CH6304 FLUID MECHANICS UNIT-IV CLASS NOTES 2015-2016

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Internal versus External Viscous Flows

Both laminar and turbulent flow may be either internal (that is, “bounded” by walls) or external and
unbounded.
An internal flow is constrained by the bounding walls, and the viscous effects will grow and meet and
permeate the entire flow. Figure shows an internal flow in a long duct. There is an entrance region
where a nearly inviscid upstream flow converges and enters the tube. Viscous boundary layers grow
downstream, retarding
the axial flow u(r, x) at the wall and thereby accelerating the center core flow to maintain the
incompressible continuity requirement

Fig.Developing velocity profiles and pressure changes in the entrance of a duct flow.
At a finite distance from the entrance, the boundary layers merge and the inviscid core disappears. The
tube flow is then entirely viscous, and the axial velocity adjusts slightly further until at x = Le it no
longer changes with x and is said to be fully developed, u = u(r) only. Downstream of x =Le the
velocity profile is constant, the
wall shear is constant, and the pressure drops linearly with x, for either laminar or turbulent flow. All
these details are shown in Fig.
Dimensional analysis shows that the Reynolds number is the only parameter affecting entrance length.
If

For laminar flow, the accepted correlation is

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The maximum laminar entrance length, at Red,crit =2300, is Le = 138d, which is the longest
development length possible. In turbulent flow, the boundary layers grow faster, and Le is relatively
shorter. For decades, the writer has favored a sixth-power-law estimate, , but recent
CFD results, communicated by Fabien Anselmet, and separately by Sukanta Dash, indicate that a
better turbulent entrance-length correlation is

Some computed turbulent entrance-length estimates are thus

Now 90 diameters may seem “long,” but typical pipe flow applications involve an L/d value of 1000
or more, in which case the entrance effect may be neglected and a simple analysis made for fully
developed flow. This is possible for both laminar and turbulent flows, including rough walls and
noncircular cross sections.
An oil with ρ = 900 kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity =0.0002 m2/s flows upward through an
inclined pipe as shown in Fig. 1. The pressure and elevation are known at sections 1 and 2, 10 m
apart. Assuming steady laminar flow, (a) verify that the flow is up, (b) compute hfbetween 1 and
2, and compute (c) Q, (d) V, and (e) Red. Is the flow really laminar?

Part (a)
For later use, calculate

The flow goes in the direction of falling HGL; therefore compute the hydraulic grade-line height at
each section:

The HGL is lower at section 2; hence the flow is up from 1 to 2 as assumed.

Part (b)

The head loss is the change in HGL:

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Half the length of the pipe is quite a large head loss.

Part (c)
We can compute Q from the various laminar flow formulas, notably Eq.

Part (d)
Divide Q by the pipe area to get the average velocity:

Part (e)
With V known, the Reynolds number is

This is well below the transition value Red =2300, so we are fairly certain the flow is laminar.
Notice that by sticking entirely to consistent SI units (meters, seconds, kilograms, newtons) for all
variables we avoid the need for any conversion factors in the calculations.

An oil with ρ = 900 kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity =0.0002 m2/s flows at 0.2 m3/s through 500 m of
200-mmdiameter cast iron pipe. Determine (a) the head loss and (b) the pressure drop if the pipe
slopes down at 10° in the flow direction. Where ε=0.26 mm for cast iron pipe.
First compute the velocity from the known flow rate:

Then the Reynolds number is

Enter the Moody chart on the right at

and move to the left to intersect with

for these values we could compute

Then the head loss is

for the inclined pipe,

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Fluid flow (concepts) through packed beds and fluidized beds.

Pressure Drop Behavior of Fluidized beds:

change in ε.

t also the
particles move apart, and ε also increases to keep the Dp constant.
velocity is further increased, the bed become more and more expanded
solid content becomes more and more dilute.
the velocity becomes as large as terminal settling velocity Vtof the individual particles,
so the particles are blown out of the system.
Vmf to Vt.

FLUIDISATION
 When a fluid is passed through a bed of solid particles the pressure drop across the bed of solid
particles is directly proportional to the rate of flow of the fluid.
 The fluid velocity is increased the pressure drop across the bed of solid particles is equal to the
apparent weight of the particles per unit cross sectional area of the column and the particles
move apart from one another and the particles are freely suspended in the fluid and the bed is
said to INCIPIENTLY FLUIDISED BED or bed at MINIMUM FLUIDIZATION
 The corresponding gas or velocity is known as Minimum Fluidization.
Classification of fluidization
1. PARTICULATE or SMOOTH FLUIDISATION
 Liquid is used to fluidized the bed of solid particles.
 Solid particles continues to expand as the fluid velocity is increased and uniform fluidization
characteristics are maintained in the bed.
2. AGGREGATIVE or BUBBLING FLUIDISATION
 Gas is used to fluidized the bed of solid particles
 The gas velocity is increased bubbling and channeling of gas is observed and the agitation of
solid particles becomes higher and uniform fluidization characteristics are not maintained.
 Continuous phase is known as dense or emulsion phase
 Discontinuous phase is known as lean or bubble phase
3. Incipient or minimum fluidization

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Advantages of fluidization
 Rapid mixing of solids maintains uniform temperature in the reactor.
 Rates of heat and mass transfer are high because of rapid mixing of solids
 Easy handling
 Large scale industrial process can be carried out
 Enables to transfer maximum amount of heat with small surface area, in the fluidized bed heat
exchanger.

LIMITATIONS:
 At higher gas velocity bypassing of particles by bubbles occurs and the efficiency of the
fluidized bed decreases.
 Erosion of fluidized column because of abrasion by particles at higher flow rate of fluid.
 Fine solid particles are entrained at higher flow rate of fluid
 The pressure drop across the fluidized column is higher and the energy consumption is higher
in the fluidized column
Disadvantages:
 The main disadvantage of gas-solid fluidization is the uneven contacting of gas and solid.
 Erosion of vessel internals

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 Attrition of solids. Because of attrition, the size of the solid particles is getting reduced and
possibility for entrapment of solid particles with the fluid are more.

FLOW THROUGH PACKED BEDS

NON CIRCULAR PIPES

Frictional Losses in a Pipe Flow (Major Losses)

Frictional Losses:
From the dimensional analysis, we learned that the normalized pressure drop, P/(½V2) in a pipe
flow due to the frictional loss can be related to other dimensionless parameters such as the pipe
Reynolds number (VD/), relative roughness (/D) and the length to diameter ratio (L/D). That is,
P VD L 
 1 ( , , ).
1 V 2
 D D
2
It is logical to assume that the pressure drop is linearly proportional to the pipe length so that
P L VD 
 2 ( , ),
1 V 2
D  D
2

L 1 UD  L
or P  ( V 2 )2 ( , )  f ( 1 V 2 )
D 2  D D 2

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VD  P D
by defining the frictional factor f  2 ( , ) ( ).
 D 1 V 2 L
2
The frictional factor is then a function of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness alone. For
a laminar flow (Re<2,300) inside a horizontal pipe, the frictional factor is not correlated to the
relative roughness and is a function of the Reynolds number alone. It can be shown that the
frictional factor is simply f = 64/Re (see chapter 8.2 in the FM book for the derivation). If the pipe
flow is turbulent (Re>4,000) its frictional factor relation can not be determined analytically and it is
usually determined empirically and is tabulated in tables or charts (see the Moody chart in chapter
8.4 in the text). The frictional factor is plotted as a function of the Reynolds number and relative
roughness. Typical roughness values for commercially available pipes are listed in Table 8.1 as a
reference. Other frictional factor correlation formulas are also available. The most famous one is the
Colebrook equation:

1  /D 2.51
 2.0 log(  ).
f 3.7 Re f

The drawback of using this equation is that f is not explicitly related to Re and /D. Sometimes, the
following equation can be used instead:

for 10-6  
1.325
f   102 and 5000<Re<108 .
ln  3.7D   5.74 Re 
2 D
0.9

Frictional losses (major losses) usually are responsible for the majority of the pressure losses in a pipe
system. However, pipe systems usually consist of many other components, such as valves, bends,
elbows, expansions, etc., which also contribute to the total head loss of the system. These losses can
be significant if the pipe length is not very long. Discussion about the minor losses can be found in
chapter 8.4.2 in the textbook. The pressure drop due to minor losses can be specified by using the
loss coefficient, KL, which is defined as

P
KL  so that P=K L ( 1 V 2 ).
1 V 2 2
2
One of the example of minor losses is the entrance flow loss. A typical flow pattern for flow entering a sharp-
edged entrance is shown in the following page. A vena contracta region if formed at the inlet because the
fluid can not turn a sharp corner. Flow separation and associated viscous effects will tend to decrease the
flow energy and the phenomenon is complicated. To simplify the analysis, a head loss and the associated loss
coefficient are used in the extended Bernoulli’s equation to take into consideration of this effect as described
in the next page.

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Based on the previous discussion, the pressure distribution along a pipe system can be characterized
by using the extended Bernoulli's equation:

2
P1 V1 P V2
  gz1  ghA  ghE  ghL  2  2  gz2
 2  2
For a horizontal(z1 =z 2 ), fully-developed(V1 =V2 ), straight pipe system with no external power in or out
(h A =h E =0), the pressure drop is related to the losses alone, that is,
L 1
P1  P2  P   ghL  frictional losses + minor losses =f ( V 2 )  K L ( 1 2 V 2 )
D 2

Both the loss coefficient and the frictional factor can be determined using the empirical values
available in standardized tables or charts

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Friction Factor Chart

Laminar Flow: every fluid molecule followed a straight path that was parallel to the boundaries of the
tube.
Transitional Flow: every fluid molecule followed wavy but parallel path that was not parallel to the
boundaries of the tube.
Turbulent Flow: every fluid molecule followed very complex path that led to a mixing of the dye.
Reynolds found that conditions for each of the flow types depended on:
The velocity of the flow (U)
The diameter of the tube (D)
The density of the fluid (ρ). UD
The fluid’s dynamic viscosity (μ). R  

Velocity distribution in turbulent flows

Earlier we saw that for laminar flows the velocity distribution could be determined from:
 g sin   y2 
uy   yD  
  2 
In laminar flows the fluid momentum is transferred only by viscous shear; a moving layer of fluid
drags the underlying fluid along due to viscosity (see the left diagram, below).
The velocity distribution in turbulent flows has a strong velocity gradient near the boundary and more
uniform velocity (on average) well above the boundary.

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The more uniform distribution well above the boundary reflects the fact that fluid momentum is being
transferred not only by viscous shear.
The chaotic mixing that takes place also transfers momentum through the flow.
The movement of fluid up and down in the flow, due to turbulence, more evenly distributes the
velocity: low speed fluid moves upward from the boundary and high speed fluid in the outer layer
moves upward and downward.
This leads to a redistribution of fluid momentum.

Turbulent flows are made up of two regions:

An inner region near the boundary that is dominated by viscous shear,
du
i.e., y  
dy
An outer region that is dominated by turbulent shear (transfer of fluid momentum by the movement of
the fluid up and down in the flow).
du du
y   
dy dy
Where h (lower case Greek letter eta) is the eddy viscosity which reflects the efficiency by which
turbulence transfers momentum through the flow.

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As a result, the formula for determining the velocity distribution of a laminar flow cannot be used to
determine the distribution for a turbulent flow (it neglects the transfer of momentum by turbulence).
Experimentally determined formulae are used to determine the velocity distribution in turbulent flows.
E.g. the Law of the Wall for rough boundaries under turbulent flows:
uy 2.3 y
 8.5  log
U*  yo

Where k (lower case Greek letter kappa) is Von Karman’s constant (0.41 for clear water flows lacking
sediment).
y is the height above the boundary.
d
yo 
30
Where d is grain size.
U* is the shear velocity of the flow where:

o  o   gD sin 
U* 

If the flow depth and shear velocity are known, as well as the bed roughness, this formula can be used
to determine the velocity at any height y above the boundary.
 2.3 y
u y  U*  8.5  log 
  yo 
This formula may be used to estimate the average velocity of a turbulent flow by setting y to 0.4 times
the depth of the flow (i.e., y = 0.4D).
Experiments have shown that the average velocity is at 40% of the depth of the flow above the
boundary.
uy 2.3 y
 8.5  log
U*  yo
Set y = 0.4D
 2.3 0.4 D 
u  u0.4 D  U*  8.5  log 
  yo 
Subdivisions of turbulent flows
Turbulent flows can be divided into three layers:
Viscous Sublayer: the region near the boundary that is dominated by viscous shear andquasilaminar
flow (also referred to, inaccurately, as the “laminar layer”).
Transition Layer: intermediate between quasilaminar and fully turbulent flow.

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Outer Layer: fully turbulent and momentum transfer is dominated by turbulent shear.

i) Viscous Sublayer (VSL)

The thickness of the VSL (d the lower case Greek letter delta) is known from experiments to be related
to the kinematic viscosity and the shear velocity of the flow by:
12
  (units in
U* metres)
It ranges from a fraction of a millimetre to several millimetres thick.
The thickness of the VSL is particularly important in comparison to size of grains (d) on the bed
The Boundary Reynolds’ Number (R*) is used to determine the relationship between d and d:
Ud
R*  *

The accepted transition Reynolds number for flow in a circular pipe is Red,crit~ 2300. Forflow
through a 5-cm-diameter pipe, at what velocity will this occur at 20°C for ( a) airflowand (b)
water flow?
Given :μ (air)=1.80 X10 -5 kg/(m s); μ (water)=1 X10 -3 kg/(m s)

Solution
Almost all pipe flow formulas are based on the average velocity V =Q/A, not centerline orany other
point velocity. Thus transition is specified at ρVd/ μ~ 2300.

a) Air:Dvρ / μ= (0.05 XV 1.205)/ 1.80 X10 -5= 2300-------- V =0.7m/s

b) Water:Dvρ / μ=(0.05 XV X998)/ 1 X10 -3=2300 --------V = 0.046m/ s

These are very low velocities, so most engineering air and water pipe flows are turbulent,not laminar.
We might expect laminar duct flow with more viscous fluids such as lubricatingoils or glycerin.

Examples on packed bed calculation

Shown below is the schematic of a 0.2 m ID U-glass tube to a depth of 1m with 10,000 spherical
quartz particles ( ). What will be water ( flow rate required

through the bed if the water level is

kept 2 m above the top of the packed bed? The particles are held between the two sieves.

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Solution: Apply the ME balance between (1) and (2) incorporating frictional loss in the packed–
bed:

Substitute,

Or

Partial oxidation is carried out by passing air with 1.2 mol percent hydrocarbons through0.5 inch I.D tube
packed with 8' of 1/8 inch X 1/8 inch cylindrical catalyst pellets. The air enters at 350 degree C and 2.0 atm
with a superficial velocity of 3 ft/s. Calculate the pressure–drop because of friction.

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Assume,
Answer:

First calculate of the packed material (pellet).

diameter of a sphere having the same volume as that of cylindrical pellet.

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