Topic X Thinking Skills

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define thinking;
2. Explain the different thinking styles;
3. Distinguish key elements between a good and poor thinker;
4. Describe the importance of thinking;
5. Compare the two phases in the thinking process; and
6. Describe the functions and roles of the right and left brain.

X INTRODUCTION
William James (1842ă1910), often referred to as the father of American psychology,
once stated that, „A great many people think they are thinking when they are
merely rearranging their prejudices.‰ According to him, the fact that there is
mental activity taking place in the minds of individuals does not mean that they
are thinking. In his book, entitled „You Were Born Rich,‰ Bob Proctor (1997) wrote,
„Thinking is the highest function of which a human being is capable.‰ He added
that many people link thinking to simple mind activities like refreshing of the
faculty of memory, playing old movies and remembering events in the past.
Obviously, this is not what RodinÊs great work of art portrays.

      
                    
 
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We are all constantly thinking almost involuntarily and compulsively. The reason
many people donÊt delve deeper into their thought processes because it requires
us to be receptive and to be challenged to reach further depths of our thinking.
This is the reason why so few people actually think. Edison once stated, „There is
no expedient to which a man will go to avoid the real labour of thinking,‰ and
according to Emerson, the hardest task in the world is to think.

One of the main reasons why people do not think more or in depth is because they
are so busy with other things that they do not have time to conceive, cogitate and
consider. Human beings today are so used to being entertained and bombarded
with so much information that they hardly have any time to reflect on even just a
fraction of their thoughts.

„Rarely do we find men who willingly engage in hard, solid thinking. There is
an almost universal quest for easy answers and half-baked solutions. Nothing
pains some people more than having to think.‰
(Martin Luther King)

It is a natural process to think. We are constantly reminded by authoritative figures

to think and to „use our brains‰ when in fact what we really have to know how to
do is to engage deeper into our thinking processes, to be thinking skilfully and
reflectively. Since, individuals today are so used to quick answers and ready-made
solutions when in fact, the problems and challenges of our lives are difficult and
complex. Thus, these problems actually require fostering a more thoughtful
reflection that goes beyond thinking on a surface level.

It should be understood that the greatest value of reading is not the information
but rather what we think and how we process this information while reading,
which makes the choice of reading material an important factor to take into
account. A person should understand that the main objective of reading is not to
fill the mind with information but to arouse the mind to think and ponder. A
reader should pause from time to time to contemplate and reflect on what has been
read. This will help in stimulating the thinking process, as well as in applying what
has been read in everyday life. Clarity is power, and it emerges from thinking.

Human beings do not just need to think but should think carefully about the
choices and direction of their lives. Time is the most precious resource that
individuals have and it is believed that the life of a person is the sum total of what
he does with that time. Hence, it would be definitely worth it to spend more of our
time in constructive and in-depth thought processes.

      
                    
 
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1.1 DEFINITION OF THINKING

Thinking is defined by Ruggiero. V. R. (2008) as a purposeful mental activity over
which we have some power or control. This can be understood by looking at the
scenario where a person sitting in the driverÊs seat of a car is driving only when he
holds the steering wheel in his hands and controls the movements of the car. Thus,
the activity in the minds of individuals becomes thinking only when it is being
directed such as shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: The activity of the humanÊs mind becomes thinking only when it is directed
Source: http://www.sonic.net

SELF-CHECK 1.1

„A mental activity must be purposeful, directed and controlled, and must

be carried out by the conscious exercise of will before it is considered as
ÂthinkingÊ.‰

Do you agree with the statement above? To answer this, ask yourself
whether a mental activity can be purposeful, directed and controlled, and
yet be carried out subconsciously.

There are as many different purposes of thinking as there are of travelling. Many
times, we may be on a relaxing drive through a scenic road without any particular
destination in mind. In the same way, we may travel in different conditions and
with different degrees of competence. Although we may be travelling in darkness
or light, slowly or fast, in the correct or wrong path, as long as we are navigating
in our minds, we are thinking.

      
                    
 
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However, this does not suggest that thinking must always be carried out in a
conscious state of mind. Evidence shows that the sub-conscious or non-conscious
thinking can also produce great results. As many of us have experienced,
constructive thoughts and ideas come to us when we are in the midst of doing
something not related to the problem under investigation. There may have been
times when we faced a particular problem but chose not to solve it then and
shelved it for a few days, even though we could see glimpses of the solution. Then
one fine morning, while walking or jogging, the solution to the problem suddenly
emerges out of nowhere. This is indeed an example of sub-conscious thinking.
According to a study, decisions made intuitively or by instinct go through the
brain. Such intuitive decisions depend on past experiences and external signals
and are regarded as sub-conscious thinking. Reflex actions, however, are fast and
done without thinking. They involve signals that bypass the brain and are carried
out on a non-conscious level.

Ruggiero, V. (2008) has formally defined thinking as „any mental activity that
helps formulate or solve a problem, make a decision or fulfil a desire to
understand.‰

SELF-CHECK 1.2
Consider the formal definition of thinking in the preceding paragraph.

How is this different from the definition that thinking is a „purposeful

mental activity over which we have some power or control„? Discuss.

Among the most important mental activities included in the thinking process are:

(a) Careful observation;

(b) Remembering;

(c) Wondering;

(d) Inquiring;

(e) Imagining;

      
                    
 
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(f) Evaluating;

(g) Judging; and

(h) Interpreting.

In solving a problem or making a decision, a combination of the abovementioned

activities is normally required. When dealing with problems, we often question
ourselves and carefully analyse the situation before arriving at a conclusion or
decision.

Several attempts have been made to describe the nature of thinking. The most
popular view (currently regarded as unimportant) is that thinking is completely
verbal. This theory suggests that individuals arrange words in their minds or
silently whisper to themselves when they think. However, if this is true, then
Albert Einstein could not be considered a thinker, as his thinking comprised
mostly images rather than words. Many current authorities believe that the form
of thought that occurs in the minds of individuals is usually verbal, although it
may not be necessarily so. These experts feel that just as an idea can be expressed
in mathematical symbols or diagrams besides words, individuals may also
conceive thoughts in the same ways.

Figure 1.2: Albert Einstein

Source: http://www.widelec.org/zdjecie,albert-einstein,2644,9.html

Albert Einstein (1879ă1955), (Figure 1.2) was a German-born American physicist

who developed the special and general theories of relativity and received the
Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921. He said, „Imagination is more important than
knowledge. For knowledge is limited to all we now know and understand, while
imagination embraces the entire world and all there ever will be to know and
understand.‰

      
                    
 
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1.2 IMPORTANCE OF THINKING

To successfully analyse a problem or issue, one requires factual knowledge (which
includes knowing the historical context of the problem or issue) and an
understanding of the relevant principles and concepts.

Factual knowledge is something that is already known, while in most cases, the
solutions are not only unknown to the individual facing the problem but are also
brand new and specifically designed to fit a particular issue. Thus, it can be
concluded that having factual knowledge does not mean that a person is
guaranteed of being able to solve the problem. Many of us may regard ourselves
as „walking encyclopaedias‰ but when the time comes, we may not be able to solve
a particular problem. To become a successful problem solver, an individual has to
possess both factual knowledge and good thinking skills.

The importance of having the ability to think well can only be appreciated when
an individual is faced with various situations in his life where the circumstances
require skills like analysing, solving problems and making the correct decisions.
For instance, these include deciding and evaluating on aspects such as:

(a) What degree to pursue in University;

(b) How to invest wisely;

(c) How to handle children in certain situations;

(d) How to work with difficult bosses;

(e) What to do when parents are incapable of taking care of themselves; and

(f) Which political candidate to vote for in the elections.

Today, individuals with skills in problem solving, issue analysis and decision
making have a better chance at employment and are regarded as assets within the
organisation they are working for. In the past, most of the thinking was carried out
by executives and other employees had only to execute the tasks assigned to them.
Now, however, employees with thinking power who are capable of generating
ideas for the improvement of the organisation are greatly valued by their
employers.

      
                    
 
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This has become so because of the following three developments:

x Knowledge explosion;
x Communications technology; and
x Rise in the global economy.

(a) Knowledge Explosion

Increase in research findings has increased the amount of information
available in all fields, making it impossible for any individual to completely
master a single discipline.

(b) Communication Technology

Likewise, in the area of communications, technology is developing so fast
that within less than two decades after the invention of the personal
computer, thousands of different software and hardware products have been
launched in the market. The growth of organisations such as Microsoft, Intel,
Dell and several „dot.coms‰ has brought instability to many companies,
including established and successful ones. In such an era, individuals who
possess problem solving and good decision making skills will survive and
less likely become victims of downsizing. Even if they are retrenched, they
will be able to find other employment.

(c) Rise in the Global Economy

Many changes have led to the development of global economy. This include
the satellite transmission of television programmes, the rise in business
competition from different countries, the opening of former Soviet countries
to trade and the signing of a new generation of trade agreements such as the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). In order to meet challenges and
grab opportunities offered by global economy, expertise in critical and
creative thinking is vital. This means that individuals with those skills will
be in higher demand than those without them.

ACTIVITY 1.1
1. State the formal definition of thinking.
2. List the mental activities included in the thinking process.
3. Explain the importance of the thinking process.
4. Do you agree with Einstein that „Imagination is more important
than knowledge‰? Why?

      
                    
 
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1.3 INCREASING THINKING POWER

As far as the thinking process is concerned, the human mind has two distinct
phases, namely, the production phase and the judgement phase (Figure 1.3).
Expertise in thinking requires the mastery of all approaches suitable to each phase,
and the skill to move back and forth between them.

Figure 1.3: The thinking process of the human mind has two distinct phases

1.3.1 Production Phase

The production phase is closely linked with creative thinking. At this stage, the
mind generates different conceptions of a problem, various methods of handling
it and possible solutions to it. In short, this phase refers to thinking out-of-the-box.

It is believed that good thinkers are capable of producing more and better ideas
compared to poor thinkers. This is because good thinkers are more innovative,
which enables them to produce more ideas. Moreover, good thinkers tend to view
a problem from different angles before choosing an appropriate one and consider
many different approaches to a problem. They are able to generate many ideas
before making a decision. Better still, they are also more prepared to take
intellectual risks, are more adventurous and imaginative.

On the other hand, poor thinkers view a problem from a limited number of
standpoints, hastily adopt the first approach their minds perceive as a solution, make
hurried judgements and rarely think of more ideas. Most of the time, they make
decisions that would be expected.

1.3.2 Judgement Phase

The judgement phase is more closely linked with critical thinking, where the mind
studies and evaluates what it has generated, makes its decision, and where
necessary, modifies it.

      
                    
 
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At this phase, good thinkers are very careful and analytical. They assess their first
impressions, make important distinctions and support their conclusions based on
facts instead of emotions and feelings. Since they are aware of their limitations and
predispositions, they re-check the logic of their thinking and the workability of
their solutions. They refine their ideas by identifying any imperfection and
complication, and predict any negative response that may arise from their
decision.

Conversely, poor thinkers are known to make judgements too fast without
thinking critically and to make decisions based on emotions and feelings rather
than on evidence. They are also unaware of their limitations and predispositions,
thus creating a possibility that there may be several flaws in their thought
processes.

All thinkers have their own share of confusions, mental blocks and failures.
However, good thinkers have mastered ways to face their frustrations while poor
thinkers have the habit of mourning over their situation and allowing failure to
make them feel incapable and incompetent.

Table 1.1 lists the various differences observed between good and poor thinkers.

Table 1.1: Characteristics of Good and Poor Thinkers

Good Thinkers Poor Thinkers

Study a problem thoroughly and Uncertain on how to approach a problem.
implement constructive plans to solve it.
Apply their knowledge in solving the Have the notion that their knowledge is
problem accordingly. insufficient.
Are reflective and research extensively Are overly confident of the correctness of
where needed. initial ideas.
Solve a problem systematically and Jump from one stage of a problem to
analytically. another without thorough planning and
thinking.
Have faith and trust in their reasoning Have no faith in their reasoning power and
power and confidence level. lack in confidence.
Are determined and focused throughout Lack a serious attitude and take things
the period of problem solving. lightly and for granted.
Revise goals when necessary. Do not revise goals.
Are open to different possibilities and Do not seek alternative routes to solutions
outcomes. or those that are different from the initial
ones.

      
                    
 
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Did you know...

Good thinkers are willing to think and may even find thinking enjoyable. They
can carry out searches when necessary and suspend judgement. They value
rationality, believing that thinking is useful for solving problems, reaching
decisions, and making judgements. Poor thinkers, in contrast, need certainty,
avoid thinking, must reach closure quickly, and rely too heavily on intuition.

Adapted from Kjos, B. (1995)

Many people believe that good thinkers are born rather than made. However, this
is not entirely factual for several reasons. Many a time, we come across people who
have better thinking abilities than others. However, an individual can improve his
or her thinking capability within a period of time. Thinking effectively is a skill
that anyone can develop progressively if guided and trained accordingly.

In order to be a good thinker, you do not need a high IQ. In fact, it was proven by
E. Paul Torrance that 70% of creative people actually have an IQ score of below
135 (as quoted in Mackall, D. D. (1998)).

ACTIVITY 1.2
Do you agree or disagree with the statement, „Good thinkers are born
rather than made„? Justify your argument.

People trying to increase their thinking skills face the problem of changing their
old ways and mindset. However, if an individual has a burning desire to improve
himself and is eager to apply the knowledge he has so far obtained, thinking
becomes interesting and achievable. We must understand that nothing is
impossible in life.

ACTIVITY 1.3

1. Identify the two phases involved in the thinking process. Give an

example of activity found at each phase.

2. Compare and contrast the characteristics of a good and a poor

thinker in both the phases involved in the thinking process.

      
                    
 
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1.4 ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE RIGHT

AND LEFT BRAIN
Brain research carried out by medical scientists revealed that the structure of the
brain is actually more complex than imagined. The first breakthrough was when a
neurosurgeon started to treat patients with epilepsy in a new manner. In the
treatment, he cut the corpus callosum, the thick band of nerve fibres that connected
the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, in order to relieve the symptoms of the
disease. This separation of the two hemispheres was important because it allowed
scientists to study the respective roles played by the right and left hemispheres
(Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Right and left hemispheres of the human brain

Source: http://creativitymeansbusiness.com/images/brain.gif

ACTIVITY 1.4
Surf the web and find out as much as you can about the human brainÊs
anatomy. Discuss your findings with your classmates.

Neuroscientists believe that the right hemisphere is involved in the learning

process and controls non-verbal, symbolic and intuitive responses. In contrast, the
left hemisphere controls the use of language, logical reasoning, analytical power
and the performance of sequential tasks (Figure 1.5).

                    
 
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Figure 1.5: It is generally accepted that the dominant functions of the right hemisphere
include imaginative and intuitive features while the left hemisphere relates to
organisational and analytical skills
Source: http://theswash.com/tag/monarchy/

This led to the idea that there are individuals who are „left-brained‰ and those
who are „right-brained.‰ So far, the data obtained suggest that no individuals use
only one side of the brain at a particular time and the presence of corpus callosum
reinforces the fact that there is a significant integration between these two
hemispheres.

Medical scientists believe that both sides of the brain are capable of reasoning out
a problem but by employing different strategies, one side may be dominant
compared to the other. In solving a particular problem, the left brain uses the
analytical approach whereas the right brain uses the holistic or global approach. A
left brain user, who is also known as a successive processor, tends to learn in a
step-by-step sequential manner beginning with details and arriving at a
conceptual understanding of a skill. In contrast, a right brain user (a simultaneous
processor) tends to master a skill starting with the general concept and then
moving on to the details.