HUMAN A&P “CHEAT SHEET

1ST SEMESTER FINAL

BODY SYSTEMS: integumentary(skin,hair,nails); skeleta(joint,bones); muscular(skeletal muscles); nervous(brain,spinal cord,nerves); endocrine(ovary,testis, thyroid/pineal,pituitary/adrenal glands,pancreas, #1
thymus); cardiovascular(heart,blood vessels); B
lymphatic/immune(red bone marrow,lymph vessels/nodes, thoracic duct,spleen); respiratory(nasal cavity,pharynx,larynx, thymus); digestive(oral cavity,esophagus,etc); urinary(kidney,ureter,etc); reproductive( O
POS: enhances the original stimulus, EX.) blood clotting NEG: output shuts off original effect, D
change the variable back to its “ideal” state EX.) control of blood sugar Y
ANATOMY = STRUCTURE! PHYSIOLOGY = FUNCTION! O
BODY CAVITIES: DORSAL; protects fragile nervous system organs (cranial & vertebral) R
VENTRAL; anterior & larger, houses internal organs called viscera (thoracic & abdominopelvic) I
STRUC. ORG.: (1) CHEMICAL; atoms →molecules (2) CELLULAR (3) TISSUE (4) ORGAN E
(5) ORGAN SYSTEM (6) ORGANISMAL N
LIFE FUNCTIONS: (1) MAINTAINING BOUNDARIES (2) MOVEMENT (3) RESPONSIVENESS T
(4) DIGESTION (5) METABOLISM (6) EXCRETION (7) REPRODUCTION (8) GROWTH A
SURVIVAL NEEDS: nutrients(food), oxygen, water, appropriate temp. & atmospheric T
pressure I
NORM. BODY TEMP.: 37 °C/98.6 °F, If it drops, metabolic reactions become slower and
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slower and finally stop.
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If too high, chemical reactions occur at a frantic pace, body proteins lose characteristic
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shape & stop functioning
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Death occurs at either extreme.
HOMEOSTASIS: ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though outside world
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changes continuously.; maintains it through neg feedback:
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(1) STIMULUS produces change in variable
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(2) RECEPTOR detects change
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(3) INPUT info sent along afferent pathway to control center
(4) OUTPUT info sent along efferent pathway to effector
(5) RESPONSE of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable
to homeostasis value
FIELDS OF ANATOMY: GROSS large body structures visible to the naked eye REGIONAL particular region in body
SYSTEMIC system by system SURFACE internal structures relate to overlying skin ‘
MICROSCOPE structures too small CYTOLOGY cells HISTOLOGY tissues DEVELOPMENTAL structural changes
EMBRYOLOGY dev. changes before birth
ANATOMICAL POS.: standard position used for description of body parts, body is erect w/feet slightly apart

PHOSPHOLIPIDS: modified triglycerides, specifically, diglycerides w/ phosphorus-containing group & two, rather than three, fatty acid chains. Although the hydrocarbon portion (the “tail”) of
the molecule is nonpolar & only interacts w/ nonpolar molecules, the phosphorus-containing part (the “head”) is polar & attracts other polar or changed particles. also, it is used as chief
material for building cellular membranes.
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GEN. INFO. IN DNA: Structure of DNA. (a) The unit of DNA is the nucleotide, which is composed deoxyribose sugar molecule linked to a phosphate group, with a base attached to the sugar
Two nucleotides, linked by hydrogen bonds between their complementary bases, are illustrated (b) DNA s a coiled double polymer of nucleotides (a double helix). The backbones of the
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ladderlike molecule are formed alternating sugar and phosphate units. The rungs are formed by the binding together of complementary bases (A-T and G-C) by hydrogen bonds
H
DIFFUSION:the tendency of molecules ions to move from an area where they are in higher concentration to an area where they are in lower concentration, that is, down or along their E
concentration gradient. Simple diffusion occurs when there is no obstacle to the substance so it can diffuse freely. Facilitated diffusion requires a carrier protein so that diffusion can occur M
across a cell membrane. I
PROTEIN: collagen is the most abundant in the body S
ORGANIC MOLECULES:(1) CARB provides an easily used energy source (2) LIPIDS insulate body organs, build cell membranes & provide stored energy (3) PROTEINS are the body’s basic T
structural material & have many vital functions with enzymes, hemoglobin of the blood & muscle contractions (4) NUCLEIC ACIDS the largest molecule in the body; composed of carbon,
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oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen & phosphorus.
COMP. OF ORG. COMPOUNDS: are generally distinguished by the fact that they contain carbon, and inorganic compounds are defined as compounds that lack carbon. You should be aware
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of a few exceptions to this generalization: bon dioxide and carbon monoxide, for example, contain carbon but are considered inorganic compounds. For
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FUNC. OF ORG. COMPOUNDS: their interactions with other molecules typically involve only small, reactive parts of their structure called functional groups. F
ENZYMES:are globular proteins that act as biological catalysts. Catalysts are substances that regulate and accelerate the rate of biochemical reactions but are not used up or changed in L
those reactions. More specifically, enzymes can be thought of as chemical traffic cops that keep our metabolic pathways. I
ACIDS(1-6): Acids have a sour taste, can react with (dissolve) many metals, and "burn" a hole your rug. purposes the most useful definition of an acid is a substance that releases hydrogen F
ions (H') in detectable amounts. Because a hydrogen ion is a hydrogen nucleus, or "naked" proton, acids are also defined donors. E
BASES(8-14): Bases have a bitter taste, feel slippery, and are proton acceptors- that is, they take up hydrogen ions (H) in detectable amounts. Common inorganic bases include the
hydroxides (hi-drok'sids), such as magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia) and sodium All hydroxide (lye). Like acids, hydroxides dissociate when dissolved in water, but in this case
hydroxyl ions (OH) and cations liberated.
SALT: the most plentiful salts are the calcium phosphates that make bones and teeth hard; in their ionized form, salt play vital roles in body function. for instance, electrolyte properties
potassium ions are essential for nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction. ionic iron forms part of the hemoglobin molecules that transport oxygen within red blood cells, and
zinc and copper ions are important to the activity of some enzymes.
MOLECULES SOLUBLE IN WATER?: polar molecules (with +/- charges) are attracted to water molecules and are hydrophilic. Nonpolar molecules are repelled by water and do not dissolve in
water; are hydrophobic. Hydrocarbon is hydrophobic except when it has an attached ionized functional group such as carboxyl (acid) (COOH), then molecule is hydrophilic.
 HUMAN A&P “CHEAT SHEET
CELL DIFFERENTIATION: is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type.; occurs many times during the development of a multicellular organism.
ATP: is the primary energy-transferring molecule in cells & it provides a form of energy that is immediately usable by all body cells.
PLASMA MEMBRANE: The flexible plasma membrane separates two of the body's major fluid compartments- the intracellular fluid within cells and the extracellular fluid (ECF) outside
cells. The term cell membrane is commonly used as a synonym for plasma membrane, but because early all cellular organelles are enclosed in a membrane, in this book we will always to
the cell's surface, or outer limiting membrane, as the plasma membrane. The er re a membrane is much more than a passive envelope. As you will see, its unique plasm structure allows
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it to play a dynamic role in cellular activities.
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CELL JUNCTIONS: (1) TIGHT a series of integral protein molecules in smaLL membranes of adjacent cells fuse together, forming an impermeable junction that encircles the cell Tight ctions C
help prevent molecules from passing through the extracellular space between adjacent cells. (2) DESMOSOMES ("binding bodies") serve as anchoring junctions-mechanical couplings E
scattered like rivets along the sides of adjacent cells to prevent their separation cytoplasmic face of (3) GAP is a communicating junction plasma membranes are very close, and the cells L
are connected by hollow cylinders called connexons composed of transmembrane proteins. L
HYPOTONIC: a lower concentration of solutes than another solution.. Because of this, the cell's semi-permeable membrane (the membrane that allows water to enter the cell) allows more S
water to enter the cell as it attempts to even out the solute (a substance that is dissolved in a liquid). This causes the cell to swell with water, and if it's not stopped, it will burst!
HYPERTONIC: is basically the opposite of a hypotonic solution. In this case, the water has more of a solute than the cell does. In this case, water rushes out of the cell in order to maintain
equilibrium (equal amounts of solute and water on either side). The cell dries out as it loses water, and it eventually dies.
ISOTONIC:s a balanced water-solute concentration. When a solution is isotonic, it is at equilibrium.
ENDOCYTOSIS: Protein-coated vesicles provide endocytosis and transcytosis of bulk solids, most macromolecules, ad fluids. On occasion, these vesicles are also hijacked by patho. gens
seeking entry into a cell.
EXOCYTOSIS: Vesicular transport processes that eject substances from interior into the extracellular fluid are called exocytosis ("out of the cell"). Exocytosis is typically stimulated by a cell-
surface signal such of hormone to a membrane receptor or a change in membrane voltage. accounts for hormone secretion, neurotransmitter release mucus secretion, and in some
cases, ejection of wastes. The substance to be removed from the cell is first enclosed in a protein-coated membranous sac called a secretory vesicle. In most cases, the vesicle migrates to
the plasma membrane, fuses with it, and then ruptures. spilling the contents out of the cell.
PHAGOCYTOSIS: the cell engulfs some relatively large or solid material, such as a clump of bacteria, cell debris, inanimate particles (asbestos fibers or glass, for example)
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: is one of the most fundamental biological processes by which individual cells build their specific proteins. Within the process are involved both DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) and different in their function ribonucleic acids (RNA)

COLLAGEN: very strong, comparable to iron or steel but they are very tiny. These are the thickest and strongest of the 3 fibers.
ELASTIC: stretch and recoil and contain a rubberlike protein called elastin.
RETICULAR: are found in organs that have lots of mesh-like internal structure. The spleen for example is full of these because it acts like a filter.
EPITHELIAL: covers the body surface and forms the lining for most internal cavities. The major function of epithelial tissue includes protection, secretion, absorption, and filtration.
The skin is an organ made up of epithelial tissue which protects the body from dirt, dust, bacteria and other microbes that may be harmful. Cells of the epithelial tissue have
different shapes as shown on the student's worksheet. Cells can be thin, flat to cubic to elongated. even though epithelium is avascular (contains no blood vessels), it’s still
innervated (supplied by nerve fibers). #
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Simple squamous epithelium Air sacs of the lungs and the lining of the heart, blood vessels and lymphatic Allows materials to pass through by diffusion and filtration, and T
vessels secretes lubricating substances I
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Allows materials to pass through by diffusion and In ducts and secretory portions of small glands and in kidney tubules Secretes and absorbs S
filtration, and secretes lubricating substances U
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Simple columnar epithelium Ciliated tissues including the bronchi, uterine tubes, and uterus; smooth Absorbs; it also secretes mucus and enzymes S
(nonciliated tissues) are in the digestive tract bladder

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Ciliated tissue lines the trachea and much of the upper respiratory tract Secrete mucous; ciliated tissue moves mucous

Stratified squamous epithelium Lines the esophagus, mouth, and vagina Protects against abrasion

Stratified cuboidal epithelium Sweat glands, salivary glands, and mammary glands Protective tissue

Stratified columnar epithelium The male urethra and the ducts of some glands. Secretes and protects

Transitional epithelium Lines the bladder, urethra and ureters Allows the urinary organs to expand and stretch

CONNECTIVE: covers the body surface and forms the lining for most internal cavities. The major function of epithelial tissue includes protection, secretion, absorption, and filtration.
The skin is an organ made up of epithelial tissue which protects the body from dirt, dust, bacteria and other microbes that may be harmful. Cells of the epithelial tissue have
different shapes as shown on the student's worksheet. Cells can be thin, flat to cubic to elongated.
MUSCLE: There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle is a voluntary type of muscle tissue that is used in the contraction of skeletal
parts. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of internal organs and blood vessels. It is an involuntary type. The cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart and is
involuntary in nature.
NERVOUS: is composed of specialized cells which not only receive stimuli but also conduct impulses to and from all parts of the body. Nerve cells or neurons are long and string-
like.
TISSUE REPAIR: (1) REGENERATION (2) FIBROSIS →SCAR TISSUE STEPS: (1) INFLAMMATION SETS THE STAGE (2) ORGANIZATION RESTORES THE BLOOD SUPPLY (3) REGENERATION &
FIBROSIS AFFECT PERMANENT REPAIR
MESENCHYME: is a type of animal tissue comprised of loose cells embedded in a mesh of proteins and fluid, called the extracellular matrix. ... Mesenchyme directly gives rise to
most of the body's connective tissues, from bones and cartilage to the lymphatic and circulatory systems.
GLANDS: is an organ which produces and releases substances that perform a specific function in the body. There are two types of gland. Endocrine glands are ductless glands and
release the substances that they make (hormones) directly into the bloodstream. These glands form part of the endocrine system. There is another type of gland called an
 HUMAN A&P “CHEAT SHEET
exocrine gland These are not considered part of the endocrine system as they do not produce hormones and they release their product through a duct.
MODES OF SECRETION: MEROCRINE cell are excreted via exocytosis from secretory cells into an epithelial-walled duct or ducts and then onto a bodily surface or into the lumen
.APOCRINE apical portion pinches off and leaves duct mammary glands HOLOCRINE cell bursts; death
GOBLET CELL: a column-shaped cell found in the respiratory and intestinal tracts, which secretes the main component of mucus.

EPIDERMIS superficial region consists of epithelial tissue & is avascular

● Stratified squamous tissue
● EPITHELIAL: KERATINOCYTES produce fibrous keratin (skin protective properties, connected by desmosomes, millions slough off)
● MELANOCYTE deepest epidermis, produce melanin packaged into melanosomes, trans to keratinocytes
● DENDRITIC/LANGERHANS CELLS macrophages that patrol deep epidermis, key activators of immune system
● LAYERS: 4-5 THICK 5 layers (palms,soles) THIN 4 layers
DERMIS underlies epidermis mostly fibrous CT & vascular
HYPODERMIS superficial fascia subcutaneous layer deep to skin not part of skin but shares some functions; mostly adipose tissue absorbs shock & insulation; anchors skin to
underlying structures mostly muscle
SWEAT GLANDS sudoriferous glands not on nipples & external genitalia 3 MILLION
● ECCRINE most numerous type; abundant on palms, soles & forehead; ducts connected to pores; regulate temp by sympathetic nervous system 99% water,dermcidin, etc
● APOCRINE in the armpits, the groin, and the area around the nipples of the breast. scent glands, and their secretions usually have an odor.
SEBACEOUS a small gland in the skin which secretes a lubricating oily matter (sebum, holocrine secretion bacterial killing properties; softens hair) into the hair follicles to
lubricate the skin and hair.
Flexure lines these are externally visible. Dermal folds that occur at or near joints. See them as creases in your palms, wrists, finges, soles, and toes.
Wrinkles inflammation, which causes elastin and collagen to deteriorate and eventually collapse.
Striae stretching of skin due to pregnancy or weight gain; are indented streaks that often appear on the abdomen, breasts, hips, buttocks and thighs.
BURNS: damaged caused by denaturation of proteins which destroys cells; dehydration & electrolyte imbalance, kidney failure, renal shutdown & circulatory
shock
First-degree These burns only affect the outer layer of your skin. A mild sunburn is one example. Your skin may be red and painful, but you won’t have any
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blisters. Long-term damage is rare.
Second degree If you have this type of burn, the outer layer of your skin as well the dermis – the layer underneath – has been damaged. Your skin will be bright
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red, swollen, and may look shiny and wet. You’ll see blisters, and the burn will hurt to the touch. S
Third degree Sometimes called a “full thickness burn,” this type of injury destroys two full layers of your skin. Instead of turning red, it may appear black, brown, K
white or yellow. It won’t hurt because this type of burn damages nerve endings. I
RULE OF NINES assesses the percentage of burn and is used to help guide treatment decisions including fluid resuscitation and becomes part of the guidelines to determine N
transfer to a burn unit. You can estimate the body surface area on an adult that has been burned by using multiples of 9.
SKIN CANCER: most tumors are not benign( not threatening) & do not spread; overexposure to radiation & frequent irritation to skin
Basal cell carcinoma most common; stratum cells proliferate, slowly invades dermis & hypodermis; cured by surgical incision
Squamous cell 2nd most common; arises keratinocytes of stratum spinosum; scaly reddened papulae mostly on head; if caught early, chance of complete cure is good
Melanoma melanocytes; most dangerous, highly metastatic & resistant to chemo; icisions & immunotherapy
SKIN COLOR deeper layers of epidermis
MELANIN produced in skin; when exposed to sun, it secretes chemicals that stimulate them
CAROTENE yellow to orange; carrots; accumulates in stratum corneum & fatty tissue of hypodermis; palms & soles
HEMOGLOBIN found in derma capillaries
abnormal skin colors
CYANOSIS blue; lack of oxygen ERYTHEMA embarrassment; blushing; fever PALLOR pale; fear; anemia; angerlowe blood pressure JAUNDICE yellow; liver disorder
BRONZING addison's disease BRUISES blood escaped from circulation