Vectors and scalar quantities

Vectors
Vector quantities have both magnitude (size) and direction.
For example, 11 m east and 15 ms-1 at 30° to the horizontal are both vector quantities.
There are only six vector quantities:
 displacement
 velocity
 acceleration
 force
 weight
 momentum
Vector quantities change when:
 their magnitude changes
 their direction changes
 their magnitude and direction both change

Scalars
Scalar quantities have only magnitude (size).
For example, 11 m and 15 m s-1 are both scalar quantities.
There are many scalar quantities, for example:
 distance
 speed
 time
 power
 energy
Scalar quantities change when their magnitude changes.
Example
A geostationary satellite is in orbit above the Earth. It moves at constant speed but its
velocity is constantly changing (since its direction is always changing).
 The difference in two vectors quantities = final vector - initial vector
 The difference in two scalar quantities = large value - small value

Play

Take aim and fire with the forces game Cannon.

Play

You can practise calculating equations of motion with the forces game Cannon.
You need to use velocity, gravity and other variables to predict where the cannonball
will land.
 Give it a shot!

Adding vectors
When adding vector quantities remember that the directions have to be taken into
account.
The result of adding vectors together is called the resultant.
When adding two vectors together:
 the greatest (maximum) resultant is equal to their sum
 the smallest (minimum) resultant is equal to their difference
 the resultant can have any value between these limits depending on the angle between
the two vectors
In problems, vectors may be added together by scale diagram or mathematically.

Question
A woman walks 40m east then 30m south.
Find the total distance travelled
Hide
Answer
Total distance travelled = 40 + 30 = 70 m

Question
Now find the resultant displacement.
Hide
Answer
To do this we need to use a scale drawing.
Use a large scale diagram for accuracy.
Scale 1 cm = 5 m
(Mark starting point A, turning point B and finish point C)
length of vectors consistent with scale
 When measured on the scale diagram:
 the resultant displacement between points A and C = 50 m (10cm on the
diagram)

Or mathematically:

Size of resultant displacement =

Direction of resultant displacement

Question
Two forces of value 100 N act on the object shown below.

Find the resultant force on the object.

Hide
Answer
Length of vectors consistent with scale
By scale drawing
Scale 1 cm = 10 N
 Size of resultant force = 100 N
Direction of resultant displacement = 60° to either force

Home > Physics > Mechanics and properties of matter > Vectors

Physics
Vectors
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Vector components
Any vector can be resolved into two components at right angles to each other. These
two components when added together have the same effect as the initial single
vector.
Horizontal and vertical components of a vector
is the same as

Expressed mathematically, and

Question
A force of 30 N acts on a box as shown.

Find the horizontal and vertical components of the 30 N force.

Hide
Answer

Horizontal component of force =

Vertical component of force =
When rounded off to 1 decimal place:
Horizontal component of force
Vertical component of force
Vector components for an object on an incline

Expressed mathematically:
Component of weight parallel to incline =
Component of weight perpendicular to incline =
Question
A 10 kg box slides down a frictionless incline. The incline is at 30° to the
horizontal.
Find the component of the weight acting parallel to the incline.
Hide
Answer

The component of weight parallel to incline

Question
Now find the acceleration of the box down the incline.
Hide
Answer
F = 49 N
m = 10 kg
a=?

F = ma
49 = 10 × a
 a = 4.9 ms-2
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 A scalar quantity has magnitude but no particular direction.
A vector quantity has magnitude and acts in a particular
direction. Equations of motion link together distance
travelled, initial and final velocities, acceleration and time. A
resultant vector can be determined using a scale diagram or
by calculation.

Scalar and vector quantities

The direction that an object is travelling in is important when describing its motion.
For example, two cars may be travelling at 15 m/s. If they are side by side and
travelling in the same direction, their relative speed is zero. Someone looking across
from one car to the other will see the other car keeping pace with them. However, if the
two cars are travelling in opposite directions, their relative speed will be 30 m/s (15 +
15).
The direction is important for some quantities but not for others.

Scalar quantities
A scalar quantity is a quantity in which direction is not important. All that matters is
its magnitude (its size). For example, these quantities are scalar:
 time
 mass [mass: The amount of matter an object contains. Mass is measured in 'kg'.]

Vector quantities
A vector quantity is a quantity in which direction is important. For example, these
quantities are vector:
 force [force: A push or a pull. The unit of force is the newton, 'N'.]
 acceleration [acceleration: The rate of change of velocity, measured in metres per
second squared. Acceleration = change of velocity ÷ time taken.]
The difference between scalar and vector quantities is an important one.
Speed is a scalar quantity – it is the rate of change in the distance travelled by an
object, while velocity is a vector quantity – it is the speed of an object in a particular
direction.

Resultant of two parallel vectors

A resultant vector is a single vector that would replace two other vectors.
It is easy to calculate if the two vectors are parallel to each other. You just add the two
vectors together, taking into account their direction. This works for forces and for
velocities.
Here are some examples.

Example 1
Two forces, 5 N and 8 N, act in the same direction.
The resultant force is 5 + 8 = 13 N.
Example 2
Two objects travel in opposite directions, one at 5 m/s and the other at 8 m/s.
The resultant velocity is 3 m/s in the direction of the 8 m/s object.

Note that it does not matter which velocity we assume to be positive and which we
assume to be negative. In the example above, if we reverse the directions the resultant
velocity is still 3 m/s in the direction of the 8 m/s object:

Calculating distance travelled

Distance from average speed
For any journey, the distance travelled can be calculated using this equation:
distance = average speed × time
For example, a car travels at an average speed of 30 m/s for 60 s:
distance = 30 × 60 = 1800 m

Distance from initial and final velocities

This equation shows how to calculate the distance travelled if you know the initial and
final velocities:
s =(u+v)/2 x t
where:

s = distance in m

u = initial speed (speed at the start) in m/s

v = final speed (speed at the end) in m/s

t = time taken in s
For example, a car accelerates from 20 m/s to 30 m/s in 4 s:
s= (20 + 30)
/2 x 4
s= 50
/2 x 4
s = 25 x 4 = 100 m

Rearranging the equation

You may need to rearrange the equation above. For example, you could use it to find
the time taken for a journey, or the final velocity. Here are two ways it could be
rearranged:
t= /(u + v)
2s

v= 2s
/t - u

Calculating speed
Final speed
The final speed of a travelling object can be calculated using this equation:
v = u + at
where:

v = final speed in m

u = initial speed in m/s

a = acceleration in m/s2 (assuming that the acceleration is uniform or constant)

t = time taken in s
For example, a car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 3 m/s 2 for 10 s:
final speed
= 0 + (3 × 10)

= 0 + 30 = 30 m/s

Initial speed
The equation above can be rearranged to find the initial speed if you know the final
speed, acceleration and journey time:
u = v - at
For example, a car reaches 25 m/s after accelerating at 2 m/s for 5 s:
initial speed
= 25 – (2 × 5)

= 25 – 10 = 15 m/s
Read on if you're taking the higher paper.

More equations – Higher tier

Distance travelled
The distance travelled can also be calculated using this equation:
s = ut + 1/2at2
where:
s = distance travelled in m

u = initial velocity in m/s

a = acceleration in m/s

t = time taken in s
For example, a car accelerates at 4 m/s2 for 5 s from an initial velocity of 10 m/s:
distance travelled =
= 50 + 50 = 100 m

Final velocity
The final velocity, v, can be calculated using this equation:
v2 = u2 + 2as
For example, what is the final velocity of the car in the example above?
u = 10 m/s
a = 4 m/s2
s = 100 m
v2
= 102 + (2 × 4 × 100)

= 100 + 800 = 900

v is the square root of 900, so
v = √900 = 30 m/s
Note that the equations in this Revision Bite are often called 'suvat' equations because
they involve s, u, v, a and t. You need to be prepared to rearrange them before using
them.

Vectors – Higher Tier

The resultant vector for two vectors at right angles to each other
can be worked out using a scale diagram, or using a calculation.
Using a scale diagram
In the diagram below, two velocities are at right angles to each
other. One is 4 m/s and the other is 3 m/s.

The resultant vector of two vectors at right angles

 If the diagram is drawn to scale like this, the magnitude (size) of
the resultant vector can be found by measuring the length of the
diagonal vector arrow.
By calculation
Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to calculate the resultant
vector.
Remember that in any right-angled triangle, the square of the
longest side is the sum of the squares of the other two sides. This
can be written in the formula:
a2 + b2 = c2
where c is the longest side.
In the example above, a = 4 m/s and b = 3 m/s.
c2
= 42 + 3 2

= 16 + 9 = 25
c = √25 = 5 m/s
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Scalar and vector quantities

A quantity that has magnitude but no particular direction is described as scalar. A quantity
that has magnitude and acts in a particular direction is described as vector.

Scalar quantities
Scalar quantities only have magnitude (size).
For example, 11 m and 15 ms-1 are both scalar quantities.
Scalar quantities include:
 distance
 speed
 time
 power
 energy
Scalar quantities change when their magnitude changes.

Vector quantities
Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction. For example, 11 m east and 15 ms-
1
at 30° to the horizontal are both vector quantities.
Vector qualities include:
 displacement
 velocity
 acceleration
 force
 weight
 momentum
Vector quantities change when:
 their magnitude changes
 their direction changes
 their magnitude and direction both change
The difference between scalar and vector quantities is an important one.
Speed is a scalar quantity – it is the rate of change in the distance travelled by an object,
while velocity is a vector quantity – it is the speed of an object in a particular direction.

Example
A geostationary satellite is in orbit above Earth. It moves at constant speed but its velocity is
constantly changing (since its direction is always changing).
 the difference in two vectors quantities = final vector - initial vector
 the difference in two scalar quantities = large value - small value

Distance-time graphs
A distance-time graph shows how far something travels over a period of time. The vertical
axis of a distance-time graph is the distance travelled from the start. The horizontal axis is
the time from the start.

Features of the graphs

When an object is stationary, the line on the graph is horizontal. When an object is moving
at a steady speed in a straight line, the line on the graph is straight but sloped.
Note that the steeper the line, the faster the object is travelling. The purple line is steeper
than the green line because the purple line represents an object which is moving more
quickly.

Acceleration
You can calculate the acceleration of an object from its change in velocity and the time
taken.
Velocity is not exactly the same as speed. Velocity has a direction as well as a speed. For
example, 15 m/s is a speed, but 15 m/s North is a velocity (North is the direction).
Commonly velocities are + (which means forwards) or - (which means backwards).
For example, -15 m/s means moving backwards at 15 metres every second.

The equation
When an object moves in a straight line with a constant acceleration, you can calculate its
acceleration if you know how much its velocity changes and how long this takes.
The units for acceleration are commonly written as m/s/s or m/s2. The equation for
acceleration can also be represented as:

where:
a is acceleration in m/s/s or m/s2
v is final velocity in m/s
u is initial velocity in m/s
t is time in s
For example, a car accelerates in 5 s from 25 m/s to 3 5m/s. Its velocity changes by 35 - 25 =
10 m/s. Therefore its acceleration is 10 ÷ 5 = 2 m/s2
Deceleration, or negative acceleration, is observed when an object slows down. The units
are the same as for acceleration but the number has a negative symbol before it. For
example, the car slowed down at -1 m/s2.
Here’s another worked example. This time a car decelerates in 5 s from 35 m/s to 25 m/s. Its
velocity changes by 25 - 35 = -10 m/s. Therefore its acceleration is -10 ÷ 5 = -2 m/s2
Sorry, this clip is not available in your region or territory.
A summary of speed, distance and velocity

Velocity-time graphs
The velocity of an object is its speed in a particular direction. Two cars travelling at the
same speed but in opposite directions have different velocities.
A velocity-time graph shows the speed and direction an object travels over a specific period
of time. Velocity-time graphs are also called speed-time graphs.
The vertical axis of a velocity-time graph is the velocity of the object. The horizontal axis is
the time from the start.

Features of the graphs

When an object is moving with a constant velocity, the line on the graph is horizontal. When
the horizontal line is at zero velocity, the object is at rest. When an object is undergoing
constant acceleration, the line on the graph is straight but sloped.
Curved lines on velocity-time graphs also show changes in velocity, but not with a constant
acceleration or deceleration. The diagram shows some typical lines on a velocity-time
graph.
The steeper the line, the greater the acceleration of the object. The purple line is steeper than
the green line because it represents an object with a greater acceleration.
Notice that a line sloping downwards - with a negative gradient - represents an object with a
constant deceleration (it is slowing down).
Acceleration can be calculated by dividing the change in velocity (measured in metres per
second) by the time taken for the change (in seconds). The units of acceleration are m/s/s or
m/s2.
The acceleration shown in the purple line can be calculated as follows:
acceleration (m/s2)
= change in velocity (m/s) ÷ time taken (s)
= 10 ÷ 2
= 5 m/s2
This is the gradient of the purple line.
We can calculate the acceleration shown in the first section of the green line as follows:
acceleration (m/s2)
= change in velocity (m/s) ÷ time taken (s)
=8÷4
= 2 m/s2
This is the gradient of the first section of the green line.

Velocity-time graphs continued

Here is a velocity-time graph:

The area under the line in a velocity-time graph represents the distance travelled. To find the
distance travelled in the graph above, you need to find the area of the light-blue triangle and
the dark-blue rectangle.

1. Area of light-blue triangle

The width of the triangle is 4 seconds and the height is 8 metres per second. To find the area,
you use the equation:
area of triangle = ½ × base × height
So, the area of the light-blue triangle is ½ × 8 × 4 = 16 m

2. Area of dark-blue rectangle

The width of the rectangle is 6 seconds and the height is 8 metres per second. So, the area is
8 × 6 = 48 m

3. Area under the whole graph

The area of the light-blue triangle plus the area of the dark-blue rectangle is:
16 + 48 = 64 m
This is the total area under the distance-time graph. This area is the distance covered.
 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and force are all vector quantities. The speed
of an object can be calculated from the slope on a distance-time graph.
The velocity of an object is its speed in a particular direction. The slope on a
velocity-time graph represents the acceleration of an object. The distance travelled
is equal to the area under a velocity-time graph.

Forces and motion

At Key Stage 3, you learned to calculate the speed of an object using the time taken and the
distance travelled. At GCSE we take this knowledge further to look at vectorquantities. A
vector quantity has a size and a direction. The following are all vector quantities:
 Displacement
 Velocity
 Acceleration
 Force

Displacement is the distance travelled in a straight line. It has both a direction and a
size.
The velocity of an object is its speed in one particular direction.
The acceleration of an object is calculated from its change in velocity and the time taken.
The force of an object is also a vector as it has a size (measured in Newtons) and a

Speed
Speed, distance and time
At Key Stage 3, you learned how to calculate the speed of an object from the distance
travelled and the time taken.

The equation
When an object moves in a straight line at a steady speed, you can calculate its speed if you
know how far it travels and how long it takes. This equation shows the relationship between
speed, distance travelled and time taken:

 For example, a car travels 300 metres in 20 seconds.

 Its speed is 300 ÷ 20 = 15m/s.
The speed of an object can then be used to calculate the velocity.
Check your understanding of this topic by trying this activity.
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Distance-time graphs
You should be able to draw and explain distance-time graphs for objects moving at steady
speeds or standing still.

Background information
The vertical axis of a distance-time graph is the distance travelled from the start. The
horizontal axis is the time from the start.

Features of the graphs

When an object is stationary, the line on the graph is horizontal. When an object is moving
at a steady speed, the line on the graph is straight, but sloped.
The diagram shows some typical lines on a distance-time graph.

Distance - time graph

Note that the steeper the line, the greater the speed of the object. The blue line is steeper
than the red because it represents an object moving faster than the one represented by the
red line.
The red lines on the graph represent a typical journey where an object returns to the start
again. Notice that the line representing the return journey slopes downwards.

Velocity-time graphs
You should be able to explain velocity-time graphs for objects moving with a constant
velocity or constant acceleration.

Background information
The velocity of an object is its speed in a particular direction. This means that two cars
travelling at the same speed, but in opposite directions, have different velocities.
The vertical axis of a velocity-time graph is the velocity of the object. The horizontal axis is
the time from the start.

Features of the graphs

When an object is moving with a constant velocity, the line on the graph is horizontal. When
an object is moving with a constant acceleration, the line on the graph is straight, but
sloped. The diagram shows some typical lines on a velocity-time graph.

Speed - time graph

The steeper the line, the greater the acceleration of the object. The blue line is steeper than
the red line because it represents an object with a greater acceleration.
Notice that a line sloping downwards - with a negative gradient - represents an object with a
constant deceleration - slowing down.

Calculating distance - Higher tier

The distance travelled can be calculated from the graph, too. The area under the graph is
equal to the distance travelled. Study this velocity-time graph.
Velocity - time graph

Question
What is the acceleration represented by the sloping line?

The area
The area under the line in a velocity-time graph represents the distance travelled. To find
the distance travelled in the graph above, you need to find the area of the light-blue triangle
and the dark-blue rectangle.
1. Area of light-blue triangle
o The width of the triangle is 4 seconds and the height is 8 metres per second. To
find the area, you use the equation:
o area of triangle = 1⁄2 × base × height
o so the area of the light-blue triangle is 1⁄2 × 8 × 4 = 16 m
2. Area of dark-blue rectangle
o The width of the rectangle is 6 seconds and the height is 8 metres per second. So
the area is 8 × 6 = 48 m.
3. Area under the whole graph
o The area of the light-blue triangle plus the area of the dark-blue rectangle is:
o 16 + 48 = 64 m.
o This is the total area under the distance-time graph. This area represents the
distance covered.

Acceleration
You should be able to calculate the acceleration of an object from its change in velocity and
the time taken.

The equation
 When an object moves in a straight line with a constant acceleration, you can calculate its
acceleration if you know how much its velocity changes and how long this takes. This
equation shows the relationship between acceleration, change in velocity and time taken:

 For example, a car accelerates in 5s from 25 m/s to 35 m/s.

 Its velocity changes by 35 - 25 = 10 m/s.
 So its acceleration is 10 Ă· 5 = 2 m/s2.
Watch this illustrated podcast for more on speed and distance-time graphs

Units
This section has information on the system of units used by the Scottish Qualifications
Authority, (SQA). The SQA uses the Systéme Internationale (SI) for units of physical
quantities.
This international system of units is based on the following five units:
1. metre
2. kilogram
3. second
4. ampere
5. kelvin
Other SI units are defined in terms of these basic units.
SQA has published a list of the physical quantities in Higher Physics, together with the
symbol and SI unit of each quantity - click on the link to see the list.
Learn these quantities, symbols and units a few at a time so that by the time you sit
your Higher you will know all of them.
You also need to know the following prefixes:

Table of units

G Giga 109 one thousand million

M Mega 106 one million

k kilo 103 one thousand

m milli 10-3 one thousandth

µ mu 10-6 one millionth

n nano 10-9 one thousandth of a millionth

p pico 10-12 one millionth of a millionth

Each prefix can go before any SI unit. For example:

 Table of units

1 pF = 1 picofarad = 1 × 10-12 farads = 1 × 10-12 F

1 ns = 1 nanosecond = 1 × 10-9 seconds = 1 × 10-9 s

1 µm = 1 micrometre = 1 × 10-6 metres = 1 × 10-6 m

1 mA = 1 milliamp = 1 × 10-3 amps = 1 × 10-3 A

1 kV = 1 kilovolt = 1 × 103 volts = 1 × 103 V

1 MJ = 1 megajoule = 1 × 106 joules = 1 x 106 J

1 GHz = 1 gigahertz = 1 × 109 hertz = 1 × 109 Hz

When you are trying numerical problems always make sure that you use the SI unit of
each quantity given - this guarantees that the quantity you are calculating will be in its
SI unit.
The kilogram is the SI unit for mass - do not change kilograms to grams.

Mechanics and properties of matter quantities,

symbols and units
The table below relates to the sections included in the mechanics and properties of
matter unit. The table indicates the physical quantities required for numerical
calculations that are included in the Higher Grade Physics course together with:
 the symbol used by SQA
 the SI unit of the quantity (and alternative units included in the course)
 the abbreviation for the unit used in Higher examinations.
You should learn these quantities, symbols and units so that by the time you sit your
Higher you will know all of them.

Table of units

Physical Quantity Symbol Unit Unit

Abbreviation

distance, displacement s or d metre m

speed, velocity v metre per second ms-1

force, upthrust F newton N

time t second s

change of velocity metre per second ms-1

average velocity v metre per second ms-1

acceleration a metre per second squared ms-2

final velocity v metre per second ms-1

initial velocity u metre per second ms-1

 Physical Quantity Symbol Unit Unit
Abbreviation

mass m kilogram kg

weight W newton N

energy E joule J

work done W or EW joule J

potential energy Ep or PE joule J

acceleration due to g metre per second squared ms-2

gravity

gravitational field g newton per kilogram N kg-1

strength

height h metre m

kinetic energy Ek or KE joule J

power P watt W

momentum p kilogram metre per second kg ms-1

impulse - newton second Ns

kilogram metre per second kg ms-1

volume V unit cubic metre or metre m3

cubed

density kilogram per metre cubed kg m-3

area A square metre/metre squared m2

pressure p pascal Pa

temperature T degree Celsius or kelvin °C or K

Electricity and electronics quantities, symbols and

units
The table below relates to the sections included in the electricity and electronics unit.
The table indicates the physical quantities required for numerical calculations that are
included in the Higher Grade Physics course together with:
 the symbol used by SQA
 the SI unit of the quantity (and alternative units included in the course)
 the abbreviation for the unit used in Higher examinations.
You should learn these quantities, symbols and units so that by the time you sit your
Higher you will know all of them.

Table of units
 Physical Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbreviation

electric charge Q coulomb C

electric current I ampere A

voltage, potential difference V volt V

electromotive force E or volt V

internal resistance r ohm Ω

resistance R ohm Ω

peak voltage Vpeak volt V

root mean square voltage Vrms volt V

peak current Ipeak ampere A

root mean square current Irms ampere A

capacitance C farad F

input voltage V1 or V2 volt V

output voltage Vo volt V

feedback resistance Rf ohm Ω

(voltage) gain A0 or Vgain - -

Radiation and matter quantities, symbols and units

The table below relates to the sections included in the radiation and matter unit. The
table indicates the physical quantities required for numerical calculations that are
included in the Higher Grade Physics course together with:
 the symbol used by SQA
 the SI unit of the quantity (and alternative units included in the course)
 the abbreviation for the unit used in Higher examinations.
You should learn these quantities, symbols and units so that by the time you sit your
Higher you will know all of them.
Table of units

Physical Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbreviation

period T second s
frequency f hertz Hz
 Physical Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbreviation
wavelength metre m
angle degree °
refractive index n - -
critical angle c degree °
irradiance I watt per metre squared W m-2
Planck's constant h joule second Js
number of photons per second N - s-1
threshold frequency fo hertz Hz
energy level W1 or W2 joule J
speed of light in vacuum c metre per second ms-1
activity A Becquerel Bq
count per second count s-1

count per minute cpm

absorbed dose D gray Gy

absorbed dose rate D gray per second Gy s-1
gray per hour Gy h-1

gray per year Gy y-1

radiation weighting factor WR - -

equivalent dose H sievert Sv
equivalent dose rate sievert per second Sv s-1
sievert per hour Sv h-1

sievert per year Sv y-1

half-life t½ second s
minute

hour

day

year

half-value thickness T½ metre m

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What are forces?

A force can be a push or a pull. For example, when you push open a door you have to apply
a force to the door. You also have to apply a force to pull open a drawer.
You cannot see a force but often you can see what it does. When a force is exerted on an
object, it can change the object’s:
 speed
 direction of movement
 shape (for example, an elastic band gets longer if you pull it)

A force meter, also called a newton meter, is used to measure forces

Forces can be contact forces, where objects must touch each other to exert a force. Other
forces are non-contact forces, where objects do not have to touch each other. These include:
 gravity
 magnetism
 forces due to static electricity
 Measuring forces
Forces can be measured using a force meter, also called a newton meter. Force meters
contain a spring connected to a metal hook. The spring stretches when a force is applied to
the hook. The bigger the force applied, the longer the spring stretches and the bigger the
reading.
The unit of force is called the newton, and it has the symbol N. The greater the force, the
bigger the number, so 100 N is a greater force than 5 N.

Balanced forces
When two forces acting on an object are equal in size but act in opposite directions, we say
that they are balanced forces.
If the forces on an object are balanced (or if there are no forces acting on it), this is what
happens:
 a stationary object stays still
 a moving object continues to move at the same speed and in the same direction
Remember that an object can be moving, even if there are no forces acting on it.

Force diagrams
We can show the forces acting on an object using a force diagram. In a force diagram, an
arrow represents each force. The arrow shows:
 the size of the force (the longer the arrow, the bigger the force)
 the direction in which the force acts
The arrow should be labelled with the name of the force and its size in newtons. Textbooks
often show a force with a thick coloured arrow so that it looks nice, but it is more accurate if
you just use a ruler and pen or pencil to draw an arrow with a single line.
Here are some examples of situations involving balanced forces.

Hanging objects
The forces on this hanging crate are equal in size but act in opposite directions.
The weight pulls down and the tension in the rope pulls up.
The weight of the crate is balanced by the tension in the rope

Floating in water
Objects float in water when their weight is balanced by the upthrustfrom the water. The
object will sink until the weight of the water it pushes out of the way is the same as the
weight of the object.
The weight of the boat is balanced by the upthrust from the water

Standing on the ground

When an object rests on a surface such as the ground, the reaction force from the ground
balances its weight. The ground pushes up against the object. The reaction force is what you
feel in your feet as you stand still. Without this balancing force you would sink into the
ground.
 The weight of the book is balanced by the reaction force from the table

Unbalanced forces
When two forces acting on an object are not equal in size, we say that they are unbalanced
forces. The overall force acting on the object is called the resultant force. If the forces are
balanced, the resultant force is zero.
If the forces on an object are unbalanced, this is what happens:
 a stationary object starts to move in the direction of the resultant force
 a moving object changes speed and/or direction in the direction of the resultant force
In the example below, the resultant force is the difference between the two forces:
100 – 60 = 40 N (to the right)
 The truck speeds up in the direction of the resultant force
The change in the motion of an object depends upon:
 the size of the resultant force
 the direction of the resultant force
The greater the resultant force, the greater the change in the motion of the object. Whether a
moving object speeds up, or slows down, depends on the direction of the resultant force:
 the object speeds up if the resultant force acts in the direction of movement
 the object slows down if the resultant force acts opposite to the direction of movement
Sorry, this clip is not available in your region or territory.
Balanced and unbalanced forces are explained

Frictional forces
Whenever an object moves against another object, it feels frictional forces. These forces act
in the opposite direction to the movement. Friction makes it more difficult for things to
move.

Helpful frictional forces

Friction can be useful. For example:
 friction between our shoes and the floor stop us from slipping
 friction between tyres and the road stop cars from skidding
 friction between the brakes and wheel help bikes and cars to slow down
Frictional forces are much smaller on smooth surfaces than on rough surfaces, which is why
we slide on ice but not on concrete.

Unhelpful frictional forces

Friction can also be unhelpful. If you do not lubricate your bike regularly with oil, the
friction in the chain and axles increases. Your bike will be noisy and difficult to pedal.
When there is a lot of friction between moving parts, energy is transferred to the
surroundings, causing heating. Think of what happens when you rub your hands together
quickly. The friction warms them up.

Air resistance
Bikes, cars and other moving objects experience air resistance as they move. Air resistance
is caused by the frictional forces of the air against the vehicle. The faster the vehicle moves,
the bigger the air resistance becomes. The top speed of a vehicle is reached when the force
from the cyclist or engine is balanced by air resistance.

Streamlining

Streamlining reduces air resistance

Racing cyclists crouch down low on their bikes to reduce the air resistance on them. This
helps them to cycle faster. They also wear streamlined helmets. These have special, smooth
shapes that allow the air to flow over the cyclist more easily.
Modern vehicles are also streamlined. Their smooth shapes make the air resistance smaller,
which allows them to travel further on the same amount of fuel.

Investigating friction
This is an example of a common experiment used to investigate friction and should help you
understand how to work scientifically.

Aim of the experiment

To investigate the frictional forces on a mass being pulled down a slope of different
gradients.
 Method
1. Set up the apparatus as in the diagram.
2. Pull the mass along the ramp using the force meter.
3. Record the force needed to start the mass moving (this will be less than the force to pull it along
once it is moving).
4. Increase the height of the ramp to 10 cm to make the gradient steeper.
5. Measure the force.
6. Repeat by moving the ramp up in 10 cm intervals until 50 cm is reached.

An experiment to investigate frictional forces

Variables
 The independent variable is the height of the ramp (its gradient).
 The dependent variable is the force needed to pull the mass down the ramp.
 Controlled variables include using the same mass and ramp surface.

Risks
Care must be taken with masses.

Expected results
Height of ramp Force needed
 Height of ramp Force needed
10 cm 21 N
20 cm 16 N
30 cm 10 N
40 cm 5N
50 cm 2N

What the results mean

The force needed to start the mass moving reduced as the ramp became steeper (the gradient
increased). Fewer frictional forces exist when the ramp is steeper.

Evaluation
 Your measurements are accurate if they are close to their true value.
 Your measurements are precise if they are similar when completed again.
 Your experiment is repeatable if you get precise measurements when it is repeated.
 Your experiment is reproducible if others get precise measurements when they repeat it.

Moments
A moment is a turning effect of a force. Forces can make objects turn if there is a pivot.
Think of a playground see-saw. The pivot is the part in the middle. The see-saw is level
when no-one is on it, but the see-saw tips up if someone gets onto one end. It is possible to
balance the see-saw again if someone else gets onto the other end and sits in the correct
place. This is because the turning forces are balanced - we say the moments are equal and
opposite.

Calculating moments
To calculate a moment, you need to know two things:
 the distance from the pivot that the force is applied
 the size of the force applied
 moment = force × distance

Example
The diagram shows two masses balanced on a level beam. Calculate the moment on each
side of the pivot.

On the left:
moment = force × distance
= 10 N × 2 m = 20 Nm
On the right:
moment = force × distance
= 20 N × 1 m = 20 Nm
Notice that the unit of moment is the newton metre, Nm. Do not get confused with a 'newton
meter', which is another name for a force meter.
You should also notice that the two moments in the example are equal and opposite. They
are both 20 Nm but the left-hand one acts in an anticlockwise direction, and the right-hand
one acts in a clockwise direction. This is why the beam is balanced.

Using moments
 A see-saw will balance if the moments on each side of the pivot are equal. This is why you might
have to adjust your position on a see-saw if you are a different weight from the person on the other
end.
 If a nut is difficult to undo with a short spanner, a longer spanner will help. This is because there
will be a bigger moment on the nut, when the same force is applied further from the pivot.
 Using the same principle you can increase the moment applied by a lever or a crowbar, and this can
help you move heavy objects more easily.

Simple machines
A see-saw is an example of a simple machine. A force is exerted in one place, causing
movement and a force at another place in the see-saw.

A balanced beam where the pivot is not in the middle

An effort of 10 N on the left is able to balance a load of 20 N on the right. This would be
useful if you were trying to lift a heavy load on the right and you pushed down on the left.
Notice that the distance from the pivot is greater on the left than it is on the right.
Simple machines give a bigger force but with a smaller movement
If you multiply the force by the distance travelled, you get the same value for the effort and
for the load.

Wheelbarrows
Gardeners and builders use wheelbarrows to carry loads from place to place. The
wheelbarrow is a simple machine with the load near the pivot (the wheel) and the effort on
the handles far from the pivot. When you lift the wheelbarrow, the handles move through a
bigger distance than the load does.
 Forceps
You may have used a pair of forceps to pick up a small object in the lab. In this case, your
fingers provide the effort force, and this is nearer to the pivot than the load (the object you
are picking up):
 some simple machines give a smaller force but with a bigger movement.
This is the opposite to the see-saw and wheelbarrow, but again if you multiply the force by
the distance travelled, you get the same value for the effort and for the load.
 Deformation
Elastic materials, and objects such as springs, change shape when a force is exerted on
them:
 stretching happens when the material or object is pulled
 compression happens when the material or object is squashed
A change in shape like this is called deformation. In general, the greater the force exerted,
the greater the amount of deformation. This is why an elastic band gets longer the harder
you pull it, and why a rubber ball squashes more the harder you squeeze it.
Remember that if you pull or squeeze too hard, the object may not return to its original size
and shape afterwards, and it may even snap. Until you reach this point, a special case
called Hooke’s Law applies.

Hooke's Law
The extension of a material or a spring is its increase in length when pulled. Hooke’s Law
says that the extension of an elastic object is directly proportional to the force applied to it.
In other words:
 if the force applied is doubled, the extension doubles
 if no force is applied, there is no extension
You can investigate Hooke’s Law using a spring:
1. hang the spring from a stand and clamp
2. measure its length with a ruler
3. hang an empty slotted mass carrier from the lower end and measure the new length of the spring
4. keep adding more slotted masses, measuring the new length each time
For mass added, calculate the extension (new length – length at start). You can then plot a
force-extension graph:
 plot force on the vertical (y) axis
 plot extension on the horizontal (x) axis
The graph should be a straight line that passes through the origin (0,0). The diagram shows
an example of this.
 A force-extension graph for a spring

Using Hooke's Law

In a force-extension graph:
 the steeper the line, the stiffer the spring
 the area under the line is the work done (energy needed) to stretch the spring.

Example

QQuestion

Using the graph, calculate the work done to extend the spring from 0 m to 0.10 m.
AHide answer
The area under the line is a triangle:
 area = ½ × base × height
= ½ × 0.10 × 5 = 0.25 J

Investigating Hooke’s Law

This is an example of a common experiment used to investigate Hooke’s Law. It should help
you understand how to work scientifically.

Aim of the experiment

To investigate how adding mass to a spring affects its extension.

Method
1. Set up the apparatus as in the diagram
2. Add a 10 g mass to the holder and record the spring length.
3. Add another 10 g mass and record the new spring length.
4. Take away the previous spring length from the new length to calculate the extension (the
difference).
5. Repeat by adding 10 g masses until 100 g is reached.
 An experiment to investigate Hooke’s Law

Variables
 The independent variable is the mass.
 The dependent variable is the extension.
 Controlled variables include using the spring and masses used.

Risks
Care must be taken with masses.

Expected results
Mass used Force Spring length Extension
0g 0N 20 mm 20 mm
10 g 0.1 N 25 mm 5 mm (25 - 20 = 5)
20 g 0.2 N 30 mm 5 mm
30 g 0.3 N 35 mm 5 mm
 Mass used Force Spring length Extension
40 g 0.4 N 40 mm 5 mm
50 g 0.5 N 46 mm 5 mm

What the results mean

The spring extended 5 mm each time a 10 g mass is added (which increased the force due to
gravity by 0.1 N). This follows Hooke’s Law which states that the extension of an elastic
object (like a spring) is directly proportional to the force added.

Evaluation
 Your measurements are accurate if they are close to their true value.
 Your measurements are precise if they are similar when completed again.
 Your experiment is repeatable if you get precise measurements when it is repeated.
 Your experiment is reproducible if others get precise measurements when they repeat it.

Density
Density is the mass per unit volume. It can be measured in several ways.
The most accurate way to calculate the density of any solid, liquid or gas is to divide its
mass in kilograms by its volume (length × width × height) in cubic metres.
Density can be found using the equation:

The unit for density is kg/m3. The density of water is approximately 1000 kg/m3 and the
density of air is approximately 1.2 kg/m3.
If solid objects are placed in water and they sink, they have a density greater than water
(1000 kg/m3). The reverse is also true.
If several liquids that don’t mix (immiscible) are placed in the same container, the least
dense one will rise to the top and the densest one will sink to the bottom. This is also true
of gases, but they are often harder to see because gases tend to mix with each other very
easily.
Take a look at this practical demonstration of the relative densities of liquids:
Sorry, this clip is not available in your region or territory.
Not all objects have regular volumes that are easy to measure. A ‘eureka can’ can be used
in these cases.
Calculating volume of a solid using a Eureka can
A eureka can is a container large enough to hold the object with a spout positioned near the
top. The can is filled to the top with water and the object placed in it. The volume of the
object is equal to the volume of the water that is forced through the spout.
Eureka cans are named after a scientist called Archimedes who first recorded this idea. They
are sometimes also called displacement vessels.

Densities of solids, liquids and gases

For most substances, the change from a solid to a liquid state does not mean a big change
in volume. This is because the particles stay approximately the same distance apart. This
means that the density of a substance, for example iron, does not change by much when it
melts.
Relative particle density for a solid, liquid and gas
When a liquid changes into a gas, the spacing between the particles increases significantly.
This means that the gas takes up a lot more space than the liquid, so its volume increases
dramatically.
When a gas condenses to form a liquid, its volume decreases significantly.

QQuestion
A block of copper has a volume of 0.005 m3. The density of copper is 8.96 ×
103 kg/m3.
Calculate the mass of the copper block.
AHide answer
ρ = 8.96 × 103 kg/m3
v = 0.005 m3
m = ρv
m = 8.96 × 103 × 0.005
m = 44.8 kg
The mass of the copper block is 44.8 kg

Pressure differences
When we measure the pressure of gases, like that of the air in car tyres, we usually make
this measurement relative to normal air pressure. That is, we calculate the difference
between the pressure in the tyre and the pressure exerted by our atmosphere. Liquids can
also be measured against normal air pressure.
A manometer measures the pressure acting on a column of fluid. It is made from a U-
shaped tube of liquid in which the difference in pressure acting on the two straight sections
of the tube causes the liquid to reach different heights in the two arms.
The pressure difference can then be calculated by using the following equation:
pressure difference = height × density × g
p=h×p×g

Measuring pressure with a U-shaped tube

Pressure in fluids
Liquids and gases are both called fluids because they are both capable of flowing. The
pressure in fluids that are at rest acts equally in all directions.

Barometers
Barometers can be used to predict the weather. They measure changes in atmospheric
pressure over time.
Differences in pressure are seen on weather forecast maps as a pattern of isobars. These
changes in pressure are used to make predictions and, if used with wind readings, are
reasonably accurate.
Many traditional barometers contain mercury. The mercury is in a long glass tube with an
open reservoir at the bottom:
 higher atmospheric pressure exerts a downward force on the mercury in the reservoir -
and pushes the mercury up the tube
 lower atmospheric pressure cannot hold up the weight of the mercury column as effectively - so
the mercury moves lower down the tube

Atmospheric pressure forces mercury into a glass tube

Depth and pressure in liquids

Pressure increases as you move away from a liquid’s surface. This is seen in the experiment
shown in the diagram below. Three identically-sized holes are drilled in a bucket. The
pressure is greater at the bottom of the bucket so the water leaves with greater force. This is
the reason dams are thicker at the bottom.

A suspended bucket has water pouring from the holes in it

In addition, more dense liquids exert a greater pressure. For example, the pressure
recorded at the bottom of a test tube of mercury is greater than the same tube filled with
water because mercury is denser.
Pressure differences
When we measure the pressure of gases, like that of the air in car tyres, we usually make
this measurement relative to normal air pressure. That is, we calculate the difference
between the pressure in the tyre and the pressure exerted by our atmosphere. Liquids can
also be measured against normal air pressure.
A manometer measures the pressure acting on a column of fluid. It is made from a U-
shaped tube of liquid in which the difference in pressure acting on the two straight sections
of the tube causes the liquid to reach different heights in the two arms.
The pressure difference can then be calculated by using the following equation:
pressure difference = height × density × g
p=h×p×g

Measuring pressure with a U-shaped tube