Principal structures of an animal cell

 Cytoplasm surrounds the cell's specialized structures, or

organelles.
 Ribosomes, the sites of protein synthesis, are found free in the
cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, through which
materials are transported throughout the cell.
 Energy needed by the cell is released by the mitochondria.
 The Golgi complex, stacks of flattened sacs, processes and
packages materials to be released from the cell in secretory
vesicles.
 Digestive enzymes are contained in lysosomes.
 Peroxisomes contain enzymes that detoxify dangerous substances.
 The centrosome contains the centrioles, which play a role in cell
division.
 The microvilli are fingerlike extensions found on certain cells.
Cilia, hairlike structures that extend from the surface of many cells,
can create movement of surrounding fluid.
 The nuclear envelope, a double membrane surrounding the
nucleus, contains pores that control the movement of substances
into and out of the nucleoplasm. Chromatin, a combination of
DNA and proteins that coil into chromosomes, makes up much of
the nucleoplasm. The dense nucleolus is the site of ribosome
production.

The Nature And Function Of Cells

 A cell is enclosed by a plasma membrane, which forms a selective
barrier that allows nutrients to enter and waste products to leave.
The interior of the cell is organized into many specialized
compartments, or organelles, each surrounded by a separate
membrane. One major organelle, the nucleus, contains the genetic
information necessary for cell growth and reproduction.
 Each cell contains only one nucleus, whereas other types of
organelles are present in multiple copies in the cellular contents,
 or cytoplasm. Organelles include mitochondria, which are
responsible for the energy transactions necessary for cell
survival; lysosomes, which digest unwanted materials within the
cell; and the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus, which
play important roles in the internal organization of the cell by
synthesizing selected molecules and then processing, sorting, and
directing them to their proper locations. In addition, plant cells
contain chloroplasts, which are responsible for photosynthesis,
whereby the energy of sunlight is used to convert molecules
of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) into carbohydrates.
 Between all these organelles is the space in the cytoplasm called
the cytosol. The cytosol contains an organized framework of
fibrous molecules that constitute the cytoskeleton, which gives a
cell its shape, enables organelles to move within the cell, and
provides a mechanism by which the cell itself can move. The
cytosol also contains more than 10,000 different kinds of
molecules that are involved in cellular biosynthesis, the process of
making large biological molecules from small ones.

 Specialized organelles are a characteristic of cells of organisms

known as eukaryotes. In contrast, cells of organisms known
as prokaryotes do not contain organelles and are generally smaller
than eukaryotic cells. However, all cells share strong similarities in
biochemical function.

The molecules of cells

cell: cell ingests moleculesCells ingest molecules through their plasma membranes.Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc.

Cells contain a special collection of molecules that are enclosed by a

membrane. These molecules give cells the ability to grow
and reproduce. The overall process of cellular reproduction occurs in
two steps: cell growth and cell division.
  During cell growth, the cell ingests certain molecules from its
surroundings by selectively carrying them through its cell
membrane. Once inside the cell, these molecules are subjected to
the action of highly specialized, large, elaborately4 folded
molecules called enzymes. Enzymes act as catalysts by binding to
ingested molecules and regulating the rate at which they are
chemically altered. These chemical alterations make the molecules
more useful to the cell. Unlike the ingested molecules, catalysts are
not chemically altered themselves during the reaction, allowing
one catalyst to regulate a specific chemical reaction in many
molecules.
Biological catalysts create chains of reactions. In other words,
a molecule chemically transformed by one catalyst serves as the starting
material, or substrate, of a second catalyst and so on creating
increasingly complex reaction products. These products are used for cell
growth and the replication of genetic material. Once the genetic material
has been copied and there are sufficient molecules to support cell
division, the cell divides to create two daughter cells. Through many
such cycles of cell growth and division, each parent cell can give rise to
millions of daughter cells, in the process converting large amounts of
inanimate matter into biologically active molecules.
Cell theory (ESG4T)
The cell theory developed in 1839 by microbiologists Schleiden and Schwann describes
the properties of cells. It is an explanation of the relationship between cells and living
things. The theory states that:

 all living things are made of cells and their products.

 new cells are created by old cells dividing into two.
 cells are the basic building blocks of life.
The cell theory applies to all living things, however big or small. The modern
understanding of cell theory extends the concepts of the original cell theory to include
the following:

 The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.

 Energy flow occurs in cells through the breakdown of carbohydrates by
respiration.
 Cells contain the information necessary for the creation of new cells. This
information is known as 'hereditary information' and is contained within DNA.
 The contents of cells from similar species are basically the same.
DNA (the hereditary information of cells) is passed from 'parent' cells to 'daughter' cells
during cell division. You will learn more about this in the following chapter: Cell
division.

Cells are the smallest form of life; the functional and structural units of all living things.
Your body contains several billion cells, organised into over 200 major types, with
hundreds of cell-specific functions.

Some functions performed by cells are so vital to the existence of life that all cells
perform them (e.g. cellular respiration). Others are highly specialised (e.g.
photosynthesis).

Cell wall (ESG4V)

The cell wall is a rigid non-living layer that is found outside the cell membrane and
surrounds the cell. Plants, bacteria and fungi all have cell walls. In plants, the wall is
comprised of cellulose. It consists of three layers that help support the plant. These
layers include the middle lamella, the primary cell wall and the secondary cell wall.

Middle lamella: Separates one cell from another. It is a thin membranous layer on the
outside of the cell and is made of a sticky substance called pectin.

Primary cell wall: Is on the inside of the middle lamella and is mainly composed of
cellulose.

Secondary cell wall: Lies alongside the cell membrane. It is is made up of a thick and
tough layer of cellulose which is held together by a hard, waterproof substance called
lignin. It is only found in cells which provide mechanical support in plants.

The human body cannot break down the cellulose in cell walls because we do not
produce the enzyme cellulase.
Functions of the cell wall

 The main function of the wall is to protect the inner parts of the plant cell, it gives
plant cells a more uniform and regular shape and provides support for the plant body.
 The cell wall is completely permeable to water and mineral salts which allows
distribution of nutrients throughout the plant.
 The openings in the cell wall are called plasmodesmata which contain strands of
cytoplasm that connect adjacent cells. This allows cells to interact with one another,
allowing molecules to travel between plant cells.

Cell membrane (ESG4W)

The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, physically separates the
intracellular space (inside the cell) from the extracellular environment (outside the cell).
All plant and animal cells have cell membranes. The cell membrane surrounds and
protects the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is part of the protoplasm and is the living
component of the cell.

The cell membrane is composed of a double layer (bilayer) of special lipids (fats)
called phospholipids. Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and
a hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail. The hydrophilic head of the phospholipid
is polar (charged) and can therefore dissolve in water. The hydrophobic tail is non-
polar (uncharged), and cannot dissolve in water.

The lipid bilayer forms spontaneously due to the properties of the phospholipid
molecules. In an aqueous environment, the polar heads try to form hydrogen bonds with
the water, while the non-polar tails try to escape from the water. The problem is solved
by the formation of a bilayer because the hydrophilic heads can point outwards and
from hydrogen bonds with water, and the hydrophobic tails point towards one another
and are 'protected' from the water molecules (Figure 2.11.

All the exchanges between the cell and its environment have to pass through the cell
membrane. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions (e.g. hydrogen,
sodium), small molecules (oxygen, carbon dioxide) and larger molecules (glucose and
amino acids) and controls the movement of substances in and out of the cells. The cell
 membrane performs many important functions within the cell such as osmosis, diffusion,
transport of nutrients into the cell, processes of ingestion and secretion. The cell
membrane is strong enough to provide the cell with mechanical support and flexible
enough to allow cells to grow and move.

Structure of the cell membrane: the fluid mosaic model

S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson proposed the Fluid Mosaic Model of the cell membrane in
1972. This model describes the structure of the cell membrane as a fluid structure with
various protein and carbohydrate components diffusing freely across the membrane.
The structure and function of each component of the membrane is provided in the table
below.

Component
(see Figure Structure Function
2.12)

Consists of two layers of It is a semi-permeable structure that does not allow

phospholipids. Each phospholipid materials to pass
Phospholipid
has a polar, hydrophilic (water- through the membrane freely, thus protecting the intra
bilayer
soluble) head as well as a non-polar, and
hydrophobic (water-insoluble) tail. extracellular environments of the cell.

These are proteins found spanning

the membrane from the inside of the
cell (in the cytoplasm) to the outside
Membrane Act as carrier proteins which control the movement
of the cell. Membrane proteins have
proteins of specific ions and molecules across the cell membrane.
hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions
that allow them to fit into the cell
membrane.
 Consist of short carbohydrate chains
attached to polypeptide chains and
Glycoproteins These proteins are useful for cell-to-cell recognition.
are found on the extracellular regions
of the membrane.

Carbohydrate chains attached to

Act as recognition sites for specific chemicals
Glycolipids phospholipids on the outside surface
and are important in cell-to-cell attach
of the membrane.

Movement across membranes (ESG4X)

Movement of substances across cell membranes is necessary as it allows cells to

acquire oxygen and nutrients, excrete waste products and control the concentration of
required substances in the cell (e.g oxygen, water, hormones, ions, etc). The key
processes through which such movement occurs include diffusion, osmosis,
facilitated diffusion and active transport.

Learn about the different ways that molecules can travel across cell membranes.

Video: 2CPD
1. Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of substances from a region of high concentration to low

concentration. It is therefore said to occur down a concentration gradient.

Diffusion is a passive process which means it does not require any energy input. It can
occur across a living or non-living membrane and can occur in a liquid or gas medium.
Due to the fact that diffusion occurs across a concentration gradient it can result in the
movement of substances into or out of the cell. Examples of substances moved by
diffusion include carbon dioxide, oxygen, water and other small molecules that are able
to dissolve within the lipid bilayer.

Cell Biology - The Cell

The following are examples of specialized cells:

Sperm Cells - Sperm cells serve to fertilize the female egg to form the embryo.

Red Blood Cells - Red cells contain a protein molecule known as hemoglobin and
serve to transport oxygen to all parts of the body and expel carbon dioxide from the
body.

White Blood Cells - There are different types of white blood cells that serve to
protect the body from disease causing organisms.

- Basophils, Lymphocytes, Neutrophils, Monocytes, Eosinophils

Cardiomyocytes - These are cardiac muscle cells that make up the heart muscle.

Nerve Cells (neurons) - These are cells of the nervous system that transmit
information to and from different parts of the body (information is transmitted as
electric and chemical signals). See also Sensory Cells.

Cell Components and Organelles

Cell Organelles
Cell organelles may be described as cell subunits specialized to carry out given
functions within the cell. There are different types of organelles in cells that carry out
given functions.

The following are some of organelles that can be found in a cell (excluding the cell
membrane, cytosol and nucleus which are mentioned above):

Mitochondria - The mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles and sites of ATP

synthesis. The mitochondria is also surrounded by a double membrane (with the inner
membrane being highly folded forming the cristae). This organelle is commonly referred
to as a power- generator given that it converts oxygen and nutrients in to a chemical
energy known as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) which provides the energy required for
various activities of the cell. Apart from being a site for ATP synthesis, the
mitochondrion is also involved in the self-destruction of a cell in a process known as
apoptosis.

Ribosomes - Found in the cytoplasm and the surface of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosomes are composed of RNA and proteins. They may be described as the
"cell factories" given that they are responsible for the synthesis of protein molecules.

Lysosomes - These are sac-like structures that are surrounded by a membrane (a

single membrane). Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes, which are responsible for
breaking down proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. In addition, lysosomes are also
involved in the removal of waste molecules as well as recycling of molecular subunits.

Golgi body - These are flattened structures in a cell responsible for temporary storage
of protein in the cell.

Vacuoles - Vacuoles are also enclosed by a membrane and function to store such
material as food, water, minerals and waste products among others.

Cell cycle refers to a sequence in actively dividing cells where the cells pass through
several stages before ultimately dividing.

The stages of cell cycle include:

 Two gap phases (G1 and G2)

 The S phase (synthesis)
 The M phase

At GI, the metabolic changes take place preparing the cell for the division process. At a
given point known as the restriction point, the cell is committed to cell division and
moves to the next phase.

S - The S phase involves DNA synthesis. It is during this phase that the replication of
genetic material starts with each of the chromosome having two chromatic sisters.

G2 - During this phase, there are metabolic changes that assemble the necessary
cytoplasmic materials for the mitosis process and splitting of the mother cell.
M - The M phase is where nuclear division takes place and followed by the division of
the cell.

For most animals, cells may divide by mitosis or meiosis. While the two processes result
in the production of new cells, they are different and produce different daughter cells.

Mitosis
Mitosis is the type of cell division that occurs in all somatic cells. These are the types of
cells that make up the body tissues (apart from gametes/sex cells). Therefore, the
primary role of mitosis is growth and replacing worn out cells.

Essentially, mitosis results in diploid cells from one cell. Here, the chromosome is
copied followed by the separation of the copies on different sides of the cell before the
cell ultimately separates into two. In the end, each of the new cells has a copy of the
chromosome.

Mitosis has 5 major phases, which include:

Interphase - Here, the DNA strand is replicated/copied to produce what is known as

a bivalent chromosome (consisting of two chromatids or DNA strands that are replicas
of each other). During the interphase stage, the new strand is attached to the original
one at a point known as the centromere.

Prophase - This is the second stage of mitosis. Here, the bivalent chromosomes
formed during interphase condense to form tight packages.

Metaphase - This is the third stage where each of the chromosome line up at the
center of the cell. The nucleus membrane has already started dissolving with each of
the mitotic spindles attaching themselves to each of the chromatids. Here, it appears as
if the chromatids are being stretched towards either pole of the cell.

Anaphase - During anaphase, the fourth stage of mitosis, the chromatids that had
attached to the spindles are separated (the chromatids are separated from their copies)
and pulled to either side of the cell. This results in two groups of monovalent
chromosomes.
Telophase - At the end of anaphase, another stage starts where nuclear membranes
start to form around the two formed groups of chromosomes. The spindle fibers that
attached to the chromatids get disassembled. Here, the chromosomes also condense.

Eventually, the cytoplasm divides/splits with a cell membrane forming on each of the
two daughter cells. This process is known as cytokinesis. Each of the new cells has 46
monovalent chromosomes and has identical genetic information as the other.

In mitosis, it is important that the same genetic information is copied when forming
new cells. This is because the chromosomes have all the information concerning the
function of the cell.

Successful copying of information on to the new cells ensures that the new cell
functions properly. In the event that there is a problem, then the new cell will be unable
to perform its function as it should be. This would result in complications depending on
the function of the cell.

Meiosis
Unlike mitosis, meiosis produces haploid cells

Diploid - Two new daughter cells from the original cell with the same number of
chromosomes.

Haploid - With meiosis (a reductive type of cell division) the resulting cells will have
less number of chromosomes.

Stages

Meiosis is also different from mitosis in that there are two phases of cell division. These
are meiosis I and meiosis II.

Prophase 1 - Here, the homologous chromosomes pair and exchange DNA form
recombinant chromosomes. This stage ends with the spindle fibers starting to form to
attach to the chromosomes.

Metaphase 1 - The bivalent chromosomes arranges double row having attached to

the spindle fibers.

Anaphase 1 - The homologous chromosomes (in each bivalent) are separated and
move to opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase 1 - With the separation of the chromosomes, a nuclear membrane starts
to form around the two groups of the chromosomes. This is followed by cytokinesis
where the cell splits to form two new cells. This is again followed by meiosis II. Meiosis
II follows the same process as meiosis I. However, this halves the number of
chromosomes.

* Meiosis is an important process that results in genetic diversity.

Cell Biology - Cell Differentiation

All cells originate from a single cell (a single fertilized egg). In cell differentiation, cells
become specialized as the body develops. Apart from the single original cell (the
fertilized egg), stem cells are also unspecialized. However, under certain conditions,
they can differentiate to become specialized cells that serve a specific function(s).

Although the differentiated somatic cells are different in that they perform different
functions, they contain the same genome. However, the different types of cells only
express some of these genes, which results in the differences between them
(morphological and physiological differences between the cells)

Cell Biology - Signal Transduction/Signaling

In cells, signal transductions involve the transmission of molecular signals. This is

particularly from the exterior of the cell to its interior for appropriate cell response.
Signals (biochemical changes) may either come from the environment the cell is in or
from other cells that trigger changes.

Cells have receptors on the surface of the cell, which receives the signal prompting a
response. For a response to take place, the signal has to be transmitted across the cell
membrane.

Some of the common intracellular messengers include:

  cAMP,
 cGMP,
 nitric oxide,
 lipids
 Ca2+ ions

Cell signaling is very important given that it helps control and maintain the normal
physiological processes in the body. Different signaling processes will result in varying
responses including cell differentiation, proliferation of cells as well as metabolism
among others.

Cell Biology Techniques

Cell biology is largely concerned with the study of the structure and functions of cells
(morphological and physiological). For this reason, a number of techniques have to be
employed.

Some of the main cell biology techniques include:

 Tissue culture/Cell Culture

 Microscopy Imaging
 Staining

Tissue Culture

Cells and tissues can be cultured using complex media. With cells and tissues from
more complex organisms, the culture media has to be more complex so as to provide
the same environment as the environment from which the cell/tissue was obtained.

As for the tissue, the culturing process also allows for single cells to be obtained from
the tissue in question for more studies.

The culture process requires the following:

 A solid media - Agar media

  Growth media - This contains nutrients such as amino acids, vitamins, salts,
glucose and growth factors among others.

Cell culture is an important technique given that it allows for only a sample (cells or
tissue) to be used to learn more about the cells without the need to use the organism
as a whole. This also gives scientists a great opportunity to study the cells under
varying conditions.

See Also: Cell Culture

Microscopy Imaging

Microscopes have been used since the 1670s to observe cells. Today, microscopes have
become indispensable tools in cell biology. There are many more microscopy techniques
today that have allowed for better viewing of cells.

In recent years, the world of microscopy has experienced advancements in imaging

technologies enabling increased amounts of information for microscopic analysis.

Some of the most common techniques used in cell biology include:

 Bright field microscopy

 Fluorescence microscopy
 Immunofluorescence
 Time lapse microscopy

Staining

Staining goes hand in hand with microscopy. Although it may be regarded as an

important part of microscopy, staining is itself very useful in cell biology. It allows for
increased contrast which in turn allows for scientists to view different parts of a cell
clearly.
Although staining is highly useful when it comes to viewing specimen under the
microscope, it cannot be used when a scientist wants to observe living cells.

Conclusion

Cell biology is an important discipline that has allowed for viewing and studying of
cells for decades now. It has become particularly important to differentiate and
determine different types of cells, cell processes as well as understanding of various
diseases and illnesses associated with cell malfunctioning.

With advancements in various cell biology techniques, it is becoming easier to learn

more about cells and cell processes for effective intervention where necessary.

We will now look at the key organelles that make up the cell. It is important to bear in
mind that structure and function are closely related in all living systems. When studying
each organelle, ensure that you observe the specific structures (from micrographs) that
allow the organelle to perform its specific function.

Cytoplasm (ESG4Z)

The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell. It consists of up
to 90%90% water. It also contains dissolved nutrients and waste products. Its main
function is to hold together the organelles which make up the cytoplasm. It also
nourishes the cell by supplying it with salts and sugars and provides a medium for
metabolic reactions to occur.
REVISIONYou may have encountered the terms cytoplasm, nucleoplasm and
protoplasm earlier in Grade 9. Cytoplasm is the part of the cell that is within the cell
membrane and excludes the nucleus. Nucleoplasm is the substance of the cell
nucleus, i.e. everything within the nucleus that is not part of the
nucleolus. Protoplasm is the colourless material comprising the living part of a cell,
including the cytoplasm, nucleus and other organelles.

All the contents of prokaryotic cells are contained within the cytoplasm. In eukaryotic
cells, all the organelles are contained within the cytoplasm except the nucleolus which is
contained within the nucleus.
Functions of the cytoplasm

 The cytoplasm provides mechanical support to the cell by exerting pressure

against the cell's membrane which helps keep the shape of the cell. This pressure is
known as turgor pressure.
 It is the site of most cellular activities including metabolism, cell division and
protein synthesis.
 The cytoplasm contains ribosomes which assist in the synthesis of protein.
 The cytoplasm acts a storage area for small carbohydrate, lipid and protein
molecules.
 The cytoplasm suspends and can transport organelles around the cell.

Nucleus (ESG52)

The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and contains all the cell's genetic
information in the form of DNA. The presence of a nucleus is the primary factor that
distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes. The structure of the nucleus is described
below:

Nuclear envelope: two lipid membranes that are studded with special proteins that
separates the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm.

Nuclear pores: tiny holes called nuclear pores are found in the nuclear envelope and
help to regulate the exchange of materials (such as RNA and proteins) between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Chromatin: thin long strands of DNA and protein.

Nucleolus: the nucleolus makes RNA another type of nucleic acid.

During cell division, DNA contracts and folds to form distinct structures called
chromosomes. The chromosomes are formed at the start of cell division.

The genetic material of eukaryotic organisms is separated from the cytoplasm by a

membrane whereas the genetic material of prokaryotic organisms (like bacteria) is in
direct contact with the cytoplasm.
Mitochondria also contain DNA, called mitochondrial DNA, (mtDNA) but it makes up just
a small percentage of the cell's overall DNA content. All mitochondrial DNA in humans
is derived from the mother's side.

Functions of the nucleus

 The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and facilitate
the replication of DNA during the cell cycle (which you will learn about in the next
chapter).
 The nucleus controls the metabolic functions of the cell by producing mRNA
which encodes for enzymes e.g. insulin.
 The nucleus controls the structure of the cell by transcribing DNA which encodes
for structural proteins such as actin and keratin.
 The nucleus is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is important for
the construction of ribosomes. Ribosomes are the site of protein translation (synthesis
of proteins from amino acids).
 Characteristics are transmitted from parent to offspring through genetic material
contained in the nucleus.

Mitochondria (ESG53)

A mitochondrion is a membrane bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. This

organelle generates the cell's supply of chemical energy by releasing energy stored in
molecules from food and using it to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is a
special type of "energy carrying" molecule.

Structure and function of the mitochondrion

Mitochondria contain two phospholipid bilayers: there is an outer membrane, and an

inner membrane. The inner membrane contains many folds called cristae which contain
specialised membrane proteins that enable the mitochondria to synthesise ATP. Inside
the inner membrane is a jelly-like matrix. Listed from the outermost layer to the
innermost compartment, the compartments of the mitochondrion, are:

 Outer mitochondrial membrane

 Intermembrane space
 Inner mitochondrial membrane
 Cristae (folds of the inner membrane)
 matrix (jelly-like substance within the inner membrane)
 The table below relates each structure to its function.

Structure Function Adaptation to function

Outer mitochondrial Transfer of nutrients (e.g lipids) Has large number of channels to facilitate transfer of
membrane to mitochondrion. molecules.

Its position between two selectively permeable

Intermembrane Stores large proteins allowing
membranes allows it to have a unique composition
space for cellular respiration.
compared to the cytoplasm and the matrix.

Contains folds known as cristae which provide increased

Stores membrane proteins that
Inner membrane surface area, thus enabling production of ATP (chemical
allow for energy production.
potential energy).

Contains enzymes that allow

The matrix is contains a high quantity of protein enzymes
Matrix for the production of ATP
which allow for ATP production.
(energy).

 In Life Sciences it is important to note that whenever a structure has an

increased surface area, there is an increase in the functioning of that structure.

 Endoplasmic reticulum (ESG54)

 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells only.

The ER has a double membrane consisting of a network of hollow tubes,
flattened sheets, and round sacs. These flattened, hollow folds and sacs are
called cisternae. The ER is located in the cytoplasm and is connected to the
nuclear envelope. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: smooth and
rough ER.

 Smooth ER: does not have any ribosomes attached. It is involved in the
synthesis of lipids, including oils, phospholipids and steroids. It is also
 responsible for metabolism of carbohydrates, regulation of calcium concentration
and detoxification of drugs.

 Rough ER: is covered with ribosomes giving the endoplasmic reticulum its rough
appearance. It is responsible for protein synthesis and plays a role in membrane
production. The folds present in the membrane increase the surface area
allowing more ribosomes to be present on the ER, thereby allowing greater
protein production.

Ribosomes (ESG55)

Ribosomes are composed of RNA and protein. They occur in the cytoplasm and are the
sites where protein synthesis occurs. Ribosomes may occur singly in the cytoplasm or
in groups or may be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum thus forming the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are important for protein production. Together with a
structure known as messenger RNA (a type of nucleic acid) ribosomes form a structure
known as a polyribosome which is important in protein synthesis.

Golgi body (ESG56)

The Golgi body is found near the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum. The Golgi body
consists of a stack of flat membrane-bound sacs called cisternae. The cisternae within
the Golgi body consist of enzymes which modify the packaged products of the Golgi
body (proteins).

The Golgi body was discovered by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi. It was one of the
first organelles to be discovered and described in detail because it's large size made it
easier to observe.
Functions of the Golgi body

It is important for proteins to be transported from where they are synthesised to where
they are required in the cell. The organelle responsible for this is the Golgi Body. The
Golgi body is the sorting organelle of the cell.

Proteins are transported from the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) to the Golgi. In
the Golgi, proteins are modified and packaged into vesicle. The Golgi body therefore
receives proteins made in one location in the cell and transfers these to another location
within the cell where they are required. For this reason the Golgi body can be
considered to be the 'post office' of the cell.

Vesicles and lysosomes (ESG57)

Vesicles are small, membrane-bound spherical sacs which facilitate the metabolism,
transport and storage of molecules. Many vesicles are made in the Golgi body and the
endoplasmic reticulum, or are made from parts of the cell membrane. Vesicles can be
classified according to their contents and function. Transport vesicles transport
molecules within the cell.

Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body and contain powerful digestive enzymes that
can potentially digest the cell. Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body or the
endoplasmic reticulum. These powerful enzymes can digest cell structures and food
molecules such as carbohydrates and proteins. Lysosomes are abundant in animal cells
that ingest food through food vacuoles. When a cell dies, the lysosome releases its
enzymes and digests the cell.

Vacuoles (ESG58)

Vacuoles are membrane-bound, fluid-filled organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of

most plant cells, but are very small or completely absent from animal cells. Plant cells
generally have one large vacuole that takes up most of the cell's volume. A selectively
permeable membrane called the tonoplast, surround the vacuole. The vacuole
contains cell sap which is a liquid consisting of water, mineral salts, sugars and amino
acids.

Functions of the vacuole

 The vacuole plays an important role in digestion and excretion of cellular waste
and storage of water and organic and inorganic substances.

 The vacuole takes in and releases water by osmosis in response to changes in

the cytoplasm, as well as in the environment around the cell.
 The vacuole is also responsible for maintaining the shape of plant cells. When
the cell is full of water, the vacuole exerts pressure outwards, pushing the cell
membrane against the cell wall. This pressure is called turgor pressure.

 If there is not sufficient water, pressure exerted by the vacuole is reduced and
the cells become flaccid causing the plant to wilt.

Centrioles (ESG59)

Animal cells contain a special organelle called a centriole. The centriole is a cylindrical
tube-like structure that is composed of 9 microtubules arranged in a very particular
pattern. Two centrioles arranged perpendicular to each other are referred to as
a centrosome. The centrosome plays a very important role in cell division. The
centrioles are responsible for organising the microtubules that position the
chromosomes in the correct location during cell division. You will learn more about their
function in the following chapter on Cell Division.

Plastids (ESG5B)

Plastids are organelles found only in plants. There are three different types:

1. Leucoplasts: White plastids found in roots.

2. Chloroplasts: Green-coloured plastids found in plants and algae.
3. Chromoplasts: Contain red, orange or yellow pigments and are common in
ripening fruit, flowers or autumn leaves.

The colour of plant flowers such as an orchid is controlled by a specialised organelle in

a cell known as the chromoplast.

Chloroplast

The chloroplast is a double-membraned organelle. Within the double membrane is a

gel-like substance called stroma. Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis.
Suspended in the stroma are stack-like structures called grana (singular = granum).
Each granum is a stack of thylakoid discs. The chlorophyll molecules (green pigments)
are found on the surface of the thylakoid discs. Chlorophyll absorbs energy from the sun
in order for photosynthesis to take place in the chloroplasts. The grana are connected
by lamellae (intergrana). The lamellae keep the stacks apart from each other.

The structure of the chloroplast is neatly adapted to its function of trapping and storing
energy in plants. For example, chloroplasts contain a high density of thylakoid discs and
numerous grana to allow for increased surface area for the absorption of sunlight, thus
producing a high quantity of food for the plant. Additionally, the lamellae keeping the
thylakoids apart maximise chloroplast efficiency, thus allowing as much light as possible
to be absorbed in the smallest surface area.

The differences between plant and animal cells (ESG5C)

Now that we have looked at the basic structures and functions of the organelles in a
cell, you would have noticed that there are key differences between plant and animal
cells. The table below summarises these differences.

Animal Cells Plant Cells

Almost all plants cells contain plastids such chloroplasts,

Do not contain plastids.
chromoplasts and leucoplasts.

Have a rigid cellulose cell wall in addition to the cell

No cell wall.
membrane.

Contain centrioles. Do not contain centrioles.

Animals do not have plasmodesmata or

Contain plasmodesmata and pits.
pits.

Few vacuoles (if any). Large central vacuole filled with cell sap in mature cells.

Nucleus is generally found at the centre

Nucleus is found near the edge of the cell.
of the cytoplasm.

No intercellular spaces found between

Large intercellular air spaces found between some cells.
the cells.