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Channel & Switchbox Routing
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o m
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ld
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o r
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t u w channel routing
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. jn
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w w
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w
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switchbox routing
Detailed routing
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Routing Models
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• Grid-based model:
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– A grid is super-imposed on the routing region.
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– Wires follow paths along the grid lines.
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ld
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• Gridless model:
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– Any model that does not follow this “gridded” approach.
t u w
U
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w w
N
w
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grid−based gridless
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Models for Multi-Layer Routing
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• Unreserved layer model: Any net segment is allowed to be placed in
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any layer.
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• Reserved layer model: Certain type of segments are restricted to
particular layer(s).
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u
– Two-layer: HV (horizontal-Vertical), VH
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U
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– Three-layer: HVH, VHV
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track 2 track 3
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track 1 track 2
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track 1
track 1
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unreserved layer model
HVH model VHV model
3 types of 3−layer models
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Terminology for Channel Routing Problems
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terminals
0 1 4 5 1 6 7 0 4 9 10
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upper boundary
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c
0 1 4 5 1 6 7 0 4 9 10
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netlist:
23535268987
ld
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r
lower boundary
2 3 5 3 5 2 6 8 9 8 7
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local
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1 3 5 5 4 3 3 3 4 3 2
density
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U
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terminals
. upper boundary
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vias
w w dogleg branches
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lower boundary
w trunks
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• Local density at column i: total # of nets that crosses column i.
• Channel density: maximum local density; # of horizontal tracks required ≥ channel
density.
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Channel Routing Problem
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• Assignments of horizontal segments of nets to tracks.
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• Assignments of vertical segments to connect.
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– horizontal segments of the same net in different tracks, and
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– the terminals of the net to horizontal segments of the net.
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• Horizontal and vertical constraints must not be violated.
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– Horizontal constraints between two nets: The horizontal span of
two nets overlaps each other.
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– Vertical constraints between two nets: There exists a column such
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that the terminal on top of the column belongs to one net and the
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terminal on bottom of the column belongs to the other net.
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• Objective: Channel height is minimized (i.e., channel area is
minimized).
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Horizontal Constraint Graph (HCG)
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• HCG G = (V, E) is undirected graph where
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– V = {vi|vi represents a net ni}
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– E = {(vi, vj )| a horizontal constraint exists between ni and nj }.
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t u w
• For graph G: vertices ⇔ nets; edge (i, j) ⇔ net i overlaps net j.
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1
1 5 2 0 2
. j
1
n
1 0 3 4 0 5
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w w
N
4
3
w0 1 2 5 3 4 0 0 2 3 2
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A routing problem and its HCG. 3
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Vertical Constraint Graph (VCG)
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o m
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• VCG G = (V, E) is directed graph where
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– V = {vi|vi represents a net ni}
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– E = {(vi, vj )| a vertical constraint exists between ni and nj }.
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t u w
• For graph G: vertices ⇔ nets; edge i → j ⇔ net i must be above net j.
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U
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1 5 2 0 2
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1 0 3 4 0
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w w 4
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2
3
w
0 1 2 5 3 4 0 0 2 3
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A routing problem and its VCG. 3
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2-L Channel Routing: Basic Left-Edge
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Algorithm
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within large apertures,” DAC-71.
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• Hashimoto & Stevens, “Wire routing by optimizing channel assignment
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• No vertical constraint.
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• HV-layer model is used.
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• Doglegs are not allowed.
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• Treat each net as an interval.
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• Intervals are sorted according to their left-end x-coordinates.
w
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• Intervals (nets) are routed one-by-one according to the order.
w
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• For a net, tracks are scanned from top to bottom, and the first track
that can accommodate the net is assigned to the net.
• Optimality: produces a routing solution with the minimum # of tracks
(if no vertical constraint).
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Basic Left-Edge Algorithm
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Algorithm: Basic Left-Edge(U, track[j])
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U : set of unassigned intervals (nets) I1 , . . . , In;
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Ij = [sj , ej ]: interval j with left-end x-coordinate sj and right-end ej ;
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track[j]: track to which net j is assigned.
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1 begin
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2 U ← {I1 , I2 , . . . , In};
3 t ← 0;
while (U 6= ∅) do
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U
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5 t ← t + 1;
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6 watermark ← 0;
7
w w
while (there is an Ij ∈ U s.t. sj > watermark) do
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8 Pick the interval Ij ∈ U with sj > watermark,
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nearest watermark;
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9 track[j] ← t;
10 watermark ← ej ;
11 U ← U − {Ij };
12 end
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Basic Left-Edge Example
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• U = {I1 , I2 , . . . , I6 }; I1 = [1, 3], I2 = [2, 6], I3 = [4, 8], I4 = [5, 10], I5 = [7, 11], I6 = [9, 12].
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• t = 1:
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– Route I1 : watermark = 3;
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• t = 2:
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• t = 3: Route I4
.
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w w
column: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
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1 0 0 0 4 2 0 3 0 4 0 6
w
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0 2 1 3 0 0 5 0 6 0 5 0
density: 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1
10
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Constrained Left-Edge Algorithm
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Algorithm: Constrained Left-Edge(U, track[j])
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U : set of unassigned intervals (nets) I1 , . . . , In;
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Ij = [sj , ej ]: interval j with left-end x-coordinate sj and right-end ej ;
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track[j]: track to which net j is assigned.
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1 begin
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2 U ← {I1 , I2 , . . . , In};
3 t ← 0;
while (U 6= ∅) do
t u w
U
4
5 t ← t + 1;
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6 watermark ← 0;
7
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while (there is an unconstrained Ij ∈ U s.t. sj > watermark) do
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8 Pick the interval Ij ∈ U that is unconstrained,
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with sj > watermark, nearest watermark;
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9 track[j] ← t;
10 watermark ← ej ;
11 U ← U − {Ij };
12 end
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Constrained Left-Edge Example
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• I1 = [1, 3], I2 = [1, 5], I3 = [6, 8], I4 = [10, 11], I5 = [2, 6], I6 = [7, 9].
• Track 1: Route I1 (cannot route I3 ); Route I6 ; Route I4 .
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• Track 2: Route I2 ; cannot route I3 .
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• Track 3: Route I5 .
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• Track 4: Route I3 .
1 1 1 2 2 5
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6 3 0 4 0
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t u w
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w w 2 5 0 5 5 3 3 0 6 0 4
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1
w 4
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2 2
5 6 5 5
3 3 3 3
track 1 track 2 track 3 track 4
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Dogleg Channel Router
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• Deutch, “A dogleg channel router,” 13rd DAC, 1976.
• Drawback of Left-Edge: cannot handle the cases with constraint cycles.
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– Doglegs are used to resolve constraint cycle.
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1 1 2
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1 1 2
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1
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2
2
t
0
u
1
• Drawback of Left-Edge: the entire net is on a single track. w 2 0 1
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– Doglegs are used to place parts of a net on different tracks to minimize channel
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height.
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– Might incur penalty for additional vias.
w 0 1 2 2 0 3 0 4 save 2 tracks, with via penalty
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0 1 2 2 0 3 0 4
1 2 0 3 3 4 4 0 1 2 0 3 3 4 4 0
no dogleg with dogleg
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Dogleg Channel Router
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• Each multi-terminal net is broken into a set of 2-terminal nets.
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• Two parameters are used to control routing:
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– Range: Determine the # of consecutive 2-terminal subnets of the same net that
can be placed on the same track.
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along the channel.
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– Routing sequence: Specifies the starting position and the direction of routing
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• Modified Left-Edge Algorithm is applied to each subnet.
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1 1 2 0 2 3
1
w w 1
1 1 2 0 2 3
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2a 2b 2a 3a 1 2b
w
3a 3b
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3a 3b
4 2b 3b 2a 4
2 3 0 3 4 4 4 2 3 0 3 4 4
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Over-the-Cell Routing
• Routing over the cell rows is possible due to the limited use of the 2nd (M2) metal
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layers within the cells.
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choosing the net segments, and (3) routing within the channel.
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• Divide the over-the-cell routing problem into 3 steps: (1) routing over the cell, (2)
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• Reference: Cong & Liu, “Over-the-cell channel routing,” IEEE TCAD, Apr. 1990.
ld
O
o r VDD
GND
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1 2 1 6 2 6
t u
3 4
w
3 4 6
Over−the−cell routing
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w w
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w
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2 1 3 1 6 4 5 6 5 4 4 Over−the−cell routing
VDD
GND
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Over-the-Cell Channel Routing
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• Cong & Liu, “Over-the-cell channel routing,” IEEE TCAD, Apr. 1990.
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o m
Select over−the−cell nets
use Supowit’s Max. Independent
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Set algorithm for circle graph
ld
(solvable in O(c3 ) time,
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c: # of columns)
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Select terminals among
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"equivalent" ones for regular
channel routing
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jn
(Goal: minimize channel density
. NP−complete!)
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w w
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w Plannar routing for
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over−the−cell nets
+
Regular channel routing
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Supowit’s Algorithm
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• Supowit, “Finding a maximum plannar subset of a set of nets in a channel,” IEEE
TCAD, 1987.
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• Problem: Given a set of chords, find a maximum plannar subset of chords.
– Label the vertices on the circle 0 to 2n − 1.
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– Compute M IS(i, j): size of maximum independent set between vertices i and j,
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i < j.
– Answer = M IS(0, 2n − 1).
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w
11 0 0
1 c 1 c
u
10 a 10 a
e
f 2 d
t 2 d
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9 9 c f
jn
c d b b
3 3
.
a f e f e
8 4 8 b 4
b
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w
7 5 circle graph 7 5 Maximum independent
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set: nodes b, c, f
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A set of chords. Maximum plannar
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subset of chords.
w 2n−1 0
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1 i
2n−2
2 MIS(i, j): size of max.
independent set here
j
vetrices on the circle MIS(i, j), i < j
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Dynamic Programming in Supowit’s Algorithm
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• Apply dynamic programming to compute M IS(i, j).
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case 1 case 2
m
case 3
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k i i
. c i
ld
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o r
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w
j k j
j
t u
MIS(i, j) = MIS(i, k−1) + 1
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MIS(i, j) = MIS(i, j−1) MIS(i, j) = MIS(i+1, j−1) + 1
. j n + MIS(k+1, j−1)
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k
w
i
w i i
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MIS(i, k−1)
i+1
w k−1
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MIS(i, j−1) k
j j k+1 j MIS(i+1, j−1)
j−1 j−1 j−1
MIS(k+1, j−1)
18
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www.jntuworld.

3 types of 3−layer models

Terminology for Channel Routing Problems

2-L Channel Routing: Basic Left-Edge

Basic Left-Edge Algorithm

Basic Left-Edge Example

Constrained Left-Edge Algorithm

Constrained Left-Edge Example

Dogleg Channel Router

• Drawback of Left-Edge: the entire net is on a single track. w 2 0 1

w 0 1 2 2 0 3 0 4 save 2 tracks, with via penalty

Over-the-Cell Channel Routing

Dynamic Programming in Supowit’s Algorithm

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