See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/312481848

Gas pipeline leakage detection based on PZT sensors

Article  in  Smart Materials and Structures · February 2017

DOI: 10.1088/1361-665X/26/2/025022

CITATIONS READS

21 879

5 authors, including:

Junxiao Zhu Zi-guang Jia

University of Houston Dalian University of Technology
23 PUBLICATIONS   92 CITATIONS    31 PUBLICATIONS   260 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Research Assistant View project

Master Thesis View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Junxiao Zhu on 30 January 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Home Search Collections Journals About Contact us My IOPscience

Gas pipeline leakage detection based on PZT sensors

This content has been downloaded from IOPscience. Please scroll down to see the full text.

2017 Smart Mater. Struct. 26 025022

(http://iopscience.iop.org/0964-1726/26/2/025022)

View the table of contents for this issue, or go to the journal homepage for more

Download details:

IP Address: 129.7.158.43
This content was downloaded on 29/01/2017 at 19:51

Please note that terms and conditions apply.

You may also be interested in:

Load Monitoring of Pin-connected Structures Using Piezoelectric Impedance Measurement

Yabin Liang, Dongsheng Li, Seyed Mohammad Parvasi et al.

Velocity and mass flow rate profiles of dry powders in a gravity drop conveyor using an
electrodynamic tomography system
R G Green, M F Rahmat, K Dutton et al.

A TDR-based system for the localization of leaks in newly installed, underground pipes made of any
material
A Cataldo, G Cannazza, E De Benedetto et al.

Condition monitoring of reciprocating seal based on FBG sensors

Xiuxu Zhao, Shuanshuan Zhang, Pengfei Wen et al.

An effective signal processing method for resistivityprobe measurements in a two-phase bubbly flow
Tay-Jian Liu

Investigation of an integrated fiber laser sensor system in ultrasonic structural health monitoring
Qi Wu and Yoji Okabe

Sensor application of fibre ultrasonic waveguide

Jung-Ryul Lee and Hiroshi Tsuda

Micromachined lead zirconium titanate thin-film-cantilever-based acoustic emission sensor with

poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) actuator for increasing contact pressure
Guo-Hua Feng and Wei-Ming Chen
 Smart Materials and Structures

Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 025022 (7pp) doi:10.1088/1361-665X/26/2/025022

Gas pipeline leakage detection based on

PZT sensors
Junxiao Zhu1, Liang Ren2, Siu-Chun Ho1, Ziguang Jia2 and
Gangbing Song1,2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77204, USA
2
School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning, 11604,
People’s Republic of China

E-mail: gsong@uh.edu

Received 31 May 2016, revised 4 August 2016

Accepted for publication 28 September 2016
Published 16 January 2017

Abstract
In this paper, an innovative method for rapid detection and location determination of pipeline
leakage utilizing lead zirconate titanate (PZT) sensors is proposed. The negative pressure wave
(NPW) is a stress wave generated by leakage in the pipeline, and propagates along the pipeline
from the leakage point to both ends. Thus the NPW is associated with hoop strain variation along
the pipe wall. PZT sensors mounted on the pipeline were used to measure the strain variation and
allowed accurate (within 2% error) and repeatable location (within 4% variance) of five manually
controlled leakage points. Experimental results have verified the effectiveness and the location
accuracy for leakage in a 55 meter long model pipeline.
Keywords: lead zirconate titanate (PZT) sensor, gas pipeline, leakage, negative pressure
wave (NPW)

(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction mass/volume balance [18], real time transient modeling [19–

Oil and gas pipelines, which are used to transport hazardous
materials across vast distances, are among the key building
blocks of the petroleum industry. With the rapid development of
the petroleum industry in recent years, over 3600 000 km of
pipeline has been built in the US until 2014 at a rapid rate of
more than 30 000 km each year since 2010 [1]. With increased
coverage of pipelines across such long distances, the chance for
sustaining damage that cause leakage of the hazardous materials
becomes proportionately larger. Based on the hazardous liquid
pipeline failure data for the period 2002–2005 provided by the
Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS), the estimated cost of each
pipeline failure event is over $157 000 [2]. To minimize the
potential environmental damage and economic loss, such as
products lost, property maintenance costs and recovery fees, a
method to accurately detect and locate the leak at a rapid pace is
necessary and a pressing research topic.
A number of leak detection methods have been developed
[3], including non-technical methods [4], acoustic methods [5–
9], optical methods [10–12], cable sensors [13], soil monitoring
[14], vapor sampling [15], ultrasonic flow meters [16, 17],
21], pressure point analysis [22], statistical [23], digital signal
processing [24] and negative pressure wave [25, 26].
In this paper, lead zirconate titanate (PZT) sensors were used
to detect the arrival time of negative pressure wave (NPW)
associated with leakage in a model pipeline. As will be discussed
in section 2.1, the NPW originates at the point of leakage and
propagates towards both the ends of the pipeline. Lead zirconate
titanite (PZT) is a class of smart materials which is widely used in
structural health monitoring [27–29]. An NPW sensing response
of PZT sensor is presented in section 2.2 and the leakage location
theory is described in section 2.3. Thereafter, the experimental
setup is described in section 3. Finally, the results, discussions
and conclusion of this work are presented in sections 4–6.
2. Background theory
2.1. Propagation mechanism of NPW in pipelines
Under the normal operating conditions of gas pipelines, the
internal pressure of the pipeline is relatively constant and

0964-1726/17/025022+07$33.00 1 © 2017 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 025022
Figure 1. NPW propagating along the pipeline.
Figure 2. Typical hoop strain variation.
significantly higher than the ambient, external pressure. When
a crack develops that exposes the inside of the pipeline, the
internal pressure at the leakage point drops significantly as a
result of pipeline content, i.e. natural gas, escaping through
the crack. The pipeline content moves from both upstream
and downstream simultaneously towards the leakage point.
This flow of content generates a decompression wave (i.e.
negative pressure wave) propagating through the pipeline
contents from the leakage point towards both ends of the
pipeline [30], as shown in figure 1. This decrease in pressure
inside the pipeline is accompanied by the contraction of pipe
wall resulting in decreasing pipe hoop (circumferential) strain
[25] as shown in figure 2. The hoop strain variation on the
pipe wall could be detected and measured by PZT sensors,
which are directly mounted on the pipeline wall. The NPW
sensing response of PZT sensor is discussed in the following
section.
2.2. NPW sensing response of PZT sensor
Piezoelectricity describes the phenomenon in which a piezo-
electric material generates an electric field when subjected to
a mechanical stress (direct effect), or, conversely, generating a
mechanical strain in response to an applied electric field [31].
PZT is a typical ceramic material which has noticeable
piezoelectric characteristics.
The PZT sensors were directly mounted on the pipe wall
to detect the arrival of the NPW. When the NPW reaches the
2
J Zhu et al
Figure 3. PZT sensor directly mounted on the pipe wall.
Figure 4. Typical charge mode amplifier circuit.
location of the PZT sensor, the decrease in internal pressure
leads to a decrease in pipe circumference, and thus a
corresponding decrease in hoop strain, which coincides with
the direction of strain along the direction ‘1’, as shown in
figure 3.
The relation from strain to output voltage of PZT sensor
is given by [32]
d31Ec lc bc
Vo = (1 - n )(leff beff ) e11. (1 )
CF
Here n is Poisson’s ratio of the host structure material, leff is
the effective length fraction in the direction ‘1’, beff is the
effective width fraction in direction ‘2’, d31 is the piezoelectric
coefficient relate the normal strain in the direction ‘1’ to a
field along the poling direction ‘3’, Ec is the Young’s mod-
ulus of the PZT material, lc is the length of the PZT sensor in
the direction ‘1’, bc is the width of the PZT sensor in the
direction ‘2’ and CF is the feedback capacitance of the charge
mode amplifier circuit as shown in figure 4. From
equation (1), one can see that both lc and bc depend on the
geometry of the PZT sensor. With a higher value of lc, the
PZT sensor will be more sensitive to the change in the hoop
strain; while increasing bc will increase the signal strength, the
increase in bc will spread the PZT sensor response over a
longer time duration since the NPW will remain within the
area of the PZT sensor for a longer time. If the response is
spread over a longer time period, the leak detection algorithm,
which tries to detect spikes in signals, will have difficulty
processing the prolonged signal for signs of leakage. Thus for
Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 025022
Figure 5. Typical responses of PZT sensors to NPW.
the purposes of leakage detection based on NPW signal, it is
better to have lc much larger than bc .
To measure the NPW signals, a signal conditioning cir-
cuit was introduced to process the output voltages of the PZT
sensors. Since the signal conditioning circuit, as shown in
figure 4, works as a band pass filter [33]; the output voltage of
PZT sensor is zero if there is no NPW wave arriving at the
location of the PZT sensor. The amplitudes of NPW signals as
measured by the PZT sensors are proportional to a certain
range of high frequency components of hoop strain variation
as shown in (1), which can indicate the arrival time of
the NPW.
2.3. Leakage location theory
The PZT sensors are directly mounted on the pipe wall and used
to measure the local hoop strain change. The typical response of
PZT sensors to NPW is shown in figure 5. Initially, when the
pipe is undamaged, the output amplitude is maintained at 0 V
because the internal pressure is held constant under the normal
operating conditions. Then, the downward, pulse-like waveform
indicates the arrival of the NPW to each specific sensor. The
initial downward slope of the pulse indicates the decrease of
internal pressure associated with the NPW as it reaches PZT
sensor location, while the subsequent upslope of the pulse
indicates the internal pressure settling at a different baseline
pressure. The negative peak of the waveform pinpoints the time
when the NPW passes through the PZT sensor location, which is
chosen to define the arrival time of NPW. Finally, the circuitry
used to measure signals from PZT sensor inherently forms a
band pass filter. Thus, when the internal pressure settles down,
low frequency signals dominate the PZT sensor signal and the
filtering effect of the circuitry causes the output amplitude to
returns to 0 V.
Two of the PZT sensors can be designated for use in the
location of the leakage point. The time difference between the
negative peaks of the two designated PZT sensors is defined
as Dt .
The difference in arrival time of the NPW at the desig-
nated sensors can be used to estimate the location of the NPW
3
J Zhu et al
Figure 6. Illustration of pipeline leakage and NPW propagation.
origin, which is the leakage point. Figure 6 illustrates the
working principle of this method [34].
Referring to figure 6, the distance of the leak point to the
upstream sensor (i.e. sensor near to the entry of the pipe) is:
L + (m + V ) Dt
L 1 = (m - V ) , (2 )
2m
where L1 denotes the distance between the upstream sensor and
the leak point, L denotes the distance between the upstream and
downstream sensors, m denotes the propagation velocity of the
NPW, V denotes the contents flow velocity, and Dt = t1 - t2
denotes the arrival time difference of the wave to the upstream
and downstream sensors while t1 and t2 are the arrival time of the
PZT #1 and PZT #2, respectively. The content flow velocity V
is negligible compared to the NPW velocity m and thus ignored.
Thus equation (2) can be rewritten as
L + mDt
L1 = . (3 )
2
The NPW velocity μ=285.75±23.6 m s−1 was measured in
the same pipeline system based on fiber Bragg grating sensors
[26], while μ=300 m s−1 was considered for use in the leakage
location process in the following experiments. This value was
chosen as it is situated in the upper margin of the velocity
estimation and for convenience of calculations.
3. Experimental setup
The model pipeline, shown in figure 7, consists of a series of
19.05 mm×3.048 m (3/4 in.×10 ft.) PVC Plain-End pipe
sections connected together to form a pipeline with a total
length of 55.78 m. Due to this long length, the model pipeline
was bent every 9.14 m using ten 90° elbow connectors and
five 0.20 m pipe sections shown in figure 8.
Six PZT sensors (15 mm×10 mm) were directly
mounted on the pipeline to detect NPW signal arrival (details
are shown in table 1). An NI PXI-5105 Digitizer was used as
a data acquisition system. The digitizer was triggered by the
voltage signal of PZT #1 with the trigger level at −0.02 V
and all the signals from six PZT sensors were recorded
simultaneously at a sampling rate of 100 KS s−1. Five
manually controllable leak valves were installed along the
pipeline (details are shown in table 2) to simulate a leakage
point. An air compressor was used to pressurize the pipeline
Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 025022 J Zhu et al

Figure 7. Model pipeline.

Figure 8. Diagram of the model pipeline with multiple simulative leak points.

Table 1. Sensor location.

up to 20 psi for each test. Also, pressure regulator and safety
release valve were installed for safety.
PZT sensor # Location from inlet (m)
PZT #1 (P1) 1.32 3.1. Experimental procedure
PZT #2 (P2) 17.15
PZT #3 (P3) 19.98 The following steps were taken iteratively to perform the
PZT #4 (P4) 35.80 experiment:
PZT #5 (P5) 38.63
PZT #6 (P6) 54.46 1. All the controllable leakage valves and both pipeline
ends were closed for pressurization.

4
Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 025022 J Zhu et al

Table 2. Leakage location.

Leakage valve # Location from inlet (m)

Leakage #1 (L1) 6.14
Leakage #2 (L 2) 15.55
Leakage #3 (L3) 24.84
Leakage #4 (L4) 34.21
Leakage #5 (L5) 43.47

Figure 10. Leakage position determination results of L1.

Figure 9. Leakage position determination results of model pipeline

with multi leak valves.

2. An air compressor was used to pressurize the pipeline

up to 20 psi.
3. One of the leakage valves was manually opened to
simulate the leakage.
4. The data acquisition system was triggered automatically
by the NPW signal and recorded the signals from PZT
sensors.
5. The leakage point could be estimated by the recorded
signals based on the leakage location method.
Leakage tests were repeated 19 times at each leakage point.
4. Results
The experimental results for location detection and actual
leakage positions (each line) are shown in figure 9. The
maximum error of the results was 2% of the location pre-
diction based on 55 meters, the total length of the model
pipeline, while the average of the variance of each leak
position result was stable within 4%.
On the model pipeline the NPW propagates 15 m in
0.05 s, which is the typical duration of NPW pulse as shown
in figure 5. Due to the superposition of incident and reflected
NPW, the negative peak of the pulse will be postponed if the
distance between the PZT sensor and the end of the pipeline is
less than 7.5 m, which is half of the NPW propagation
Figure 11. Leakage position determination results of L5.
distance in the typical duration. In the model pipeline, PZT
#1 and PZT #6 were in the NPW reflection range. Conse-
quently, the estimated distance errors and variances of the
Leakage #1 and Leakage #5 are comparatively larger than
the others can be explained by equation (3). Consequently,
the estimated distances of Leakage #1 based on the upstream
sensor PZT #1 were increased as shown in figure 10, while
the estimated distances of Leakage #5 based on the down-
stream sensor PZT #6 were decreased as shown in figure 11.
5. Discussions
Previous studies have used FBGs to detect leakage [25]; but
in this study, PZT sensors were used to replace FBGs to
detect leakage. The higher frequency, allowed by typical data
acquisition system compatible with PZT sensors, allows for
higher accuracy albeit with cost and cabling constraints.
The goal of this experiment is to assess the viability of
PZT sensors for detection of leakage in pipelines. Due to
limitations of the model pipeline, such as short length and

5
Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 025022
small diameter, several parameters are non-transferable from
experimental setup to real world applications. The differences
between the experimental setup and the real world applica-
tions are discussed below:
• PZT sensors mounted on the pipeline should ideally have
a maximal length in lc (the direction ‘1’) and minimal
length in bc (the direction ‘2’), as shown in figure 3.
However, due to the small diameter of the model pipeline,
the PZT sensors were mounted on the pipeline with
lc = 10 mm in the direction ‘1’ and bc = 15 mm in the
direction ‘2,’ as shown in figure 7, which is detrimental to
the estimated results of the leakage location. It can be
improved by choosing the appropriate size of the PZT
sensor so that lc is much longer than bc . In order to ensure
a better contact of the PZT sensor with the pipeline in the
lc direction, the PZT sensor can be custom-made to bend
along the surface of the pipeline. In the experiment
described in this paper, the PZT sensors were flat patches
and did not conform to the curvature of the pipe
circumference, thus reducing the contact of PZT sensor
along the lc direction.
• The pipeline hoop stress equation [35] is expressed as
D results, decreased the accuracy of the PZT sensors located
sh = ( pi - pe ) (4 )
2t
where pi and pe are the internal and external pressure
respectively, D is the diameter of the pipeline and t is the
wall thickness. The hoop stress sh is proportional to the
internal pressure pi and the diameter of the pipeline D,
when the external pressure pe is negligible compared to
the internal pressure pi . Since the internal pressure was 20
psi and the diameter of the model pipeline was 19.05 mm,
the responses of PZT sensors would have much higher
amplitudes in real world pipeline applications, as they
usually have much higher internal pressures and larger
diameters. The higher amplitude of response can lower
the data acquisition negative trigger level and tolerate
higher electromagnetic interference in real world
applications.
• Another major difference is the distance. Pipelines in the
field usually carry gas/oil across miles, and hence may
cause difficulties in receiving signals from PZT sensors
that are installed along the length of the pipeline. Since it
may be impractical to install long lengths of cable to each
PZT sensor, alternative methods, such as battery power
and/or solar energy harvesting combined with wireless
sensing techniques [36] may be required to allow for
practical applications.
• For practical applications, the PZT sensors are most likely
to be placed outside of the pipeline. Since the PZT
sensors need to survive the conditions of the environ-
ments, additional protection to the PZT sensors should be
provided to prevent damage to the brittle PZT sensors.
For most cases, a layer of epoxy (top of figure 7) is
sufficient to protect the PZT sensor from excessive
stresses and a degree of moisture. To completely protect
against moisture, a secondary layer of silicone may be
added.
6
J Zhu et al
Subsequent studies for PZT-based leakage detection will be
carried out regarding the effect of pipeline design parameters,
such as material and wall thickness, on the capabilities of the
PZT sensing system. Pipeline damages, such as dents or
corrosion will have local effects on the pipeline structure and
may be detected by the PZT sensing system, and thus may be
used as an early warning indicator for potential future leakage
sites. Wireless communications techniques designed for PZT
sensor will also be tested in order to verify applicability to
long distance pipelines.
6. Conclusions
A PZT-based pipeline leakage detection and location method
was presented in this paper. The dynamic strain variation of
the pipe wall introduced by the NPW was detected by mea-
suring the time of arrival of the NPW towards PZT sensors
installed along the length of the pipeline. During these tests, it
was found that the time of arrival approach allowed the
accurate and repeatable location of the leakage points, how-
ever, a challenge to be overcome is the reflection of the NPW
at each end of the pipeline. The reflections, as shown by the
near the ends of the pipeline. Future steps in this research are
to extend the application of leakage detection method to the
liquid pipeline, broaden the application to stiffer pipeline
materials, such as steel, and improve the algorithm to sur-
mount the influence of reflection at the ends of the pipeline.
Acknowledgments
This research was partially supported by the Major State Basic
Development Program of China (973 Program, grant number
2015CB057704), Innovative research group project (grant
number 51421064) and general projects (grant number
51478080 and 51278084) of Natural Science Foundation of
China. Mr Jia was supported by the Chinese Scholarship
Council for his one-year research visit at University of Houston.
The authors would like to acknowledge these financial supports.
References
[1] Pipeline Mileage and Facilities (Pipeline and Hazardous
Materials Safety Administration) (available at: http://
phmsa.dot.gov/pipeline/library/datastatistics/
pipelinemileagefacilities)
[2] Restrepo C E, Simonoff J S and Zimmerman R 2009 Causes,
cost consequences, and risk implications of accidents in US
hazardous liquid pipeline infrastructure Int. J. Crit.
Infrastruct. Prot. 2 38–50
[3] Murvay P S and Silea I 2012 A survey on gas leak detection
and localization techniques J. Loss Prevention Process Ind.
25 966–73
[4] Leak Detection Technology Study For PIPES Act 2007. (US
Department of Transportation) (available at: http://www.
phmsa.dot.gov/staticfiles/PHMSA/DownloadableFiles/
S10-080623-002-Signed.pdf)
Smart Mater. Struct. 26 (2017) 025022
[5] Meng L, Li Y, Wang W and Fu J 2012 Experimental study on
leak detection and location for gas pipeline based on
acoustic method J. Loss Prevention Process Ind. 25 90–102
[6] Miller R K, Pollock A A, Watts D J, Carlyle J M,
Tafuri A N and Yezzi J J J 1999 A reference standard for the
development of acoustic emission pipeline leak detection
techniques NDT & E International 32 1–8
[7] Ozevin D. and Hazim Y. 2013 New leak localization approach
in pipelines using single-point measurement J. Pipeline Syst.
Eng. Pract. 5 04013020
[8] Li S, Wen Y, Li P, Yang J, Dong X and Mu Y 2014 Leak
location in gas pipelines using cross-time–frequency
spectrum of leakage-induced acoustic vibrations J. Sound
Vib. 333 3889–903
[9] Lee L H, Rajkumar R, Lo L H, Wan C H and Isa D 2013 Oil
and gas pipeline failure prediction system using long range
ultrasonic transducers and euclidean-support vector
machines classification approach Expert Syst. Appl. 40
1925–34
[10] ITT Corporation 2009 Enhanced gas leak visualization tools
accelerate better decision making Pipeline & Gas J. 236
(https://pgjonline.com/2009/10/06/enhanced-gas-leak-
visualization-tools-accelerate-better-decision-making/)
[11] Tanimola F and Hill D 2009 Distributed fibre optic sensors for
pipeline protection J. Nat. Gas Sci. and Eng. 1 134–43
[12] Bonow G and Kroll A 2013 Gas leak localization in industrial
environments using a TDLAS-based remote gas sensor and
autonomous mobile robot with the Tri-Max method 2013
IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation (ICRA)
[13] Sandberg C, Holmes J, Mccoy K and Koppitsch H 1989 The
application of a continuous leak detection system to
pipelines and associated equipment IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.
25 906–9
[14] Lowry W E, Dunn S D, Walsh R, Merewether D and Rao D V
2000 Method and system to locate leaks in subsurface
containment structures using tracer gases US Patent
6,035,701
[15] Ren F and Pearton S J 2011 Semiconductor Device-Based
Sensors for Gas, Chemical, and Biomedical Applications
(Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press)
[16] Siemens 2013 Clamp-on flowmeter improves existing leak
detection system (http://w3.siemens.com/mcms/sensor-
systems/CaseStudies/viscosity_compensated_lds_pifl_
ouiusf.pdf)
[17] Schaefer R, Diorio D J and Doorhy J M 2014 Pipeline leak
location using ultrasonic flowmeters US Patent 8,850,871
[18] Doorhy J 2011 Real-time pipeline leak detection and location
using volume balancing Pipeline Gas 238 65–7
[19] Hauge E, Aamo O M and Godhavn J M 2009 Model-based
monitoring and leak detection in oil and gas pipelines SPE
Projects, Facilities & Construction 4 53–60
View publication stats
J Zhu et al
[20] Wang X-J, Lambert M F, Simpson A R, Liggett J A and
Vítkovský J P 2002 Leak detection in pipelines using the
damping of fluid transients J. Hydraul. Eng. 128 697–711
[21] Lee P J, Lambert M F, Simpson A R, Vítkovský J P and
Liggett J 2006 Experimental verification of the frequency
response method for pipeline leak detection J. Hydraul. Res.
44 693–707
[22] Pressure Point Analysis™ (EFA Technologies, Inc.) (available
at: http://efatech.com/sysppa.html)
[23] Zhang J and Mauro E D 1998 Implementing a reliable leak
detection system on a crude oil pipeline Adv. Pipeline Technol.
[24] I. ClampOn, ClampOn DSP Leak Monitor, (available at:
http://clampon.com/products/topside/leak-monitor/)
[25] Hou Q., Ren L., Jiao W., Zou P. and Song G. 2013 An
improved negative pressure wave method for natural gas
pipeline leak location using FBG based strain sensor and
wavelet transform Math. Problems Eng. 2013 278794
[26] Jia Z, Ren L, Li H, Ho S and Song G 2015 Experimental study
of pipeline leak detection based on hoop strain measurement
Struct. Control Health Monit. 22 799–812
[27] Yang Y, Hu Y and Lu Y 2008 Sensitivity of PZT impedance
sensors for damage detection of concrete structures Sensors
8 327–46
[28] Zhao X, Gao H, Zhang G, Ayhan B, Yan F, Kwan C and
Rose J L 2007 Active health monitoring of an aircraft wing
with embedded piezoelectric sensor/actuator network: I.
Defect detection, localization and growth monitoring Smart
Mater. Struct. 16 1208–17
[29] Li Y, Horowitz R and Evans R 2003 Vibration control of a
PZT actuated suspension dual-stage servo system using a
PZT sensor Magnetics, IEEE Trans. Magn. 39 932–7
[30] Ottenstein S A 1974 System and method for locating breaks in
liquid pipelines US Patent 3,851,521
[31] Giurgiutiu V 2007 Structural Health Monitoring: with Piezoelectric
Wafer Active Sensors (Cambridge, MA: Academic)
[32] Sirohi J and Chopra I 2000 Fundamental understanding of
piezoelectric strain sensors J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 11
246–57
[33] Karki J 2000 Signal conditioning piezoelectric sensors (Texas
Instruments Incorporated) (http://www.ti.com/lit/an/
sloa033a/sloa033a.pdf)
[34] Lu X, Sang Y, Zhang J and Fan Y 2006 A pipeline leakage
detection technology based on wavelet transform theory
2006 IEEE Int. Conf. on Information Acquisition
[35] Bai Y and Bai Q 2005 Subsea Pipelines and Risers
(Amsterdam: Elsevier)
[36] Li P, Olmi C and Song G 2010 Energy efficient wireless sensor
network for structural health monitoring using distributed
embedded piezoelectric transducers SPIE Smart Structures
and Materials + Nondestructive Evaluation and Health
Monitoring p 764715