Table of Contents

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 1
2. Personnel Qualifications ......................................................................................................................... 2
3. Planning ................................................................................................................................................... 3
4. Safety ........................................................................................................................................................ 8
5. Communication ....................................................................................................................................... 8
6. Equipment Needs .................................................................................................................................. 10
7. Inspection Forms................................................................................................................................... 12
8. Bridge Terminology and Typical Oklahoma Bridges ........................................................................ 15
8.1 Deck .................................................................................................................................................. 16
8.2 Superstructure ................................................................................................................................... 19
8.3 Substructure ...................................................................................................................................... 25
9. Post-Earthquake Inspection Guidance ............................................................................................... 34
9.1 Roadway Approaches and Deck ....................................................................................................... 35
9.2 Nonstructural Elements ..................................................................................................................... 38
9.3 Superstructure ................................................................................................................................... 39
9.4 Substructure ...................................................................................................................................... 41
9.5 Geotechnical Problems ..................................................................................................................... 49
9.6 Skewed Structures ............................................................................................................................. 52
10. Inspection Procedures ........................................................................................................................ 55
10.1 Stage 1 Inspection ........................................................................................................................... 55
10.2 Stage 2 Inspection ........................................................................................................................... 57
APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................................... 58
APPENDIX 1 - Glossary ........................................................................................................................ 58
APPENDIX 2 - References ..................................................................................................................... 61
APPENDIX 3 - List of Figures ............................................................................................................... 62

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

1. Introduction

Recent studies and data collected by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and Oklahoma
Geological Survey (OGS) show that Oklahoma has seen a tremendous increase in the frequency of
earthquakes since 2009. From 1978 through 2008, approximately 50 magnitude 3.0 and greater earthquakes
were recorded. From 2009 through 2013, 270 magnitude 3.0 and greater earthquakes were recorded,
including three magnitude 4.0 to 4.8 earthquakes, and a magnitude 5.6 earthquake that occurred near
Prague, OK on November 5, 2011. From 2014 through 2016, there were 2,111 magnitude 3.0 and greater
earthquakes recorded, including 42 magnitude 4.0 to 4.8 earthquakes, and the largest earthquake in
Oklahoma’s history – a magnitude 5.8 earthquake that occurred in Pawnee, OK on September 3, 2016.

This manual supplements the Oklahoma Department of Transportation’s (ODOT’s) Earthquake Response
Plan and is intended to provide detailed procedures and clear guidance for the inspection of bridges in the
aftermath of an earthquake. This manual will prepare and equip experienced bridge inspectors and
individuals with little or no inspection experience alike, including bridge inspection and maintenance
personnel, consultant bridge inspectors, and other first responders that may be called on in an extreme event.

Specifically, this manual is intended to:

• Prepare personnel to properly assess and report bridge earthquake damage

• Define personnel qualifications, responsibilities, and recommended equipment
• Discuss inspection personnel safety
• Establish inspection procedures and provide clear guidance on what to look for
• Define basic bridge terminology; illustrate common bridge types and components
• Illustrate typical examples of post-earthquake bridge damage
• Provide standard post-earthquake inspection forms
• Define and describe stages of response
• Describe appropriate inspection follow-up actions

Note: Blue text throughout this manual indicates terms that are defined in the Glossary, Appendix 1.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

2. Personnel Qualifications

Effective post-earthquake inspections require preparation and training of the teams evaluating the
structures. This section provides the recommended qualifications an individual should possess to perform
a successful Stage 1 or Stage 2 inspection. For safety reasons, a minimum of two (2) team members
should comprise each inspection team.

Stage 1 Inspection:
The recommended qualifications for a Stage 1 Inspection are intentionally kept to a minimum. Stage 1
Inspections will often be performed, out of necessity, by individuals not fully qualified or trained in bridge
inspection (i.e., maintenance personnel and other capable first responders). The members of the inspection
team should satisfy at least one of the following conditions: 1) has successfully completed a Stage 1 bridge
inspection training program or 2) has experience and/or a technical background relative to bridges or other
types of structures. The Stage 1 training program is described in ODOT’s “Post-Earthquake Response
Plan”.

Stage 2 Inspection:
Stage 2 Inspections are intended to provide detailed, and in some cases in-depth (hands-on), evaluations of
structures; these inspections therefore require additional training. These inspections are carried out by a
team leader qualified under the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) and assistant inspectors
meeting the minimum qualifications for a Stage 1 Inspection as described above. An inspection team leader
is the individual in charge of an inspection team and is responsible for planning, preparing, and performing
post-earthquake inspections of bridges. A qualified inspection team leader will be present at the bridge at
all times during a Stage 2 Inspection. Minimum qualifications for a Stage 2 post-earthquake bridge
inspection team leader are identical to the NBIS team leader qualifications, and include completion of the
ODOT QC/QA training (annually) and completion of a FHWA-approved comprehensive bridge inspection
training course, as well as meeting one of the following qualifications:

1) Be a registered Professional Engineer, or

2) Have five (5) years of bridge inspection experience, or
3) Be certified as a Level III or IV Bridge Safety Inspector under the National Society of Professional
Engineers program for National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies (NICET),
or
4) Have all of the following:
• A bachelor’s degree in engineering from a college or university accredited by or determined as
substantially equivalent by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET)
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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

• Successfully passed the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying
Fundamentals of Engineering Examination
• Two (2) years of bridge inspection experience in a responsible capacity, or
5) Have all the following:
• An associate's degree in engineering or engineering technology from a college or university
accredited by or determined as substantially equivalent by ABET.
• Four (4) years of bridge inspection experience in a responsible capacity

3. Planning

A seismic event can be challenging due to the uncertainty of its nature and the fact that each event is unique.
Because seismic events cannot be foreseen, it is necessary for each field division to be prepared for collapses
and/or extensive damage to structures and be able to take immediate action.

The Oklahoma Department of Transportation relies on two protocols to determine which bridges are most
likely impacted by an earthquake: (1) ShakeCast-OK (primary) and (2) Radius Based Protocol (secondary,
but recommended as primary for local governments).

(1) ShakeCast-OK

ShakeCast (short for ShakeMap Broadcast) is a situational awareness application developed by the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS) that automatically retrieves a ShakeMap from a USGS server, compares
shaking intensities against bridge fragility curves, and sends email notifications of potential impacts to
bridges. ShakeMap is a product of the USGS Earthquake Hazard Program that generates maps showing
the intensity of ground shaking in the area following an earthquake. These maps incorporate both
attenuation models and recorded seismic station data. Fragility curves define the probability of exceeding
a given damage state as a function of the ground-motion intensity.

Within 10 – 20 minutes after an earthquake that triggers a response, each Division’s Earthquake Response
Lead (ERL), and other designated ODOT personnel, will receive an email (Figure 1A). Each email has two
parts: the body and an attached .pdf report. The body of the email includes a ShakeMap of the earthquake
(Figure 1B) and a list of all potentially impacted on-system bridges in the state (Figure 1C). As shown
in Figure 1C, bridges have four levels of impact potential: low, medium, medium-high, and high. These
levels correspond to the potential for slight, moderate, extensive, and complete damage states, respectively,
to the bridge. When practical, high potential for impact bridges should be inspected first, medium-high
second, medium third, and low last. The bridge information under the column heading DIV# is the facility
carried and the feature intersected. Facility ID includes each bridge’s ODOT structure number and the first
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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

five digits of its National Bridge Inventory (NBI) number. Location gives the latitude and longitude of the
bridge. The information from these emails can be copied and pasted into a spreadsheet to be sorted such
that the ERL can best organize a route to inspect bridges.

Figure 1A: Automated email created and delivered by ShakeCast

Each affected Division will locate the available resources and determine if they possess sufficient inspection
personnel or require additional inspection crews. The main objective of these inspections is to evaluate the
extent of damage and conclude whether a structure is safe and functional, or poses a potential safety risk.
Equipment, tools, forms, and checklists should be prepared in advance in anticipation of an event and be
available for immediate use.

4
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL
Scott Harvey <scott.psh7@gmail.com>

POTENTIAL IMPACTS: DIV4, OKLAHOMA (us10006jxs Version 9) 
ShakeCast V3 <shakecast@usgs.gov> Mon, Feb 13, 2017 at 10:00 AM
To: ShakeCast V3 <shakecast@usgs.gov>

Potential Impacts: DIV4

This report supersedes any earlier reports about this event. This is a computer­generated message and has not yet been
reviewed by an Engineer or Seismologist. Epicenter and magnitude are published by the USGS. Reported magnitude
may be revised and will not be reported through ShakeCast. The USGS website should be referenced for the most up­to­
date information. Inspection prioritization emails will be sent shortly if ShakeCast determines significant shaking occurred
at user's infrastructure. An interactive version of this report is accessible on the ShakeCast internet/intranet website. 

Earthquake Details

  

Name: (not assigned at this time) Magnitude: 5.8 ShakeMap ID: us10006jxs­9 Location: OKLAHOMA Latitude­
Longitude: 36.4251, ­96.9291 Local Time: 2016­09­03 12:02:44 

Summary of Potential Impacts: DIV4
Figure 1B: Example ShakeCast email body – ShakeMap

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL
Name: (not assigned at this time) Magnitude: 5.8 ShakeMap ID: us10006jxs­9 Location: OKLAHOMA Latitude­
Longitude: 36.4251, ­96.9291 Local Time: 2016­09­03 12:02:44 

Summary of Potential Impacts: DIV4

Total number of facilities analyzed: 32  
Summary by impact rank: 

High 0 High impact potential
Medium­High 0 Medium­High impact potential
Medium 0 Medium impact potential
Low 32 Low impact potential
Below Threshold 0 No impact potential

List of Potentially Impacted Facilities: DIV4

DIV4 presented in the table below are sorted in order of impact potential. The list includes the top 200 facilities in the area
of shaking. The complete list is available on the web server. 

Facility  Impact 
DIV4 Location PSA10
ID Potential
5238 1470 X
U.S. 177 / CIMARRON TP GATE UNDER 36.3833, 97.0678 Low 13.04
/ 19078
5224 1150 X /
U.S. 177 / BNSF R.R. UNDER 36.4572, 97.0678 Low 12.27
19350
5204 1619 X
U.S. 64 / LONG BRANCH CREEK 36.2965, 96.9952 Low 12.75
/ 21610
6034 0210 X
S.H. 108 / CIMARRON TP UNDER 36.2374, 96.9258 Low 11.19
/ 19063
5204 1904 X
U.S. 64 / OAK CREEK 36.3065, 96.9457 Low 9.74
/ 21540
6031 0920 X
U.S. 177 / LONG BRANCH CREEK 36.2349, 97.0699 Low 9.09
/ 22013
5224 0223 X
U.S. 177 / BLACK BEAR CREEK 36.3227, 97.0676 Low 13.26
/ 28201
5224 0241 X
U.S. 177 / BLACK BEAR CREEK N O'FLO 36.3252, 97.0676 Low 13.26
/ 28202
5224 0201 X
U.S. 177 / BLACK BEAR CREEK S O'FLO 36.3192, 97.0676 Low 13.26
/ 28200
6028 0801 X
S.H. 108 / SLWC R.R. UNDER 36.2334, 96.9261 Low 11.19
/ 26054– Potential Impacts with bridge information
Figure 1C: Example ShakeCast email body
5228 0215 X
U.S. 177 / RED ROCK CREEK 36.4941, 97.0736 Low 11.2
/ 25020
5228 0231 X
U.S. 177 / RED ROCK CREEK O'FLOW 36.4965, 97.0737 Low 11.2
/ 25021
5220 1062 X
S.H. 15 / LONG BRANCH CREEK 36.4637, 97.0927 Low 10.44
/ 26443
5220 0503 X
S.H. 15 / RED ROCK CREEK 36.4649, 97.1934 Low 7.39
/ 12846
5228 0778 X
U.S. 177 / SALT FORK ARKANSAS RIVER 36.5774, 97.0773 Low 9.76
/ 24475
5228 0878 X
U.S. 177 / SALT FK ARK RVR O'FLOW 36.5899, 97.0773 Low 9.76
/ 24477
5228 0824 X
U.S. 177 / SALT FK ARK RVR O'FLOW 36.5826, 97.0773 Low 9.76
/ 24476
5510 1326 X
S.H. 66 / DEEP FORK RIVER 35.6664, 97.2017 Low 6.3
/ 19618
5220 0632 X
S.H. 15 / LEGEND CREEK 36.4637, 97.1703 Low 7.44
/ 26444
6
6016 0760 X
U.S. 177 / STILLWATER CREEK 36.0989, 97.0513 Low 5.98
/ 20320
5510 1378 X
S.H. 66 / SLWC R.R. UNDER 35.6671, 97.1916 Low 6.3
/ 22647
3630 0823 X
S.H. 156 / U.S. 60 UNDER 36.6881, 97.1387 Low 6.29
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

(2) Radius Based Protocol

ODOT has a simple radius based protocol to determine inspection radii for post-earthquake assessments.
This protocol will be used as a backup to ShakeCast-OK when deemed necessary or appropriate, and is
recommended as the primary protocol for local governments. The inspection radius, which is centered at
the epicenter of a given earthquake, is directly related to the magnitude of an earthquake; as magnitude
increases, the inspection radius increases. The table below provides recommendations for the inspection
radius for a given magnitude range; however, the ERL may opt for a greater response if deemed necessary.

Magnitude Inspection Radius

Range (miles)
4.4 to 4.7 5
4.8 to 5.3 15
5.4 to 5.8 30
5.9 to 6.2 60
6.3 + 120

Responsible authorities will locate the available resources and determine if they possess sufficient
inspection personnel or require additional inspection crews. The main objective of these inspections is to
evaluate the extent of damage and conclude whether a structure is safe and functional, or poses a potential
safety risk. Equipment, tools, forms, and checklists should be prepared in advance in anticipation of an
event and be available for immediate use. Each inspection team will be assigned a priority list of bridges to
inspect based on the magnitude and epicenter of the earthquake.

Aftershocks
These events are likely to occur after a main shock and are typically of a smaller magnitude. Aftershocks
shall be treated as individual or separate earthquakes when inspections are deemed necessary. If a bridge
inspection was completed for an earthquake and an aftershock strong enough to trigger inspection occurs,
the bridge shall be inspected once again following the same inspection procedure as for a regular
earthquake.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

4. Safety

Safety of both the inspection team members and the traveling public is of utmost importance. Personal
protective equipment should be worn at all times by the bridge inspection team, including hard hats, safety
vests, glasses (where needed), and protective footwear. Proper hearing, sight, and face protection methods
should be practiced whenever using manual and power tools. All equipment, safety devices, and machinery
should be properly maintained in the best possible operating condition.

Each bridge site is unique and inspectors must be aware of situations where unusual working conditions
may be encountered that require specialized safety precautions. An inspection team must consist of at least
two (2) qualified members. This requirement promotes safety, provides improved judgment, and increases
efficiency.

In the interest of public safety, proper procedures for traffic control and work zone protection should be
employed during the inspection of a bridge. The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD),
as supplemented by state and local authorities, should be used as a guide for such procedures.

The inspectors should proceed with caution while on site, recognizing that portions of the bridge may be
unstable as a result of an earthquake. Each structure should be closely evaluated from a safe distance before
the team goes on or under the bridge. Another recommended practice is to have the two team members
work at a reasonable distance from one another, especially when going under the bridge. For example, it
may be wise to have only one of the two team members under the bridge until the team is confident that the
structure is stable.

5. Communication

Maintaining open lines of communication is essential for the safety of the inspection teams and the real-
time exchange of critical information. Each inspection team should be equipped with two-way radios and
a contact list in case traffic control and flagging is necessary. The team must also carry at least one cellular
telephone, preferably with e-mail and texting capabilities for sharing photographs from the field. Phone
chargers and/or extra batteries should also be carried by the team. The team should also be aware of “dead
zones” within their division where they are likely to be out of range, and have a contingency plan to keep
communication open during those times.

Bridges requiring closure and or further evaluation (i.e., Stage 2 Inspection) should be reported immediately
to the ERL or designee and, when possible, supplemented by photos taken with and e-mailed or texted from

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

a cellular phone. At the end of each day or group of inspections, the team should submit a summary report
of structures inspected with any associated findings to the ERL or designee.

Each earthquake will have its own particular identification number referred to as “Earthquake Event ID”
and is to be constructed with the date, county and succession number (i.e., MMDD-##-##, 1124-08-01),
with the county being the closest to where the earthquake occurred and succession number being the number
of the shaking event in case more than one event occurs (i.e., aftershocks).

Flagging
This section refers to the action of physically marking bridges and serves the purpose of notifying travelers
and inspectors of the bridge’s current condition after a seismic event. The flagging protocol is to be triggered
ONLY under the following conditions:

1. When a field division assigns inspections to outside sources (i.e., personnel from another
division or other first responders, etc.), or
2. When required or specified by the ERL or designee

Each division will be equipped with colored flagging tape (green, yellow, and red) that will be used to tag
a bridge according to its current operating conditions. The tape is to be placed on the right side of both
approaches on an object marker or guardrail feature and will include the date, time, earthquake event ID,
and name of the inspector.

When high magnitude aftershocks occur and flagging tape is found on a bridge, it shall be removed and
replaced with an updated tape following the method described above.

Note: ALL bridges are to be flagged on the inspection forms according to their operating conditions after
an inspection as green, yellow, or red, but need not be physically flagged unless the stated conditions are
met. When the flagging protocol is triggered, the tape color shall be the same as specified in the inspection
form(s).

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

6. Equipment Needs

STAGE 1 INSPECTION EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST

Life Safety
Hard hat
Reflective safety vest
Gloves
Boots
First aid kit
Communication
Cell phones
Two-way radios
Radio call list
Inspection Tools
Hammer
Plumb bob
Binoculars
Level
Flashlight
Measuring Tools
25-ft. and 100-ft. tape
Electronic distance meter
Documentation
Inspection forms
Post-Earthquake Bridge Inspection Manual
Office supplies (pens, sketchbooks, clipboard)
Camera
Access Tools
GPS/route maps
Traffic Control Tools
Cones
Flagging tape (green, yellow, red)
Optional
Smart level
Tablets, laptop

Figure 2A: Stage 1 Inspection Equipment Checklist

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

STAGE 2 INSPECTION EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST

Life Safety Measuring Tools

Hard hat 25-ft. and 100-ft. tape
Reflective safety vest Electronic distance meter
Safety glasses Crack measuring devices
Gloves Line level and string line
Boots Folding ruler
Dust mask / respirator
Safety harness and lanyard Documentation
First aid kit Inspection forms
Post-Earthquake Bridge Inspection Manual
Communication Office supplies
Cell phones Camera
Two-way radios Chalk, paint, markers
Radio call list Stage 1 Inspection form (Completed)

Cleaning Access Tools

Whisk broom Ladders
Wire brush GPS/route maps
Scrapers Rope access equipment
Shovel
Traffic control tools
Inspection Tools Cones
Hammer Flagging tape (green, yellow, red)
Plumb bob
Range pole / probe rod Optional Equipment
Level Smart level
Tablets, laptops
Visual Aid
Binoculars
Flashlight
Magnifying glass
Inspection mirrors

Figure 2: Stage 2B Inspection Equipment Checklist

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

7. Inspection Forms

Figure 3: Stage 1 – Inspection Form

12
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL

Figure 4: Stage 2 – Inspection Form

14
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

8. Bridge Terminology and Typical Oklahoma Bridges

Bridges are commonly broken into three main components: deck, superstructure, and substructure. The
deck is the component that carries and transfers live loads (or traffic loads) from the wearing surface to the
superstructure. The primary purpose of the deck is to provide a smooth and safe riding surface. The
superstructure supports the deck and is defined as the elements of a bridge that are above the bearings,
typically consisting of one or more of the following elements: beams/girders, diaphragms, trusses,
stringers, and floor beams. The substructure is defined as the bridge elements that support the
superstructure, including abutments at each end of the bridge and intermediate piers/bents between each set
of abutting spans. Each abutment and pier is typically comprised of one or more of the following elements:
columns, caps (bearing seats), footings, piles, drilled shafts, and walls. The figure below aids in identifying
the components of a bridge. Additional terminology and element descriptions can be found in Appendix 1
(Glossary).
TYPICAL BRIDGE ELEVATION
Approach Slab Superstructure
Deck Expansion Joints

Bearings
Beams
Abutment
Substructure
Pier
Embankment

Footing
b
Sla
ets ch
r ap p roa
Pa Ap s
nts B eam
oi eel
nJ St
ck si o
De xpan
ete E
ncr
o s ack l
s e dC s ra gm
urnbgwal
es
str I-Be
am iaph T in
Pre
D
nt s W
e
ng
s utm
eari Ab
B ap
rC
A
Pie
Co r
ncr Pie
ete
Pil A
es
ng ner
oti aft
dF
o ffe
Sh Sti
Ste rea d
el P Sp ille
iles Dr s
ng
eari
B

Figure 5: Typical bridge structures and bent types in the state of Oklahoma (IEI)
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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Bridge Inventory Direction and Component Numbering

Bridges are typically inventoried from south to north or west to east. Therefore, the spans are typically
numbered sequentially from south to north or from west to east. The substructure units (abutments and
piers) are numbered in a similar fashion. Beams, bearings, stringers, floor beams, columns, piles, etc. are
also numbered from south to north or west to east, depending on the orientation of the bridge.

8.1 Deck
Decks are typically constructed of reinforced concrete, steel, or timber, with reinforced concrete decks
being the most common. Decks are sometimes covered with an asphalt wearing surface.

s
int
n Jo
n sio
pa
Ex

g
rin
W ea
/ e
ck rfac
De Su

Figure 6: Concrete deck (IEI)

Figure 7: Underside of concrete deck (BIRM) Figure 8: Timber plank deck (IEI)

16
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Figure 9: Underside of timber deck (IEI) Figure 10: Steel grid deck (IEI)

Expansion joint: A full depth gap in the deck or approach roadway to allow thermal expansion and
contraction of the superstructure.

Typical expansion joints are shown below:

Figure 11: Armored compression joint seal (BIRM) Figure 12: Sealed expansion joint (ODOT)

Figure 13: Pourable expansion joint (BIRM) Figure 14: Assembly joint (ODOT)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Approaches
Defined as the part of the roadway immediately before and after the bridge structure, the approaches are
intended to provide a smooth transition between the flexible roadway pavement and the rigid bridge
structure. Many bridges have approach slabs to perform this function while others simply have the approach
roadway transition directly to the bridge.

lab
chS
p roa
Ap

Figure 15: Asphalt approach roadway (IEI)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

8.2 Superstructure
Superstructures are built with a variety of different materials, with the most common materials being
concrete, steel, and timber. The most common superstructure designs consist of multiple beams per span.
The deck transmits the highway loading to the beams that span from substructure unit to substructure unit
(i.e., abutments, piers). Another common design consists of stringers and floor beams, which are then
carried by steel trusses or large girders. A variety of other superstructure configurations are illustrated on
the following pages.

Beams, Girders and Diaphragms

Beams and girders are horizontal superstructure elements (running parallel with traffic) built to carry and
transmit the loads from the deck to the substructure. For simplicity and consistency, references to girders
in this manual are specific to bridge superstructures with two primary girders, stringers, and floor beams.
The term “beam” is used for all other cases. Typical beam and girder materials include reinforced concrete,
pre-stressed concrete, steel, and timber. Diaphragms run perpendicular to traffic and provide stiffness to
the superstructure.

rete s
nc eam
d Co elB
e
ess am
s Ste
str I-Be
Pre s
Diaphragm gm
p hra
a
Di

Diaphragm

Figure 16: Prestressed I-beams (top), steel multiple beam configuration (bottom) (IEI)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Examples of other common superstructure types are shown below:

Diaphragm

Figure 17: Precast slab bridge (BIRM) Figure 18: Under view of prestressed spread box
beams (BIRM)

Figure 19: Double-tee beams (ODOT) Figure 20: Haunched slab bridge (ODOT)

Figure 21: Concrete arch (ODOT) Figure 22: Standard tee beam bridge (BIRM)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Figure 23: Multi-span pony truss (BIRM) Figure 24: Deck truss (BIRM)

Figure 25: Steel rigid frame (BIRM) Figure 26: Through girder (NHI)

Figure 27: Steel multi beam with pier beams (IEI) Figure 28: Braced multi beam (ODOT)
(
Pier Beam: A transverse beam (typically steel, but sometimes prestressed concrete) that functions
similar to a pier cap but spans a large distance between two pier columns and is supported by bearings
generally used to span roadways or railroad tracks on skewed bridges.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Stringer

Figure 29: Steel box beam bridge (BIRM) Figure 30: Stringer/floor beam/girder system (BIRM)

Figure 31: Multi-span cast-in-place slab bridge Figure 32: Solid sawn multi beam bridge (BIRM)
(BIRM)

Figure 33: Masonry arch (ODOT)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Truss members
Truss bridges typically consist of a concrete, steel, or timber deck supported by stringers and floor
beams. The floor beams typically connect to the trusses on each side of the bridge. Several common
truss configurations are shown in the illustration below. A truss is a jointed structure made up of
individual members (chords, diagonals, verticals, etc.) that are connected in triangular panels.
Labeling for truss members is broken into nodes consisting of top chord and bottom chord panel
points. The lower chord panel points are designated by LX and the upper chord panel points are
designated by UX, where X is the panel point number. Panel point numbers ascend from south to
north or west to east, depending on the bridge orientation. Examples of member callouts are shown
in the Pratt K-truss shown below (most common in Oklahoma) and would include: U1-U2,
indicating the upper chord between panel points U1 and U2; L2-L3, indicating the lower chord
between panel points L2 and L3; U4-M3, indicating the diagonal member between panel points
U4 and M3; and U5-L5, indicating the vertical member between panel points U5 and L5. Refer to
the illustration below.

U3 U4 U5 U6 U7
U2 U8
U1 U9
M3 M4 M5 M6

L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10

In a pony or “half through” In a through truss, traffic travels In a deck truss, traffic travels
truss, traffic travels between through the superstructure and on top of the superstructure
two parallel trusses that are has overhead bracing members and the two trusses project
not cross-braced at the top. connecting the two trusses. underneath the deck.

Figure 34: Labeling of a typical truss element (IEI)

23
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Figure 35: Basic truss terminology (IEI)

Figure 36: Steel through truss supporting timber deck (IEI)

24
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

8.3 Substructure

Bearings: Elements that provide for load transfer between the superstructure and substructure.

Bridge bearings have three primary functions:

• Transmit loads from the superstructure to the substructure
• Allow rotation caused by permanent (dead load) and transient (live load) deflection
• Permit horizontal movement of the superstructure due to thermal expansion and contraction
(expansion bearings only)

Sta So
le P
inl late
Ro e ss
cke Ste
rA el P
sse in
Ma mb
son ly
ry
Pla
te

Sti
ffe
An ner
cho s
r Bo
lt

Figure 37: Bearing elements (top), primary functions of a

bearing (bottom) (IEI)

25
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Common bearing types are illustrated below:

Figure 38: Elastomeric bearing (ODOT) Figure 39: Rocker bearing (BIRM)

Figure 40: Fixed (left) and roller (right) bearing Figure 41: Sliding bearing (BIRM)
(ODOT)

Figure 42: Pot bearing (NHI) Figure 43: Pinned rocker bearing (NHI)

26
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Abutments
Abutments are defined as substructure elements that provide support for the ends of the superstructure and
retain the approach roadway fill.

Figure 44: Stone masonry abutment (top), reinforced concrete abutment with
concrete slope wall (bottom) (IEI)

27
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

FULL HEIGHT ABUTMENT

Cheekwall Bridge
(if present) Seat
Backwall
Abutment Wingwall Backwall
Stem Abutment
Stem Footing
Footing
ELEVATION SECTION VIEW

STUB ABUTMENT
Cheekwall Bridge
(if present) Seat
Backwall Wingwall
Backwall
Abutment Stem Footing
Abutment
Footing Stem
ELEVATION SECTION VIEW

OPEN ABUTMENT
Bridge
Cheekwall Seat
(if present) Backwall
Cap Beam Backwall
Cap
Wingwall
Beam
Column
Column
Footing
Footing

ELEVATION SECTION VIEW

INTEGRAL ABUTMENT
Beam
Beam
Footing /
Pile Cap

Piling Piling

ELEVATION SECTION VIEW

SEMI-INTEGRAL ABUTMENT
Beam Beam

Integral backwall

Footing / Pile
Piling Cap
Elastomeric Piling
bearing pad

ELEVATION SECTION VIEW

Figure 45: Typical abutment configurations (BIRM)

28
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Typical ODOT abutment configurations are illustrated below:

Figure 46: Full height abutment (ODOT) Figure 47: Stub abutment (BIRM)

Figure 48: Open abutment (BIRM) Figure 49: Integral abutment (ODOT)

Figure 50: Pile abutment with backwall (BIRM)

29
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Wingwalls
Though wingwalls are considered as secondary abutment elements, they serve the important function of
retaining the approach roadway embankments.

Typical wingwall types are shown below:

Figure 51: Typical wingwall (BIRM) Figure 52: Turn back wingwall (BIRM)

Figure 53: Flared wingwall (BIRM) Figure 54: Mechanically Stabilized Earth
(MSE) wingwall (BIRM)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Piers
Piers are located between abutting spans and transmit the live loads (traffic) and dead loads (self-weight of
bridge) from the superstructure to the foundation. Typical piers are constructed of concrete, steel, or timber,
and sometimes a combination of these materials. Concrete is the most prevalent.

Pie
Co rC
nc ap
ret
eP
ile
s

Ste
el
Pil
es

Figure 55: Typical pier configurations (IEI, ODOT)

31
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

Figure 56: Steel columns (ODOT) Figure 57: Masonry pier wall (ODOT)

Figure 58: Concrete piers (IEI) Figure 59: Concrete frame (ODOT)

Figure 60: Timber pile bent (NHI)

32
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

CONCRETE
CONCRETE CAP CAP
PIER CAP

CONCRETE PIER WALL

WEB WALL COLUMN

CONCRETE
PILES
SPREAD DRILLED
FOOTING SHAFT

CONCRETE CAP

WEB COLUMN

STEEL PILES SPREAD

FOOTING DRILLED
SHAFT

CONCRETE
CAP

CONCRETE
COLUMN

Figure 61: Typical pier and foundation configurations (IEI, ODOT)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

9. Post-Earthquake Inspection Guidance

The purpose of the post-earthquake bridge inspection is to assess the bridge for signs of earthquake-induced
damage and when damage is identified, determine whether or not the bridge is still safe and functional.
Being able to identify earthquake-induced structural damage versus pre-event deterioration/damage is
critical to proper assessment. Geotechnical factors also play an important role in the proper assessment of
a bridge. Phenomenon such as soil liquefaction, structure settlement, and compromised global stability may
lead to closure of a bridge. Other factors that must be taken into account besides the primary structural
elements and geotechnical considerations are the nonstructural systems, such as utilities and lighting carried
by the bridge, drainage systems, and bridge rails.

The following sections provide technical guidance as to what types of earthquake-induced damage
inspectors might encounter during a Stage 1 Inspection or Stage 2 Inspection. Examples and various
illustrations are provided that show damage that has occurred to other bridges as a result of earthquakes.
Also provided are suggested appropriate actions for each type of damage identified (i.e., bridge closure,
further evaluation, etc.)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

9.1 Roadway Approaches and Deck

Approaches
Approaches to the bridge are often the first items evaluated when performing a post-earthquake inspection.
During a seismic event, approaches may undergo settlement, lateral misalignment, and cracking on the
surface. If there is settlement in the approaches, it will be noted by vertical offsets in the roadway prior to
the bridge as shown below.

Inspection crews should be able to assess if the approaches appear stable and are able to provide a smooth,
safe transition to/from the bridge. If the approach is settled to the point that there is a vertical offset at the
bridge abutment, it may be necessary to close the bridge. When the approach roadway at one or both ends
of the bridge is contained by retaining walls, the walls should also be evaluated for stability and signs of
movement.

Figure 62: Approach slab settlement and Figure 63: Settlement of the approach slab
cracking of the concrete barrier (NISEE) (NYSDOT)
ACTION: May require closure. Inspect for ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
settlement and superstructure or immediately.
substructure damage. Further evaluation is
required.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Deck
Signs of damage/distress in a bridge deck are generally indicative of a failed superstructure and/or
substructure element below. The condition and alignment of the deck joints, bridge rails, drainage systems,
and utilities often provide obvious indicators of significant bridge element damage.

Visible damage found while inspecting a bridge from the top of the deck may include the following:

• Construction and expansion joint misalignment

• Gross deflections in the superstructure, indicating substructure settlement issues
• Unusual cracking and spalling
• Damage and misalignment of bridge rails, drainage systems or utilities

The following photographs illustrate earthquake damage visible from existing bridge decks:

Figure 64: Vertical offset and misalignment Figure 65: Gross span to span misalignment and
(NISEE) partial collapse, indicating bearing or substructure
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings damage or failure (NISEE)
immediately. ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately.

Inspectors should also be aware of possible falling debris onto crossing roadways below the deck caused
by seismic damage. To address this problem, inspectors should contact the ERL and standby for appropriate
traffic control equipment.

Joints
Span displacement can be identified at joints and can provide the inspector clues of serious damage below
the deck. Vertical displacement at a joint may indicate a bearing is damaged while longitudinal
displacement might suggest bearing misalignment.

36
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL
Figure 66: Minor vertical displacement damage
observed in expansion joint (NISEE)
ACTION: May require closure. Inspect for
bearing and substructure damage.
Figure 68: Vertical displacement observed in
expansion joint (NISEE)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection.
37
INSPECTION GUIDANCE
Figure 67: Severe damage on the joint
between the approach and the deck (NISEE)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately and request Stage 2
Inspection.
Figure 69: Transverse joint movement
(NYSDOT)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection.
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

9.2 Nonstructural Elements

The misalignment of bridge rails is an effective indicator of possible structural damage caused by a seismic
event. Vertical offsets or breaks in the railing are clear indicators that damage has occurred and further
investigation is required.

Utilities on and around the bridge should be evaluated as they may represent hazards. Electric equipment,
piping, signaling, and other elements may collapse and cause obstructions to the traveling public.

Figure 70: Vertical misalignment of railing (NISEE)

ACTION: May require closure. Rails are non-structural members,
but damage to these members may indicate elements below the deck
suffered significant damage.

Figure 71: Collapse of street lighting Figure 72: Broken pipeline conduit (NISEE)
elements (NISEE)
ACTION: Bridge is kept open. Report findings and specify obstructions,
check for possible damage in superstructure and substructure.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

9.3 Superstructure

Beams
When evaluating concrete beams, inspectors should investigate for earthquake-induced cracking and
spalling. Earthquake-induced flexural cracks are likely to appear at the midpoint of a beam span, while
shear cracks would occur near the supports (i.e., abutments, pier caps). Beams should also be inspected for
excessive deflection (sag), an indicator that the bridge may be severely damaged.

Steel members should be inspected for local buckling, indications of plastic (permanent) deformation, and
excessive deflections. Plastic deformations are most likely to occur at the beam ends and deflections can be
spotted at mid-span of the beam.

Inspectors should also be aware of potential falling debris onto the roadway below the superstructure caused
by seismic damage.

Typical beam earthquake damage includes the following:

• Misalignment
• Deflections and plastic deformations
• Vertical and diagonal (flexural or shear) cracking in concrete spans
• Local buckling in steel elements
• Sheared bolts or cracked and broken welds in steel connections
The following photographs illustrate earthquake-induced damage:

Figure 73: Severely spalled concrete
beams, significant flexural cracks (NISEE)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately and request Stage 2
Inspection.
Figure 74: Cracking in web of concrete beams
(NYSDOT)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Figure 75: Buckled webs of steel beams (NISEE)

ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings immediately
and request Stage 2 Inspection.

Figure 76: Damage to beam caused by
movement of the structure (NISEE)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately and request Stage 2
Inspection.
Figure 77: Superstructure spalled at bearing
location (NISEE)
ACTION: Report findings and recommend
Stage 2 Inspection.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

9.4 Substructure

Bearings
As bearings provide the link between the superstructure and substructure, they are key elements that can be
severely damaged by seismic events to the point that the structure must be closed.

Typical earthquake damage to bearings may include the following:

• Displacement or misalignment
• Sheared anchor bolts
• Spalled or fractured concrete on pedestals or beams

Examples of bearing damage due to earthquakes are shown below:

Figure 78: Rocker bearing failure (NISEE) Figure 79: Failure of bearing, complete lateral
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings displacement (NISEE)
immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection. ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection.

Figure 80: Toppled rocker bearing (NISEE)

ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings immediately
and request Stage 2 Inspection.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Abutments
Movements in the superstructure of a bridge after an earthquake may crack or even displace/rotate abutment
elements. Wingwalls and back walls should be inspected for flexural or shear cracks. Inspectors should also
look for any settlement or fissures. When an inspection team is uncertain of the condition of the bridge, the
team should request a Stage 2 Inspection.

Typical abutment earthquake damage includes the following:

• Concrete cracking, spalling
• Rotation
• Lateral or longitudinal shifting
• Settlement

Wingwalls can be severely impacted by seismic events to the point of total collapse. Collapsed wingwalls
may warrant a road closure, as the roadway approaches potentially become unstable.

Examples of abutment damage due to seismic events are shown below:

Figure 81: Relative movement of superstructure Figure 82: Diagonal cracking (shear) observed in the
to abutment (NISEE) wingwall (NISEE)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings ACTION: Bridge is kept open. Report damage
immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection. and request Stage 2 Inspection

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL
Figure 84: Movement of bridge caused damage
Figure 83: Abutment failure, note the offset in
the joint and damage to the railing (NISEE)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection.
43
INSPECTION GUIDANCE
to support next to bridge abutment (NISEE)
ACTION: Bridge is kept open.
Report damage and request Stage 2
Inspection.
Figure 85: Abutment and wingwall collapse
(NISEE)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately and request Stage 2
Inspection.
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Figure 86: Cracking and rotation of wingwall Figure 87: Wingwall released from
(NISEE) superstructure after earthquake tremors (NISEE)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings and ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately request Stage 2 Inspection. immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection.

Piers
Pier columns often suffer significant damage during a seismic event. Columns that are cracked with only
minor spalling can still carry design loading, but should be evaluated by a structural engineer. When cracks
penetrate into the core of the column, the damage should be considered as moderate or severe and in most
cases, may require closure of a bridge. Whenever vertical or tie reinforcing is displaced or buckled, the
bridge should be closed until it can be further evaluated by a structural engineer.

Typical pier earthquake damage includes the following:

• Flexural and shear cracks (diagonal) on concrete members

• Concrete cover spalling
• Local buckling
• Buckling of reinforcement
• Bottom of piers showing liquefaction, settlement, or fissures (foundation movements)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Examples of column damage due to seismic events are shown below:

Figure 88: Collapse of pier caused by shear failure (NYSDOT)

ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings immediately and
request Stage 2 Inspection.

Figure 89: Pier cap damaged by movement of bridge (NISEE)

ACTION: Bridge is kept open. Report findings and request Stage 2 Inspection.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Figure 90: Buckling of longitudinal Figure 91: Confinement failure (NISEE)

reinforcement (NYSDOT) ACTION: Close bridge. Report
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings findings immediately and request
immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection.
Stage 2 Inspection.

Figure 92: Full collapse of pier (NISEE) Figure 93: Failure of column (NISEE)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately and request Stage 2 immediately and request Stage 2
Inspection. Inspection.

46
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Figure 94: Shear cracks in column (NISEE)

ACTION: Bridge remains open. Report
findings immediately and request
Stage 2 Inspection.

Figure 95: Compression failure on the top of Figure 96: Confinement failure in single
concrete bridge pier (INDOT) column (NISEE)
ACTION: Report findings immediately and ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
request Stage 2 Inspection. immediately and request
Stage 2 Inspection.

Pier damage often occurs at the bottom or top locations of a member. The top section of the member should
be inspected for bearing and concrete damage, while the bottom of the columns should be checked for
concrete damage, soil displacement, settlement, or fissures.

47
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Timber Span Damage

Unlike concrete and steel bridge structures, there is little understanding of the seismic behavior of timber
bridges as limited effort has been spent on documenting their performance in past earthquakes or conducting
research to develop seismic and/or retrofit requirements for them.

Based on performance during earthquakes and limited research, it has been observed that timber structures
perform relatively well due to their flexible nature and generally short span lengths. Timber span bridges
should be checked for lateral instabilities that may cause structures to lean. The connections should be
examined for their integrity and alignment.

Figure 97: Lateral displacement induced by earthquake loading in timber substructure (KDOT)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report Connections Vulnerable
findings immediately to Stage 2 Inspection.
and request
Damage
Earthquake
Lateral Loading
1

Figure 98: Connections vulnerable to damage (IEI)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

9.5 Geotechnical Problems

Geotechnical problems can be difficult to assess in the field, especially for distresses that have little or no
surface manifestation. If a bridge is founded on a deep foundation embedded in competent bedrock, the
foundation components are less likely to be adversely affected than a bridge founded on shallow
foundations. The following geotechnical issues are discussed with example photographs to aid in the
identification of any soil or rock related distress that could affect the performance or safety of the roadway
and bridge structures.

Typical geotechnical earthquake damage includes the following:

• Foundation/abutment/approach settlement
• Rotation or movement of foundation components
• Retaining wall failure and backfill settlement
• Abutment/embankment slope distress
• Surface manifestation of liquefaction and lateral spreading

Figure 99: Bridge approach / abutment settlement

(NYSDOT)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings
immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Figure 100: Ground movement indicating possible foundation problems (INDOT)

ACTION: Report findings immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection.

Figure 101: Retaining wall backfill movement (left) and retaining wall movement (right)
ACTION: Report findings immediately and request Stage 2 Inspection.

Figure 102: Liquefaction sand boil

ACTION: Report findings immediately and request Stage 2
Inspection. Close bridge when sand boils are
present near substructure.
50
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Figure 103: Slope cracking extending diagonally down Figure 104: Liquefaction fissure near
under bridge bridge (NISEE)
ACTION: Bridge is kept open. Report findings and ACTION: Report findings immediately
request Stage 2 Inspection. and request Stage 2 Inspection.

Figure 105: Lateral spreading settlement of the ground
induced by liquefaction
ACTION: Report findings immediately and request
Stage 2 Inspection.
Figure 106: Liquefaction sand boil near
bridge and/or roadway (NISEE)
ACTION: Report findings immediately
and request Stage 2 Inspection. Close
bridge when sand boils are present near
substructure.

Figure 107: Liquefaction sand boils located near web wall (NISEE)
ACTION: Close bridge. Report findings immediately and
request Stage 2 Inspection.
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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

9.6 Skewed Structures

Skewed bridges are defined as those having supports that are not perpendicular to the alignment of the
bridge. Skewed bridges are commonly used to cross roadways, waterways, or railways that are not
perpendicular to the bridge at the intersection. Current research indicates that the behavior of skewed
bridges is quite different from perpendicularly aligned structures and that earlier code provisions did not
adequately model and predict skewed bridge member behavior. Approximately 25 percent of Oklahoma
bridges are built on a skew.
Distribution of Bridges in Oklahoma
by Skew Angle
2%
6%
14% > 60°
≤ 60°
≤ 45°
3% ≤ 30°
≤ 15°
75% 0°
Figure 108: Skewed bridge

Skewed bridges should be inspected for typical earthquake damage in the same manner as perpendicular
bridges, taking into account their additional vulnerabilities that have been identified during past
earthquakes. Studies on the superstructure of a simply supported span bridge showed that as the skew angle
increases, the reactions at the supports will increase and torsion and transverse moments tend to increase as
skew angle increases up to a certain angle. When skewed bridges rotate under earthquake loading, excessive
displacement on the abutments may cause unseating and possible span collapse. Inspectors should be aware
of these effects and check for possible damage and displacements in bearing assemblies and abutments. For
skewed substructure elements, inadequate shear strength, insufficient cross sectional column area, and lack
of transverse reinforcement were found to be the main reasons for column failures.

Figure 109: Plan view of a skewed bridge (IEI)

52
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Figure 110: Skewed roller bearing assembly Figure 111: Skewed expansion joint (IEI)
(ODOT)

Figure 112: Skewed concrete pier, prestressed I- Figure 113: Skewed pier, multiple steel beam
girder superstructure (IEI) superstructure (IEI)

Figure 114: Skewed abutment (IEI) Figure 115: Skewed bridge bearing (IEI)

53
POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION GUIDANCE

Figure 116: Full span collapse due to inadequate bridge seating at the abutments and pier locations
(NISEE)

Figure 117: Substructure failure in skewed bridge Figure 118: Abutment and deck joint on skewed
(NISEE) bridge with slight damage after earthquake (NISEE)

Figure 119: Damage in skewed bearings (ODOT)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION PROCEDURES

10. Inspection Procedures

10.1 Stage 1 Inspection

The Stage 1 Inspection includes a visual assessment of all assigned bridges and should be completed
immediately after the seismic event. The primary goal of a Stage 1 Inspection is to be able to make a quick,
accurate safety evaluation concerning the condition of the bridges in an assigned area. After completing the
assessment, the team is responsible for summarizing the overall condition of the bridges and categorizing
the structures as safe, minor damage, or bridge closed. These results will be used to develop the assessment
schedules for the Stage 2 Inspection teams, if required.

The steps listed below describe a typical Stage 1 Inspection (also refer to Figure 120 for a flowchart):

1. Prepare for departure in two-member teams and begin the inspection of the assigned bridges after
collecting the necessary tools, safety equipment, and inspection forms.

2. Drive the assigned routes in priority order and note any roadway deficiencies encountered. Report
any damage that requires immediate attention or will present potential safety hazards.

3. For each bridge, stop and fill the date, time, and the corresponding bridge details in the Stage 1
Inspection form. (Note: Refer to Page 12 of this manual.)

4. Follow the inspection order listed in the form.

5. Complete the checklist provided in the form by checking “Yes”, “No”, or “Further Evaluation
Required”.

6. Discuss individual observations and evaluate the overall condition of the bridge.

7. Categorize the bridge in one of the following conditions: “Green”, “Yellow”, or “Red”.
(Note: Refer to Section 9 to aid assessments.)

8. The ERL should be informed immediately of structures categorized as “Red”, and the closure
procedure should be followed. Bridges categorized as “Yellow” should be referred to the ERL for
Stage 2 Inspection.

9. Proceed to evaluate the next bridge.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION PROCEDURES

STAGE 1 INSPECTION

Yes No
Collapse?

Red Flag Evidence of

Yes
Significant Damage?

Report to Earthquake
No
Response Lead (ERL)
Yes or
Stay on Site Until Unsure
Minor Damage?
Bridge is
Properly Closed
Yellow Flag
No
Closure of Bridge
Green Flag

Request
Stage 2 Inspection

INSPECT NEXT
STRUCTURE

Figure 120: Stage 1 Inspection flowchart

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL INSPECTION PROCEDURES

10.2 Stage 2 Inspection

This type of inspection is to be performed only if the Stage 1 Inspection evaluation considers it to be
required. A Stage 2 Inspection is comprised of at least two (2) qualified members and consists of a detailed
(in some cases hands-on) inspection of the bridge elements including the following:

• Approaches
• Deck (joints, wearing surface)
• Secondary systems (utilities, parapets, railings, approaches)
• Superstructure (beams/girders, trusses, floor beams, diaphragms)
• Substructure (bearings, abutments, piers/columns, piles, caps, foundations)
• Geotechnical problems (settlement, liquefaction, capacity loss in soil, embankments)

The Stage 2 Inspection forms for ODOT can be found in Section 7 of this manual. An individual form
should be completed for each bridge inspected. The overall condition of the bridge should be clearly
indicated at the bottom of the form. Team members can attach a blank page to record additional comments
or illustrate sketches if needed.

The steps listed below describe a typical Stage 2 Inspection:

1. Obtain a list identifying bridges requiring a Stage 2 Inspection.

2. Review safety policies and assemble the equipment listed in the Stage 2 Inspection checklist located
in this manual.

3. Drive to the identified bridges and record arrival and departure times. Examine the report from the
Stage 1 Inspection.

4. Begin the inspection at the approaches, proceed to the deck, superstructure, substructure, and
geotechnical conditions as listed in the Stage 2 Inspection form. Note the observed damage by
checking the necessary boxes and by completing the inspection form.

5. Determine the overall condition and categorize the bridge. The final rating should be marked on
the bottom of the form. The team may also recommend that a bridge closed during a Stage 1
Inspection be put back into service in its present condition, if determined to be safe.

6. Bridges with moderate damage will be referred to the ERL for evaluation. The ERL may elect to
close the bridge or restrict traffic by closing individual lanes or load posting the structure. Such
decisions will be communicated to the applicable division.

7. Bridges categorized as “Red” will be communicated to the ERL immediately.

8. Completed inspection forms are to be submitted at the end of each day to the ERL.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL APPENDIX 1 - GLOSSARY

APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1 - Glossary

Abutment: Forms part of bridge substructure at either end of bridge that transfers loads from
superstructure to foundation and provides lateral support for the approach roadway embankment.

Approach: The part of the roadway immediately before and after the bridge structure.

Bearings: Support element transferring loads from the superstructure to the substructure while permitting
limited movement capability.

Bridge joint: A full depth gap in steel, concrete (typically a deck), or approach roadway to allow thermal
expansion and contraction of the superstructure. The joint may or may not have a filler (sealant) material
to prevent infiltration of moisture or debris.

Deck: Portion of a bridge that provides direct support for vehicular and pedestrian traffic, supported by a
superstructure.

Deck joints: A gap allowing for rotation or horizontal movement between two spans or an approach and
a span.

Earthquake Response Lead (ERL): The ERL is the Division Engineer until designated otherwise by
the Division Engineer. The ERL is responsible for initiating and overseeing a response and assigning
resources as needed, as well as coordinating with ODOT Central office and other field divisions as
needed. The ERL is the primary point of contact for all assigned inspection teams.

Embankment: A mound of earth constructed above the natural ground surface to carry a road or to
prevent water from passing beyond desirable limits. Also known as bank.

Expansion joint: Joint designed to permit expansion and contraction movements produced by
temperature changes, loadings, or other forces.

Failure: A condition at which a structure reaches a limit state such as cracking or deflection where it is
no longer able to perform its usual function; collapse; fracture.

Fissure: A long, narrow opening or line of breakage made by cracking or splitting, especially in rock or
earth.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL APPENDIX 1 - GLOSSARY

Floor beam: A primary horizontal member located transversely to the general bridge alignment. A steel
floor beam is considered fracture critical if the floor beam spacing is greater than 14 ft. Members can
frame into or be supported by a steel floor beam.

Footing: The enlarged, lower portion of a substructure, which distributes the structure load either to the
earth or to supporting piles. The most common footing is the concrete slab.

Foundation: The supporting member upon which the substructure portion of a bridge is placed.
Foundations transfer bridge loads to competent soil/rock below them.

Girder: Horizontal flexural member that is the main or primary support for a structure. Any large beam,
especially if built up.

Local buckling: Yielding of a beam’s plate element, which can lead to failure of member.

Parapet: A low wall along the outmost edge of the roadway of a bridge to protect vehicles and
pedestrians.

Pedestal: Concrete or built-up metal member constructed on top of a bridge seat for the purpose of
providing a specific bearing seat elevation.

Pier: Substructure unit that supports the spans of a multi-span superstructure at an intermediate location
between its abutments.

Pier beam: A transverse beam (typically steel, but sometimes prestressed concrete) that functions similar
to a pier cap, but spans a large distance between two pier columns and is supported by bearings, generally
used to span roadways or railroad tracks on skewed bridges.

Pier cap: The topmost horizontal portion of a pier that distributes loads from the superstructure to the
vertical pier elements.

Railing: A fence-like construction built at the outermost edge of the roadway or the sidewalk portion of a
bridge to protect pedestrians and vehicles.

Sand Boil: Sand and water that come out onto the ground surface during an earthquake as a result of
shallow liquefaction.

Settlement: The movement of substructure elements due to changes in the soil properties.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL APPENDIX 1 - GLOSSARY

Shear force: Equal but opposite forces that tend to slide one section of a member past the adjacent
section.

Shear stress: The shear force per unit of cross-sectional area; also referred to as diagonal tensile stress;
excessive shear stress can result in shear cracks in concrete.

Slab: A wide beam, usually of reinforced concrete, that supports load by flexure.

Slope protection: A thin surfacing of stone, concrete, or other material deposited upon a sloped surface
to prevent its disintegration by rain, wind, or other erosive action; also known as slope pavement.

Spall: A spall is a depression in the concrete, resulting from the separation and removal of a portion of
the surface concrete, revealing a fracture roughly parallel to the surface. Spalls can be caused by
corroding reinforcing steel (resulting in delamination; layers of concrete separating at or near the level of
the outermost layer of reinforcing steel due to corrosion), friction from thermal movement, and overstress.

Substructure: The component of a bridge that includes all the elements (typically abutments and
piers/bents) supporting the superstructure. The purpose of the substructure is to transfer the loads from the
superstructure to the foundation soil or rock.

Superstructure: The entire portion of a bridge structure that primarily receives and supports traffic loads
and in turn transfers these loads to the bridge substructure.

Truss: A jointed structure made up of individual members primarily carrying axial loads arranged and
connected in triangular panels.

• Pony truss: Traffic travels between two parallel trusses that are not cross-braced at the top

• Through truss: Traffic travels through the superstructure and has overhead bracing members
connecting the two trusses

• Deck truss: Traffic travels on top of the superstructure and the two trusses project underneath the
deck

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL APPENDIX 2 - REFERENCES

APPENDIX 2 - References

1. Kramer, S. (1996). Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering. N.J.: Prentice Hall.

2. O'Connor, J. (2012). Post-Earthquake Bridge Inspection Guidelines. Buffalo, New York: New York
Department of Transportation.
3. PONTIS. (2014). Pontis Bridge Inspection Field Manual for Oklahoma Bridges. Oklahoma City:
Oklahoma Department of Transportation.
4. Ramirez, J. F. (2000). Handbook for the post-earthquake safety evaluation of bridges and roads.
West Lafayette, Indiana: Indiana Department of Transportation.
5. Ryan, T. M. (2006). Bridge inspector's reference manual BIRM (Rev. Feb. 2012 ed.). Washington
D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.
6. Sardo, A. S. (2006). Post-earthquake investigation field manual for the state of Kentucky. Lexington,
Kentucky: Kentucky Department of Transportation.
7. United States Geologocial Survey (USGS). Earthquake history of Oklahoma: http://www.usgs.gov/
8. National Highway Institute (NHI), Bridge Inspection Refresher Training.
9. National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering (NISEE), http://nisee.berkeley.edu.

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL APPENDIX 3 - LIST OF FIGURES

APPENDIX 3 - List of Figures

Page
No.
Figure 1A Automated email created and delivered by ShakeCast 4
Figure 1B Example ShakeCast email body – ShakeMap 5
Figure 1C Example ShakeCast email body – Potential Impacts with bridge information 6
Figure 2A Stage 1 Inspection Equipment Checklist 10
Figure 2B Stage 2 Inspection Equipment Checklist 11
Figure 3 Stage 1 – Inspection Form 12
Figure 4 Stage 2 – Inspection Form 13-14
Figure 5 Typical bridge structures and bent types in the state of Oklahoma (2) (IEI) 15
Figure 6 Concrete deck (IEI) 16
Figure 7 Underside of concrete deck (BIRM) 16
Figure 8 Timber plank deck (IEI) 16
Figure 9 Underside of timber deck (IEI) 17
Figure 10 Steel grid deck (IEI) 17
Figure 11 Armored compression joint Seal (BIRM) 17
Figure 12 Sealed expansion joint (ODOT) 17
Figure 13 Pourable expansion joint (BIRM) 17
Figure 14 Assembly joint (ODOT) 17
Figure 15 Asphalt approach roadway (IEI) 18
Figure 16 Prestressed I-beams (top), steel multiple beam configuration (bottom) (IEI) 19
Figure 17 Precast slab bridge (BIRM) 20
Figure 18 Under view of prestressed spread box beams (BIRM) 20
Figure 19 Double-tee beams (ODOT) 20
Figure 20 Haunched slab bridge (ODOT) 20
Figure 21 Concrete arch (ODOT) 20
Figure 22 Standard tee beam bridge (BIRM) 20
Figure 23 Multi-span pony truss (BIRM) 21
Figure 24 Deck truss (BIRM) 21
Figure 25 Steel rigid frame (BIRM) 21
Figure 26 Through girder (NHI) 21
Figure 27 Steel multi beam with pier beams (IEI) 21
Figure 28 Braced multi beam (ODOT) 21
Figure 29 Steel box beam bridge (BIRM) 22
Figure 30 Stringer/floor beam/girder system (BIRM) 22
Figure 31 Multi-span cast-in-place slab bridge (BIRM) 22
Figure 32 Solid sawn multi beam bridge (BIRM) 22
Figure 33 Masonry arch (ODOT) 22
Figure 34 Labeling of a typical truss element (IEI) 23
Figure 35 Basic truss terminology (IEI) 24
Figure 36 Steel through truss supporting timber deck (IEI) 24
Figure 37 Bearing elements (top), primary functions of a bearing (bottom) (IEI) 25

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL APPENDIX 3 - LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 38 Elastomeric bearing (ODOT) 26

Figure 39 Rocker bearing (BIRM) 26
Figure 40 Fixed (left) and roller (right) bearing (ODOT) 26
Figure 41 Sliding bearing (BIRM) 26
Figure 42 Pot bearing (NHI) 26
Figure 43 Pinned rocker bearing (NHI) 26
Figure 44 Stone masonry abutment (top), reinforced concrete abutment with concrete slope
27
wall (bottom) (IEI)
Figure 45 Concrete slope wall (bottom) (IEI) 28
Figure 46 Full height abutment (ODOT) 29
Figure 47 Stub abutment (BIRM) 29
Figure 48 Open abutment (BIRM) 29
Figure 49 Integral abutment (ODOT) 29
Figure 50 Pile abutment with backwall (BIRM) 29
Figure 51 Typical Wingwall (BIRM) 30
Figure 52 Turn back wingwall (BIRM) 30
Figure 53 Flared wingwall (BIRM) 30
Figure 54 Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) wingwall (BIRM) 30
Figure 55 Typical pier configurations (IEI, ODOT) 31
Figure 56 Steel columns (ODOT) 32
Figure 57 Masonry pier wall (ODOT) 32
Figure 58 Concrete piers (IEI) 32
Figure 59 Concrete frame (ODOT) 32
Figure 60 Timber pile bent (NHI) 32
Figure 61 Typical pier and foundation configurations (IEI, ODOT) 33
Figure 62 Approach slab settlement and cracking of the concrete barrier (NISEE) 35
Figure 63 Settlement of the approach slab (NYSDOT) 35
Figure 64 Vertical offset and misalignment (NISEE) 36
Figure 65 Gross span to span misalignment and partial collapse, indicating bearing or
36
substructure damage or failure (NISEE)
Figure 66 Minor vertical displacement damage observed in expansion joint (NISEE) 37
Figure 67 Severe damage on the joint between the approach and the deck (NISEE) 37
Figure 68 Vertical displacement observed in expansion joint (NISEE) 37
Figure 69 Transverse joint movement (NYSDOT) 37
Figure 70 Vertical misalignment of railing (NISEE) 38
Figure 71 Collapse of street lighting elements (NISEE) 38
Figure 72 Broken pipeline conduit (NISEE) 38
Figure 73 Severely spalled concrete beams, significant flexural cracks (NISEE) 39
Figure 74 Cracking in web of concrete beams (NYSDOT) 39
Figure 75 Buckled webs of steel beams (NISEE) 40
Figure 76 Damage to beam caused by movement of the structure (NISEE) 40
Figure 77 Superstructure spalled at bearing location (NISEE) 40
Figure 78 Rocker bearing failure (NISEE) 41

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL APPENDIX 3 - LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 79 Failure of bearing, complete lateral displacement (NISEE) 41

Figure 80 Toppled rocker bearing (NISEE) 41
Figure 81 Relative movement of superstructure to abutment (NISEE) 42
Figure 82 Diagonal cracking (shear) observed in the wingwall (NISEE) 42
Figure 83 Abutment failure (NISEE) 43
Figure 84 Movement of bridge caused damage to support next to bridge abutment (NISEE) 43
Figure 85 Abutment and wingwall collapse (NISEE) 43
Figure 86 Cracking and rotation of wingwall (NISEE) 44
Figure 87 Wingwall released from superstructure after earthquake tremors (NISEE) 44
Figure 88 Collapse of pier caused by shear failure (NYSDOT) 45
Figure 89 Pier cap damaged by movement of bridge (NISEE) 45
Figure 90 Buckling of longitudinal reinforcement (NYSDOT) 46
Figure 91 Confinement failure (NISEE) 46
Figure 92 Full collapse of pier (NISEE) 46
Figure 93 Failure of column (NISEE) 46
Figure 94 Shear cracks in column (NISEE) 47
Figure 95 Compression failure on the top of concrete bridge pier (INDOT) 47
Figure 96 Confinement failure in single column (NISEE) 47
Figure 97 Lateral displacement induced by earthquake loading in timber substructure
48
(KDOT)
Figure 98 Connection vulnerable to damage (IEI) 48
Figure 99 Bridge approach /abutment settlement (NYSDOT) 49
Figure 100 Ground movement indicating possible foundation problems (2) (INDOT) 50
Figure 101 Retaining wall backfill movement (left) and retaining wall movement (right) 50
Figure 102 Liquefaction sand boil 50
Figure 103 Slope cracking extending diagonally down under bridge 51
Figure 104 Liquefaction fissure near bridge 51
Figure 105 Lateral spreading settlement of the ground induced by liquefaction 51
Figure 106 Liquefaction sand boil near bridge and/or roadway (NISEE) 51
Figure 107 Liquefaction sand boils located near web wall (NISEE) 51
Figure 108 Skewed bridge (IEI) 52
Figure 109 Plan view of a skewed bridge (IEI) 52
Figure 110 Roller bearings in a skewed bridge (ODOT) 53
Figure 111 Skewed expansion joint (IEI) 53
Figure 112 Skewed concrete pier, prestressed I-girder superstructure (IEI) 53
Figure 113 Skewed pier, multiple steel beam superstructure (IEI) 53
Figure 114 Skewed abutment (IEI) 53
Figure 115 Skewed bridge bearing (IEI) 53
Figure 116 Full span collapse due to inadequate bridge seating at the abutments and pier
54
locations (2) (NISEE)
Figure 117 Substructure failure in skewed bridge (NISEE) 54
Figure 118 Abutment and deck bridge joint on skewed bridge with slight damage after
54
earthquake (NISEE)

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POST-EARTHQUAKE BRIDGE INSPECTION MANUAL APPENDIX 3 - LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 119 Damage in skewed bearings (ODOT) 54

Figure 120 Stage 1 Inspection flowchart 56

65