DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Functions:

A function is the totality of ordered pairs (x, y) such that to each value of the variable x there corresponds a
unique value of the variable y. The value of the function at x is denoted by f(x). The variable x is called the
independent variable and the variable y is called the dependent variable. The permissible values of the
independent variable is called the domain and the set of values taken of the dependent variable is called the
range.

Examples:
x 2  2 xy  y 2
1. If f(x, y) = , then f(–x, –y) =
x2  y2
1 x y x y x y
a. b. c. d.
x y x y yx x y
Solution:
( x) 2  2( x)( y)  ( y) 2 x 2  2 xy  y 2
f(–x, –y) = 
(  x) 2  (  y ) 2 x2  y2
( x  y) 2 x y
= 
( x  y)( x  y) x  y

x 1
2. Given: f(x) =
x  3x 2  2 x
3

Find x so that f(x) is undefined.

a. 0, –1 and –2 b. 0, 1 and 2 c. 0 and 2 d. 1 and 2

Solution:

A function f(x) is undefined if its value approaches infinity. Hence, if a function is an algebraic rational
P( x)
fraction (i.e. a ratio of two polynomials) such as f ( x)  , then for it to approach infinity, the
Q( x)
denominator Q(x) must be equal to zero, i.e.
x 3  3x 2  2 x  0
x( x 2  3x  2)  0
x( x  1)( x  2)  0
x0 x 1  0 x2 0
 x  0 ,1and 2

3. Given: f(x) = 3x – 5, g(f(x)) = x. Find g(x).

2x  5 3x  5 x5 x5
a. b. c. d.
3 4 3 3
Solution:

If a function g(x) is the inverse of the function f(x), then f(g(x) = g(f(x)) = x. Hence, g(x) is the inverse
of f(x). To find the inverse of a function y = f(x), solve the equation for x, then interchange x and y.
y5
Let y = 3x – 5. Solving the equation for x, we have x  .
3
x5
 g ( x) 
3
 sin x
4. Given: f ( x)  . Find the first derivative of f(x).
1  cos x
1 1
a. 1 cos x b. c. d. 1 cos x
1  cos x 1  cos x
Solution:
(1  cos x) cos x  sin x( sin x) cos x  cos 2 x  sin 2 x
f ' ( x)   but cos x  sin x  1
2 2

(1  cos x) 2 (1  cos x) 2
1  cos x 1
 f ' ( x)  
(1  cos x) 2
1  cos x

Limits:

Definition: The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is equal to L, or in symbols lim f ( x)  L if, for any positive
x c

number  , however small, there exists a positive number  such that if 0 < x  c <  then f ( x)  L <
 . This definition says precisely that if f(x) approaches the limit L as x approaches c, then the difference
between f(x) and L can be made arbitrarily small by taking x sufficiently close to c.

The function f(x) is said to become infinite as x approaches c if f(x) can be made numerically arbitrarily large
by taking x sufficiently close to c. Note carefully that if lim f ( x)   the limit does not exist.
x c

L’Hôspital’s Rule:
0  f ' ( x)
If lim f ( x) is indeterminate of the form or and if lim exists, then
xa 0  x a g ' ( x )

f ( x) f ' ( x)
lim = lim
x a g ( x ) x a g ' ( x )

0 
Indeterminate Forms: , , 0  ,   , 0 0 ,  0 , 1
0 
Examples: Evaluate the following limits.

x2  9 0 x2  9 2 x 2(3)
1. lim =  lim  lim  6
x 3 x3 0 x 3 x  3 x3 1 1

x 3  4x 2  7  x3  4x 2  7 3x 2  8 x 
2. lim   lim  lim 
x  3  6 x  2 x 3  x  3  6 x  2 x 3 x   6  6 x 2 
Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule twice,

x 3  4x 2  7 6x  8 6 1
lim  lim  lim 
x  3  6 x  2 x 3 x   12 x x   12 2

3. lim (1  tan x) sec 2 x  0  

x  / 4

sec 2
1  tan x  sec 2 x 4  2 1
lim (1  tan x) sec 2 x  lim  lim 
x  / 4 x  / 4 cos 2 x x  / 4  2 sin 2 x  2
2 sin
2
1 1 
4. lim   x   
x 0
 x e 1

1 1  ex 1 x ex 1 ex e0 1
lim   x   lim  lim  lim  
 x e 1 x(e  1) xe  e  1 xe  2e 0(e )  2e
x 0  x  x x  x x 0 0
x 0 x 0 x 0 2
 Other indeterminate forms, such as 0 0 , 1 and  0 , are handled by taking the natural logarithm and
then applying L’Hôspital’s Rule.

Example:
Evaluate: lim x x
x 0
a. 0 b. 1 c. ½ d. indeterminate

Solution:

lim x x = 0 0
x 0

Let y  x  ln y  ln x x  x ln x
x

1
 lim x  lim  x   0
ln x
lim ln y  lim x ln x  lim
x 0 x 0 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0
 2
x x

Since ln y  0 as x  0, y  1 . Thus the required limit is 1.

Differentiation Formulas:

Let u & v be functions of x, n – any integer and c –constant.

Algebraic Functions:
du dv
v u
dc d u dx dx
1. 0 4.  
dx dx  v  v 2

2.
d
dx
u  v   du  dv
dx dx
5.
d n
dx
 
u  nu n1
du
dx

3.
d
uv   u dv  v du
dx dx dx
Trigonometric Functions:

1.
d
sin u   cos u du 4.
d
cot u    csc 2 u du
dx dx dx dx

2.
d
cos u    sin u du 5.
d
sec u   sec u tan u du
dx dx dx dx

3.
d
tan u   sec 2 u du 6.
d
csc u    csc u cot u du
dx dx dx dx
Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

1.
d
 Arc sin u   1 2 du 4.
d
 Arc cot u    1 2 du
dx 1  u dx dx 1  u dx

2.
d
 Arc cos u    1 2 du 5.
d
 Arc sec u   12 du
dx 1  u dx dx u u  1 dx
 3.
d
 Arc tan u   1 2 du 6.
d
 Arc csc u    12 du
dx 1  u dx dx u u  1 dx

Logarithmic Functions:

1.
d
ln u   1 du 2.
d
log u   log e du
dx u dx dx u dx
Exponential Formulas:

1.
d u
dx
 
e  eu
du
dx
2.
d u
dx
 
a  a u ln a
du
dx

Hyperbolic Functions:

1.
d
sinh u   cosh u du 4.
d
coth u    csc h 2 u du
dx dx dx dx

2.
d
cosh u   sinh u du 5.
d
sec h u    sec h u tanh u du
dx dx dx dx

3.
d
tanh u   sec h 2 u du 6.
d
csc h u    csc h u coth u du
dx dx dx dx
Applications of the Derivative:

Derivative as Slope:

If the derivative of y = f(x) exists at P(x1, y1), then the slope of the curve at P (which is defined to be
the slope of the tangent to the curve at P) is f ’(x1), i.e. the derivative of f(x) at
x = x1.

Example:

Find the coordinates of any point on the curve of y 2 – 4xy = x2 + 5 for which the tangent is horizontal.

Solution:

When the tangent to a curve is horizontal, its slope is equal to zero. Since the slope at any point
dy
m is equal to , we can take the derivative of the given equation and equate it to zero. Hence,
dx
2 yy '4( xy ' y)  2 x
2 yy '4 xy '4 y  2 x
y ' ( 2 y  4 x)  2 x  4 y
2x  4 y x  2 y
y'   = 0  x  2 y  0  x  2 y
2 y  4x y  2x
Substituting into the original equation and solving for y, we have

y 2  4(2 y) y  (2 y) 2  5  y 2  8 y 2  4 y 2  5
5 y 2  5  y 2  1  y  1
x  2(1)  2

Hence, the required points are (2, –1) and (–2, 1).

Derivative as Rate of Change:

If y = f(x) and if, as x varies from x to x + Δx, y varies from y to y + Δy, then
 y f ( x  x)  f ( x)

x x
is called the average rate of change of y (or f) over the interval Δx.

The instantaneous rate of change (or just rate of change) of y (or f) with respect to x is the derivative
y’ (or f’), i.e.
dy y
 lim
dx x0 x
dy
If  0 , it means that as x increases, y increases;
dx
dy
If  0 , it means that as x increases, y decreases.
dx
Examples:
2
1. Let G(t) = 400(15 – t) be the number of gallons of water in a tank t minutes after an outlet pipe is
opened. Find the average rate of change of drainage during the first 5 minutes and the rate at which
the water is running out at the end of 5 minutes.

Solution:

The average rate of change during the first 5 minutes equals

G G(5)  G(0) 40015  5  40015  0 400  100  400  225
2 2
  
t 5 5 5
= – 10,000 gal/min (The sign is negative since as time increases, the
volume in gallons is decreasing)

The instantaneous rate of change at t = 5 min is G’(5).

G’(t) = – 800(15 – t)
G’(5) = – 800(15 – 5) = – 8000 gal/min

So the average rate of change during the first 5 minutes is 10,000 gal/min
And the rate of drainage at the end of 5 seconds is 8,000 gal/min.

2. Sand is pouring from a spout forming a conical pile whose altitude is always twice the radius of the
base. Find the rate of change of the volume with respect to the altitude when the latter is 4 ft.

Solution:
1 h
V   r 2h but h  2r or r 
3 2
2
1 h 1
V    h   h3
3 2 12
dV   2  2 
 3 h  h  (4)  4 ft per ft
2 3

dh  12  4 4

Polynomial Curves:

Consider the polynomial curve shown.

y
A

O B x

C
 Critical points – points where the first derivative y’ = 0 such as points A, C and E in the
curve shown above. These can be classified further into
a). maximum point such as point A above
b) minimum point such as point C above
c) point of inflection with a horizontal tangent such as point E
Point of inflection – a point where a curve changes concavity from being concave upward
to concave downward or vice-versa such as points B, D and E in the curve shown
above. It is also a point where the second derivative y” = 0.

Second Derivative Test for Maxima-Minima:

At a critical point
a) if y” < 0, then the point is a maximum point
b) if y” > 0, then the point is a minimum point
c) if y” = 0, then the point is a point of inflection with a horizontal tangent.

Example: Find the maximum, minimum and point of inflection for the curve
3 2
y  x3  x  6x  1
2
Solution: To find the critical points, find y’ and set it equal to zero.
y'  3x 2  3x  6  0  x 2  x  2  0  ( x  1)( x  2)  0  x  1 & 2
3 9
When x  1, y  (1)  (1)  6(1)  1  ;
3 2

2 2
3
when x  2, y  2  (2)  6(2)  1  9 .
3 2

2
 9
Hence, the critical points are   1,  & 2,  9 .
 2
y"  6 x  3
 9  9
At   1,  , y” = 6(–1) – 3 = –9 < 0    1,  is a maximum point.
 2  2
At 2,  9, y"  6(2)  3  9  0  (2,  9) is a minimum point.
To find the point of inflection, set y” equal to zero.
3 1
y"  6 x  3  0  x  
6 2
Thus,  1 , 9  is a point of inflection.
3 2
When x  1 , 1 31 1 9
y        6   1  
2 2 22 2 4 2 4

INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Integration – the process of finding the function whose derivative is given.

Indefinite Integrals:

These are integrals of the form  f ( x)dx where f(x) is the integrand and x is the variable of
integration.

Properties of Indefinite Integrals:

1.  du  u  c
2.  du  dv  ....  dz    du   dv  ....   dz
3. If c is a constant, then  cdu  c  du

Fundamental Integration Formulas:

The Power Formula:
u n1
 u du  n  1  c where n  1
n

The Trigonometric Function Formulas:

1.  cos u du  sin u  c 5.  sec u tan u du  sec u  c

2.  sin u du   cos u  c 6.  csc u cot u du   csc u  c

 sec u du  tan u  c  sec u du  lnsec u  tan u   c

2
3. 7.

 csc u du   cot u  c  csc u du  lncsc u  cot u   c

2
4. 8.

1 1
9.
 sec u du  sec u tan u  ln(sec u  tan u )  c
3

2 2

Exponential Function Formulas:

au
 e du  e  c  a du   C where a > 0, a ≠ 1
u u u
1. 2.
ln a

Logarithmic Formula:
du
 u  ln u  c
Inverse Trigonometric Formulas:
du u du 1 u
1.
 a 2  u 2  Arc sin a  c 2.
a 2
 Arc tan  c
 u2 a a

du 1 u
3.
u u a
2 2

a
Arc sec  c
a

Integration by Parts:

 udv  uv   vdu
Trigonometric Substitution:

When the integrand involves a  x , let x  a sin  ;

2 2

when the integrand involves a  x , let x  a tan ;

2 2

when the integrand involves x  a , let x  a sec .

2 2

Definite Integrals:

b
These are integrals of the form  a
f ( x)dx where a (the lower limit) and b (the upper limit) are the
limits of integration. If
 f ( x)dx  F ( x) , then

b

a
f ( x)dx  F (x) b

a
 F (b)  F (a)

Properties of Definite Integrals:

1. Interchanging the limits of integration changes the sign of the integral, i.e.
b a
 a
f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
b
2. The interval of integration may be broken up into any number of subintervals,
and the integration performed over each interval separately, i.e.
b c b
 a
f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
a c
3. The definite integral of a given integrand is independent of the variable of
integration, i.e.
b b
 a
f ( x)dx   f ( z )dz
a

Even and Odd Functions:

A function that remains unchanged when x is replaced by –x, i.e.

f (  x)  f ( x)
is called an even function.

Examples:
1. f ( x)  x 2 since f ( x)  ( x) 2  x 2
2. f ( x)  cos x since f ( x)  cos( x)  cos x

If f(x) is an even function of x,

a a
 a
f ( x)dx  2 f ( x)dx
0

A function such that f ( x)   f ( x) is called an odd function.

Examples:
1. f ( x)  x 3 since f ( x)  ( x) 3   x 3
2. f ( x)  sin x since f ( x)  sin( x)   sin x

If f(x) is an odd function of x,

a
 a
f ( x)dx  0

Wallis’ Formula:

 /2 [(m  1)(m  3)    2 or 1][(n  1)(n  3)    2 or 1]

 0
sin m x cos n xdx 
(m  n)(m  n  2)(m  n  4)    2 or 1


where m & n ≥ 0, i.e. positive integers including zero

   / 2 if both m & n are even, otherwise   1
Note: If the first factor in any of the products to be formed using Wallis’
Formula is less than one, replace that factor by unity.

A Theorem of Pappus:

If a plane area is revolved about an axis in its plane and not crossing the area, the volume of the
solid generated is equal to the product of the generating area and the circumference of the circle described
by the centroid of the area, i.e.

V = A∙ 2πr
