04 Noise

Noise
David Johns and Ken Martin

University of Toronto
(johns@eecg.toronto.edu)
(martin@eecg.toronto.edu)
University of Toronto 1 of 55
© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

Interference Noise
• Unwanted interaction between circuit and outside world
• May or may not be random
• Examples: power supply noise, capacitive coupling
Improvement by ...
• Reduced by careful wiring or layout
• These notes do not deal with interference noise.

Inherent Noise
• Random noise — can be reduced but NEVER eliminated
• Examples: thermal, shot, and flicker
Improvement by ...
• Not strongly affected by wiring or layout
• Reduced by proper circuit DESIGN.
• These notes discuss noise analysis and inherent noise

sources.

Time-Domain Analysis
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
v n(t)
0
(volts)
0.1
0.2
0.3 time
(seconds)
• Assume all noise signals have zero mean

RMS Value
T 1⁄2
1 2
V n ( rms ) ≡ --- ∫ v n(t)dt (1)
T
0
• T — suitable averaging time interval
• Indicates normalized noise power.
• If v n(t) applied to 1Ω resistor, average power dissipated,
P diss ,
2
V n ( rms ) 2
P diss = ------------------ = V n ( rms ) (2)
1Ω

SNR
signal power
SNR ≡ 10 log ------------------------------ (3)
noise power
2
• If signal node has normalized signal power of V x ( rms ) , and
2
noise power of V n ( rms ) ,
2
V x ( rms ) V x ( rms )
SNR = 10 log ------------------ = 20 log ------------------ (4)
2
V n ( rms ) V n ( rms )
• When mean-squared values of noise and signal are same,

SNR = 0dB .

Units of dBm
• Often useful to know signal’s power in dB on absolute
scale.
• With dBm, all power levels referenced 1mW.
• 1mW signal corresponds to 0 dBm
• 1 µW signal corresponds to -30dBm
What if only voltage measured (not power)?
• If voltage measured — reference level to equiv power
dissipated if voltage applied to 50 Ω resistor
• Also, can reference it to 75 Ω resistor

dBm Example
• Find rms voltage of 0 dBm signal ( 50Ω reference)
• What is level in dBm of a 2 volt rms signal?
• 0 dBm signal (50 Ω reference) implies

V ( rms ) = ( 50Ω ) × 1mW = 0.2236 (5)
• Thus, a 2 volt (rms) signal corresponds to
2.0
20 × log  ---------------- = 19 dBm (6)
 0.2236
2
• Would dissipate 2 ⁄ 50 = 80 mW across a 50Ω resistor
• 80 mW corresponds to 10 log ( 80 ) = 19 dBm

Noise Summation
+
v n1(t) i no(t)
v no(t)
v n2(t) i n1(t) i n2(t)
-
Voltage Current
v no(t) = v n1(t) + v n2(t) (7)
T
2 1 2
V no ( rms ) = --- ∫ [ v n1(t) + v n2(t) ] dt (8)
T
0
T
2 2 2 2
V no ( rms ) = V n1 ( rms ) + V n2 ( rms ) + --- ∫ v n1(t)v n2(t)dt (9)
T
0

Correlation
• Last term relates correlation between two signals
• Define correlation coefficient, C ,
T
1
--- ∫ v n1(t)v n2(t)dt
T
0
C ≡ ------------------------------------------ (10)
V n1 ( rms ) V n2 ( rms )
2 2 2
V no ( rms ) = V n1 ( rms ) + V n2 ( rms ) + 2CV n1 ( rms ) V n2 ( rms ) (11)
• Correlation always satisfies – 1 ≤ C ≤ 1
• C = +1 — fully-correlated in-phase (0 degrees)
• C = -1 — fully-correlated out-of-phase (180 degrees)
• C = 0 — uncorrelated (90 degrees)

Uncorrelated Signals
• In case of two uncorrelated signals, mean-squared value
of sum given by
2 2 2
V no ( rms ) = V n1 ( rms ) + V n2 ( rms ) (12)
• Two rms values add as though they were vectors at right
angles
When fully correlated

2 2
V no ( rms ) = ( V n1 ( rms ) ± V n2 ( rms ) ) (13)
• sign is determined by whether signals are in or out of
phase
• Here, rms values add linearly (aligned vectors)

Noise Summation Example
• V n1 ( rms ) = 10µV , V n2 ( rms ) = 5µV , then
2 2 2
V no ( rms ) = ( 10 + 5 ) = 125 (14)
which results in V no ( rms ) = 11.2µV .
• Note that eliminating V n2 ( rms ) noise source same as

reducing V n1 ( rms ) = 8.7 µV (i.e. reducing by 13%)!
Important Moral
• To reduce overall noise, concentrate on large noise
signals.

Frequency-Domain Analysis
• With deterministic signals, frequency-domain techniques

are useful.
• Same true for dealing with random signals like noise.
• This section presents frequency-domain techniques for

dealing with noise (or random) signals.

Spectral Density
2
V n(f)
V n(f)
1000 31.6
2 100 µV 10
( µV ) -----------
-------------- 10 Hz 3.16
Hz
1.0 1.0
log ( f ) log ( f )
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 ( Hz ) 0.1 1.0 10 100 ( Hz )
Spectral Density Root-Spectral Density
• Periodic waveforms have their power at distinct

frequencies.
• Random signals have their power spread out over the
frequency spectrum.

Spectral Density
2
Spectral Density V n(f)
• Average normalized power over a 1 hertz bandwidth
• Units are volts-squared/hertz
Root-Spectral Density V n(f)
• Square root of vertical axis (freq axis unchanged)
• Units are volts/root-hertz (i.e. V ⁄ Hz ).
Total Power
∞
2 2
V n ( rms ) = ∫ V n(f)df (15)
0
• Above is a one-sided definition (i.e. all power at positive
frequencies)

Root-Spectral Density Example
31.6
V n(f) 10
3.16
µV 
 ---------- 1.0
- log ( f )
 Hz
0.1 1.0 10 100
( Hz )
• Around 100 Hz, V n(f) = 10 µV ⁄ Hz

• If measurement used RBW = 30 Hz , measured rms
10 × 30 = 300 µV (16)
• If measurement used RBW = 0.1 Hz, measured rms
10 × 0.1 = 1 µV (17)

White Noise
V n(f)
10 µV
µV 
 ---------- 3.2 V n(f) = V nw = 3.2 -----------
- Hz
 Hz
1.0
log f
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 ( Hz )
• Noise signal is “white” if a constant spectral density
V n(f) = V nw (18)
where V nw is a constant value

1/f Noise
– 10 dB/decade
V n(f)
µV  10 –6 2
 ----------
- 2 ( 3.2 × 10 ) –6 2
 Hz 1 ⁄ f noise corner V n(f) ≈ -------------------------------- + ( 1 × 10 )
3.2 f
1.0
log f
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
1/f noise white noise
dominates dominates
2 2
V n(f) = k v ⁄ f (k v is a constant) (19)
• In terms of root-spectral density
V n(f) = k v ⁄ f (20)
Falls off at -10 db/decade due to f

• Also called flicker or pink noise.

Filtered Noise
2 2 2 2
V ni(f) A(s) V no(f) = A(j2πf) V ni(f)
V no(f) = A(j2πf) V ni(f)
• Output only a function of magnitude of transfer-function

and not its phase
• Can always apply an allpass filter without affecting noise
performance.
• Total output mean-squared value is
∞
2 2 2
V no ( rms ) = ∫ A(j2πf) V ni(f)df (21)
0

Noise Example
V ni(f) R = 1kΩ
V ni(f) V no(f)
nV  20
 ----------
-
 Hz log f 1 C = 0.159µF
3 4 f o = ---------------
1.0 10 100 10 10 2πRC
A(j2πf) 1
A(s) = -------------------- V no(f)
( dB ) s
0 1 + ----------- 20
2πf o nV 
3
 ----------
-
f o = 10  Hz
– 20 2
3 4
log f 3 4
1.0 10 100 10 10 1.0 10 100 10 10 log f

Noise Example
• From dc to 100 kHz of input signal
5
10
2 2 7 2 2
V ni ( rms ) = ∫ 20 df = 4 × 10 ( nV ) = ( 6.3 µV rms ) (22)
0
• Note: for this simple case,
2 2
V ni ( rms ) = 20 nV ⁄ Hz × 100kHz = ( 6.3 µV rms ) (23)
• For the filtered signal, V no(f) ,
–9
20 × 10
V no(f) = -------------------------- (24)
 f 2
1 + ----
f 
o

Noise Example
• Between dc and 100kHz
5 5
10 2 10
20 f
V no ( rms ) = ∫ ---------------------- df = 20 f o atan  ----
2 2
f 2 f 
0 1 + ----  o
0
f 
o
5 2 2
= 6.24 × 10 ( nV ) = ( 0.79 µV rms ) (25)
• Noise rms value of V no(f) is almost 1 ⁄ 10 that of V ni(f)
since high frequency noise above 1kHz was filtered.
• Don’t design for larger bandwidths than required

otherwise noise performance suffers.

Sum of Filtered Noise
V n1(f) A 1(s)
V n2(f) A 2(s) V no(f)

uncorrelated
noise sources
V n3(f) A 3(s)
• If filter inputs are uncorrelated, filter outputs are also

uncorrelated
• Can show
2 2 2
V no(f) = ∑ A i(j2πf) V ni(f) (26)
i = 1, 2, 3

Noise Bandwidth
• Equal to the frequency span of a brickwall filter having
the same output noise rms value when white noise is
applied to each
Example
A(j2πf) A brick(j2πf)
0 – 20 dB/decade 0
( dB ) ( dB )
– 20 – 20
log f
log f
fo fo fo fo fo
fo 10f o --------- ------ π
--------- ------ 100 10 f x = --- f o
100 10 2
π
• Noise bandwidth of a 1’st-order filter is --- f o
2

Noise Bandwidth
• Advantage — total output noise is easily calculated for
white noise input.
• If spectral density is V nw volts/root-Hz and noise
bandwidth is f x , then
2 2
V no ( rms ) = V nw f x (27)
Example
• A white noise input of 100 nV/ Hz applied to a 1’st order
filter with 3 dB frequency of 1 MHz
–9 π 6
V no ( rms ) = 100 × 10 × --- × 10
2
V no ( rms ) = 125 µV
(28)

1/f Noise Tangent Principle
• Method to determine the frequency region(s) that
contributes the dominant noise
• Lower a 1/f noise line until it touches the spectral density
curve
• The total noise can be approximated by the noise in the
vicinity of the 1/f line
• Works because a curve proportional to 1 ⁄ x results in equal

power over each decade of frequency

1/f Tangent Example
V no(f)
200
1/f curve
20
2
3 4 5 6 7
1 10 100 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
N1 N2 N3 N4
• Consider root-spectral noise density shown above

1/f Tangent Example
100 2 100
2 200 2 5 2
N1 = ∫ -----------df = 200 ln ( f ) 1 = 1.84 × 10 ( nV ) (29)
f
1
3 3
10 10
2 2 2 5 2
N2 = ∫ 20 df = 20 f 100 = 3.6 × 10 ( nV ) (30)
100
4 4
10 2 2 10
2 20 f  20  2 1 3 8 2
N3 = ∫ ---------------- df = -------- --- f
 3 3
= 1.33 × 10 ( nV ) (31)
3 2 10
3 ( 10 ) 10
3
10
4
∞ 2 ∞ 2 10
2 200 200 2
N4 = ∫ -------------------------- df = ∫ -------------------------- df – ∫ 200 df
f 2 f 2
   
10 1 +  -------5- 0 1 + -------- 0
4
 5
10 10
(32)
2 π
= 200  --- 10 – ( 200 ) ( 10 ) = 5.88 × 10 ( nV )
5 2 4 9 2
 2

1/f Tangent Example
• The total output noise is estimated to be
2 2 2 2 1⁄2
V no ( rms ) = ( N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 ) = 77.5µV rms (33)
• But ...
N 4 = 76.7µV rms (34)
• Need only have found the noise in the vincinity where the
1/f tangent touches noise curve.
• Note: if noise curve is parallel to 1/f tangent for a wide

range of frequencies, then also sum that region.

Noise Models for Circuit Elements
• Three main sources of noise:
Thermal Noise
• Due to thermal excitation of charge carriers.
• Appears as white spectral density
Shot Noise
• Due to dc bias current being pulses of carriers
• Dependent of dc bias current and is white.
Flicker Noise
• Due to traps in semiconductors
• Has a 1/f spectral density
• Significant in MOS transistors at low frequencies.

Resistor Noise
• Thermal noise — white spectral density
R (noiseless) 2 4kT
R 2 R I R(f) = ---------
V R(f) = 4kTR R
(noiseless)
element models
– 23 –1
• k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10 JK
• T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin
• Can also write
R
V R(f) = ------ × 4.06 nV ⁄ Hz for 27°C (35)
1k

Diodes
• Shot noise — white spectral density
kT
r d = --------- (noiseless)
qI D
2
V d(f) = 2kTr d
(forward-biased) kT
r d = --------- 2
I d(f) = 2qI D
qI D
(noiseless)
element models
– 19
• q is one electronic charge = 1.6 × 10 C
• I D is the dc bias current through the diode

Bipolar Transistors
• Shot noise of collector and base currents
• Flicker noise due to base current
• Thermal noise due to base resistance
1
V i (f) = 4kT  r b + ----------
2 2
V i (f)  2g  m
(noiseless)
2 2  KI B IC 
I i (f) I i (f) = 2q  I B + --------- + --------------
(active-region)  f β(f) 
2
element model
• V i(f) has base resistance thermal noise plus collector shot
noise referred back
• I i(f) has base shot noise, base flicker noise plus collector
shot noise referred back

MOSFETS
• Flicker noise at gate
• Thermal noise in channel
2
V g(f)
2
I d(f)
2 K
V g(f) = --------------------
(active-region) WLC ox f
2  2
I d(f) = 4kT --- g m
 3
element model

MOSFET Flicker (1/f) Noise
2 K
V g(f) = -------------------- (36)
WLC ox f
• K dependent on device characteristics, varies widely.

• W & L — Transistor’s width and length
• C ox — gate-capacitance/unit area
• Flicker noise is inversely proportional to the transistor

area, WL .
• 1/f noise is extremely important in MOSFET circuits as it
can dominate at low-frequencies
• Typically p-channel transistors have less noise since holes
are less likely to be trapped.

MOSFET Thermal Noise
• Due to resistive nature of channel
2
• In triode region, noise would be I d(f) = ( 4kT ) ⁄ r ds where
r ds is the channel resistance
• In active region, channel is not homogeneous and total
noise is found by integration
2
I d(f) = 4kT  --- g m
2
 3
(37)
for the case V DS = V GS – V T

Low-Moderate Frequency MOSFET Model
2
V i (f)
(noiseless)
2 1 K
V i (f) = 4kT  --- ------ + --------------------
(active-region) 2
 3 g
m WLC ox f
element model
• Can lump thermal noise plus flicker noise as an input

voltage noise source at low to moderate frequencies.
• At high frequencies, gate current can be appreciable due
to capacitive coupling.

Opamps
2
I n-(f) (noiseless)
2
V n(f), I n-(f), I n+(f)
2
V n(f) I n+(f) — values depend on opamp
— typically, all uncorrelated.
element model
• Modelled as 3 uncorrelated input-referred noise sources.

• Current sources often ignored in MOSFET opamps

Why 3 Noise Sources?
2
V n(f) ignored ⇒ V no = 0
2
V no(f)
Actual V 2no = V 2n
2 2
R
I n-(f) ignored ⇒ V no = Vn
2
V no(f) 2 2 2
Actual V no = V n + ( I n- R )
2 2
I n+(f) ignored ⇒ V no = V n
2
R V no(f) 2 2 2
Actual V no = V n + ( I n+ R )

Capacitors
• Capacitors and inductors do not generate any noise but ...
they accumulate noise.
• Capacitor noise mean-squared value equals kT ⁄ C when
connected to an arbitrary resistor value.
R V no(f)
R C V R(f) = 4kTR C
1
f 0 = ---------------
2πRC
• Noise bandwidth equals ( π ⁄ 2 )f o
π π 1
V no ( rms ) = V R(f)  --- f o = ( 4kTR )  ---  ---------------
2 2
 2  2  2πRC
2 kT
V no ( rms ) = ------
C (38)

Capacitor Noise Example
• At 300 °K , what capacitor size is needed to have 96dB
dynamic range with 1 V rms signal levels.
• Noise allowed:
1V
V n ( rms ) = ------------------- = 15.8 µV rms
96 ⁄ 20
(39)
10
• Therefore
kT
C = ----------------- = 16.6pF
2
(40)
V n(rms)
• This min capacitor size determines max resistance size to

achieve a given time-constant.

Sampled Signal Noise
• Consider basic sample-and-hold circuit
φ clk
v in v out
C
•
• When φ clk goes low, noise as well as signal is held on C .
— an rms noise voltage of kT ⁄ C .
• Does not depend on sampling rate and is independent
from sample to sample.
• Can use “oversampling” to reduce effective noise.
• Sample, say 1000 times, and average results.

Opamp Example
Cf Cf
Rf I nf
R1 I n1
I n- Rf
Vi Vo
R1 V no(f)
R2
V n2 Vn
I n+
R2
circuit
equivalent noise circuit
• Use superposition — noise sources uncorrelated
2
• Consider I n1, I nf and I n- causing V no1(f)
2 2 2 2 Rf 2
V no1(f) = ( I n1(f) + I nf(f) + I n-(f) ) ------------------------------- (41)
1 + j2πfR f C f

Opamp Example
2
• Consider I n+, V n2 and V n causing V no2(f)
2 2 2 2 2 Rf ⁄ R1 2
V no2(f) = ( I n+(f)R 2 + V n2(f) + V n(f) ) 1 + ------------------------------- (42)
1 + j2πfC f R f
• If R f « R 1 then gain ≅ 1 for all freq and ideal opamp would

result in infinite noise — practical opamp will lowpass
filter noise at opamp f t .
• If R f » R 1 , low freq gain ≅ R f ⁄ R 1 and f 3dB = 1 ⁄ ( 2πR f C f )
similar to noise at negative input — however, gain falls to
unity until opamp f t .
2 2 2
Total noise: V no(rms) = V no1(rms) + V no2(rms) (43)

Numerical Example
• Estimate total output noise rms value for a 10kHz lowpass
filter when C f = 160pF , R f = 100k , R 1 = 10k , and
R 2 = 9.1k .
• Assume V n(f) = 20 nV ⁄ Hz , I n(f) = 0.6 pA ⁄ Hz

opamp’s f t = 5 MHz .
• Assuming room temperature,
I nf = 0.406 pA ⁄ Hz (44)
I n1 = 1.28 pA ⁄ Hz (45)
V n2 = 12.2 nV ⁄ Hz (46)

Numerical Example
2
• The low freq value of V no1(f) is found by f = 0 , in (41).
2 2 2 2 2
V no1(0) = ( I n1(0) + I nf(0) + I n-(0) )R f
2 2 2 9 2 2
= ( 0.406 + 1.28 + 0.6 ) ( 1 × 10 ) ( 100k )
2
= ( 147 nV ⁄ Hz ) (47)
• Since (41) indicates noise is first-order lowpass filtered,
2 2 π⁄2
V no1(rms) = ( 147 nV ⁄ Hz ) × --------------------------------------------------
2π ( 100kΩ ) ( 160pF )
2
= ( 18.4 µV ) (48)

Numerical Example
2
• For V no2(0)
2 2 2 2 2 2
V no2(0) = ( I n+(f)R 2 + V n2(f) + V n(f) ) ( 1 + R f ⁄ R 1 )
2 2
= ( 24.1 nV ⁄ Hz ) × 11
2
= ( 265 nV ⁄ Hz ) (49)
• Noise is lowpass filtered at f o until f 1 = ( R f ⁄ R 1 )f o
where the noise gain reaches unity until f t = 5MHz
• Breaking noise into two portions, we have
2 π⁄2 
–9 2  – 9 2  π
V no2(rms) = ( 265 × 10 ) ------------------ + ( 24.1 × 10 ) --- ( f t – f 1 )
 2πR C   2
f f
2 (50)
= ( 74.6 µV )

Numerical Example
• Total output noise is estimated to be
2 2
V no(rms) = V no1(rms) + V no2(rms) = 77 µV rms (51)
• Note: major noise source is opamp’s voltage noise.
• To reduce total output noise
— use a lower speed opamp
— choose an opamp with a lower voltage noise.
• Note: R 2 contributes to output noise with its thermal noise
AND amplifying opamp’s positive noise current.
• If dc offset can be tolerated, it should be eliminated in a
low-noise circuit.

CMOS Example
• Look at noise in input stage of 2-stage CMOS opamp
V dd
V n5
V bias Q5
V n1 V n2
V in+ Q1 Q2 V in-
V n4 V no (output)
V n3
Q3 Q4
V ss
• Equivalent voltage noise sources used since example

addresses low-moderate frequency.

CMOS Example
V no V no
--------- = --------- = g m1 R o (52)
V n1 V n2
where R o is the output impedance seen at V no .

V no V no
--------- = --------- = g m3 R o (53)
V n3 V n4
V no g m5
--------- = ------------ (54)
V n5 2g m3
• Found by noting that V n5 modulates bias current and drain

of Q 2 tracks that of Q 1 due to symmetry — this gain is
small (compared to others) and is ignored.

CMOS Example
2 2 2 2 2
V no(f) = 2 ( g m1 R o ) V n1(f) + 2 ( g m3 R o ) V n3(f) (55)
• Find equiv input noise by dividing by g m1 R o
2
2 2 2  g m3
V neq(f) = 2V n1(f) + 2V n3(f)  --------- (56)
 g m1
Thermal Noise Portion
• For white noise portion, subsitute
2 1
V ni(f) = 4kT  ---  --------
2
 3  g 
(57)
mi
 16  1   16  g m3  1 

V neq(f) = ------ kT --------- + ------ kT  --------- ---------
 3  g   3  g  g 
(58)
m1 m1 m1

CMOS Example
• Assuming g m3 ⁄ g m1 is near unity, near equal contribution
of noise from the two pairs of transistors which is
inversely proportional to g m1 .
• In other words, g m1 should be made as large as possible
to minimize thermal noise contribution.
1/f Noise Portion
• We make the following substitution into (56),
W
g mi = 2µ i C ox  ----- I Di (59)
 Li
2 2 2  ( W ⁄ L ) 3 µ n
V ni(f) = 2V n1(f) + 2V n3(f)  -------------------------- (60)
 ( W ⁄ L ) 1 µ p

CMOS Example
• Now, letting each of the noise sources have a spectral
density
2 Ki
V ni(f) = ----------------------- (61)
W i L i C ox f
we have
2 2  K1  µ n  K 3 L 1  
V ni(f) = -----------  -------------- +  ------  --------------  (62)
C ox f  W 1 L 1  µ p  W L 2 
1 3
• Recall first term is due to p-channel input transistors,

while second term is due to the n-channel loads

CMOS Example
Some points for low 1/f noise
• For L 1 = L 3 , the noise of the n-channel loads dominate
since µ n > µ p and typically n-channel transistors have
larger 1/f noise than p-channels (i.e. K 3 > K 1 ).
• Taking L 3 longer greatly helps due to the inverse squared
relationship — this will limit the signal swings somewhat
• The input noise is independent of W 3 and therefore one
can make it large to maximize signal swing at the output.

CMOS Example
Some points for low 1/f noise
• Taking W 1 wider also helps to minimize 1/f noise (recall it
helps white noise as well).
• Taking L 1 longer increases the noise due to the second
term being dominant.

04 Noise

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04 Noise

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Noise

David Johns and Ken Martin

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• These notes do not deal with interference noise.

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• These notes discuss noise analysis and inherent noise

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• Assume all noise signals have zero mean

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• When mean-squared values of noise and signal are same,

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• 0 dBm signal (50 Ω reference) implies

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

When fully correlated

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• Note that eliminating V n2 ( rms ) noise source same as

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• With deterministic signals, frequency-domain techniques

• This section presents frequency-domain techniques for

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• Periodic waveforms have their power at distinct

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• Around 100 Hz, V n(f) = 10 µV ⁄ Hz

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• Noise signal is “white” if a constant spectral density

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

Falls off at -10 db/decade due to f

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

V no(f) = A(j2πf) V ni(f)

• Output only a function of magnitude of transfer-function

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• Don’t design for larger bandwidths than required

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

V n2(f) A 2(s) V no(f)

• If filter inputs are uncorrelated, filter outputs are also

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• Works because a curve proportional to 1 ⁄ x results in equal

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• Consider root-spectral noise density shown above

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• Note: if noise curve is parallel to 1/f tangent for a wide

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• K dependent on device characteristics, varies widely.

• Flicker noise is inversely proportional to the transistor

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

for the case V DS = V GS – V T

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997

• Can lump thermal noise plus flicker noise as an input

© D. Johns, K. Martin, 1997