Giant Sequoia Insect, Disease, and Ecosystem Interactions1
Douglas D. Piirto2
Abstract: Individual trees of giant sequoia (Sequoia gigantea [Lindl.]
Decne.) have demonstrated a capacity to attain both a long life and very
large size. It is not uncommon to find old-growth giant sequoia trees in
their native range that are 1,500 years old and over 15 feet in diameter at
breast height. The ability of individual giant sequoia trees to survive over
such long periods of time has often been attributed to the species high
resistance to disease, insect, and fire damage. Such a statement, however, is
a gross oversimplification, given broader ecosystem and temporal interac-
tions. For example, why isn't there a greater representation of young-growth
giant sequoia trees throughout the mixed-conifer belt of the Sierra Nevadas?
What other factors, in addition to physical site characteristics, limit giant
sequoia to its present range and grove boundaries? How does fire and fire
frequency affect disease and insect interrelationships in the giant sequoia/
mixed-conifer ecosystem? Are current forest management strategies (e.g.,
fire suppression, prescribed burning programs) affecting these interactions?
Giant sequoia trees are subject to the same natural forces (e.g., insect and
disease organisms) as other tree species. An attempt is made in this paper to
discuss some of the more common insect and disease associates of giant
sequoia and their significance in relation to the more complex temporal
(e.g., succession, aging and other time related events) and ecosystem inter-
relationships at work in the giant sequoia/mixed-conifer ecosystem.
Giant sequoia (Sequoia gigantea [Lindl.] Decne.)3 may be
considered a long-lived species because of its high resistance
to damage and mortality by insects, disease, and fire. Various
attributes such as thick, fibrous bark, scalelike leaves, heart-
wood phenolic and tannin extractive content, general lack of
resinous extractives in bark and wood, and rapid growth rates
of young trees may be partly responsible for enabling
individual giant sequoia trees to become very large and long-
lived. We know very little, however, about what happens to
giant sequoia throughout its lifetime. And, virtually nothing is
known about predisposing growth-loss and mortality agents
of young-growth giant sequoia in its native range.
Many people assume that once giant sequoia seeds
germinate, they will live a very long time and become very
large trees. It is not hard to understand why people still
believe this, since the older literature is replete with state-
ments that giant sequoia has relatively few insect and disease
pests. For example, the statement by John Muir (1894)
illustrates this misconception: "I never saw a Bigtree [giant
sequoia] that had died a natural death; barring accidents they
seem to be immortal, being exempt from all diseases that
1 understood (David and others 1976, Piirto 1976, 1977, Piirto
An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Symposium
on Giant Sequoias: Their Place in the Ecosystem and Society, June 23-25,
1992, Visalia, California.
2
Professor and Registered Professional Forester, Natural Resources
Management Department. California Polytechnic State University, San Luis
Obispo, CA 93407
3
The correct scientific name for giant sequoia is currently a subject for
disagreement. The common name, giant sequoia, and the scientific name
Sequoia gigantea, will be used in this paper. Justification for this is detailed
in Davidson (1972) and in Piirto (1977). The common name, coast redwood,
will refer to Sequoia sempervirens.
82
afflict and kill other trees." Similarly Hartesveldt (1962)
concurred that "Sequoia's longevity and great size have
been attributed by nearly all writers, popular and scientific,
to its few insect and fungus parasites and the remarkable
resistance of the older trees to damage or death by fire.
There is no record of an individual sequoia living in its
natural range as having been killed by either fungus or insect
attack." Even as recently as 1991 Harlow and others (1991)
stated: "Insects and fungi cause but minor damage, and no
large Bigtree killed by them has ever been found."
It is finally being recognized that giant sequoia is
subject to the same natural forces as other tree species (Bega
1964, Harvey and others 1980, Parmeter 1987, Piirto 1977,
1984b, Piirto and others 1974, 1977, 1984a, Weatherspoon
1990). Weatherspoon (1990) has reported that "Although
diseases are less troublesome for giant sequoia in its natural
range than for most other trees, the species is not immune to
disease as once assumed." Scientists have been recording
disease associations with giant sequoia for some time
(Seymour 1929, Bega 1964, Hepting 1971). But the signifi-
cance, ecological role, and influences that affect these
organisms is not well understood.
Further, recent research on insects associated with
giant sequoia has set aside many long-standing misleading
generalizations about insect relationships in giant sequoia
(David and others 1976, David and Wood 1980, DeLeon
1952, Stecker 1980a,b, Tilles 1984, Tilles and Wood 1982,
1986). Stecker (1980a) in this regard reports that "In sum-
mary, the giant sequoia, the largest living organism past or
present, and one of the oldest, is unusual in having relatively
small insects comprising a relatively small insect fauna."
These research findings have caused some people still to
conclude that insect depredations are not seriously harming
giant sequoias. Yet carpenter ants have been directly reported
as being associated with old-growth giant sequoia trees (David
and others 1976, David and Wood 1980, Piirto 1976, 1977,
Piirto and others 1984, Stecker 1980a, Tilles 1984, Tilles
and Wood 1982, 1986). Carpenter ants, bark beetles, wood
borers, and a variety of other insects are commonly found in
basal fire scars of old-growth giant sequoia. The role of
these insects in predisposing a giant sequoia tree to failure
or possibly in vectoring disease organisms is not completely
and others 1984). And, even though the insect fauna seems
to be smaller for giant sequoia based on present reports
(Stecker 1980a), it is inconclusive that insects are not a
problem to giant sequoia. The objectives, then, of this paper
are to: briefly review some of the more common disease and
insect organisms associated with giant sequoia; and discuss
both temporal and ecosystem disease and insect interrelation-
ships at work in the giant sequoia/mixed-conifer ecosystem.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep.PSW-151. 1994
 Insect Relationships
The scientific study by Stecker (1980a) is the most
complete work to date on insects associated with giant
sequoia. Limited entomological research involving giant
sequoia occurred prior to 1974 (DeLeon 1952, Fry and White
1930, Hopkins 1903, Keen 1952, Person 1933). DeLeon
(1952) was one of the first entomologists to dispute the
claim that coast redwood and giant sequoia have few insect
enemies. DeLeon (1952) listed twenty insects which may
use giant sequoia during all or part of their life cycles,
including: bark and ambrosia beetles; flatheaded, roundheaded
and other borers; leaf feeders; termites; carpenter bees; and
carpenter ants.
Stecker (1980a,b) conducted detailed investigations on
the invertebrates associated with giant sequoia seedlings,
living trees and fallen trees. Stecker's sample sites included
Redwood Canyon, Redwood Mountain, Whitaker's Forest,
Converse Basin, and Mountain Home State Forest. Stecker
(1980a) found that:
Of the 143 species of insects encountered in this
study, 4 species were found on seedlings (3 of which
were also in older trees). Thirty-two insects were
found in different stages of downed and dead limbs
of standing giant sequoias, while 3 of these were
also observed in standing dead wood of the living
host. One hundred and fourteen insect species were
found only in the canopy of the living tree.
Stecker (1980a) explains the results of his scientific
investigations as follows:
The insect fauna of the giant sequoia is small when
compared to that of other conifers of the same
region. It differs considerably from that treated by
Southwood (1961) in the hypothesis that insect
species associated with a tree are a reflection of the
cumulative abundance of that tree throughout
recent geologic history. Insect faunas of histori-
cally newer trees are considerably larger than those
of the much older giant sequoia. The insect faunas
of pines and firs are usually two to three times
greater than the presently known fauna from the
giant sequoia.
Several of the insects listed in his study such as termites,
defoliators, various bark beetles (ambrosia beetle
Gnathotrichus sulcatus LeConte and Phloesinus punctatus
LeConte), wood borers (Semanotus ligneus amplus Casey
and Trachykele opulenta) and carpenter ants (Camponotus
modoc) can be very destructive to young- and old-growth
giant sequoia. T. opulenta larvae mine in the wood around
fire scars and apparently can also develop wholly in the bark
(Fumiss and Carolin 1977). In addition, prominent insects
associated with seedling damage and mortality include the
camel cricket (Pristocauthophilus pacificus), two geometrids
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep.PSW-151. 1994.
(Sabuloides caberata and Pero behresarius), and
cutworms (Noctuidae spp.) (Parmeter 1987, Harvey 1980,
Stecker 1980b, Metcalf 1948).
Very little scientific entomological research has been
done to determine the ecological importance of some of the
insects listed by Stecker and others (1980a,b). Stecker (1980b)
determined that Phymatodes nitidus is very important in the
continual release of seeds and subsequent reproduction of
giant sequoia. Researchers at the University of California at
Berkeley found carpenter ants (Camponotus modoc), which
excavate nests in giant sequoia to rear their young, feeding
on dead arthropods and honeydew from attended aphids
(David and others 1976, David and Wood 1980, Tilles 1984,
Tilles and Wood 1982, 1986). The attended aphid colonies
were found in the upper crowns of nearby white fir trees
(Abies concolor [Gord. and Glend.] Lindl. ex. Hildebr.).
This research finding has some very interesting implica-
tions. For example, do the changes in white fir stand density
in giant sequoia groves (which have occurred as a result of
fire suppression programs) cause associated changes in aphid
populations which in turn influence carpenter ant popula-
tions found nesting in living giant sequoia trees? Carpenter
ants are known to cause excavations that are so extensive as
to seriously impair structural stability (Furniss and Carolin
1977, Piirto 1977, Piirto and others 1984b). Piirto and others
(1984b) found that:
Carpenter ants were found in or near the failure zone
in 16 [out of 33] study trees: only six of these,
however, contained carpenter ant galleries in the
immediate failure zone. Microscopic examination
of discolored wood associated with carpenter
ant galleries revealed an early to moderate
stage of decay.
A check of recent research records at Sequoia-Kings
Canyon National Park (Esperanza 1992) showed very little
entomological research done since 1982 on insect associates
of giant sequoia. Piirto and others (1992a,b) identified six
orders of insects found in association with giant sequoia fire
scars. Thirteen individual insect species were identified, six
of which have not been reported previously. Insects identified
most frequently were Ichneumonidae spp. (Ichneumons),
Camponotus spp. (carpenter ant), Curculionidae spp. (snout
beetle), Ceuthophilus spp. (cave cricket), and Blapylis alticolus
and B. productus (darkling beetles). On an infrequent basis,
seven insects were found associated with giant sequoia fire
scars. These insects were identified as Sphecidae spp. (thread-
waisted wasp), Pompilidae spp. (spider wasps), Dorcasina
grossa (long-horned beetle), Cantharidae spp. (soldier beetle),
Anthomyiidae spp (Anthomyid fly), Raphidiidae spp.
(snakeflies), and Coreidae spp. (leaf-footed bug). More
research is needed, however, to determine the full ecological
significance of insects associated with giant sequoia both
inside and outside its native range.
83
Disease Relationships
For the purpose of this paper disease is defined as any
deviation in the normal functioning of a plant caused by
some type of persistent agent (Manion 1991). The abiotic
and biotic agents that cause disease are referred to as
pathogens. It is important to recognize that diseases which
develop in plants and trees are the product of the tree/plant,
the pathogen, and the interactions of these with the environ-
ment over time. Time is an important factor as it is related
to both the rate at which a disease develops within an
individual plant or tree and to the spread and increase of the
pathogen population within a host population (Manion 1991).
Abiotic agents that can cause disease in forest trees
include air pollution, high temperatures, freezing tempera-
tures, phytotoxic gases, pesticides, moisture stress, salt, poor
soil aeration, nutritional deficiencies/imbalances, mechanical
damage and other abiotic factors. Any one or all of these
factors may affect giant sequoia at one time or another
during its life cycle. For instance, significant scientific
information is becoming available on the impacts of air
pollution on Sierra Nevada forests. Studies have been com-
pleted and many are underway which have/are evaluating the
impacts of air pollution, climate change, acid rain and a
number of other abiotic agents which affect these forest
ecosystems. Even though it seems apparent that abiotic agents
like air pollution are having dramatic impacts on the giant
sequoia/mixed-conifer ecosystem, giant sequoia trees are
rated as being most resistant to "smog" damage (Miller
1978). It is not known how this resistance varies with age of
individual giant sequoia trees. The reader is referred to Manion
(1991) for a general discussion of abiotic disease agents.
Some of the common biotic agents that cause disease in
forest trees include nematodes, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and
parasitic flowering plants (e.g., dwarf mistletoes). The
symptoms of diseases caused by these biotic agents are
usually expressed in disturbed or abnormal physiology of
the host plant. Vascular wilt pathogens, for example, reduce
the capacity of the vessels in trees to translocate water from
the roots to the top of the transpiring tree. These diseases are
typically classified into categories that are related to the
stage of the host life cycle which the disease affects and/or
to the expressed physiological effect seen in the forest tree.
Diseases caused by biotic agents include seedling diseases,
leaf and needle diseases, root and trunk rots, shoot blights,
vascular wilts, or stem diseases. Full lists of these diseases
associated with giant sequoia can be found in Seymour (1929),
USDA (1960), Bega (1964), Hepting (1971), Davidson (1972),
Peterson and Smith (1975), Piirto (1977), Piirto and others
(1984a,b), and Parmeter (1987). Additional unpublished lists
of disease organisms associated with giant sequoia can also
be found in the records maintained by various herbariums
(e.g., University of California at Berkeley, USDA Center for
Forest Mycology Research at the Forest Products Laboratory
in Madison, Wisconsin and the USDA Forest Service Pacific
84
Southwest Research Station in Albany, California). These
lists are by no means all encompassing, as much remains to
be learned about disease relationships in giant sequoia.
Comparatively little work has been done on the biotic
and abiotic agents which damage seeds, seedlings, saplings
and young-growth giant sequoia trees. Cone and seed molds,
damping off fungi and rootrot fungi are suspected as being
major factors in preventing seedling establishment in native
giant sequoia stands (Stark 1968a,b; Parmeter 1987). These
fungi have been shown to cause reduced seed viability and
to prevent seedling establishment in undisturbed duff and
litter areas within coast redwood stands (Davidson 1972).
The role that these fungi play in native giant sequoia stands
is not known. Shellhammer and others (1971) reported that
mice (Microtus spp.), gophers (Thomomys spp.), Cerambycid
beetles (Semanotus ligneus amplus) and a saprophytic
fungus Hyphloma spp. possibly fasciculare were associated
with dead and dying 10- and 11-year-old giant sequoias
in the Abbot Creek drainage of the Cherry Gap Grove, a
previously logged area near Converse Basin.
There are no known occurrences of any true mistletoe or
dwarf mistletoe species on either coast redwood or giant
sequoia (Hawksworth 1978, 1992).
Factors Associated With Tree Failure
A number of major findings were reported in a study
evaluating causes for tree failure of old-growth giant
sequoia trees (Piirto 1977, Piirto and others 1984a,b). Thirty-
three tree failures were evaluated in this study. Of the 33
failures listed, 21 percent apparently fell mainly because of
poor footing (wet soil, stream undercutting, etc.), 67 percent
because of the failure of decayed roots and 12 percent
because of stem breaks. All but two trees (both fell because
of poor footing) had decay in either the stem or roots.
Carpenter ants were found in 16 trees but appeared to
contribute to failure of only six. Fire scars were present on
27 trees and 26 fell to the fire-scarred side. This phenomenon
of giant sequoia tree failures falling to the scarred side was
also reported by Hartesveldt and others (1975).
Fungal Agents Associated With Decay and Tree Failure
Many Basidiomycetes are responsible for the decay
observed in giant sequoia trees. Heterobasidion annosum,
also called Fomes annosus, has been frequently observed in
both the upper and lower stems of recent tree failures of
giant sequoia trees (Piirto 1977, 1984a,b, Piirto and others
1974,). Recent research (Piirto and others 1992a,b) is
shedding new light on the hypothesis put forward by Piirto
(1977) and Piirto and others (1984b) involving increasing
stand density levels of white fir and other associated trees
species in giant sequoia groves. White fir is highly susceptible
to a variety of forest diseases, particularly H. annosum.
Otrosina and others (1992) and Piirto and others (1992)
reported that both H. annosum isolates from white fir and
giant sequoia are of the ‘S’ intersterility Group meaning that
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep.PSW-151. 1994
 they are interfertile. Given the interfertility of isolates
collected from giant sequoia and true fir, an increase of
white fir density in the absence of natural and prescribed fire
may result in the build-up of H. annosum inoculum that
could affect giant sequoia trees. H. annosum may spread along
with other means via root contacts from white fir to giant
sequoia. In greenhouse seedling inoculation studies, isolates
of H. annosum collected from true fir and isolates collected
on giant sequoia were capable of causing pathogenesis on
either species (Piirto and others 1992).
Other Basidiomycetes of particular note include Poria
albipellucida, Armillaria mellea, Poria incrassata, Stereum
hirsutum, and others (Piirto 1977, Piirto and others 1984a,b).
Armillaria spp. as receiving increasing attention as being an
important pathogen of giant sequoia both within and outside
the native range of giant sequoia (Libby 1982). Libby (1992)
reports Armillaria spp. as being the possible cause of
mortality in young-growth giant sequoia trees (up to 20 years
of age) planted in the Rhine River area of Germany. Trees
older than twenty years of age seemed to be less susceptible
to Armillaria spp. and hardwoods were known to have
occurred in this Rhine River giant sequoia plantation.
Another recent and interesting report from Libby (1992)
involves the forty-year old plantation of giant sequoia trees
around the Forest Hill Seed Orchard. The study showed that
up to forty percent of the planted young giant sequoia trees
which are between 30 and 50 feet tall and up to 10 inches in
diameter at breast height had thin crowns and bunches of
trees were easily pushed over. Preliminary observations by
Forest Service pathologists present with Bill Libby at
the Forest Hill site indicate that Armillaria spp. may be
responsible for the mortality that is occurring there. In the
Forest Hill situation, stumps of California black oak (Quercus
kelloggii Newb.) and dead deer brush (Ceanothus integerrimus
H.&A.) were in the immediate vicinity of the dead giant
sequoia trees. It can be inferred from previous research and
from the Rhine River and Forest Hill Seed Orchard
situations that 1) Armillaria spp in combination with other
organisms may be important pathogens of both young- and
old-growth giant sequoia; 2) Armillaria spp seems to be
particularly aggressive in areas where hardwoods and
possibly vulnerable species of Ceanothus spp. occur; 3) giant
sequoia trees planted outside their natural range may be
particularly vulnerable to a whole host of disease problems
which as of yet are not completely understood.
Bega (1964), Libby (1982), Worral and others (1986)
have conducted studies on giant sequoia trees planted
outside their native range and found some of them severely
damaged by a canker fungus Botryosphaeria sp. In addition,
giant sequoia seedlings in nurseries were found to be
particularly vulnerable to charcoal root disease caused by
Macrophomina phaseoli and grey mold caused by Botrytis
cinerea (Peterson and Smith 1975). Understanding the
organisms that cause disease and decay in giant sequoia is
important, but it is equally important to understand the inter-
actions that occur between organisms and the environment.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep.PSW-151. 1994.
Fire/Pathogen Interactions
Research recently completed by Piirto and others
(1992a,b) identified 17 new fungi from giant sequoia fire
scar wood samples. The fungi most frequently isolated were
Byssochiamys fulva (a heat resistant fungus), which was
isolated from 34 out of 90 fire scars sampled (38 percent);
Acrodontium intermissum (a preservative detoxifier),
isolated from 22 out of 90 fire scars (24 percent); and
Tritirachium sp. (an entomogenous fungus), which was
isolated from 14 out of 90 fire scars (16 percent). Other
interesting fungi isolated include Neosartorya fischeri (a
heat resistant fungus), Epicoccum nigrum (a soft rot fungus),
Leptographium sp. (L. wageneri causes black stain root
disease), Hyalorhin-ocladiella sp. (pentachlorophenol tol-
erant; see Wang 1989), Mariannaea elegans (capable of
forming soft rot cavities in European birch and Scots pine
wood; Levy 1969), and Basidiomycetes (fungi causing white
or brown rots). A positive identification was made of one of
the four confirmed Basidiomycete cultures isolated from
giant sequoia fire scars. Referred to as Phlebia subserialis
[(Bourd. et Galzin) Donk] of the Corticiaceae family and
known to affect both hardwoods and softwoods this organism
is classified as a white rotter which may have potential in
biological pulping processes (Dorworth 1992, Burdsall 1992).
The majority of these fungi identified in the Piirto and
others study (1992a,b) are microfungi. As described by
Wang and Zabel (1990), microfungi are ubiquitous and
cosmopolitan. Some are plant pathogens and some are human
pathogens, but most are saprobes that derive nourishment
from decaying organic matter that occupy all segments of
the environment, most commonly the soil. The term
microfungi is commonly used to describe fungi belonging to
the Subdivision Ascomycotina. These microfungi have been
found associated with utility poles made of Douglas fir,
southern pine, and western red cedar. Some have shown to
cause soft rot and degradation of wood structure. Recent
research suggests some of the microfungi can also reduce
the fungitoxicity of wood preservative chemicals (Wang and
Zabel 1990). Based on previous research, it is possible the
microfungi isolated from giant sequoia may play a role in
the decay process. An interesting organism for instance, that
has been known for some time to be frequently found on
exudate of exposed heartwood of coast redwood and giant
sequoia fire scars is Mycocallicium sequoiae (Bonar 1971,
Piirto 1977, Piirto and others 1992a). More research is needed
on the variety of microorganisms at work in the giant
sequoia/mixed-conifer ecosystem.
Microorganisms and pathogens can be affected in a
variety of ways by fire; and while none of these effects has
been adequately evaluated for giant sequoia ecosystems,
some possible fire effects with important management
implications have been described (Parmeter 1977, Parmeter
and Uhrenholdt 1975, 1976, Piirto 1977). It has been
discussed that if Heterobasidion annosum may build up on
white firs (Abies concolor) and then attack nearby giant
sequoias (Piirto 1977), fires may "cauterize" giant sequoia
85
fire scars and thus reduce decay (Christensen and others
1987). While these aspects are recognized and in need of
study, it is likely other fire effects on both the host and
associated pathogens occur and only research monitoring
these fire effects on microorganisms will allow recognition
and further evaluation. These fire/pathogen interactions in
the giant sequoia/mixed-conifer ecosystem are reported in
Piirto and others (1992a,b).
The management implications of how a disease impacts
stands of giant sequoias is incomplete (Parmeter 1987).
Knowledge of giant sequoia disease is increasing, but specific
effects on regeneration, stand development, old-growth and
young-growth trees are still relatively unknown.
Wounds As Entrance Courts
Following fire, trees may show reduced growth and
vigor, owing mainly to heat injury (Hare 1961) or perhaps to
"shock" if stand density is changed. The ecological effects
of this damage can result in numerous pathogens and insects
adapted to attack the weakened yet surviving plants. The
literature is replete with reports noting a strong association
of insect, pathogen, and microorganism activity in fire
damaged trees. In all of these reports, fire damaged roots
and/or above ground basal fire scars served as an infection
court for these organisms.
Perhaps the best documented effects of fire on disease
involve the creation of infection courts for heart rot fungi
(Boyce 1961; Harvey and others 1976; Hepting 1935; Nelson
and others 1933; Nordin 1958). Heart rot which frequently
develops in fire scars may in turn effect other processes,
such as bark beetle activities in burned stands (Geiszler and
others 1980a,b). Canker fungi may also be associated with
fire scars (Hinds and Krebill 1975). Decay following fire
scarring can reduce productivity in timber stands. It can also
lead to hazard problems and to the loss of valuable specimen
trees in parks and preserves, as may be the case with loss of
giant sequoias (Piirto 1977). Gill (1974) reported secondary
effects of fire on fire scars often lead to mechanical failure
of Eucalyptus pauciflora.
Perry and others (1985) report that damage to living
jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata), Karri (E. diversicolor), and
maritime or cluster pine (Pinus pinaster) in southwestern
Australia by fire or mechanical injury during forest opera-
tions emerges as a major factor facilitating the entry of fungi
and termites that spread and degrade substantial areas of
heartwood. Littke and Gara (1986) and Gara and others
(1986) report that the extension of decay columns from fire
damaged roots up into the boles of lodgepole pine (Pinus
contorta var. murrayana) suggests root damage is their most
important source of stem decay. Newly fire-damaged root
tissues were infected with imperfect fungi and white rot
basidiomycetes. Decayed material from previous fires yielded
primarily brown rot basidiomycetes. It is important to know
that the amount of microorganism, pathogen and insect
activity associated with fire scars is influenced by the tree
86
species and environmental conditions. This has been empha-
sized by Hepting and Shigo (1972) for oaks in North
Carolina and Maine. It is equally important to know that
once infection has occurred, survival and damage may
continue throughout the life span of a tree. This has been
reported for fire-damaged white fir (Abies concolor)
regeneration (Aho and Filip 1982).
In a recent study conducted by Piirto and others (1992a,b),
it was determined, based on a quantitative evaluation of 90
living old-growth giant sequoias, that as much as 70 percent
of the circumference (values ranged from 3.3 percent to 69.5
percent with an average of 27.3 percent) and as much as 54
percent of the cross-sectional area (values ranged from 3.2
percent to 53.7 percent with an average of 15.6 percent)
were adversely affected by fire scars at groundline. This
research work further demonstrated that prescribed burning
programs caused damage to callus tissue around existing
fire scars 52 percent of the time, with recessional and
enlargement damage noted 57 percent and 35 percent of the
time respectively.
The role of fire scars on giant sequoia trees as entrance
courts for decay and insect attack has been defined on the
basis of numerous research studies. As we move forward
with the reintroduction of fire in the form of prescribed
burns in giant sequoia grove areas, the questions still remain
as to what intensity, where, when, and how much should be
burned to largely promote the positive values fire provides to
the giant sequoia/mixed-conifer ecosystem while minimizing
the negative consequences to specimen old-growth giant
sequoia trees. The results by Piirto and others (1992a,b)
confirm that the valued older trees in the giant-sequoia/
mixed-conifer system are damaged, and that fire management
strategies should be implemented to minimize these adverse
fire impacts.
Summary and Conclusions
It is important to consider several factors when
interpreting insect and disease relationships in the giant
sequoia/mixed-conifer ecosystem including:
1. No single variable functions alone because insects,
disease organisms and the ecosystems operate
interdependently.
2. Various microorganisms have beneficial and antago-
nistic influences on disease evelopment. Hepting
(1935) was one of the first forest pathologists to
note an association of various microorganisms (e.g.,
bacteria, Trichoderma spp. and Penicillium spp.)
with decay fungi. These organisms can inhibit or
facilitate decay development in forest trees. Many
such known and unknown interactions are at work
in the giant sequoia/mixed-conifer ecosystem.
3. Fire does influence the type and population levels of
a vast variety and number of insects, pathogens and
microorganisms found in the giant sequoia/mixed-
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep.PSW-151. 1994
 conifer ecosystem. These interactions are not well
understood. These relationships are further compli-
cated by changing climatic patterns such as drought.
For example, a bark beetle like Phloesinus punctatus
(western cedar bark beetle), which is common in
fallen branches of giant sequoia could, in drought
periods, become more detrimental (Wood 1992).
More research is needed.
4. Further complicating these complex ecosystem
interactions is the influence of human activities.
Fire suppression, whereas beneficial in many ways,
has altered stand development in the giant sequoia/
mixed-conifer ecosystem. Changes in stand density
and species makeup may be aggravating disease
and insect relationships (Piirto 1977). Prescribed
burning, on the other hand, has both beneficial and
detrimental effects. Wounds caused by fire have
unquestionably been associated with both disease
and insect attack in forest trees (Manion 1991).
5. Young-growth giant sequoia both in and planted
outside its native range are vulnerable to a whole
host of insect and disease problems. Botryosphaeria
spp and Armillaria spp appear to be two major
pathogens commonly associated with disease prob-
lems in young-growth giant sequoia trees. Little is
known about the vulnerability of young-growth
giant sequoia trees to insect and disease attack both
within and outside of its native range.
6. Other time dependent events (e.g., aging) may be
influencing susceptibility of giant sequoia to attack
by insect and disease organisms; and insect/disease
associations currently present may be to some
degree affected by the age of the tree.
7. Fire and mechanically damaged roots, stems, limbs
and other tree tissues serve as entrance courts to
pathogen and insect attack. It is incumbent upon
managers of giant sequoia groves to take appropriate
protective measures to minimize deleterious
effects of forest management practices on the giant
sequoia/mixed-conifer ecosystem. At the very least,
it is essential that we study these influences as we
move forward with deciding which management
approaches are appropriate for giant sequoia groves.
8. Much is still unknown about disease and insect
relationships in the giant sequoia/mixed-conifer
ecosystem.
It is important to remember insects, disease and other
microorganisms when evaluating ecological relationships at
work in the giant sequoia/mixed-conifer ecosystem.
Acknowledgments
I thank the USDI National Park Service and the
McIntire Stennis Research Program for continuing to provide
financial support for the research I and my colleagues are
conducting on insect, disease and fire relationships in giant
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep.PSW-151. 1994.
sequoia. I also want to thank the USDA Forest Service for
allowing me to work on an intermittent basis for the Sierra
and Sequoia National Forests. This work experience has
enabled me to keep close to the issues that are confronting
this nation with reference to the management of our public
lands. Grateful appreciation is extended to Mr. Kevin Piper,
Ms. Amy Workinger, Dr. John R. Parmeter Jr., Dr. David L.
Wood, Dr. Fields Cobb Jr., Dr. June Wang, Dr. Harold
Burdsall, Dr. W. Wayne Wilcox, Dr. Tom Chase, Dr. William
Otrosina, Dr. David Parsons, Dr. Jan van Wagtendonk and
many others too numerous to list here for their research
assistance over the last several years.
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