carburetor or throttle body to the distributor advance is
covered, thereby NO vacuum is applied to the vacuum diaphragm, and spark timing is
NOT advanced. At part throttle, the throttle valve uncovers the vacuum port and the port
is exposed to engine vacuum. The vacuum pulls the diaphragm outward against spring
force. The diaphragm is linked to a movable distributor plate, which is rotated against
distributor shaft rotation and spark timing is advanced.
The vacuum advance does not produce any advance at full throttle. When the throttle
valve is wide open, vacuum is almost zero. Thus vacuum is NOT applied to the
distributor diaphragm and the vacuum advance does NOT operate.

Computerized Advance
The computerized advance, also known as an electronic spark advance system, uses
various engine sensors and a computer to control ignition timing. The engine sensors
check various operating conditions and sends electrical data to the computer. The
computer can change ignition timing for maximum engine efficiency.

Ignition system engine sensors include the following:

ENGINE SPEED SENSOR (reports engine speed to the computer)
CRANKSHAFT POSITION SENSOR (reports piston position)
THROTTLE POSITION SWITCH (notes the position of the throttle)
INLET AIR TEMPERATURE SENSOR (checks the temperature of the air entering the
engine)

ENGINE COOLANT TEMPERATURE SENSOR (measures the operating temperature

of the engine)
 64

DETONATION SENSOR (allows the computer to retard timing when the engine
knocks or pings)

INTAKE VACUUM SENSOR (measures engine vacuum, an indicator of load)

The computer receives different current or voltage levels (input signals) from these
sensors. It is programmed to adjust ignition timing based on engine conditions. The
computer may be mounted on the air cleaner, under the dash, on a fender panel, or under
a seat.
The following is an example of the operation of a computerized advance. A vehicle is
traveling down the road at 50 mph; the speed sensor detects moderate engine speed. The
throttle position sensor detects part throttle and the air inlet and coolant temperature
sensors report normal operating temperatures. The intake vacuum sensor sends high
vacuum signals to the computer.
The computer receives all the data and calculates that the engine requires maximum
spark advance. The timing would occur several degrees before TDC on the compression
stroke. This action assures that high fuel economy is attained on the road.
If the operator began to pass another vehicle, intake vacuum sensor detects a vacuum
drop to near zero and a signal is sent to the computer. The throttle position sensor
detects a wide, open throttle and other sensor outputs say the same. The computer
receives and calculates the data, then, if required, retards ignition timing to prevent
spark knock or ping.
MPFI (Multi point Fuel Injection) System,Electronic Fuel injection

Fuel injection is a method or system for admitting fuel into the internal combustion engine.
From early 1940s many injection system like single-point injection, continuous injection
are introduced in the market by the different companies. But presently the most used
injection system are MPFI in petrol engine and CRDI in diesel engine.

MPFI (Multi point Fuel Injection) System,Electronic Fuel injection

 65

Multi Point Fuel Injection System

Petrol vehicles uses device called carburetor for supplying the air fuel mixture in correct
ratio to cylinders in all rpm ranges. Due to construction of the carburetor is relatively
simple, it has been used almost exclusively on gasoline engines in the past. However
presently we need cleaner exhaust emission system, more economical fuel consumption,
improved drivability, etc.

So in order to get all these , we need a carburetor that must have various devices to do the
above functions, making it more complex system. So In place of the carburetor, therefore,
the MPFI (multi point fuel injection) system is used, assuring proper air fuel ratio to the
engine by electrically injecting fuel in accordance with various driving condition.

Multi point fuel injection system injects fuel into the intake ports just upstream of each
cylinder’s intake valve, rather than at the central point within the intake manifold.

Multi point fuel injection systems are of three types, first is BATCHED in which fuel is
injected to the cylinders in groups, without precisely bringing together to any particular
cylinder’s intake stroke, the second one is simultaneous in which fuel is injected at the
same time to all the cylinders and the third one is sequential in which injection is timed to
coincide with each cylinder’s intake stroke.

ADVANTAGES OF MULTI POINT FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

 More uniform air-fuel mixture will be supplied to each cylinder, hence the
difference in power developed in each cylinder is minimum.
 The vibrations produced in MPFI engines is very less, due to this life of the engine
component is increased.
 No need to crank the engine twice or thrice in case of cold starting as happen in the
carburetor system.
 Immediate response, in case of sudden acceleration and deceleration.
 The mileage of the vehicle is improved.
 More accurate amount of air-fuel mixture will be supplied in these injection system.
As a result complete combustion will take place. This leads to effective utilization
of fuel supplied and hence low emission level.

The Multi-Point Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) system is an electronically

controlled system which combines electronic sequential fuel injection and electronic spark
advance systems. Main sub-systems consist of: air induction, fuel delivery, fuel control,
emission control, Electronic Control Unit (ECU), data sensors and switches.
 66

Air induction system includes air cleaner, throttle body, Throttle Position Sensor (TPS)
and the Idle Speed Stepper (ISS) motor. Fuel delivery system provides fuel from fuel pump
to the fuel control system.

Fuel system is composed of an in-tank electric fuel pump, fuel filter and return line. Power
is provided to operate fuel pump through a fuel pump relay located on right inner fender
panel.

Fuel control system handles actual fuel delivery into the engine. Fuel pressure regulator
maintains a constant fuel pressure of 31-39 psi (2.1-2.7 kg/cm ). In addition to the
regulator, fuel system consists of the fuel rail and 4 fuel injectors. On MPI engine, ECU
controls EGR/EVAP solenoid operation. The ECU is a digital microprocessor computer.
ECU receives input signals from various switches and sensors. ECU then computes fuel
injector pulse width ("on" time), spark advance, ignition module dwell, idle speed, canister
purge cycles, EGR flow and feedback control from this information.
 67

UNIT – IV
Basic sensor arrangements. Types of sensors – oxygen sensor, hot wire anaemometer
sensor,vehicle speed sensor, detonation sensor, accelerometer sensor, crank position sensor
Microprocessor and microcomputer controlled devices in automobiles such voice warning
system-travel information system-keyless entry system- automatic transmission system-
electronic steering system.

Variables to be Measured

The set of variables sensed for any given engine is specific to the associated
engine control configuration. Space limitations for this book prohibit a complete
survey of all engine control systems and relevant sensor and actuator selections
for all car models. Nevertheless, it is possible to review a superset of possible
sensors, which is done in this chapter, and to present representative examples of
practical digital control configurations, which is done in the next chapter.

The superset of variables sensed in engine control includes the

following:

1. Mass air flow (MAF) rate

2. Exhaust gas oxygen concentration (possibly heated)

3. Throttle plate angular position

4. Crankshaft angular position/RPM

5. Coolant temperature

6. Intake air temperature

7. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP)

8. Differential exhaust gas pressure

9. Vehicle speed

10. Transmission gear selector position

In addition to measurements of the above variables, engine control is also

based on the status of the vehicle as monitored by a set of switches. These
switches include the following:

1. Air conditioner clutch engaged

2. Brake on/off

3. Wide open throttle

4. Closed throttle
 68

AIR FLOW RATE SENSOR

In Chapter 5 we showed that the correct operation of an electronically
controlled engine operating with government-regulated exhaust emissions requires
a measurement of the mass flow rate of air (Rm) into the engine. The majority of
cars produced since the early 1990s use a relatively simple and inexpensive mass
air flow rate (MAF) sensor. This is normally mounted as part of the air cleaner
assembly, where it measures air flow into the intake manifold. It is a ruggedly
packaged, single-unit sensor that includes solid-state electronic signal processing.
In operation, the MAF sensor generates a continuous signal that varies nearly
linearly with true mass air flow Rm.

The MAF sensor is a variation of a classic air flow sensor that was known
as a hot wire anemometer and was used, for example, to measure wind velocity

for weather forecasting. In the MAF, the hot-wire, or sensing, element is

replaced by a hot-film structure mounted on a substrate. On the air inlet
side is mounted a honeycomb flow straightener that “smooths” the air flow
(causing nominally laminar air flow over the film element). At the lower
portion of the structure is the signal processing circuitry.

The film element is electrically heated to a constant temperature

above that of the inlet air. The latter air temperature is sensed using a
solid-state temperature sensor (explained later in this chapter). The hot-
film element is incorporated in a Wheatstone bridge circuit (Figure .2a).
The power supply for the bridge circuit comes from an amplifier.

The Wheatstone bridge consists of three fixed resistors R1, R2, and R3
and a hot-film element having resistance RHW . With no air flow the
resistors R1, R2, and R 3 are chosen such that voltage va and vb are equal
(i.e., the bridge is said to be balanced). As air flows across the hot film,
heat is carried away from the film by the moving air. The amount of heat
carried away varies in proportion to the mass flow rate of the air. The heat
lost by the film to the air tends to cause the resistance of the film to vary,
which unbalances the bridge circuit, thereby producing an input voltage to
the amplifier. The output of the amplifier is connected to the bridge circuit
and provides the power for this circuit. The amplified voltage changes the
resistance in such a way as to maintain a fixed hot-film temperature
relative to the inlet temperature.

The amplifier output voltage vc varies with MAF and serves as a

measure of Rm. Typically the conversion of MAF to voltage is slightly
nonlinear, as indicated by the calibration curve depicted in Figure .2b.
Fortunately, a modern digital engine controller can convert the analog
bridge output voltage directly to mass air flow by simple computation. As
will be shown in Chapter 7, in which digital engine control is discussed, it
is advantageous to convert analog sensor voltages to a digital format within
 69

the solid-state electronics associated with the sensor. This conversion is

convenient since it eliminates the need for an analog-to-digital converter,
which can be relatively expensive (see Chapter 4).

One scheme for converting the analog output voltage to a digital signal
uses a device that is known as a voltage-to-frequency (v/f) converter. This
circuit is a variable-frequency oscillator whose frequency f is proportional to
the input voltage (in this case, the amplifier output voltage).

The variable-frequency output voltage (vf ) is applied through an

electronic gate, which is essentially an electrically operated switch. Control
circuitry (also part of the sensor solid-state electronics) repeatedly closes the
switch for a fixed interval t. Then it opens it for another fixed interval. During
the first interval the variable-frequency signal from the v/f circuit is connected
to the binary counter (BC) (see Chapter 3). The BC counts (in binary) at the
instantaneous frequency of the v/f, which is proportional to the amplifier
output voltage vf, which in turn varies with mass air flow rate.

Figure .2

Mass Air Flow Sensor

 70

During each cycle of the electronic gate, the BC contains a binary

number given by the product of the v/f frequency and the time interval. For
example, if the mass air flow were such that the v/f frequency were 1000
cycles/ sec and the switch were closed for .1 sec, then the BC would contain
the binary equivalent of decimal 100 (i.e., 1000 × .1 = 100). If the mass air
flow increased such that the v/f frequency were 1500 cycles/sec, then the
BC count would be the binary equivalent of 150. In mathematical terms,
the BC count B is given by the binary equivalent of

B=ft

where

B = BC count

f = frequency of v/f

t = duration of closure of electronic gate

After the engine controller reads the count, the BC is reset to zero to be ready
for the next sample. In actual operation, repeated measurements of frequency f
are made under control of the digital engine control module (see Chapter 7).

This conversion of voltage to frequency is advantageous in digital

engine control applications because the frequency is readily converted to
digital format without requiring an analog-to-digital converter.

Indirect Measurement of Mass Air Flow

Recall that Chapter 5 presented an alternative to direct mass air flow
measurement in the form of the so-called speed-density method. This
method computes an estimate of mass air flow from measurements of
manifold absolute pressure (MAP), RPM, and inlet air temperature. We
consider first sensors for measuring manifold absolute pressure.

MAP Sensor Concepts

Several MAP sensor configurations have been used in automotive

applications. The earliest sensors were derived from aerospace instrumentation
 71

concepts, but these proved more expensive than desirable for automotive
applications and have been replaced with more cost-effective designs.

It is interesting to note that none of the MAP sensors in use measure

manifold pressure directly, but instead measure the displacement of a
diaphragm that is deflected by manifold pressure. The details of the
diaphragm displacement and the measurement of this displacement vary
from one configuration to another.

Strain Gauge MAP Sensor

One relatively inexpensive MAP sensor configuration is the silicon-

diaphragm diffused strain gauge sensor shown in Figure .3. This sensor
uses a silicon chip that is approximately 3 millimeters square. Along the
outer edges, the chip is approximately 250 micrometers (1 micrometer = 1
millionth of a meter) thick, but the center area is only 25 micrometers thick
and forms a diaphragm. The edge of the chip is sealed to a pyrex plate
under vacuum, thereby forming a vacuum chamber between the plate and
the center area of the silicon chip.
Figure .3 Typical
Silicon-Diaphragm
Strain Gauge MAP
Sensor
 72

In the strain gauge MAP sensor, manifold pres-sure applied to the dia-phragm causes a resistance change within the
semiconductor mate-rial that corresponds to the manifold pressure.

A set of sensing resistors is formed around the edge of this chamber, as indicated in Figure .3. The
resistors are formed by diffusing a doping impurity into the silicon. External connections to these
resistors are made through wires connected to the metal bonding pads. This entire assembly is placed in
a sealed housing that is connected to the intake manifold by a small-diameter tube. Manifold pressure
applied to the diaphragm causes it to deflect.

The resistance of the sensing resistors changes in proportion to the applied manifold pressure by a
phenomenon that is known as piezoresistivity. Piezoresistivity occurs in certain semiconductors so that
the actual resistivity (a property of the material) changes in proportion to the strain (fractional change in
length). The strain induced in each resistor is proportional to the diaphragm deflection, which, in turn, is
proportional to the pressure on the outside surface of the diaphragm. This pressure is the manifold
pressure.

The resistors in the
strain gauge MAP
sensor are connected
in a Wheatstone
bridge cir-cuit.
Output voltage of the
circuit varies as the
resistance varies in
response to manifold
pressure variations.
A pressure sensor having the configuration of Figure .3 is also used for
measuring absolute atmospheric pressure. It will be shown in Chapter 7
that this absolute pressure can be used in engine control applications, as
can the manifold pressure.
An electrical signal that is proportional to the manifold pressure is
obtained by connecting the resistors in a circuit called a Wheatstone bridge, as
shown in the schematic of Figure .4a. Note the similarity in the Wheatstone
bridge of Figure .4a with that employed in the MAF sensor of Figure .2. The
voltage regulator holds a constant dc voltage across the bridge. The resistors
diffused into the diaphragm are denoted R1, R 2, R3, and R4 in Figure .4a.
When there is no strain on the diaphragm, all four resistances are equal, the
bridge is balanced, and the voltage between points A and B is zero. When
manifold pressure changes, it causes these resistances to change in such a way
that R1 and R3 increase by an amount that is proportional to pressure; at the
same time, R2 and R4 decrease by an identical amount. This unbalances the
bridge and a net difference voltage is present between points A and B. The
differential amplifier generates an output voltage proportional to the difference
between the two input voltages (which is, in turn, proportional to the pressure),
as shown in Figure .4b.

ENGINE CRANKSHAFT ANGULAR POSITION SENSOR

Crankshaft angular posi-
tion is an important
variable in automotive
control systems, particu-
larly for controlling igni-
tion timing and fuel
injection timing.
Besides pressure, the position of shafts, valves, and levers must be
sensed for automotive control systems. Measurements of the angular
position or velocity of shafts are common in automotive electronics. It is
highly desirable that these measurements be made without any mechanical
contact with the rotating shaft. Such noncontacting measurements can be
made in a variety of ways, but the commonest of these in automotive
electronics use magnetic or optical phenomena as the physical basis.
 73

Magnetic means of applications for engine control: the measurement of crankshaft angular
such measurements position or angular velocity (i.e., RPM). Imagine the engine as viewed from
are generally the rear, as shown in Figure .5. On the rear of the crankshaft is a large, heavy,
preferred in engine circular steel disk called the flywheel that is connected to and rotates with the
applications since crankshaft. Let’s mark a point on the flywheel, as shown in Figure .5, and
they are unaffected draw a line through this point and the axis of rotation. Let’s draw another line
by oil, dirt, or other through the axis of rotation parallel to the horizontal center line of the engine
contaminants. as a reference line. The crankshaft angular position is the angle between the
reference line and the mark on the flywheel.
The principles
involved in measuring Imagine that the flywheel is rotated so that the mark is directly on the
rotating shafts can be reference line. This is an angular position of zero degrees. For our purposes,
illustrated by one of assume that this angular position corresponds to the No. 1 cylinder at TDC
the most significant (top dead center). As the crankshaft rotates, this angle increases from zero to

Figure .4

Circuit Diagram for

MAP Sensor Using

Strain Gauges
 74

30˚ in one revolution. However, one full engine cycle from intake through
exhaust requires two complete revolutions of the crankshaft. That is, one
complete engine cycle corresponds to the crankshaft angular position
going from zero to 720˚. During each cycle, it is important to measure the
crankshaft position with reference to TDC for each cylinder. This
information is used by the electronic engine controller to set ignition
timing and, in most cases, to set the fuel injector pulse timing.

Figure .5

Engine Crankshaft

Angular Position

Measurement

exactly one-half the speed of the crankshaft.

Crankshaft angular
posi-tion can be
sensed directly at the
camshaft, since the
camshaft rotates at
 75

crankshaft directly or on the camshaft. Recall that the piston drives the
crankshaft directly, while the valves and the distributor for the spark
ignition are driven from the camshaft. The camshaft is driven from the
crankshaft through a 1:2 reduction drivetrain, which can be gears, belt, or
chain. Therefore, the camshaft rotational speed is one-half that of the
crankshaft, so the camshaft angular position goes from zero to 30˚ for one
complete engine cycle. Either of these sensing locations can be used in
electronic control systems. Although the crankshaft location is potentially
superior for accuracy because of torsional and gear backlash errors in the
camshaft drivetrain, many production systems locate this sensor such that it
measures camshaft position. At the present time, there appears to be a trend
toward measuring crankshaft position directly rather than indirectly via
camshaft position. In fact, it is sufficient for engine control purposes to
measure crankshaft/camshaft position at a small number of fixed points.
The number of such measurements (or samples) is determined by the
number of cylinders.

In automobiles It is desirable to measure engine angular position with a

having electronic noncontacting sensor to avoid mechanical wear and corresponding changes
engine control in accuracy of the measurement. The two most common methods for
systems, angular noncontact coupling to a rotating shaft employ magnetic fields or optics.
position can be Let’s consider the concepts used for magnetically coupled sensors first.
sensed on the

19 UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

 76

Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor

In the magnetic One engine sensor configuration that measures crankshaft position
reluc-tance position directly (using magnetic phenomena) is illustrated in Figure .. This sensor
sensor, a coil consists of a permanent magnet with a coil of wire wound around it. A steel
wrapped around the disk that is mounted on the crankshaft (usually in front of the engine) has tabs
magnet senses the that pass between the pole pieces of this magnet. In Figure ., the steel disk has
four protruding tabs, which is appropriate for an 8-cylinder engine. The
changing intensity of
passage of each tab can correspond to the TDC position of a cylinder on its
the magnetic field as power stroke, although other reference positions are also possible.
the tabs of a ferrous
disk pass between
the poles of the This sensor is of the magnetic reluctance type and is based on the
magnet. concept of a magnetic circuit. A magnetic circuit is a closed path through
a magnetic material (e.g., iron, cobalt, nickel, or synthetic magnetic
material called ferrite). In the case of the sensor in Figure ., the magnetic
circuit is the closed path through the magnet material and across the gap
between the pole pieces.

The magnetic field in a magnetic circuit is described by a pair of field

quantities that can be compared to the voltage and current of an ordinary
electric circuit. One of these quantities is called the magnetic field intensity. It
exerts a force similar to the voltage of a battery. The response of the magnetic

Figure .

Magnetic Reluctance

Crankshaft Position

Sensor
 77

circuit to the magnetic field intensity is described by the second quantity,

which is called magnetic flux. A line of constant magnetic flux is a closed
The voltage generated by path through the magnetic material. The magnetic flux is similar to the
the magnetic reluctance
current that flows when a resistor is connected across a battery to form a
closed electrical circuit.
position sensor is deter-
mined by the strength of
the magnetic flux. When As we shall see, the voltage generated by the reluctance sensor is
a tab on the steel disk determined by the strength of this magnetic flux. The strength of the
passes through the gap, magnetic flux is, in turn, determined by the reluctance of the magnetic
the flow of the magnetic circuit. Reluctance is to a magnetic circuit what resistance is to an
flux changes signifi- electrical circuit.
cantly.

The path for the magnetic flux of the reluctance sensor is illustrated
in Figure .7. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is inversely proportional
to the magnetic permeability of the material along the path. The magnetic
permeability of steel is a few thousand times larger than air; therefore, the
reluctance of steel is much lower than air. Note that when one of the tabs of
the steel disk is located between the pole pieces of the magnet, a large part
of the gap between the pole pieces is filled by the steel. Since the steel has
a lower reluctance than air, the “flow” of magnetic flux increases to a
relatively large value.

On the other hand, when a tab is not between the magnet pole pieces,
the gap is filled by air only. This creates a high-reluctance circuit for which
the magnetic flux is relatively small. Thus, the magnitude of the magnetic
flux that “flows” through the magnetic circuit depends on the position of
the tab, which, in turn, depends on the crankshaft angular position.

The magnetic flux is least when none of the tabs is near the magnet pole
pieces. As a tab begins to pass through the gap, the magnetic flux increases. It

Figure .7 Magnetic
Circuit of the
Reluctance
Sensor
 78

reaches a maximum when the tab is exactly between the pole pieces, and
then decreases as the tab passes out of the pole piece region. In most
control systems, the position of maximum magnetic flux has a fixed
relationship to TDC for one of the cylinders.

The change in magnetic flux induces a voltage, Vo, in the sensing coil
that is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. Since the
magnetic flux must be changing to induce a voltage in the sensing coil, its
output voltage is zero whenever the engine is not running, regardless of the
position of the crankshaft. This is a serious disadvantage for this type of
The voltage induced in sensor because the engine timing cannot be set statically.
the sensing coil varies
with the rate of change
of the magnetic flux. As shown in Figure .8, the coil voltage, Vo, begins to increase from
When the tab is centered zero as a tab begins to pass between the pole pieces, reaches a maximum,
between the poles of the then falls to zero when the tab is exactly between the pole pieces (see
magnet, the voltage is Figure .8a). (Note that although the value of magnetic flux is maximum at
zero because the flux is this point, the rate of change of magnetic flux is zero; therefore, the
not changing.
induced voltage in the sensing coil is zero.) Then it increases with the
opposite polarity, reaches a maximum, and falls to zero as the tab passes
out of the gap between the pole pieces. The coil voltage waveform shown
in Figure .8b occurs each time one of the
 79

Figure .8

Output Voltage

Waveform from the

Magnetic Reluctance

Crankshaft Position

Sensor Coil

counters and crankshaft sensors to calculate actual engine speed.

Engine speed can be cal-

culated in a number of
ways. Digital circuits use
 80

however, any of the other position sensor techniques could be used as well.
Refer to Figure . and notice that the four tabs will pass through the sensing
coil once for each crankshaft revolution. Therefore, if we count the pulses
of voltage from the sensing coil in one minute and divide by four, we will
know the engine speed in revolutions per minute (RPM).

This is easy to do with digital circuits. Precise timing circuits such as

cylinders reaches those used in digital watches can start a counter circuit that will count pulses
TDC on its power until the timing circuit stops it. The counter can have the divide-by-four
stroke. It should be function included in it, or a separate divider circuit may be used. In many
noted that if the disk cases, the actual RPM sensor disk is mounted near the flywheel and has many
is mounted on the more than four tabs; in such cases, the counter does not actually count for a
crankshaft, then the full minute before the speed is calculated, but the results are the same.
number of tabs for
this crankshaft
position sensor
always will be half Timing Sensor for Ignition and Fuel Delivery
the number of
cylinders because it
takes two crankshaft In electronic engine control it is often desirable to measure the
rotations for a angular position of the engine relative to a specific point in the cycle. For
complete engine such measurement it is normally necessary to measure the position of the
cycle. camshaft. The measurement of engine position via crankshaft and camshaft
position sensors (as well as its use in timing fuel delivery and ignition) is
described in Chapter 7. Normally it is sufficient to measure camshaft
Engine Speed Sensor position at a fixed point. Such a sample of camshaft position is readily
achieved by a magnetic sensor similar to that described above for the
crankshaft position measurement.
An engine
speed sensor is This sensor detects a reference point on the angular position of the
needed to provide an camshaft that defines a beginning to a complete engine cycle (e.g., power
input for the stroke for all cylinders). Once this reference point has been detected,
electronic controller crankshaft position measurements (as described above) provide sufficient
for several functions. information for timing fuel injection pulses and ignition.
The position sensor
discussed previously
can be used to In one scheme a variable-reluctance sensor is located near a
measure engine ferromagnetic disk on the camshaft. This disk has a notch cut (or it can have a
speed. The protruding tab), as shown in Figure .9. The disk provides a low-reluctance path
reluctance sensor is (yielding high magnetic flux) except when the notch aligns with the sensor
used in this case as axis. Whenever the notch aligns with the sensor axis, the reluctance of
an example;

200 UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

 81

Figure .9
Crankshaft The Hall element is a thin slab of semiconduc-tor material that is placed between the
Position Sensor magnets so it can sense the magnetic flux variations as the tab passes. A constant cur-rent is
passed through the semiconductor in one direction, and a voltage is generated that varies
with the strength of the mag-netic flux.

The notched position

sensor uses an effect
opposite to that of the tab
position sensor. As a
notch in a rotating steel
disk passes by a vari-
able-reluctance sensor,
the decrease in magnetic
flux generates a voltage
pulse in the sensor coil.
 82

the notch passes under the sensor once for every two crankshaft
revolutions. The magnetic flux abruptly decreases, then increases as the
notch passes the sensor. This generates a voltage pulse that can be used in
electronic control systems for timing purposes.

Hall-Effect Position Sensor

As mentioned previously, one of the main disadvantages of the

magnetic reluctance sensor is its lack of output when the engine isn’t
running. A crankshaft position sensor that avoids this problem is the Hall-
effect position sensor. This sensor can be used to measure either camshaft
position or crankshaft position.
this magnetic path is
increased because
the permeability of A Hall-effect position sensor is shown in Figure .10. This sensor is
air in the notch is similar to the reluctance sensor in that it employs a steel disk having
very much lower protruding tabs and a magnet for coupling the disk to the sensing element.
than the Another similarity is that the steel disk varies the reluctance of the
permeability of the magnetic path as the tabs pass between the magnet pole pieces.
disk. This relatively
high reluctance
through the notch The Hall Effect
causes the magnetic
flux to decrease and
produces a change The Hall element is a small, thin, flat slab of semiconductor material.
in sensor output When a current, I, is passed through this slab by means of an external
voltage. circuit as shown in Figure .11a, a voltage is developed across the slab
perpendicular to the direction of current flow and perpendicular to the
As the direction of magnetic flux. This voltage is proportional to both the current
camshaft rotates, and magnetic flux density that flows through the slab. This effect—the
 83

UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS 201

 84

Figure .10 Hall-

Effect Position
Sensor
 85

generation of a voltage that is dependent on a magnetic field—is called

the Hall effect.

In Figure .11b, the current, I, is represented by electrons, e, which

have negative charge, flowing from left to right. The magnetic flux flows
along the legs of the magnet as indicated and is generally perpendicular to
the face of the semiconductor Hall element. Whenever an electron moves
through a magnetic field, a force (called the Lorentz force) that is
proportional to the electron velocity and the strength of the magnetic flux is
exerted on the electron. The direction of this force is perpendicular to the
direction in which the electron is moving. In Figure .11b, the Lorentz force
direction is such that the electrons are deflected toward the lower sense
electrode. Thus, this electrode is more negative than the upper electrode
and a voltage exists between the electrodes, having the polarity shown in
Figure .11b.

As the strength of the magnetic flux density increases, more of the

electrons are deflected downward. If the current, I, is held constant, then
the voltage, Vo, is proportional to the strength of the magnetic flux density,
which, in turn, is determined by the position of the tabs. This voltage tends
to be relatively weak so it is amplified, as shown in Figure .10.

202 UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

 86

Figure .11

The Hall Effect

Because the Hall-effect sensor produces the same output voltage waveform
regardless of engine speed, the engine timing can be set when the engine is
not run-ning.
 87

Output Waveform

It was shown in the discussion of the reluctance crankshaft position

sensor that the magnetic flux density for this configuration depends on the
position of the tab. Recall that the magnetic flux is largest when one of the
tabs is positioned symmetrically between the magnet pole pieces and that
this position normally corresponds closely to TDC of one of the cylinders.

The voltage waveform Vo that is produced by the Hall element in the

position sensor of Figure .10 is illustrated in Figure .12. Since Vo is
proportional to the magnetic flux density, it reaches maximum when any of
the tabs is symmetrically located between the magnet pole pieces
(corresponding to TDC of a cylinder). If the disk is driven by the camshaft,
then the disk must have as many tabs as the engine has cylinders.
Therefore, the disk shown would be for a 4-cylinder engine. It is important
to realize that voltage output versus crankshaft angle is independent of
engine speed. Thus, this sensor can be used for setting the engine timing
when the engine is not running (e.g., when it is being motored at the end of
an assembly line).

UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS 203

 88

Figure .12 Waveform

of Hall Element
Output Voltage for
Position Sensor of
Figure .10

Shielded-Field Sensor

Figure .13 shows another concept that uses the Hall-effect element in
a way different from that just discussed. In this method, the Hall element is
normally exposed to a magnetic field and produces an output voltage.
When one of the tabs passes between the magnet and the sensor element,
the low reluctance of the tab and disk provides a path for the magnetic flux
that bypasses the Hall-effect sensor element, and the sensor output drops to
near zero. Note in Figure .13b that the waveform is just the opposite of the
one in Figure .12.

Figure .13 Hall-Effect

Position Sensor
 89

That Shields the

Magnetic Circuit

204 UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

 90

Optical Crankshaft Position Sensor

In the optical crankshaft In a sufficiently clean environment a shaft position can also be sensed
position sensor, a disk using optical techniques. Figure .14 illustrates such a system. Again, as with
coupled to the crank- the magnetic system, a disk is directly coupled to the crankshaft. This time, the
shaft has holes to pass disk has holes in it that correspond to the number of tabs on the disks of the
light between the LED magnetic systems. Mounted on each side of the disk are fiber-optic light pipes.
and the phototransistor. The hole in the disk allows transmission of light through the light pipes from
An output pulse is gen- the light-emitting diode (LED) source to the phototransistor used as a light
erated as each hole sensor. Light would not be transmitted from source to sensor when there is no
passes the LED. hole because the solid disk blocks the light. As shown in Figure .14, the pulse
of light is detected by the phototransistor and coupled to an amplifier to obtain
a satisfactory signal level. The output pulse level can very easily be standard
transistor logic levels of +2.4 V for the high level

Figure .14

Optical Position

Sensor
 91

UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS 205

 92

and +0.8 V for the low level. Used as pulses, the signals provide time-
referenced pulses that can be signal processed easily with digital
integrated circuits.
One of the problems with optical sensors is that they must be
protected from dirt and oil; otherwise, they will not work properly. They
have the advantages that they can sense position without the engine
running and that the pulse amplitude is constant with variation in speed.

THROTTLE ANGLE SENSOR

Still another variable that must be measured for electronic engine

control is the throttle plate angular position. As explained in Chapter 1, the
throttle plate is linked mechanically to the accelerator pedal. When the
driver depresses the accelerator pedal, this linkage causes the throttle plate
angle to increase, allowing more air to enter the engine and thereby
increasing engine power.

Measurement of the instantaneous throttle angle is important for

control purposes, as will be explained in Chapter 7. Most throttle angle
sensors are essentially potentiometers. A potentiometer consists of a
resistor with a movable contact, as illustrated in Figure .15.

Figure .15
Throttle Angle
Sensor: A
Potentiometer
 93

20 UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

 94

One kind of coolant sen-sor uses a temperature-sensitive semiconductor called a

thermistor. The sensor is typically con-nected as a varying resis-tance across a fixed
reference voltage. As the temperature increases, the output voltage decreases.
 95

automotive applications is its analog output. For digital engine control, the
voltage v(a) must be converted to digital format using an analog-to-digital
converter.

A section of TEMPERATURE SENSORS

resistance material is
placed in an arc
around the pivot axis Temperature is an important parameter throughout the automotive
for the movable system. In operation of an electronic fuel control system it is vital to know the
contact. One end of temperature of the coolant, the temperature of the inlet air, and the
the resistor is temperature of the exhaust gas oxygen sensor (a sensor to be discussed in the
connected to ground, next section). Several sensor configurations are available for measuring these
the other to a fixed temperatures, but we can illustrate the basic operation of most of the
voltage V (e.g., 5 temperature sensors by explaining the operation of a typical coolant sensor.
volts). The voltage
at the contact point
of the movable Typical Coolant Sensor
contact is
proportional to the
angle (a) from the
ground contact to A typical coolant sensor, shown in Figure .1, consists of a thermistor
the movable contact. mounted in a housing that is designed to be inserted in the coolant stream.
Thus, This housing is typically threaded with pipe threads that seal the assembly
against coolant leakage.

v(a) = ka A thermistor is made of semiconductor material whose resistance

varies inversely with temperature. For example, at –40˚C a typical coolant
sensor has a resistance of 100,000 ohms. The resistance decreases to about
where v(a) is the 70,000 ohms at 130˚C.
voltage at the
contact point, k is a
constant, and a is the The sensor is typically connected in an electrical circuit like that
angle of the contact shown in Figure .17, in which the coolant temperature sensor resistance is
point from the denoted RT. This resistance is connected to a reference voltage through a
ground connection. fixed resistance R. The sensor output voltage, VT , is given by the following
equation:
This
potentiometer can V V RT
be used to measure
any angular T = --------------

rotation. In
particular, it is well R+RT
suited for
measuring throttle
angle. The only
disadvantage to the The sensor output voltage varies inversely with temperature; that is, the
potentiometer for output voltage decreases as the temperature increases.
 96

UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS 207

 97

Figure .1

Coolant Temperature

Sensor

SENSORS FOR FEEDBACK CONTROL

The sensors that we have discussed to this point have been part of
the open-loop (i.e., feedforward) control. We consider next sensors that
are appropriate for feedback engine control. Recall from Chapter 5 that
feedback control for fuel delivery is based on maintaining the air/fuel
ratio at stoichiometry (i.e., 14.7:1). The primary sensor for fuel control is
the exhaust gas oxygen sensor.

Exhaust Gas Oxygen Sensor

Recall from Chapter 5 that the amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas is
used as an indirect measurement of the air/fuel ratio. As a result, one of the
 98

most significant automotive sensors in use today is the exhaust gas oxygen
(EGO) sensor. This sensor is often called a lambda sensor from the Greek
letter lambda (λ ), which is commonly used to denote the equivalence ratio:

λ= ( air/fuel)
-----------------------------------------------------------
( air/fuel at stoichiometry)

Figure .17 Typical

Coolant
Temperature
Sensor Circuit

208 UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

 99

Whenever the air/fuel ratio is at stoichiometry the value for λ is 1.

When the air–fuel mixture is too lean, the condition is represented by
lambda greater than one (denoted λ > 1). Conversely, when the air–fuel
mixture is too rich, the condition is represented by an equivalence ratio of
lambda less than one (λ < 1).

The two types of EGO sensors that have been used are based on the
use of active oxides of two types of materials. One uses zirconium dioxide
(ZrO2) and the other uses titanium dioxide (TiO2). The former is the most
commonly used type today. Figure .18 is a photograph of a typical ZrO2
EGO sensor and Figure .19 shows the physical structure. Figure .18
indicates that a voltage, Vo, is generated across the ZrO2 material. This
voltage depends on the exhaust gas oxygen concentration, which in turn
depends on the engine air/fuel ratio.

In essence, the EGO sensor consists of a thimble-shaped section of

ZrO2 with thin platinum electrodes on the inside and outside of the ZrO2.
The inside electrode is exposed to air, and the outside electrode is exposed
to exhaust gas through a porous protective overcoat.

A simplified explanation of EGO sensor operation is based on the

distribution of oxygen ions. An ion is an electrically charged atom.
Oxygen ions have two excess electrons and each electron has a negative
charge; thus, oxygen ions are negatively charged. The ZrO2 has a
The zirconium dioxide tendency to attract the oxygen ions, which accumulate on the ZrO2
EGO sensor uses zirco- surface just inside the platinum electrodes.
nium dioxide sand-
wiched between two
The platinum plate on the air reference side of the ZrO2 is exposed
platinum electrodes. One
to a much higher concentration of oxygen ions than the exhaust gas side.
electrode is exposed to The air reference side becomes electrically more negative than the
exhaust gas and the other exhaust gas side; therefore, an electric field exists across the ZrO2
is exposed to nor-mal air
material and a voltage, Vo, results. The polarity of this voltage is positive
for reference.
on the exhaust gas side and negative on the air reference side of the ZrO2.
The magnitude of this voltage depends on the concentration of oxygen in
the exhaust gas and on the sensor temperature.
 100

Figure .18

Zirconium Dioxide

(ZrO2) EGO Sensor

UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS 209

 101

Figure .19

EGO Mounting and

Structure
 102

Because the exhaust

con-tains fewer
oxygen ions than air,
the “air” elec-trode
becomes negative
with respect to the
“exhaust” electrode.

The quantity of oxygen in the exhaust gas is represented by the oxygen

partial pressure. Basically, this partial pressure is that proportion of the total
exhaust gas pressure (nearly at atmospheric pressure) that is due to the quantity
of oxygen. The exhaust gas oxygen partial pressure for a rich mixture varies
over the range of 10–1 to 10–32 of atmospheric pressure. The oxygen partial
pressure for a lean mixture is roughly 10–2 atmosphere. Consequently, for a
rich mixture there is a relatively low oxygen concentration in the exhaust and a
higher EGO sensor output. Correspondingly, for a lean mixture the exhaust gas
oxygen concentration is relatively high (meaning that the difference between
exhaust gas and atmospheric oxygen concentrations is lower), resulting in a
relatively low EGO sensor output voltage. For a fully warmed EGO sensor the
output voltage is about 1 volt for a rich mixture and about .1 volt for a lean
mixture.

210 UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS


An ideal EGO sensor
would have an abrupt,
rapid, and significant
change in output voltage
as the mixture passes
through stoichiometry.
The output voltage
would not change as
exhaust gas temperature
changes.
Hysteresis is the difference
in the switching point of
the output voltage with
respect to stoichiometry as
a mixture passes from lean
to rich, as contrasted to a
mixture that passes from
rich to lean.
Figure .20
Ideal EGO Switching
103
Desirable EGO Characteristics
The EGO sensor characteristics that are desirable for the type of limit-
cycle fuel control system that was discussed in Chapter 5 are as follows:
1. Abrupt change in voltage at stoichiometry
2. Rapid switching of output voltage in response to exhaust gas
oxygen changes
3. Large difference in sensor output voltage between rich and lean
mixture conditions
4. Stable voltages with respect to exhaust temperature
Switching Characteristics
The switching time for the EGO sensor also must be considered in
control applications. An ideal characteristic for a limit-cycle controller is
shown in Figure .20. The actual characteristics of a new EGO sensor are
shown in Figure .21. This data was obtained by slowly varying air/fuel ratios
across stoichiometry. The arrow pointing down indicates the change in Vo as
the air/fuel ratio was varied from rich to lean. The up arrow indicates the
change in Vo as the air/fuel ratio was varied from lean to rich. Note that the
sensor output doesn’t change at exactly the same point for increasing air/fuel
ratio as for decreasing air/fuel ratio. This phenomenon is called hysteresis.
Temperature affects switching times and output voltage. Switching times
at two temperatures are shown in Figure .22. Note that the time per division is
twice as much for the display at 350˚C as at 800˚C. This means that the
switching times are roughly 0.1 second at 350˚C, whereas at 800˚C they are
 104

Characteristics

UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS 211

 105

Figure .21

Typical EGO Sensor

Characteristics

EGO sensors are not used for control when exhaust gas temperature falls below 300˚C
because the voltage dif-ference between rich and lean conditions is mini-mal in this
range.
 106

dependence of an EGO sensor output voltage for lean and rich mixtures
and for two different load resistances—5 megohms (5 million ohms) and
0.83 megohm. The EGO sensor output voltage for a rich mixture is in the
range of about 0.80 to 1.0 volt for an exhaust temperature range of 350˚C
to 800˚C. For a lean mixture, this voltage is roughly in the range of 0.05 to
0.07 volt for the same temperature range.

Under certain conditions, the fuel control using an EGO sensor will
be operated in open-loop mode and for other conditions it will be operated
in closed-loop mode (as will be explained in Chapter 7). The EGO sensor
should not be used for control at temperatures below about 300˚C because
the difference between rich and lean voltages decreases rapidly with
about 0.05 temperature in this region. This important property of the sensor is partly
second. This is a responsible for the requirement to operate the fuel control system in the
2:1 change in open-loop mode at low exhaust temperature. Closed-loop operation with
switching times the EGO output voltage used as the error input cannot begin until the EGO
due to changing sensor temperature exceeds about 300˚C.
temperature.

Heated EGO Sensors

The
temperature
dependence of the The increasingly stringent exhaust emission requirements for
EGO sensor output automobiles in the 1990s have forced automakers to shorten the time from
voltage is very engine start to the point at which the EGO sensor is at operating temperature.
important. The graph This requirement has led to the development of the heated exhaust gas oxygen
in Figure .23 shows (HEGO) sensor. This sensor is electrically heated from start-up until it yields
the temperature an output signal of sufficient magnitude to be useful in closed-loop control.

212 UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

 107

Figure .22
Typical Voltage
Switching
Characteristics
of EGO Sensor
 108

The HEGO sensor includes a section of resistance material. Electrical

power from the car battery is applied at start-up, which quickly warms the
sensor to usable temperatures. This heating potentially shortens the time
interval until closed-loop operation is possible, thereby minimizing the time
during warm-up that air/fuel ratio deviates from stoichiometry and
correspondingly reducing undesirable exhaust gas emissions.

Knock Sensors

Another sensor having applications in closed-loop engine control is the

so-called knock sensor. As explained in Chapter 7, this sensor is employed in
closed-loop ignition timing to prevent undesirable knock. Although a more
detailed explanation of knock is given in Chapter 7, for the purposes of this
chapter it can be described generally as a rapid rise in cylinder pressure during
combustion. It does not occur normally, but only under special conditions. It

UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS 213

 109

Figure .23

Typical Influence of

Mixture and

Temperature on EGO

Output Voltage
 110

Some engine knock sen-

sors use rods within a
magnetic field to detect
the presence of knock.
Other use vibration-
sensitive crystals or
semiconductors.

occurs most commonly with high manifold pressure and excessive spark
advance. It is important to detect knock and avoid excessive knock;
otherwise, there may be damage to the engine.

One way of controlling knocking is to sense when knocking begins

and then retard the ignition until the knocking stops. A key to the control
loop for this method is a knock sensor. A knock sensor using
magnetostrictive techniques is shown in Figure .24. Magnetostriction is a
phenomenon whereby the magnetic properties of a material depend on
stress (due to an applied force). When sensing knock, the magnetostrictive
rods, which are in a magnetic field, change the flux field in the coil due to
knock-induced forces. This change in flux produces a voltage change in the
coil. This voltage is used to sense excessive knock (see Chapter 7). Other
sensors use piezoelectric crystals or the piezoresistance of a doped silicon
semiconductor. Whichever type of sensor is used, it forms a closed-loop
system that retards the ignition to reduce the knock detected at the
cylinders. Systems using knock sensors are explained in Chapter

7. The problem of detecting knock is complicated by the presence of

other vibrations and noises in the engine.

214 UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

 111

Figure .24

Knock Sensor

AUTOMOTIVE ENGINE CONTROL ACTUATORS

In addition to the set of sensors, electronic engine control is

critically dependent on a set of actuators to control air/fuel ratio,
ignition, and EGR. Each of these devices will be discussed separately.
In general, an actuator is a device that receives an electrical input
(e.g., from the engine controller) and produces a mechanical or thermal
(or other) output. Examples of actuators include: various types of electric
motors, solenoids, and piezoelectric force generators. In automotive
electronic systems the solenoid is the most commonly used device
because it is relatively simple and inexpensive.

The solenoid is used in applications ranging from precise fuel control

to mundane applications such as electric door locks. A solenoid is in
essence a powerful electromagnet having a configuration generally similar
 112

to that illustrated in Figure .25. The solenoid consists of a fixed steel (i.e.,
ferromagnetic) frame with a movable steel element. A spring holds the
movable element in position such that there is a gap between the end of the
movable element and the opening in the frame. A coil is wound around the
steel frame, forming a powerful electromagnet.

When a current passes through the coil, a magnetic field is created that
tends to pull the movable element toward the steel frame. When the magnetic
field, which is proportional to the current, is sufficient to overcome the force at
the spring holding the movable element, then it begins to move toward the
frame. As this element moves, the size of the gap is reduced, causing an
increase in the strength of the magnetic field. This increase causes the movable
element to accelerate toward the frame until it reaches the stop.

This abrupt motion of the movable element is essentially in the form of a

mechanical switching action such that the solenoid tends to be either in its rest
position (as held by the spring) or against the mechanical stop. The movable

UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS 215

 113

element is typically connected to a mechanism that is correspondingly

moved by the snap action of this element. Applications of solenoids in
automotive electronics include fuel injectors and EGR valves.

Fuel Injection

A fuel injector is (in essence) a solenoid-operated valve. The valve

opens or closes to permit or block fuel flow to the engine. The valve is
attached to the movable element of the solenoid and is switched by the
solenoid activation (Figure .25).

In a fuel injector with no current flowing, the solenoid movable

element is held down against the stop, covering the aperture or nozzle. Fuel
is thereby blocked from flowing from the pressurized fuel chamber into the
aperture. When current flows through the solenoid coil, the movable
element is switched

Figure .25 Schematic

Drawing of a
Solenoid
 114

21 UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

 115

upward, the aperture is exposed, and fuel (under pressure) sprays through
this aperture.

The fuel flow rate through the nozzle is constant for a given regulated
fuel pressure and nozzle geometry; therefore, the quantity of fuel injected
into the air stream is proportional to the time the valve is open. The control
current that operates the fuel injector is pulsed on and off to deliver precise
quantities of fuel.

Fuel Injector Signal

Consider an idealized fuel injector as shown in Figure .2, in which the

injector is open when the applied voltage is on and is closed when the
applied voltage is off. In this idealization, the control voltage operating the
fuel injector is a binary pulse train (i.e., either on or off). For a pulse train
signal, the ratio of on time t to the period of the pulse T (on time plus off
time) is called the duty cycle. This is shown in Figure .27. The fuel injector
is energized for time t to allow fuel to spray from the nozzle into the air
stream going to the intake manifold. The injector is deenergized for the
remainder of the period. Therefore, a low duty cycle, as seen in Figure
.27a, is used for a high air/fuel ratio (lean mixture), and a high duty cycle
(Figure .27b) is used for a low air/ fuel ratio (rich mixture).

Figure .2 Schematic
Drawing of Fuel
Injector
 116

UNDERSTANDING AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS 217

 117

Figure .27

Pulse Mode Fuel

Control Signal to Fuel

Injector
 118

1) VOICE WARNING SYSTEM

Which warns the driver of various vehicle conditions by means of speech

instead of indicator buzzers and lights.

A controller to cut-off or reduce the sound from other audio equipment provided within
the same vehicle,so that the driver can listen to the voice warning information clearly
without information from other audio equipment

 Engine temperature
 Oil level
 Brake oil level
 Disconnection of headlight

Voice format is recorded in tape recorder and reproduced in response to a signal from
the corresponding sensor.

The program checks whether or not a radiator liquid level signal S, is input to the
interface , to indicate that the amount of radiator liquid is below a predetermined level.
If input, the program selects a voice output message such as, for example, “Replenish
radiator liquid” and stores this message temporarily in the RAM of the microcomputer
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in the control unit. In the same way as in the above case, the program checks a signal,
of the sound volume as set by the manual volume control in the car radio, and reduces
the sound volume of the car radio by adjusting the electronic volume control while
sending a voice volume control signal C,’ from the interface. The electronic volume
control is controlled by a sound volume control signal C, and the voice volume is set.
The memory unit and the voice synthesizer unit are controlled, in accordance with the
voice output message previously stored temporarily, to produce synthesized voice
signals to inform the driver of the shortage of radiator liquid. Then the program
proceeds to the next block. If the radiator liquid is above the predetermined level , the
program also proceeds to the same. The controller that cut-off the sound volume from
other audio equipments provided.

2) TRAVEL INFORMATION SYSTEM

The application of advanced sensor, computer, electronics, and communications
technologies and management strategies – in an integrated manner – providing
traveler information - to increase the safety and efficiency of the surface
transportation system

Traveler Information Systems

Effective traveler information systems are multimodal and support
many categories of drivers and travelers. They apply many technologies to allow
customers to receive roadway, transit network, and other information important to their
trip. This information assists the customers in selecting their mode of travel (car, train,
bus, etc.), route and departure time.
Most of the roadway-based information is collected by surveillance equipment (vehicle
detectors, cameras, automated vehicle location systems) and is processed by computers
in transportation management centers for further distribution to traveler information
systems.
.
Traveler Information System Functions
Effective traveler information systems provide multi-modal trip planning, route
guidance, and advisory functions for travelers and drivers of all types.
Trip planning information and assistance may be provided pre-trip or en-route. Pre-trip
planning assistance provides travelers with roadway information, including road
condition,
traffic information and travel times, and transit information which can be used to select
route, mode, and departure time.
Route Guidance Services and Information - autonomous or dynamic (supported
with real-time information) modes of on-line guidance provide route planning and turn-
by-turn directions and other navigation assistance. Current roadway link travel times
may be provided directly to drivers, allowing selection of routes to avoid the worst
congestion or other adverse conditions.
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Advisory Functions - advisories may include incident warnings, delay

notifications, anticipated travel times to destination (accounting for realtime
conditions) and to next intermodal connection (e.g. transit stop), adverse travel
condition advisories, intermodal connections and schedule adherence, parking
information and status, identification of next
few transit stop locations (if on transit), upcoming tolls, etc.

Traveler Information Characteristics

Timely, Accurate, and Available. For travel information to be useful, it needs to be
current and received in time to allow a user to act on it (e.g., route, mode, time).
Travelers also want and need to know that the travel information is correct, whether it
concerns the arrival time
of the next train or the location and severity of traffic problems. Finally, potential users
want information to be available when needed, and be consistent in quality (as
measured by its accuracy, timeliness, and relevance to travelers’ trip needs).
Cost Effective. Consumers will pay for timely and accurate traveler information (and
associated products and services) which is relevant, helps save time, and is provided at
a reasonable cost.
Provides Route and Decision Guidance. Traveler information must contain
sufficient detail – about locations, times, and possible alternates – to be useful in
planning travel, or to allow en-route adjustment of plans.
Easy to Access and Easy to Use. Traveler information should be accessible in a
variety of forms and locations – in-vehicle, personal devices, kiosks, home computer
— and be easy to use, since users perceive access time as an additional cost associated
with using traveler
information.
Safety Implications. The extent to which traveler information can help users to avoid
a dangerous situation, or to feel protected in the event of a bad accident or other
emergency, is very important. Another safety consideration is the degree to which
accessing in-vehicle information may cause a distraction for the driver.
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ITS Integration
Highway Emergency
Rail Intersection Response
Safety Management
Incident Freeway
Management Management
Systems Systems
Traveler
Transit Information Traffic
Management Systems Signal Control
Systems Systems
Electronic Electronic
Toll Collection Fare Payment
Systems Systems

Customers

Benefits of Traveler Information Systems

In general, each traveler information system must be designed to meet the
specific social and political objectives of each community. Many traveler information
systems strive to
Reduce intermodal travel times and delays for individual travelers.
Reduce traveler stress for trips to unfamiliar destinations.
Reduced crash risk and fatalities (e.g. reduced driver distraction in unfamiliar routes).
Reduce overall system travel times and delays.
Reduce system costs through public-private partnerships.
Traveler information systems have demonstrated benefits in several areas including
travel time, consumer satisfaction, system throughput, on-time performance, and
environmental impacts. In addition, they have been shown to reduce congestion and the
number of accidents on roadways. ATIS is a economical method to improve all type
traffic operations
Technologies used are,

• Changeable Message Sign (CMS)

• Highway Advisory Radio (HAR)
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Geographic Information System ( GIS )
• Car Display System ( CDS )
• Best Route Analysis
• Wireless Communications
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• This method give information about real time traffic congestions

• It provide the data about speed , volume capacity and distance
• ATIS data is displayed on maps
• These facility can be accessed from mobile internet also
• This method is very good for Indian conditions

3) KEYLESS ENTRY SYSTEM

An electronic system using either radio frequency or infrared to lock and
unlock vehicle doors by pressing button on the key.

The two most common remote keyless-entry devices are:

o The fob that goes on key ring to lock and unlock the car doors (Many of
these fobs also arm and disarm a car alarm system.)
o The small controller that hangs off in car's sun visor to open and close
the garage door
 The fob in keychain use to open the garage door is actually a small radio
transmitter. When you push a button on the fob, you turn on the transmitter
and it sends a code to the receiver (either in the car or in the garage). Inside the
car or garage is a radio receiver tuned to the frequency that the transmitter is
using (300 or 400 MHz is typical for modern systems)
 The software in the chip that communicates with the software in the computer
in the vehicle operates over a radio frequency transmitter.
 The user presses a push button on his key for to initiate an action. This wakes
up the CPU inside the RKE key fob, which sends a data stream to the RF
transmitter
 The transmitter sends encrypted digital data to the receiver in the vehicle. The
RKE RF receiver in the vehicle captures the RF signal, demodulates it and
sends the data stream to the CPU, which decodes it and sends commands to the
command module.
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 If the data exchange between the keyless controller and vehicle computer is
compatible then the vehicle door will lock and unlock. The data stream is
usually 4 to 128 bits long and includes a command code and rolling code.

4) AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

An automatic transmission selects the most appropriate gear
ratio for the prevailing engine speed, power train load and vehicle speed
conditions, without any intervention by the driver. All gear shifting is carried
out by the transmission system itself, and the driver only selects the desired
operating mode with the selector lever. The Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) has recommended that the selector should have the sequence
PRND321in the case of a four-speed transmission as follows.
P (Park). In this position the transmission is in neutral and the
transmission output shaft is locked by means of a parking pawl. The engine can
be started.
R (Reverse). In this mode a single-speed reverse gear is selected and
held. Engine braking is effective in this position, but the engine does not start.
N (Neutral). This mode is the same as Park, but the output shaft is not
locked. The engine can be started.
D (Drive). This is the normal gear selection for forward motion. The
vehicle may be operated from a standstill upto its maximum speed, with
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automatic upshifts and downshifts. The gearshift is made by the gearbox

depending upon its assessment of vehicle speed and engine load. When rapid
acceleration is required for overtaking, the driver can push the throttle pedal to
its full travel to attain a speedy downshift into a lower gear.

Components and Parts of an Automatic Transmission

Figure 25.1 represents a sectional view of an electronically controlled automatic
transmission used for front-wheel drive cars. Although transmission designs vary
among manufacturers, the major components as described below are common to all.
Torque Converter.
The transmission bell housing is bolted to the rear of the engine block. This encloses
the torque converter, which is secured to the engine flex-plate (a lightweight flywheel)
by several small bolts. The torque converter is a virtually wear-free fluid coupling,
which multiplies and transfers engine torque to the gear train through the input shaft.
Gear train.
The gear train is normally a compact compound epicyclic train capable of providing
several different ratios. Commonly used gear trains include the Simpson, Ravigneaux
and Wilson types. Variable-reluctance type sensors are installed in the transmission
housing to monitor the input (turbine) and output shaft speeds.
Friction Elements.
Various hydraulically operated brake-bands, multi-plate clutches and multi-plate
brakes are used to couple or lock the appropriate sets of planetary gear elements
required for obtaining different gear ratios.
Oil Pump.
The hydraulic pressure required to operate the various friction elements (clutches and
bands) is supplied by an oil pump, mounted just behind the torque converter, and
driven by the engine through the torque converter housing. Oil pump output pressure
(commonly known as line pressure) is regulated by an electronically controlled
solenoid valve and directed to the appropriate clutches and bands by shift solenoids.
The solenoid valve accurately modulates line pressure during gearshifts for smooth and
rapid gear changes.
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Fig. 25.1. Electronically controlled automatic transmission for front-wheel drive

vehicles.
Torque Converter Operation.
A torque converter transfers the crankshaft rotation to the automatic transmission. The
converter absorbs the shocks of gear changing and dampens out vibrations, thereby
permits the engine to smoothly drive the transmission from a standstill upto maximum
speed. The torque converter has an external shape like a large metal donut, with a
sealing weld around its outer edge. Internally, it has several elements mainly an
impeller, a stator (sometimes called a reactor) and a turbine, as illustrated in Fig. 25.2.
The impeller is mounted to the torque converter shell and therefore is directly driven
by the engine. The transmission pump is also driven by the engine, due to which with
the engine running the torque converter is filled with transmission*fluid under
pressure. As the impeller is rotated, centrifugal force throws fluid from the centre
outwards so that fluid strikes the turbine blades causing the turbine to rotate, thereby
turning the gearbox input shaft. Fluid leaving the turbine blades is then redirected by
the specially curved stator blades back onto the impeller blades at such an angle that it
helps the engine in driving the impeller (Fig. 25.3). It is this redirection of fluid energy
that makes the torque converter to multiply engine torque by a factor upto two,
providing good drive characteristics.
The torque converter “coupling point” occurs when the impeller, turbine and stator all
revolve at about the same speed. The torque conversion ratio is 1:1, with a coupling
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efficiency of over 90%. During normal driving the torque conversion ratio
continuously varies between about 2:1 and 1:1 depending upon the load on the engine.

Fig. 25.3. Exploded diagram of torque converter showing fluid path.

The operation of the lockup mechanism is illustrated Fig. 25.4. The lockup clutch uses
a narrow friction lining 20-30 mm wide, bonded to a thin metal disc (sometimes called
a piston), which is attached to turbine through a torsional damper spring. The
transmission ECU controls fluid flow into the torque converter chamber with the help
of solenoid valves. To lock-up the torque converter, the transmission ECU directs fluid
into the port “C”, and allows exit via ports “D” and “E”. The lockup piston thus
engages against the converter cover and the torque converter is placed in direct drive.
In order to disengage the lockup clutch, the transmission ECU actuates the solenoid
valves to direct fluid into port “E” and allow it to exit from ports “C” and “D”. This
causes the clutch piston to move away from the impeller so that the converter is placed
in hydraulic drive enabling torque-multiplication.
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Fig. 25.4. Torque converter lock up clutch. A. Engaged position. B. Disengaged

position.
Transmission Control System
The operation of a typical electronically controlled transmission system is illustrated on
Fig. 25., which has been installed by a number of vehicle manufacturers, including
Mazda, Nissan and Rover. The system offers four forward gears, controlled by a
transmission ECU, which communicates with the engine ECU to provide total power
train management. The transmission ECU takes decisions based on electrical signals
received from various sensors located on the engine and gearbox. ECU’s
microcomputer stores data relating to the ideal gear for every speed and load condition,
along with correction factors for engine and transmission temperatures, brake pedal
depression and so on. Using this corrected data the transmission ECU energizes
solenoid valves to engage the most suitable gear ratio for the existing driving
conditions. The transmission ECU also provides a self-diagnosis function on some of
the sensors and operates a fail-safe mode if a fault is found. This electronically
controlled automatic transmission offers some typical features as follows.
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Fig. 25.. Transmission control system structure (Mazda).

Advantages
The use of a microcomputer control system provides precise control of the hydraulic
system thereby enhances the performance of the automatic transmission, offering.
(i)Crisp and smooth gear shifts with consistent quality.
(ii)Perfectly timed gear shifts.
(iii)Elimination of hunting shifts.
(iv) Protection of the transmission by constant monitoring of engine and transmission
speed, temperature and so on.
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(v) Driver-selectable shift pattern options for extra performance or economy, or for icy
road conditions.
(vi)A simplified hydraulic control system.
An additional advantage of electronic control system is that the microcomputer can
store diagnostic trouble codes. This greatly assists the mechanics in the quick repair of
faulty transmission units.
5) ELECTRONIC POWER STEERING SYSTEM

An electronic power steering system uses an electric motor to drive either the power
steering hydraulic pump or the steering linkage directly. The power steering function is
therefore independent of engine speed resulting in power savings.

COMPONENTS

 ECU
 Torque sensor
 Electric motor
 Reduction gear

 The force on the steering wheel causes a torsion bar in the steering gear to turn
 The torque sensor detects the rotation and sends the calculated steering force to
the power steering control module.
 The steering sensor angle reports the current steering angle and steering speed.
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 Depending on the steering force,control module calculates the necessary

assisting force and actuates the motor.
 Depending upon the electric signal the motor runs and the motor is connected to
the steering rack and pinion.
 The motor engages in the steering rack via worm gear and drive pinion which
transmits the force required for steering assistance.

Return speed calculation

 If the driver reduces the force on the steering wheel during cornering, torsion
bar tension is relieved
 In conjunction with the reduced steering force inclusion of the steering angle
and the steering speed a return speed is calculated.
 This is compared with the steering angle speed. The result of this is returning
force required.
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 The returning forces are applied on the steering wheel as a result of the running
gear layout. The return forces are often too weak, due to friction in the steering
system and in the axle to bring the wheels back to the center position.
 Power steering control module calculates the necessary return force required
and sends signal to the other.
 Then the wheels back into position.

Advantages

 No hydraulic components
 No hydraulic fluid
 Space savings
 Reduction in noise
 Energy savings
 No complex hose and wiring system
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UNIT- 5 SAFETY SYSTEMS

1)ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM (ABS)

An anti-lock braking system (ABS) is a safety system on motor vehicles which

prevents the wheels from locking while braking.
The Anti-lock Braking System is designed to maintain vehicle control,
directional stability and optimum deceleration under severe braking conditions on most
road surfaces
It does so by monitoring the rotational speed of each wheel and controlling the
brake line pressure to each wheel during braking. This prevents the wheels from
locking up.

NEED FOR ABS

•Maintains vehicle stability and steering control
•Reduce Stopping distance on slippery roads
•Reduces wear of tyres
•Avoid skidding while braking
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A rotating road wheel allows the driver to maintain steering control under heavy
braking

ABS brake system are mainly classified as,

Open and closed systems:
Open anti-lock system : The brake fluid released from the brakes during ABS stop
is not returned to the brake instead, the fluid is stored in an accumulator during the
ABS stop, then returned to the master cylinder reservoir afterwards. This type is used
in simple-rear wheel-only ABS designs.
Closed system: Closed system has some means, generally an electrically powered
pump, to restore hydraulic pressure that's bled off during an ABS stop. The pump
supplies fluid to an accumulator, where it's stored under pressure until is needed to
increase brake line pressure.

The different type of ABS systems are:

a)) One channel one sensor - used in used in trucks, only one sensor in the rear axle,
and one channel controlling both rear wheels.
b) Three channel three sensor –two separate channels and sensors for the front
wheels with one channel and for the rear wheels.
c) Four channel four sensor - used in used in cars, with separate sensors and
controllers for each wheel.

WORKING OF ABS
ABS uses wheel speed sensors to determine if one or more wheels are trying to lock up
during braking. If a wheel tries to lock up, a series of hydraulic valves limit or reduce
the braking on that wheel. This prevents skidding and allows you to maintain steering
control.

Working Algorithm Working Algorithm

When Brake is Applied,
1.Sense wheel speed using sensors.
2.Is wheel experiencing abnormal deceleration?
3.If no, go to step1. If yes, reduce brake pressure to that wheel until acceleration is
detected.
4.Increase brake pressure to wheel. Go to step 2.
This is an algorithm in one of the simpler systems.
The Controller can do this very quickly(15 times a second).
Since the valves open and close rapidly, a pulsing sensation can be felt on the brake
pedal.
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Advantages

The ABS will not decrease a vehicle’s stopping distance compared to an

identical vehicle without ABS, it ensures that the shortest distance in which a vehicle
can be brought to rest is achieved. It is particularly effective in doing this on surfaces
which are wet or icy upon which a vehicle is much more likely to skid. The main
benefit of ABS is the control that a driver has over the vehicle’s steering. In an
emergency the driver of a vehicle equipped with ABS will have a better chance of
steering around the obstacle due to the reduced risk of skidding.

Disadvantages

•Increased braking distances under some limited circumstances (snow, gravel, "soft"
surfaces),
•Creation of a "false sense of security" among drivers who do not understand the
operation, and limitations of ABS.
•The anti-lock brakes are more sensitive on the damper condition. the influence of the
worn components on the performance of the vehicle with anti-lock brakes is more
significant than without anti-lock brakes, the stopping distance with defective shocks is
by meters longer for the presented simulation scenario

2)AIR BAG

Airbags are a type of automobile safety restraint like seatbelts. They are gas-inflated
cushions built into the steering wheel, dashboard, door, roof, or seat of a car that use a
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crash sensor to trigger a rapid expansion to protect occupant from the impact of an
accident.

Types of Airbags
There are two types of airbags;
•Frontal airbags.
•Side-impact airbags.
Seat-mounted
Curtain
Tubular
Door-mounted
Combo
The appropriate level of power is based upon sensor inputs that can typically detect: 1)
Occupant size, 2) seat position, 3) seat belt use of the occupant, and 4) crash severity.
Side-impact air bags (SABs) are inflatable devices that are designed to help protect
head and/or chest in the event of a serious crash involving the side of the vehicle.
Components:
The Air Bag typically consists of the following 3 parts:

Air Bag
•The Bag itself is made of a thin, nylon fabric, which is folded into the steering wheel
or dashboard or, more recently, the seat or door.

Acceleration sensors:
Acceleration sensors for impact detection are integrated directly in the ECU
(belt tightener, front airbag)and mounted at selected points on the left and right body
sides (side airbag) or in the vehicle's front-end deformation area (upfront sensors for
"intelligent airbag systems"). The precision of these sensors is crucial in saving lives.
They are generally surface-micromechanical sensors consisting of fixed and moving
finger structures and spring pins. A special process is used to incorporate the
"spring/mass system" on the surface of a silicon wafer. Since the sensors only have low
working capacitance (≈1 pF), it is necessary to accommodate the evaluation electronics
in the same housing so as to avoid stray-capacitance and other forms of interference.
The SENSOR is the device that tells the bag to inflate. Sensors detect the crash using a
mechanical switch that closes when a mass shifts and an electrical contact is made.
Electronic sensors use a tiny accelerometer that has been etched on a silicon chip.

Gas inflators:
The pyrotechnical propellant charges of the gas inflators for generating the airbag
inflation gas (mainly nitrogen) and for actuating belt tighteners are activated by an
electrically operated
firing element. . Inflation happens when there is a collision force equal to running into
a brick wall at 10 to 15 miles per hour (1 to 24 km per hour). The gas inflator in
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question inflates the airbag with nitrogen. The driver's airbag integrated in the steering-
wheel hub or the passenger airbag installed in the glove box (70...150 l) is inflated
approx. 30 ms after firing.

•The AIR BAG'S INFLATION SYSTEM uses the rapid pulse of hot nitrogen gas
from the chemical reaction of sodium azide (NaN3) and potassium nitrate (KnO3) to
inflate the bag

Function:
 The function of front airbags is to protect the driver and the front passenger
against head and chest injuries in a vehicle impact with a solid obstacle at
speeds of up to 0 km/h. In a frontal impact between two vehicles, the front
airbags afford protection at relative speeds of up to 100 km/h.
 A belt tightener alone cannot prevent the head from hitting the steering wheel in
response to severe impact. In order to fulfill this function, depending on the
installation location, vehicle type and structure-deformation response, airbag
shave different filling capacities and pressure build-up sequences adapted to the
specific vehicle conditions.
 In a few vehicle types, front airbags also operate in conjunction with "inflatable
knee pads", which safeguard the "ride down benefit", i.e. the speed decrease of
the occupants together with the speed decrease of the passenger cell.
 This ensures the rotational forward motion of the upper body and head which is
actually needed for optimal airbag protection, and is of particular benefit in
countries where seat-belt usage is not mandatory.

Impact detection:
 Optimal occupant protection against the effects of frontal, offset, oblique or
pole impact is obtained through the precisely coordinated interplay of
electrically fired pyrotechnical front airbags and seat-belt tighteners. To
maximize the effect of both protective devices, they are activated with
optimized time response by a common ECU (triggering unit) installed in the
passenger cell. The ECU's deceleration calculations are based on data from one
or two electronic acceleration sensors used to monitor the decelerative forces
that accompany an impact. The impact must also be analyzed. A hammer blow
in the workshop, gentle pushing, driving over a curbstone or a pothole should
not trigger the airbag. With this end in mind, the sensor signals are processed in
digital analysis algorithms whose sensitivity parameters have been optimized
with the aid of crash-data simulations.

``
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Mechanical switch
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Operating concept:
 To protect driver and front passenger, pyrotechnical gas inflators inflate the
driver and passenger airbags in pyrotechnical, highly dynamic fashion after a
vehicle impact detected by sensors. In order for the affected occupant to enjoy
maximum protection, the airbag must be fully inflated before the occupant
comes into contact with it.
 The airbag then responds to upper-body contact with partial deflation in a
response pattern calculated to combine "gentle" impact-energy absorption with
non-critical (in terms of injury) surface pressures and decelerative forces for the
occupant. This concept significantly reduces or even prevents head and chest
injuries.
 The maximum permissible forward displacement before the driver's airbag is
fully inflated is approx.12.5 cm, corresponding to a period of approx. 10 ms +
30 ms = 40 ms after the initial impact (at 50 km/h with a solid obstacle) (see
Fig. "Deceleration to standstill"). It needs 10 ms for electronic firing to take
place and 30ms for the airbag to inflate.
In a 50 km/h crash, the airbag takes approx. 40 ms to inflate fully and a further 80...100
ms to deflate through the deflation holes. The entire process thus takes little more than
a tenth of a second, i.e. the batting of an eyelid.
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4) SEAT BELT
A seat belt, sometimes called a safety belt, is a safety harness designed to
secure the occupant of a vehicle against harmful movement that may result from a
collision or a sudden stop.

As part of an overall automobile passive safety system, seat belts are intended to
reduce injuries by stopping the wearer from hitting hard interior elements of the
vehicle, or other passengers (the so-called second impact), are in the correct position
for the airbag to deploy and prevent the passenger from being thrown from the vehicle.
Seat belts also absorb energy by being designed to stretch during an impact, so that
there is less speed differential between the passenger's body and their vehicle interior,
and also to spread the loading of impact on the passengers’ body. The final, so-called
'third impact' after a passenger's body hits the car interior, airbag or seat belts, is that of
the internal organs hitting the ribcage or skull. The force of this impact is the
mechanism through which car crashes cause disabling or life threatening injury. The
sequence of energy dissipating and speed reducing technologies - crumple zone - seat
belt - airbags - padded interior, are designed to work together as system, to reduce the
force of this final impact

Types of seat belts

 Lap seat belt
 Three points seatbelt

Lap seat belt:

Adjustable strap that goes over the waist. Used frequently in older cars, now
uncommon except in some rear middle seats. Passenger’s aircraft seats also use lap seat
belts to prevent injuries.
Sash:
Adjustable strap that goes over the shoulder. Used mainly in the 190s, but of limited
benefit because it is very easy to slip out of in a collision.

Three-point: Similar to the lap and shoulder, but one single continuous length of
webbing. Both three-point and lap-and-sash belts help spread out the energy of the
moving body in a collision over the chest, pelvis, and shoulders. Volvo introduced the
first production three-point belt in 1959. The first car with three point belt was a Volvo
PV 544 that was delivered to a dealer in Kristian stad on August 13, 1959. Evidence of
the potential for lap belts to cause separation of the lumbar vertebrae and the
sometimes associated paralysis, or "seat belt syndrome", has led to a revision of
passenger safety regulations in nearly all developed countries requiring that all seats in
a vehicle be equipped with three-point belts

Seat belts and seat-belt tighteners

Function:
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The function of seat belts is to restrain the occupants of a vehicle in their seats when
the vehicle hits an obstacle. Seat-belt tighteners improve the restraining characteristics
of a three-point inertia-reel belt and increase the protection against injury. In the event
of a frontal impact, they pull the seat belts tighter against the body and thus hold the
upper body as closely as possible against the seat backrest. This prevents excessive
forward displacement of the occupants caused by mass inertia.

Operating concept:
In a frontal impact with a solid obstacle at a speed of 50 km/h, the seat belts
must absorb a level of energy comparable to the kinetic energy of a person in free fall
from the 4th floor of a building. Because of the belt slack, the belt stretch and the
delayed effect of the belt retractor ("film-reel effect"),three-point inertia-reel belts
provide only limited protection in frontal impacts with solid obstacles at speeds of over
40 km/h because they can no longer safely prevent the head and body from impacting
against the steering wheel or the instrument panel. An occupant experiences extensive
forward displacement without restraint systems.
Deceleration to standstill and forward displacement of an occupant at an impact
speed of 50 km/h.1 Impact, 2 Firing of belt tightener/airbag, 3 Belt tightened, 4 Airbag
inflated. without/ with restraint systems. In an impact, the shoulder belt tightener
compensates for the belt slack and the "film-reel effect" by retracting and tightening
the belt strap. At an impact speed of 50 km/h, this system achieves its full effect within
the first 20 ms of the impact; and thus supports the airbag which needs approx. 40 ms
to inflate completely. The occupant continues to move forward slightly until making
contact with the deflating airbag and in this manner is protected from injury. A
prerequisite for optimum protection is that the occupants' forward movement away
from their seats remains minimal as they decelerate along with the vehicle. This is
achieved by triggering the belt tighteners immediately upon initial impact to ensure
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that safe restraint of the occupants in the front seats starts as soon as possible. The
maximum forward displacement with tightened seat belts is approx. 1 cm and the
duration of mechanical tightening is 5...10 ms. On activation, a pyrotechnical
propellant charge is electrically fired. The explosive pressure acts on a piston, which
turns the belt reel via a steel cable in such a way that the belt rests tightly against the
body.

Shoulder-belt tightener 1. Ignition cable, 2 Firing elements, 3 Propellant charge, 4

Piston, 5 Cylinder, Metal cables, 7 Belt reel, 8 Belt strap.

Variants:
In addition to the above-mentioned shoulder-belt tighteners for retracting the belt reel,
there are variants which pull the belt buckle back (buckle tighteners) and thus
simultaneously tighten the shoulder and lap belts. The restraining effect and the
protection afforded against occupants sliding forward beneath the lap belt
("submarining effect") are improved still further by buckle tighteners. The tightening
process in these two systems takes place in the same period of time as for shoulder-belt
tighteners. Mechanical belt tighteners are also available in addition to the
pyrotechnically triggered versions. In the case of a mechanical tightener, a mechanical
or electrical sensor releases a pre tensioned spring, which pulls the belt buckle back.
The sole advantage of these systems is that they are cheaper.
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5) ROAD NAVIGATION SYSTEM

Navigation System
GPS satellite

GPS
Receiver
System BUS

SDRAM

Flash ROM TFT display

CPU
Graphic
Renderer

SDRAM

Touch
panel
User Interface

Decorder Audio LSI

Remote
controller

Speaker

Main Unit

CD or DVD Drive Data Disc

KIWI-W consortium

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a worldwide radio-navigation system

provide 24-hour three-dimensional position, velocity, and time information

GPS works in 5 Steps,

 TRIANGULATION

 MEASURING DISTANCE

 GETTING PERFECT TIMING

 SATELLITES POSITION

 DETERMINING A POSITION
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• The GPS is comprised of three segments

 Space Segment: the constellation of satellites

 Control Segment: control the satellites

 User Segment: users with receivers

Space Segment

User Segment

Control Segment

Ground
Antennas
Master Station Monitor Stations

Space segment

 The GPS space segment consists of a constellation of satellites transmitting

radio signals to users.

 The United States is committed to maintaining the availability of at least 24

operational GPS satellites, 95% of the time.

 To ensure this commitment, the Air Force has been flying 31 operational GPS
satellites for the past few years.

 Master Control Station (MCS)

 Monitor Stations

 Ground Antennas
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Master control station

 The master control station in Colorado is where 2SOPS performs the primary
control segment functions, providing command and control of the GPS
constellation. The MCS generates and uploads navigation messages and ensures
the health and accuracy of the satellite constellation. It receives navigation
information from the monitor stations, utilizes this information to compute the
precise locations of the GPS satellites in space, and then uploads this data to the
satellites.

 The MCS monitors navigation messages and system integrity, enabling 2SOPS
to determine and evaluate the health status of the GPS constellation. 2SOPS
uses the MCS to perform satellite maintenance and anomaly resolution. In the
event of a satellite failure, the MCS can reposition satellites to maintain an
optimal GPS constellation.

Monitor stations

 Monitor stations track the GPS satellites as they pass overhead and channel
their observations back to the master control station. Monitor stations collect
atmospheric data, range/carrier measurements, and navigation signals. The sites
utilize sophisticated GPS receivers and are operated by the MCS.

 There are 1 monitoring stations located throughout the world, including six
from the Air Force and 10 from the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
(NGA)

Ground antennas

 Ground antennas are used to communicate with the GPS satellites for command
and control purposes. These antennas support S-band communications links
that send/transmit navigation data uploads and processor program loads, and
collect telemetry. The ground antennas are also responsible for normal
command transmissions to the satellites. S-band ranging allows 2SOPS to
provide anomaly resolution and early orbit support.

) Anti Theft Systems

3 Types Of Anti Theft Systems For Cars

(i) GSM Technology Based Vehicle Theft Intimation to the Owner On Cell Phone
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The GSM technology to intimate the owner of the vehicle about any
unauthorized entry. This process is done by sending an SMS to the owner, and the
advantage is that the owner can send back the SMS with the necessary instructions to
stop the vehicle instantly.
Hardware Requirements
PIC1F8 Microcontroller, Level Shifter IC, GSM Modem, Crystal, Switch, LED,
Resistors, Capacitors, Voltage Regulator, Relay Driver, DB9 Connector,
Lamp, Relays.
Software Requirements
Embedded c or Assembly, MP Lab and CCS C Compiler

Description
Day by day crime rate is increasing, so, a better security system is very essential for
vehicles. In this proposed system if someone tries to steal a car or any vehicle, the
microcontroller gets an interrupt through a switch which is connected to the system;
then, the system orders the GSM modem to send an SMS. The vehicle owner receives
the SMS from the GSM modem informing the owner about the theft. Immediately, the
owner of the vehicle can send back an SMS to the GSM modem to stop the engine.

Block Diagram of Vehicle Theft Intimation System

The GSM modem interfaced to the microcontroller, receives the message that disables
the ignition of the vehicle resulting in stopping the vehicle. This project uses a lamp
(for indication purpose) to indicate the on/off condition of the engine.
Thus, the owner of the vehicle can protect his car from being stolen from anywhere.
Furthermore, this project can be enhanced by integrating a GPS system, which gives
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the exact location of the vehicle in terms of its longitude and latitude. Apart from
protecting the vehicle, the location information can also be sent to the owner through
an SMS.

(ii) Vehicle tracking by GPS – GSM

The main intention of GPS – GSM is to reduce vehicle thefts by finding the
exact location by using a GPS modem.

Block Diagram of Vehicle tracking by GPS – GSM

Hardware Requirements
Microcontroller AT89C52, MAX 232, GSM Module, Resistors, Capacitors, Voltage
Regulator, GPS Modem, DB9 Connector and LCD Display.

Software Requirements
Keil Compiler, Embedded C
Description
Nowadays, vehicles have been increasing day by day in our country, and along
with them anti-theft- security systems for cars or vehicles have also been increasing.
To overcome this problem, the following project: Vehicle tracking by GPS – GSM is
useful.
This proposed system mainly includes a power-supply block, a microcontroller, a GPS,
a GSM modem, Max232, and several other components. The GPS system navigates the
location of the vehicle in terms of its longitude and latitude positions. The
microcontroller gets the information from the GPS modem through MAX232. The
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MAX232 is a serial communication interface between the microcontroller and GSM

modem; it converts from TTL level to RS232 level.
The GSM moderm sends the SMS to a predefined mobile which stores the data
in it. An LCD display displays the location information in terms of latitude and
longitude values. The microcontroller is pre programmed with the Keil software and
therefore, continuously checks the GPS modem.
3. Microcontroller Based Anti-theft Security System Using GSM Networks with
Text Message as Feedback
To protect a vehicle from being stolen by using GSM and GPS. In this project,
we present an anti-theft-control system for automobiles. In present days, vehicle theft
is increasing rapidly and people have started using anti-theft-control systems in
different automobiles’ systems. These anti-theft-control systems are very expensive,
but this project is designed cost-effectively by using a microcontroller along with the
GPS and GSM.

Microcontroller Based Anti-theft Security System

Hardware Requirements
Microcontroller, Power Supply, GSM Module, Keypad, LCD,Proximity
Sensors,Engine and Ignition Key

Software Requirements
Embedded C,Keil IDE,ISP or U-Flash,Express PC

Description
 Here, we present an anti-theft-control system for automobiles that tries to stop a
vehicle from being stolen.
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 This proposed system makes use of an embedded chip with an inductive-

proximity sensor.
 If a wrong key is entered into the keypad, the proximity sensor senses the key
and sends the message to the owners mobile stating that the vehicle is being
accessed. Subsequently the control system present in the car prompts the person
entering the key to enter the correct password.
 If the person accessing the vehicle fails to enter the correct password thrice,
then a message will be sent to the nearest police station indicating the vehicle
number, and subsequent to this, the fuel injector of the car gets deactivated.
This makes the user helpless to start the car. This project is simple and robust.
Thus, by implementing these vehicle security system projects by using GPS and GSM
technologies, a vehicle can be protected from thefts. In future, this security system will
be improved to function as an integrated-data-security system for car communication
systems. It would ensure that all the data exchanged within the vehicle and outside the
vehicle is protected.