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Topic :- Transistor biasing and its importance

Submitted to:-
Shakti Raj Sir
Submitted by :-
Name: Yogesh
Gandhi
Roll No: ROE136A22
Section: OE136
Reg No: 10808452
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to present my votes of thanks to all those guidepost who really acted
as lightening pillars to enlighten our way throughout this project that has led to successful
and satisfactory completion of this study.

We are really grateful to our teacher for providing us with an opportunity to undertake this
project in this university and providing us with all the facilities. We are highly thankful to
Mr. Shakti raj Sir for her active support, valuable time and advice, whole-hearted guidance,
sincere cooperation and pains-taking involvement during the study and in completing the
assignment of preparing the said project within the time stipulated.

Lastly, We are thankful to all those, particularly the various friends , who have been
instrumental in creating proper, healthy and conductive environment and including new and
fresh innovative ideas for us during the project, their help, it would have been extremely
difficult for us to prepare the project in a time bound framework.

Name-Yogesh Gandhi

Regd.No-10808452

Rollno-ROE136A22
Transistor Biasing
In the last two labs the concept of biasing was introduced i.e. to set the output operating point at
the DC voltage so that the amplified wave can swing up and below that point in equal amount
and hence give us the maximum range of amplification. The inverter circuits that were used in
the last two labs though give us the basic concept of biasing but they are inadequate for
achieving stable, reproducible amplifiers. In this lab the problems concerning to the biasing of
amplifiers will be studied along with a practical method for obtaining stable operating point.

Biasing
Biasing in electronics is the method of establishing predetermined voltages and/or currents at
various points of an electronic circuit to set an appropriate operating point. The operating point
of a device, also known as bias point, quiescent point, or simply Q-point, is the point on the
output characteristics that shows the direct current (DC) collector-emitter voltage (VCE) and the
collector current (IC) with no input signal applied. The term is normally used in connection with
devices such as transistors.

Bipolar junction transistors

For bipolar junction transistors the bias point is chosen to keep the transistor operating in the
active mode, using a variety of circuit techniques, establishing the Q-point DC voltage and
current. A small signal is then applied on top of the Q-point bias voltage, thereby either
modulating or switching the current, depending on the purpose of the circuit.

The quiescent point of operation is typically near the middle of DC load line. The process of
obtaining certain DC collector current at a certain DC collector voltage by setting up operating
point is called biasing.

After establishing the operating point, when input signal is applied, the output signal should not
move the transistor either to saturation or to cut-off. However, this unwanted shift still might
occur, due to the following reasons:

1. Parameters of transistors depend on junction temperature. As junction temperature


increases, leakage current due to minority charge carriers (ICBO) increases. As ICBO
increases, ICEO also increases, causing an increase in collector current IC. This produces
heat at the collector junction. This process repeats, and, finally, Q-point may shift into the
saturation region. Sometimes, the excess heat produced at the junction may even burn the
transistor. This is known as thermal runaway.
2. When a transistor is replaced by another of the same type, the Q-point may shift, due to
changes in parameters of the transistor, such as current gain (β) which varies slightly for
each unique transistor.

To avoid a shift of Q-point, bias-stabilization is necessary. Various biasing circuits can be used
for this purpose.

Procedure: Biasing Characteristics

1. Build the circuit below with RB = 470 k  and use it to calculate the beta of each of the three
transistors. This is done by first measuring the following node voltages: VCC, VC, and VB. Then
calculate IC = (VCC - VC)/RC, IB = (VCC - VB)/RB, and finally  = IC/IB. The three transistors
should have widely different values of , One below 100, one greater than 300, and one
somewhere near the middle of the range. Record which transistor has the medium value of beta.
This one will be used for designing the four bias circuits to be used in the rest of the experiment.

Use RC = 1 k, VCC = 15 V.

2. Small Signal Bias circuit. This is the same as the circuit used to find the  of transistors.

a) Using the medium value of  found in step 1 calculate the value of base current required to
give a collector current, IC = 6 mA. Then calculate the value of resistor, RB, to give that base
current using the value of VBE measured in step 1. Note: Since the emitter is grounded in this
circuit the voltage from base to emitter, VBE, is the same as the base node voltage, VB.

b) Replace RB in the circuit with the standard resistor closest to the calculated value. Then
insert the medium  transistor. Turn on the 15 V power and check to see that VC is between 8.5
V and 9.5 V. Note: If IC = 6 mA then VC should be 9 V. (VC = VCC - ICRC ) If VC is between
8.5 V and 9.5 V then IC is between 5.5 mA and 6.5 ma. This will be close enough for this
experiment. If VC is not between 8.5 V and 9.5 V then calculate the % difference between the
desired and actual value of IC and adjust the resistor value by the same % using two standard
resistors in series to get close to the new value. Remember if the current is too large then the
resistor must be increased and if the current is too small then the resistor must be decreased.
Measure and record the actual value of each resistor or combination of resistors used in the
circuit.

c) Once you have the circuit working at the correct current with the medium 
transistor measure and record all the node voltages. Then replace the transistor with the
high  transistor and low  transistor repeating the node voltage measurements in each
case to see how the voltages and therefore the currents change as the  of the transistor
changes.

3. Emitter Feedback Bias Circuit

Use RC = 1 k and RE = 100 , VCC = 15 V.

a) This circuit has a resistor between the emitter of the transistor and ground. The
voltage drop across the resistor raises the voltage of the emitter above zero and therefore
raises the base voltage since VBE is like the forward bias voltage on a diode is usually in
the range of 0.6 to 0.7 V. Therefore the total voltage across RB is reduced. If IC is
increased due to an increase in the  of the transistor then VE is increased causing VB to
increase. This causes the voltage across RB to decrease and therefore causes IB to
decrease. This in turn reduces the value of IC and brings it back closer to the current at
the design value of . This is a form of negative feedback used to stabilize a system
variable against a disturbance in system parameters. You will have to calculate the
value of RB to give IC = 6mA. Use the value of VBE found part 2 with the medium 
transistor. Remember IE = IC + IB, where the transistor currents are the same as in the
previous circuit. Write KVL around the loop containing the DC supply, RB, VBE, and RE.
Then solve for the required value of RB, using the measured value of RE.

b) Build this circuit using the standard resistor closest to the calculated value RB. Then
insert the medium  transistor. Turn on the 15 V power and check to see that VC is
between 8.5 V and 9.5 V. If VC is not between 8.5 V and 9.5 V then calculate the %
difference between the desired and actual value of IC and adjust the resistor value by the
same % using two standard resistors in series to get close to the new value. Remember if
the current is too large then the resistor must be increased and if the current is too small
then the resistor must be decreased. Measure and record the actual value of each resistor
or combination of resistors used in the circuit.

c) Once you have the circuit working at the correct current with the medium 
transistor measure and record all the node voltages. There are 4 node voltages in this
circuit not just 3 as in the previous circuit. Then repeating the node voltage
measurements the high  transistor and low  transistor to see how the voltages and
therefore the currents change as the  of the transistor changes.

4. Collector Feedback Bias Circuit

Use RC = 1 k, VCC = 15 V.

a) This circuit like the small signal bias circuit has the emitter of the transistor connected
directly to the ground. Therefore VB = VBE. The current to the base of the transistor is supplied
by a resistor, RF, connected to the collector of the transistor. As the collector current increases
the voltage drop across the collector is resistor increased. This causes the voltage across RF to
decrease and therefore causes IB to decrease. This in turn reduces the value of IC and brings it
back closer to the current at the design value of . This is another form of negative feedback.
You will have to calculate the value of RF to give IC = 6mA. Use the value of VBE found part 2
with the medium  transistor. Write KVL around the loop containing the DC supply, RC, RF,
and VBE. Then solve for the required value of RF, using the measured value of RC. Remember
the transistor currents are the same as in the previous two circuits.

b) Build this circuit using the standard resistor closest to the calculated value RF. Then insert
the medium  transistor. Turn on the 15 V power and check to see that VC is between 8.5 V
and 9.5 V. If VC is not between 8.5 V and 9.5 V then adjust the resistor value as done in the
previous two circuits. Measure and record the actual value of each resistor or combination of
resistors used in the circuit.

c) Once you have the circuit working at the correct current with the medium  transistor
measure and record all the node voltages. Back to just 3 nodes to measure in this circuit. Then
repeating the node voltage measurements the high  transistor and low  transistor to see how
the voltages and therefore the currents change as the  of the transistor changes.
5. Voltage Divider Bias

Use RC = 1 k, RE = 100 , R2= 2.2 k, VCC = 15 V.

a) This circuit uses an emitter resistor to provide negative feedback along with a voltage
divider to provide a nearly constant VB. The current to the base of the transistor is supplied by
the voltage divider. The Thévenin equivalent resistance of the voltage divider is low, so the
variation in base current does not cause the base voltage to change very much. This improves
the negative feed back effect of the emitter resistor. You will have to calculate the value of R1 to
give IC = 6mA. Use the value of VBE found part 2 with the medium  transistor. Design the
voltage divider to provide the needed base current at a base voltage corresponding to VBE + the
voltage drop across the emitter resistor using the given value for R2. Hint: The transistor currents
and the emitter resistor the same as in part 3 , therefore the base voltage, VB, is the same. Use
the base voltage to find IR2. Then write the node equation for the VB node and solve for R1.

b) Build this circuit using the standard resistor closest to the calculated value of RR1. Then
insert the medium  transistor. Turn on the 15 V power and check to see that VC is between 8.5
V and 9.5 V. If VC is not between 8.5 V and 9.5 V then adjust the resistor value as done in the
previous three circuits. Measure and record the actual value of each resistor or combination of
resistors used in the circuit.

c) Once you have the circuit working at the correct current with the medium  transistor
measure and record all the node voltages. Back to 4 nodes to measure in this circuit. Then
repeating the node voltage measurements the high  transistor and low  transistor to see how
the voltages and therefore the currents change as the  of the transistor changes.

CALCULATIONS:
1. Calculate, ICQ, the DC operating current, by dividing VRC = VCC - VC by the measured value of
RC for each case.

2. Calculate IB = ( VCC - VB )/RB = VRB /RB for the small signal bias circuit used in step 2 and use
it to recalculate the  of the transistors at the current used for the experiment.

3. Calculate the range of variation of ICQ for each circuit. Express this range as a percent of the
value of ICQ for the medium  transistor.

%range = 100%*(ICQ high -ICQ low )/ICQ medium

Types of bias circuit for Class A amplifiers

The following discussion treats five common biasing circuits used with Class A bipolar transistor
amplifiers:

1. Fixed bias
2. Collector-to-base bias
3. Fixed bias with emitter resistor
4. Voltage divider bias
5. Emitter bias

Fixed bias (base bias)

Fixed bias (Base bias)

This form of biasing is also called base bias. In the example image on the right, the single power
source (for example, a battery) is used for both collector and base of transistor, although separate
batteries can also be used.

In the given circuit, VCC = IBRB + Vbe

Therefore, IB = (VCC - Vbe)/RB


For a given transistor, Vbe does not vary significantly during use. As VCC is of fixed value, on
selection of RB, the base current IB is fixed. Therefore this type is called fixed bias type of circuit.

Also for given circuit, VCC = ICRC + Vce

Therefore, Vce = VCC - ICRC

The common-emitter current gain of a transistor is an important parameter in circuit design, and
is specified on the data sheet for a particular transistor. It is denoted as β on this page.

Because IC = βIB

we can obtain IC as well. In this manner, operating point given as (VCE,IC) can be set for given
transistor.

Merits:

• It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in the active region by merely changing
the base resistor (RB).
• A very small number of components are required.

Demerits:

• The collector current does not remain constant with variation in temperature or power
supply voltage. Therefore the operating point is unstable.

• Changes in Vbe will change IB and thus cause RE to change. This in turn will alter the gain
of the stage.
• When the transistor is replaced with another one, considerable change in the value of β
can be expected. Due to this change the operating point will shift.

Usage:

Due to the above inherent drawbacks, fixed bias is rarely used in linear circuits (i.e., those
circuits which use the transistor as a current source). Instead, it is often used in circuits where
transistor is used as a switch. However, one application of fixed bias is to achieve crude
automatic gain control in the transistor by feeding the base resistor from a DC signal derived
from the AC output of a later stage.
Collector-to-base bias

Collector-to-base bias

This configuration employs negative feedback to prevent thermal runaway and stabilize the
operating point. In this form of biasing, the base resistor RB is connected to the collector instead
of connecting it to the DC source VCC. So any thermal runaway will induce a voltage drop across
the RC resistor that will throttle the transistor's base current.

Merits:

• Circuit stabilizes the operating point against variations in temperature and β (ie.
replacement of transistor)

Demerits:

• In this circuit, to keep Ic independent of β, the following condition must be met:

which is the case when

• As β-value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a given transistor, this relation can be
satisfied either by keeping Rc fairly large or making Rb very low.

• If Rc is large, a high Vcc is necessary, which increases cost as well as


precautions necessary while handling.
• If Rb is low, the reverse bias of the collector–base region is small, which
limits the range of collector voltage swing that leaves the transistor in active
mode.
Usage: The feedback also decreases the input impedance of the amplifier as seen from the base,
which can be advantageous. Due to the gain reduction from feedback, this biasing form is used
only when the trade-off for stability is warranted.

Fixed bias with emitter resistor

Fixed bias with emitter resistor

The fixed bias circuit is modified by attaching an external resistor to the emitter. This resistor
introduces negative feedback that stabilizes the Q-point. From Kirchhoff's voltage law, the
voltage across the base resistor is

Merits:

The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating point against changes in temperature and β-
value.

Demerits:

• In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must be met:

which is approximately the case if

( β + 1 )RE >> RB.

• As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping
RE very large, or making RB very low.
• If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as
precautions necessary while handling.

Usage:

The feedback also increases the input impedance of the amplifier when seen from the base,
which can be advantageous. Due to the above disadvantages, this type of biasing circuit is used
only with careful consideration of the trade-offs involved.

Collector-Stabilized Biasing

Voltage divider bias

Voltage divider bias

The voltage divider is formed using external resistors R1 and R2. The voltage across R2 forward
biases the emitter junction. By proper selection of resistors R1 and R2, the operating point of the
transistor can be made independent of β. In this circuit, the voltage divider holds the base voltage
fixed independent of base current provided the divider current is large compared to the base
current. However, even with a fixed base voltage, collector current varies with temperature (for
example) so an emitter resistor is added to stabilize the Q-point, similar to the above circuits with
emitter resistor.

Merits:

• Unlike above circuits, only one dc supply is necessary.


• Operating point is almost independent of β variation.
• Operating point stabilized against shift in temperature.

Demerits:

• In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must be met:


which is approximately the case if

where R1 || R2 denotes the equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 connected in parallel.

Usage:

The circuit's stability and merits as above make it widely used for linear circuits.

Voltage divider with AC bypass capacitor

Voltage divider with capacitor

The standard voltage divider circuit discussed above faces a drawback - AC feedback caused by
resistor RE reduces the gain. This can be avoided by placing a capacitor (CE) in parallel with RE,
as shown in circuit diagram.

This capacitor is usually chosen to have a low enough reactance at the signal frequencies of
interest such that RE is essentially shorted at AC, thus grounding the emitter. Feedback is
therefore only present at DC to stabilize the operating point, in which case any AC advantages of
feedback are lost.

Of course, this idea can be used to shunt only a portion of RE, thereby retaining some AC
feedback.
Emitter bias

Emitter bias

When a split supply (dual power supply) is available, this biasing circuit is the most effective,
and provides zero bias voltage at the emitter or collector for load. The negative supply VEE is
used to forward-bias the emitter junction through RE. The positive supply VCC is used to reverse-
bias the collector junction. Only two resistors are necessary for the common collector stage and
four resistors for the common emitter or common base stage.

We know that, VB - VE = Vbe

If RB is small enough, base voltage will be approximately zero. Therefore emitter current is,

IE = (VEE - Vbe)/RE

The operating point is independent of β if RE >> RB/β

Merit:

Good stability of operating point similar to voltage divider bias.

Demerit:

This type can only be used when a split (dual) power supply is available.

Class B and AB amplifiers

Signal requirements

Class B and AB amplifiers employ 2 active devices to cover the complete 360 deg of input signal
flow. Each transistor is therefore biased to perform over approximately 180 deg of the input
signal. Class B bias is when the collector current Ic with no signal is just conducting (about 1 %
of maximum possible value). Class AB bias is when the collector current Ic is about 1/4 of
maximum possible value. The class AB push–pull output amplifier circuit below could be the
basis for a moderate-power audio amplifier.
A practical amplifier circuit

Q3 is a common emitter stage that provides amplification of the signal and the DC bias current
through D1 and D2 to generate a bias voltage for the output devices. The output pair are arranged
in Class AB push–pull, also called a complementary pair. The diodes D1 and D2 provide a small
amount of constant voltage bias for the output pair, just biasing them into the conducting state so
that crossover distortion is minimized. That is, the diodes push the output stage into class-AB
mode (assuming that the base-emitter drop of the output transistors is reduced by heat
dissipation).

This design automatically stabilizes its operating point, since overall feedback internally operates
from DC up through the audio range and beyond. The use of fixed diode bias requires the diodes
to be both electrically and thermally matched to the output transistors. If the output transistors
conduct too much, they can easily overheat and destroy themselves, as the full current from the
power supply is not limited at this stage.

A common solution to help stabilize the output device operating point is to include some emitter
resistors, typically an ohm or so. Calculating the values of the circuit's resistors and capacitors is
done based on the components employed and the intended use of the amplifier.

References
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biasing_%28disambiguation%29
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_transistor
• http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_3/chpt_4/15.html

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