CAUSES OF SEDIMENTATION IN RESERVOIRS

SEDIMENT CONTROL STRATEGIES

Protecting reservoirs from sedimentation will:
 involve participants from a variety of disciplines including agriculture,
engineering,hydrology, sociology, economics, and others;
 affect water savings on a large scale not only by conserving and protecting
existingreservoir resources but also by retaining more soil and water on land;
and
 be crucial to agriculture and rural life, especially in Kansas, and encompass a
variety ofcommunity, economic, environmental, health, and social issues.

A balanced sediment solution

Since the mid-1990s, multiple engineering and environmental studies have been prepared by
the owner of the aforementioned dam in the western U.S. to determine what should be done
to improve the situation for safety and environmental protection.

Three of the four options mentioned above would not work for this dam. Sediment release
either through notching or rapid release would affect downstream habitats, estuaries, water
supply and riverside properties. Currently there is a significant flooding issue along the lower
portion of the river, and allowing the sediment to erode downstream would likely worsen
downstream flooding. In addition, because the dam is in a remote location, hauling sediment
would be difficult (and costly).

Sediment control

Sediment control techniques are used on building sites to prevent sand, soil, cement and
other building materials from reaching waterways. Even a small amount of pollution from a
site can cause significant environmental damage by killing aquatic life, silting up streams and
blocking stormwater pipes.

The objectives of sediment control are to:

 divert uncontaminated water away from the work area

 minimise erosion by minimising site disturbance and stabilising disturbed surfaces
 prevent material stockpiles from collecting or discharging sediment.

Successful control measures on building sites trap and retain sediment displaced by up-slope
erosion. This results in:
  cleaner waterways and healthier aquatic life
 reduced clean-up costs to the community
 improved site conditions
 improved wet weather working conditions
 reduced wet weather construction delays
 reduced losses from material stockpiles
 fewer mud and dust problems
 fewer public complaints and less chance of fines.

Use this overview of sediment control principles and techniques as a guide to the topic and to
sources of further information. Any attempt to control sediment on building sites should
comply with the requirements of local erosion and sediment control guidelines and it is
strongly recommended that advice be obtained from appropriately qualified experts.

1) Reduce sediment delivery: The volume of sediment delivered to the reservoir can
be reduced by controlling erosion within the tributary watershed or constructing
sediment traps or debris basins to capture eroded sediments before they enter the
reservoir.
2) Route sediments through or around the reservoir: Techniques to pass sediment
through or around the reservoirs include the venting of density currents, reservoir
drawdown during periods of high sediment discharge to reduce detention time and
sediment accumulation, and construction of off-channel structures including sediment
diversions and off-stream reservoirs.
3) Removal of deposited sediments: Previously deposited sediments may be
removed by hydraulic scouring, dredging, explosive mobilization or excavation using
earth moving equipment in the empty reservoir.

ROUTING OF SEDIMENT

Sediment of Routing of Sediment is transported from areas of uplift and erosion

into adjacent sedimentary basins. The relationship between transport processes and
storage sites of the sediments is sediment routing. From its generation to its
reaching the depozones, the position a sediment particle occupies, depends on its
location at the time of deposition. Large sediment routing systems are among the
largest geological features on earth, commonly spanning ocean–continent
boundaries and occasionally crossing plate boundaries.

Basin models conventionally involve modeling of the filling of sedimentary basins is

dependent on incorporating surface processes of weathering, sediment release and
dispersal, and long-term burial in the basin. This integrated process system from
source to sink is the sediment routing system. Tectonics and sediment routing
systems are closely coupled. Dispersal of a mixed sediment supply into a basin with
a certain spatial pattern of tectonic subsidence also controls the regional slope..

Sediment routing refers to the methods of maintaining the flow of fluvial borne
sediments beyond the impounded reach. Sediment routing differs from sediment
flushing in that the objective of the former is to prevent sediment deposition within the
reservoir pool and the objective of the latter is to erode previously deposited
sediments. When reservoir drawdown is used to control sedimentation, both sediment
routing and sediment flushing can occur simultaneously.
Reservoir Drawdown
The Chinese have coined the slogan for this type of strategy, “Impounding the clear
water and releasing the muddy flow” (Wu, 1984). Operation of reservoirs by lowering
the pool level during the flood season to sluice out waters with high sediment
concentration is normal in many reservoirs in China. The mode of operation is based
on the fact that 80 to 90 percent of the annual sediment load carried by the river is
discharged in July and August, whereas only 25 to 50 percent of the annual runoff
occurs in the same period.

Most sediment load enters the reservoirs during floods. In conventional operation,
Floodwater is impounded behind the dam and the sediment load which is being
transported by the floodwaters becomes trapped in the reservoir as flow velocity and
transport capacity.
.
Reservoir emptying
The Pipe Flow Advisor software can calculate tank weight, tank capacity, tank expansion due
to temperature change, volume for a given height of fluid, discharge flow rate, and the time
taken for the tank to empty with flow under gravity
Reservoir emptying operations may be used periodically for a small reservoir where
the storage capacity could not be maintained for beneficial use after a period of
several years of operation. For instance, in a moist area where the base flow is
adequate for the projected uses during the wet season, but not during the dry season,
water may be allowed to flow freely through the reservoir during the wet season, in
essence operating under a condition of full drawdown.
Sediment By-Pass

The Nan-Hua example is interesting because the upstream portion of the reservoir is
managed for sediment flushing, and only relatively clear water is permitted into the
downstream after bay which contains the main storage volume of the reservoir (fig. 7).
This “compartmented reservoir” strategy is limited to those sites where topography
permits relatively short tunnels.
Sediment-laden floodwater can be routed around a reservoir by using a diversion
tunnel. In effect, the tunnel acts as a bottom sluice. This strategy has been used in
Switzerland (Reed, 1931), at the Sautet and Chambon reservoirs in France
(Remenieras and Braudeau, 1951) at the Nagle reservoir in S. Africa (Annadale,
1987), and at the Ho-Ku and Nan-Hua reservoirs in Taiwan (Hawang, 1985).
Off-Stream Reservoirs

An off-stream reservoir is a reservoir that is not located on a streambed, and is supplied by

a pipeline, aqueduct or an adjacent stream. San Luis Reservoir is the largest off-stream
reservoir in the United States. Although it is located on a small stream, it gets the vast
majority of its water from the California Aqueduct by pumping aqueduct water up-hill to the
reservoir.

Parallel Reservoirs
The Dalingkou reservoir in Hebi Province of China took advantage of local
topography by building two parallel reservoirs connected by a water supply tunnel.
The reservoir in the smaller watershed with better vegetation was used as clear water
storage for water supply, while the other mainly worked as a flood retention reservoir.
This layout provided an operation scheme permitting water storage as well as
sediment flushing. This scheme could be feasible where the appropriate topographic
conditions prevail, to minimize construction costs.
Reservoirs in Series
The presence of series of reservoirs on a river presents special problems as well as
opportunities for sediment control. At Jiaojiazhuang in the Herbi Province of China,
two reservoirs were constructed in series, 2.5 km apart, on the same river. Based on
flushing experience at the three Rioni hydropower reservoirs in Soviet Georgia, it was
found that best results were obtained if flushing was initiated at the downstream
reservoir to create a channel which will transport, without settling of the sediments,
subsequently flushed from the more upstream sites
Venting of Density Currents
Floodwaters with a heavy sediment load are denser than clear water and when they
enter a reservoir they tend to sink beneath the surface and travel downstream beneath
the clear water (Fig. 8). Under favorable conditions these submerged density currents
can travel more than 50 km downstream, eventually reaching the face of the dam (Bell
1942). For venting to be successful, without any excessive wastage of water, the vents
must be opened at the appropriate time based on the travel time of the density current
through the reservoir. Also, the use of numerous small valves is reportedly more
practical than the use of one or two larger ones, since the larger flow will pull in water
from above the density current zone, increasing the water / sediment ratio.
Venting of sediment-laden density currents has reportedly be successful in discharging
over half the annual sediment load to the IrilEmda Reservoir in Algeria and the
Nebeur Dam in Tunisia (Duquennois, 1956), and there has been considerable success
using this technique at a number of sites in China (Fan, 1985,1986). Speaking of
reservoirs in India, Murthy (1977) observed that “Many of our reservoirs are having a
very high trap efficiency and the assumption that most of the fine silt and a part of the
medium silt would pass out of the reservoir through the spillway and other outlets as
density currents etc., does not hold in practice” (p17).
SEDIMENT REMOVAL
The methods of sediment control stated previously cannot completely arrest sediment
accumulation; the reservoir will continue to accumulate sediments, even if at a greatly
reduced rate.
Hydraulic Flushing
Hydraulic Flushing involves the release of water from a reservoir through a low level
outlet, and then allowing the water to flow across and it hydraulically scours the
deposited sediments. When this process is initiated in a reservoir which has already
accumulated a considerable sediment deposit, it will erode (fig. 9) a “main channel”
through the sediments while leaving “floodplain” deposits relatively unaffected by
scour. The flushing can be conceptualized in three stages: drawdown, erosion and
refill. The flushing sequence is described as follow. The drawdown stage corresponds
to the release of water from the reservoir to reduce pool level to the minimum level.
The erosion stage corresponds to the full drawdown of the reservoir. Pool level is
reached its minimum level and flushing outlets are fully opened. Following the
flushing, the bottom outlet is closed and the reservoir is allowed to refill, returning it
to normal service. In China, where flushing periods are usually prolonged, a specific
date is usually established to begin the refill. This date may represent a compromise
between many conflicting purposes.
Explosive Mobilization
It is possible to mechanically mobilize reservoir sediments using explosives so that
they could be washed and expelled at downstream. This procedure might be
particularly attractive for cohesive sediments, which are difficult to erode by hydraulic
action. This method has been used at some small and medium sized reservoirs in
China, such as the Zhiyu reservoir in Guangling County, Red Flag reservoir in Pinglu
County, Shan Xi Province, as well as Gufengshan reservoir. One article in Chinese
experience, described the investigation of the effectiveness of blasts in saturated silt.
Based on experiments carried out on a floodplain of the Yellow River, it was found
that in saturated silts, the vibration inducted by the blast is comparatively intense and
degenerates slowly, especially for low frequency vibration. It was reported that 0.67
kg of dynamite is required to excavate 1 m3 of earth for a flushing channel on the
flood plain and 0.23-0.5 kg dynamite is needed to excavate 1 m3 of earth on the side
slope of the channel (Hu, 1989). The use of explosives was examined at the Lofza
reservoir in Puerto Rico, where it was determined that nitro-methane could be
implanted into the sediments and detonated during the passage of a flood which would
carry the mobilized sediments at downstream. One of the principal impediments to
this method is that it would create sediment concentrations in excess of 50,000 mg/lt.
at downstream of the dam, which is unfavourable to environmental implications.
Dredging
Dredging is frequently used to recover storage capacity of the reservoirs. It is
observed from Table 2 that deposited reservoir-sediment has been removed by
dredging in various smallreservoirs in different countries. Dredging was carried out in
the delta region of the Lake Springfield, Illinois in United States to remove sediment
amounting about 2.7 MCM. Dredged materials were heaved within 1 Km. of the
reservoir.

PROCESS AND MECHANISM OF SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion is the displacement of the upper layer of soil, it is one form of soil degradation.
This natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice
(glaciers), snow, air (wind), plants, animals, and humans. .
The soil erosion may be defined as detachment, transportation and deposition
of soil particles from one place to another place under influence of wind, water and
gravity forces (Suresh, R., 2002). Erosion of soil by water is caused by its two forms-
liquid as flowing water, and solid as the glaciers.

Physical Processes
Rainfall and surface runoff
Surface runoff (also known as overland flow) is the flow of water that occurs when
excess stormwater, meltwater, or other sources flow over the Earth's surface. This can occur
when the soil is saturated to full capacity, and rain arrives more quickly than soil can
absorb it. Surface runoff often occurs because impervious areas (such as roofs and pavement)
do not allow water to soak into the ground. Surface runoff is a major component of the water
cycle. It is the primary agent of soil erosion by water.[1][2] The land area producing runoff that
drains to a common point is called a drainage basin..
Rainfall, and the surface runoff which may result from rainfall, produces four main
types of soil erosion: splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion.
Splash erosion is generally seen as the first and least severe stage in the soil erosion
process, which is followed by sheet erosion, then rill erosion and finally gully erosion
(the most severe of the four).
In splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the
soil,[7] ejecting soil particles.[8] The distance these soil particles travel can be as much
as 0.6 m (two feet) vertically and 1.5 m (five feet) horizontally on level ground.
If the soil is saturated, or if the rainfall rate is greater than the rate at which water can
infiltrate into the soil, surface runoff occurs. If the runoff has sufficient flow energy, it
will transport loosened soil particles (sediment) down the slope.[9] Sheet erosion is the
transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow.[9]
Gully erosion occurs when runoff water accumulates and rapidly flows in narrow
channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow, removing soil to a
considerable depth.
Rivers and streams
Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. The
erosion is both downward, deepening the valley, and headward, extending the valley
into the hillside, creating head cuts and steep banks. In the earliest stage of stream
erosion, the erosive activity is dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical V cross-
section and the stream gradient is relatively steep. When some base level is reached,
the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley floor and
creates a narrow floodplain.
Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river. This is
distinguished from changes on the bed of the watercourse, which is referred to
as scour. Erosion and changes in the form of river banks may be measured by
inserting metal rods into the bank and marking the position of the bank surface along
the rods at different times.[15]
Thermal erosion is the result of melting and weakening permafrost due to moving
water.[16] It can occur both along rivers and at the coast. Rapid river channel
migration observed in the Lena River of Siberia is due to thermal erosion, as these
portions of the banks are composed of permafrost-cemented non-cohesive
materials.[17] Much of this erosion occurs as the weakened banks fail in large slumps.
Thermal erosion also affects the Arctic coast, where wave action and near-shore
temperatures combine to undercut permafrost bluffs along the shoreline and cause
them to fail. Annual erosion rates along a 100-kilometre (62-mile) segment of the
Beaufort Sea shoreline averaged 5.6 metres (18 feet) per year from 1955 to 2002.
Floods[edit]
Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river, lake, or
ocean, in which the water overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of that water escaping
its usual boundaries,[2] or it may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated
ground in an areal flood. While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with
seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, these changes in size are unlikely to be
considered significant unless they flood property or drown domestic animals.
Wind erosion

Wind erosion is a major geomorphological force, especially in arid and semi-

arid regions. It is also a major source of land degradation, evaporation, desertification,
harmful airborne dust, and crop damage—especially after being increased far above
natural rates by human activities such as deforestation, urbanization,
and agriculture.[20][21]
Regions which experience intense and sustained erosion are called deflation zones. Most
aeolian deflation zones are composed of desert pavement, a sheet-like surface of rock
fragments that remains after wind and water have removed the fine particles. Almost half of
Earth's desert surfaces are stony deflation zones. The rock mantle in desert pavements
protects the underlying material from deflation.
Wind erosion is of two primary varieties: deflation, where the wind picks up and
carries away loose particles; and abrasion, where surfaces are worn down as they are
struck by airborne particles carried by wind. Deflation is divided into three categories:
(1) surface creep, where larger, heavier particles slide or roll along the ground;
(2) saltation, where particles are lifted a short height into the air, and bounce and
saltate across the surface of the soil; and (3) suspension, where very small and light
particles are lifted into the air by the wind, and are often carried for long distances.
Saltation is responsible for the majority (50–70%) of wind erosion, followed by
suspension (30–40%), and then surface creep (5–25%).[22][23] Silty soils tend to be the
most affected by wind erosion; silt particles are relatively easily detached and carried
away.[24]
Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For
example, in the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as
much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years
Mass movement
Mass movement is the downward and outward movement of rock and sediments on a
sloped surface, mainly due to the force of gravity.[26][27]

Surface creep is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by gravity which is usually not
perceptible except through extended observation. However, the term can also describe the
rolling of dislodged soil particles 0.5 to 1.0 mm (0.02 to 0.04 in) in diameter by wind along
the soil surface.
REFERENCES
1. Annandale, G. W. (1987). “Reservoir Sedimentation”, Elsevier Science Publishers,
Amsterdam.
2. Bell, H. Stevens. (1942). “Stratified Flow in Reservoirs and its Use in Prevention of
Silting”, Miscellaneous Publication No. 491, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington.
3. Chaudhuri, D. (2012). “Evaluation of Maithon Reservoir Performance.” M.Tech
Dissertation, Department of Hydrology, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Roorkee,
India.