LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

LABORATORY MANUAL

PHY121: PHYSICS LAB-I

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 0

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Table of Contents

S. No. Title Page No.

1. An introduction to units, errors ,different types of graphs, measurement of 2-10

length and mass
2. Plot the graph between refractive index and wavelength using Hg vapour lamp hence 11
find out cauchy’s constant.

3. To study the dependence of force of friction on 12-13

1. Normal Reaction
2. Area of contacts
3. Nature of Material
4. Nature of Surface

4. To study variation of angular acceleration with torque acting on the fly wheel. Find out 14-15
the minimum torque required to overcome the friction between the flywheel and bearing
and also find out the moment of inertia of the flywheel.

5. To find the wavelength of He-Ne laser by using Michelson interferometer. 16-17

6. To study the variation of magnetic field with the distance along the axis of circular coil 18-19
carrying current by plotting a graph.
7. To find the frequency of ac main by using electric vibrator 20-21

8. To find out the energy band gap of a given semiconductor by using four probe method. 22

9. To plot a graph between current and frequency in series and parallel LCR circuit and 23-24
find resonant frequency, quality factor and band width.

10. To find the unknown capacitance of a capacitor using flashing and quenching of neon 25-26
bulb.

Text Book: C. L. Arora, B.Sc Practical Physics, S. Chand Publishers

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 1

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Experiment 1

Title :- An introduction to units, errors ,different types of graphs and measurement of length,
mass and time.

Equipments to be used :- Vernier calliper, travelling microscope, and screw gauge etc.

Material Required:- Graph papers

Learning objective:-

1. To find the least count of various measuring instrument.

2. How to plot graphs?

3. Error Analysis.

Units.

The measurement of the physical quantities should be done in the most convenient unit e.g.
mass of the body in grams, measurement using vernier calliper in cm, small current in mA
etc. All the measured quantity must be converted into SI unit while tabulating.

Least count.

Least Count= (Value of one main scale division) / (Total no. divisions on the vernier scale)

Observed Reading=M.S. reading+ V.S. reading

Note: find out the the least count of the measuring instrument available in the lab

e.g veriner caliper, screw gauge, spectrometer, Michelson Interferometer, etc.

Garphs

A graph is a straight or curved which shows the relative change between two quantities out
of which one varies as a result of change in the other. The quantities which is changed at will
is called independent variable while alter due to the change in the first is called dependent
variable. The point where the axes of independent and dependent variable meet at right
angle is called origin.

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 2

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Following rule must be adopted while plotting a graph

1. Find the independent and dependent variables. Plot the independent variable along
X-axis and the dependent variable along the Y-axis.
2. Determine the range of each variable and count the no of divisions available on the
graph to represent the each variable along the respective axes.
3. Choose a convenient scale for both variables .It is not necessary to have the same
scale for both. The scale should neither be too narrow nor too wide. It is preferable
that 10 divisions should be represent 1,2,5, or 10 or their multiples by any +ve or –ve
power of 10. We must see that maximum portion of the graph paper is utilized and
the graph is well within it.
4. At least six observation extending over a wide range should be taken for plotting the
graph.
5. If the relation between the two variables begins from zero of if zero value of one of
one of the variables is to be found out, it is necessary to take origin as zero along
both the axes.
6. The origin need not always be represent by zero. Its value should be round number
less than the smallest given value of the independent or dependent variable.
7. It is not necessary to write all the values along the respective axes.
8. Mark the point with a pencil. Draw a small circle or put a cross to indicate the plotting
point prominently.
9. Draw a smooth free hand curve through the plotted points. It is not necessary that the
curve should pass through every point leave as many points below it as there are
above it.
10. The title graph should be given boldly near the top of the graph paper.
11. It is always better to indicate the scale for both the variable at the top in the left or
right corner of the graph paper.

Linear graphs
Example 1

Let us consider the case of time period ‘T’ of a simple pendulum which is written as

T = (2) (L/g)1/2----------(1)
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 3
 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

‘L’ is the “length” of the pendulum while ‘g’ is acceleration due to gravity. Eq. (1) can be re-
written as

T2 = (4gL---------(2)

Eq. (2) is an equation of straight line with slope = (4gand intercept = 0

A student came up with the following data.

S.No T L

(s) (cm)

1 1.0 24.8

2 0.9 20.1

3 0.8 15.9

4 0.7 12.2

5 0.6 8.9

6 0.5 6.2

Find the value of “g” by graphical analysis.

How to draw the graph?

Step 1. From Eq. 2 we have to plot T2 vs L so our table is (L should in meter

S.No T2 L x 10-2

(s) (m)

1 1.0 24.8

2 0.81 20.1

3 0.64 15.9

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 4

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

4 0.49 12.2

5 0.36 8.9

6 0.25 6.2

Step 2. Choose a “linear” graph sheet which is linearly (normally in mm) graduated on both X-
as well Y- axis.

Step 3. Choose Y-axis for T2 and X-axis for L

Step 4. Max T2 is 1 and min is 0.25; choose your scale so that you can mark 0.25 clearly.
Similarly choose scale for L on X-axis.

Step 5. Mark the points on the graph with a sharp pencil

Step 6. Draw a straight line through the points so that maximum number of points are on/very
close to the line (Best fit we will not discuss presently)

Step 7. Find the slope from the graph and calculate “g”

Important:

(i) Give a title to the graph; in present case it will be T2 Vs L for a simple pendulum.

(ii) Mark scales on the graph sheet; X-axis “10mm = so many m” and Y-axis “10mm= so
many seconds”

(iii) Mark X-axis and Y-axis with quantity (along with units) you are plotting

(iv)Calculate the slope and “g” on the graph sheet so that a graph is complete and one
need not to refer to the Lab Sheets.

Interpolation: From the graph you can find the L for T=0.44 (for example, within the
present data set)) even though there is no experimental data; this process is called
interpolation.

Extrapolation: One can extend the length of the line so that one can predict L for T =0.1s
or 2.5s (outside the present data set); this is called extrapolation.

Example 2. Change in the value “g” with the distance “h” (outside the earth) is given by

gh (value of g at a height h)= g(1-2h/R) where R is the radius of earth

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 5

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Data from an experiment is given in the following table

S.No gh h

m/s2 m

1 8.8 0.05R

2 7.8 0.10R

3 6.9 0.15R

4 5.9 0.20R

5 4.9 0.25R

6 3.9 0.30R

By graphical analysis find the value of “g”. Can you find out the value of “R” from the graph?

Semi-log graph

Radioactive decay is given by N(t) = N(0) e-t , where N(t) are the observed counts at time t,
N(0) are the counts at time t = 0 (fixed arbitrarily) and is the decay constant. Calculate N(0)
and  by graphical technique from the given data:

Time ‘t’ No. of counts

1.0 905.0

2.0 820.0

3.0 735.0

4.0 670.0

5.0 600.0

6.0 550.0

N(t) = N(0) e-t

Or ln N(t) = ln N(o) - t (ln is log to the base e)

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 6

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Or 2.3log N(t) = 2.3 log N (0) -t (change of log base to 10)

Or log N(t) = log N(0) - (/2.3) t

Plot of log N(t) with t is a straight line with log N(o) as intercept and -2.3 as slope. Since one
side is log so use a semi-log graph paper to get the values of N(0) and 

Log-log graph

Planetary period ‘T’ (in earth years) is related to its distance ‘R’( AU, astronomical units; 1AU is
equal to average separation between earth and sun) by the relationship of the form

T = kRn

Calculate ‘k’ and ‘n’ by graphical analysis from the following data

Name of the planet T in R in

Earth years Astronomical units

Mercury 0.39 0.24

Venus 0.72 0.62

Earth 1.00 1.00

Mars 1.52 1.88

Jupiter 5.20 11.86

Saturan 9.54 29.46

T = kRn

or log T = log k + n log R

Plot of log T vs log R is a straight line with log k as intercept and n as slope. Since both sides
are in log form use log-log graph paper

Error analysis
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 7
 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Measurement is basic to science. A measurement is meaningful only if the uncertainties

involved are specified. An operator “X” has to specify the uncertainty (error) in his final result;
the practice of comparing the result with “standard value” is unscientific as the experimental
conditions/instruments used to find out the “standard value” are different when compared to
those of X. Please remember

The error in an experimentally measured quantity is never found by

comparing it to some number found in a book or web page

These uncertainties do not include the blunders/mistakes of the person performing the
measurement. These errors are due to limitations of the measuring instruments (like zero error,
faulty calibration, error due to parallax, bias of the operator etc) and uncontrollable changes in
experimental parameters like temperature, pressure, voltage etc. The instrument errors
(systematic errors) are instrument specific, can be either +ve or –ve and are constant in nature.
On the other hand errors due to changes in experimental parameters are random in nature; can
be both +ve as well as –ve in a particular set of easements.

Estimation of systematic errors

There is no prescribed method to minimize systematic errors. An operator has to examine

various measuring instruments (scales, meters, etc) for zero-errors (zero of a meter or vernier
caliper might have shifted), take readings so as to minimize parallax error and if possible check
the calibration of the measuring instruments. Systematic errors cannot be minimized by taking
large number of measurement (Why?).

Estimation of random errors

Random errors are both +ve as well –ve in a measurement cycle, can be handled by well-
known statistical techniques. Two basic techniques are:

(i) Arithmetic Mean or simply mean = (X1 + X2 + X3+…………………………..+XN)/N= XM

(ii) Standard deviation = {(1/N) [(X1-XM)2 + (X2-XM)2 + (X3-XM)2 +………..+(XN-XM)2}1/2

It shows how much deviation there is from the "average" (mean). A low standard deviation
indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean. whereas high standard
deviation indicates that the data are spread out over a large range of values.

Propagation of random errors

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 8

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

If Z is a function of X and Y so that we have Z = F(X,Y). Error in X is X while for Y the error is
Y how to find error in Z (Z) { X and Y are independent that measurement in X does not induce
error in Y and vice versa; this is the case in most of your experiments.)

What will be Z in case Z = X – Y ? The standard procedure is:

Contribution to the error Z due to X is given by (F/X) X [(F/X) is partial derivative of F

with respect to X treating Y as constant) while due to Y the contribution is (F/Y) Y.

Total Z is given by

Z = {(F/X)2 (X)2 +(F/Y)2 (Y)2}(1/2)

Example1. Z= X+Y

Z/X =1, Z/Y = 1 so Z = {(X)2 + ( Y)2}(1/2)

What will be Z in case Z = X – Y ? What conclusion you arrive at from this example?

What will be Z in case Z =a X + Y/b ? where a and b are constants?

Example2. Z = XY

Z/X =Y, Z/Y = X Z = {Y2(X)2 +X2 ( Y)2}(1/2). This is absolute error in Z. Alternately we
can have Z/Z =Z/XY ={(X/X)2 + ( Y/Y)2}(1/2). This is relative error in Z and can be expressed
in terms of % by the relation (Z/Z) x 100.

Example3. Z = X/Y

Z/X = 1/Y,Z/Y = -X/Y2 Z ={(1/Y) 2(X)2 +[(X)2]/Y4 ( Y)2}(1/2).

Which gives Z/Z ={(X/X)2 + ( Y/Y)2}(1/2).

The procedure outlined above can be used for functions with more than two independent
variables.

Significant figures

The final result of an experiment should be expressed [measured value] ± [estimated error]
units. If it is a single measurement like measurement of length your final result could be for
example, 10.28±0.05cm which means that the length could be from 10.33 to 10.23cm. All the
four digits in the result are important; your result has four significant digits. If the object whose
length was measured has breadth say 5.41±0.05cm (measured with the same scale used for
the measurement of length so that error is same). Area = (10.28±0.05cm) x (5.41±0.05cm).
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 9
 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

(10.28) x (5.41) = 55.6148 and error in area = {(0.05)2+ (0.5)2}1/2 = 0.070710678 (calculated on
CASIO 5-VPAM). So our result will look like 55.6148±0.070710678 cm2. We know the error in
our length as well as breadth measurement is 0.05cm so the order of magnitude of the error in
area must be same which turns out to be 0.07cm when you carefully examine the final result for
area. Note that the error in area is more than that of length or breadth which is
expected(WHY?). So area = 55.6148±0.07cm2 which means that area is expressed to 1/10000
accuracy while error is only accurate to 1/100. Hence digits 4 and 8 have no significance in the
final result which is area = 55.61±0.07 cm2.

Errors in the measurement determine the number of significant digits one should use in the final
result

How to calculate errors in your Lab experiments

1. Check for zero-errors in all your measuring instruments like scales, vernier calipers, screw
gauges, volt/amper meters etc and note them properly in your “LAB Note Book”= no rough copy
is to used in the LAB for recording of the data.

2. Check and record the least count of all the measuring instruments. Examine each instrument
carefully to determine the least count. For example a scale may be graduated so that it has
“markers’ after every one mm; least count being 0.1cm. However, if the “markers’ are distant
enough so that one can read to an accuracy of o.5mm the least count is 0.05cm.

Intelligent and careful use of the measuring instruments to get best out of
these instruments is the basic experimental skill. In real world you will never
get ideal instruments.
3. Make the required measurements and record these measurements directly in your “LAB note
book”. Units of all the quantities you have entered in the note book should be mentioned.

4. Compute the result

5. Calculate the error by standard deviation technique.

6. Calculate the percentage error by “partial differentiation technique”

Experiment 2

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 10

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Title: Plot the graph between refractive index and wavelength using Hg vapour lamp hence find out
cauchy’s constant.

Equipment required: A spectrometer, a spirit level, a mercury vapour lamp, a wooden screen with an
aperture, an eye-piece and electric lamp.

Learning Objectives:
 Measurement of the angle of the prism
 Measurement of the angle of minimum deviations
 Relationship between refractive index and wavelength
 Determination of Cauchy constants A and B.
Outline of the Procedure:
 Using sodium vapour lamp set the spectrometer and find the angle of prism.
 Replace sodium vapour lamp by mercury vapour lamp and find the angle of minimum deviation
for the violet line of wave length 4046.8Å.
 Similarly find the angle of mimimum deviation for the blue line (λ= 4358.3Å), blue green line (
λ= 4916.6Å), green line ( λ= 5460.7Å), yellow line ( λ= 5769.9Å) and the orange line ( λ=
6125Å).
Scope of the results:

Where A = angle of the prism, δm= angle of minimum deviation.

The refractive index and the 1/ (wavelength)2 are directly proportional to each other.

Parameters and Plots:

Plot the graph taking (in m-2) along X-axis and µ along Y-axis. The graph is a straight line and it gives

the value of Cauchy’s constant A.

The slope of the line gives the value of second Cauchy’s constant B.
Cautions:-
 The axis of the telescope, the collimator and the plane of prism table should be horizontal.
 The slit should be narrow.
 The prism should be placed with its refracting edge at the centre of the prism table when finding
the angle by rotating the telescope.
 The table should be kept fixed after setting the prism in the minimum deviation position for the
mean green wavelength in the case of mercury light.

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 11

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Experiment 3

Title: To study the dependence of force of friction on (a) Normal reaction (b) Area of contact (c) Nature
of surface (d) Nature of material.
Learning Objective:
 To familiarize the students with force of friction and its dependence on on Normal reaction, Area
of contact, Nature of surface and Nature of material
Apparatus: Inclined plane apparatus provided with removable glass top: three identical wooden block
Scale pan, thread, weight box, a spring balance and a spirit level.

Outlines of the Procedure:

 Find the least count and zero error of spring balance.
 Weight the scale pan (p) and each of the two wooden blocks (w) with the help of the spring
balance. Since the two blocks are identical, they must be of the same weight.
To study the dependence of force of friction on normal reaction
 Place the inclined plane apparatus horizontally on the table and level it with the help of spirit
level.
 Make pulley fitted to the inclined plane apparatus free by oiling it.
 Attach one end of the thread to the scale pan and other end to the hook of the wooden block.
 Place the block on the inclined plane apparatus and pass the thread over the pulley.
 Place the weight on the pan and tap the surface of the inclined plane gently. If the block does not
slide, go on adding weight to the pan till the block just begin to slide on tapping the surface
gently. Note down the weight in the pan. Let it be P1. Then ,
Force of friction, F1=p+P1
And Normal reaction,R1=
 Now ,Place a know weight ‘w’ (say 100g) on the wooden block and again find weights(P2) to be
placed in the pan in order the wooden may just begin to slide on tapping the horizontal surface
.Then,
Force of friction, F2=p+P2
Normal reaction, R1=w+W
If F1/R1 = F2/R2
then ,F α R
To study the dependence of force of friction on the area of contact
 Repeat the observation made in step 7. Then,
Force of friction,F1=p+P1
 Place the horizontal surface of inclined pane apparatus with some other face of the block resting
on it.By proceeding as in step 7, find the weight to be placed on the scale pan in order the
wooden bock may just begin to slide on tapping the horizontal surface It will be found that the
value of the weight placed on the scale pan remains the same i.e. force of friction remain same
in the two cases
To study the dependence of force of friction on the material of the surface
 Repeat the observation made in step 7. Then,
Force of friction, F1=p+P1
 Remove the glass top of the inclined plane apparatus carefully and then the wooden block on it.
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 12
 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

 By proceeding as in in step 7.Then,

Force of friction, F1=p+P2
To Study the dependence of force of friction on the Nature of the surface (smooth or rough)
 Repeat the observation made in step 7. Then,
Force of friction, F1=p+P1
 Now replace the wooden block with the other identical but having rough surface. By proceeding
in step 7, find weight (P2) to be placed on the scale pan in order that the wooden block may just
begin to slide on tapping the surface of the inclined plane. Then,
Force of friction, F2=p+P2
Scope of the results expected:
The student will come to know about the limiting value of force of friction and the significance of force
of friction in day to day life.
Parameter and Plots:
To study the dependence of force of friction on normal reaction
 Force of friction and normal reaction
 Plot between F and R
To Study the dependence of force of friction on the area of contact
 Force of friction for Wooden block of different area
 Plot between F and R
To study the dependence of force of friction on the material of the surface
 Force of friction on Wooden and glass material
 Plot between F and R
To study the dependence of force of friction on the Nature of the surface (smooth or rough)
 Force of friction for wooden blocks having smooth and rough surfaces
 Plot between F and R
Cautions:
 The surface of the apparatus should be clean and dry
 The segment of the thread b/w the block and the pulley should be horizontal
 The scale pan should not touch any part of the table
 The dust particle on the plane surface increase the force of friction b/w the surfaces in contact.
 The weight of the thread should be taken into account.
 The inclined plane apparatus may not be horizontal.

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 13

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Experiment 4

Title: To study variation of angular acceleration with torque acting on the fly wheel. Find out the
minimum torque required to overcome the friction between the flywheel and bearing and also find out the
moment of inertia of the flywheel

Learning Objectives:
 Learn to Measure the angular acceleration ‘α’, torque ‘τ’ and hence moment of inertia of the
flywheel.
 Learn to apply the principle of conservation of energy to rotational dynamics.
 Learn to aware of the limitations in an experiment and devise method to solve the problems.
 Learn to handle error estimation using sum of percent errors.

Apparatus Used: A fly wheel, slotted mass with hanger (50gm each), a strong and thin string or fine
cord, stop watch, meter rule or measuring tape and vernier callipers.

Diagram:

You will attach a mass to the axle of the flywheel and let fall. By measuring suitable quantities, angular
acceleration, torque and the moment of inertia of the flywheel can be estimated.

Procedure:

 Examine the wheel and see that there is the least possible friction.
 Measure the diameter of the axle with vernier calipers at different points and find the mean.
 Take a strong and thin string whose length is less than the height of the axle from the floor.
Make a loop at its one end and slip it on the pin A on the axle. Tie a suitable mass to the other
end of the string. Suspend the mass by means of the string so that the loop is just on the point

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 14

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

of slipping from the pin A. Note the position of the lower surface of the mass ‘m’ on a scale
fixed behind on the wall.
 Now rotate the wheel and wrap the string uniformly round the axle so that mass is slightly
below the rim of the wheel. Count the number of turns wound the axle and let it is ‘n’. The
wheel will thus make n revolutions before the thread detached.
 With the help of stopwatch note the time taken by the mass to descend through a height ‘h’
 Repeat step-5 keeping m constant and varying the number of turns n. Take 6-7 readings.
 Again repeat step-5 keeping the number of turns n constant and varying the mass m. Take
atleast 6 observations with different values of m. Repeat each observation thrice and calculate
the average time taken in each observation.

Scope of the result expected:

The student will learn about torque, angular acceleration produced due to torque and hence physical
importance of the moment of inertia of circular bodies like wheels.

Parameter and Plots:

 Calculate Vernier constant of vernier calliper
 Calculate the radius of the axle
To find angular acceleration:
Angular acceleration of the fly wheel can be calculated by calculating the time as given in step 5 and 6.
Hence draw a graph between n and t2. Slope of this graph gives us the value of angular acceleration.
To find out torque acting on the flywheel:
Suppose the mass m, when released, starts moving downward with acceleration α. Let T be the tension in
the string. Then the torque acting on the string can be calculated by using these parameter.
To find out moment of inertia:
Plot a graph between angular acceleration along X-axis and torque along Y-axis.
When we plot a graph between torque and angular acceleration, then slope of the straight line gives the
moment of the inertia. Also by using the values of torque and angular acceleration, moment of inertia can
be calculated.

Cautions:
 Mass of string can be taken into account for better results.
 Stop watch should be started and stopped with accuracy to avoid any kind of time interval
measurement error.

Experiment 5

Title: To find the wavelength of He-Ne laser by using Michelson interferometer.

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 15

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Learning objectives:
 To determine the wavelength of monochromatic light (He-Ne Laser).
 To study the phenomena of interference of light.
Apparatus: A Michelson interferometer, He-Ne Laser, collimating lens, screen, magnifying lens.
Diagram:

Fig. 1

Fig. 2
Outline of the procedure
 First put the interferometer on a rigid table and level the instrument with three leveling screws
provided at the base.
 Put the Helium-Neon laser, about 50 to 60 cm away from the instrument such that its beam passes
through the pin hole fitted in front of the instrument. Make sure that the laser beam falls at the
middle of the Mirrors M1 and M2 after getting split from beam splitter plate G1.
 The beam after the reflections will make four spots on the wall or on a screen. One pair is formed
due to partial reflections at the unsilvered surface of G1 and reflections at M1 and M2 respectively.
While the other pair is formed due to partial reflections at M1 and M2 respectively. Out of these
one pair is brighter than the other.
 Now mirrors M1 and M2 are tilted carefully such that the two brighter images coincide.
 Now the instrument is aligned and the fringes are formed on the wall or screen.

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 16

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

 The mirror M2 is kept fixed and the mirror M1 is moved with the help of the fine movement screw
and the number of fringes that cross the field of view is counted.
Scope of the results expected:
The student will be able to find the wavelength of He-Ne laser with the help of interference phenomena
and will come to know about the role of path difference in interference of light.
Parameter and Plots:
Take any value of n≥20 and note down the value of distance (d) through which the mirror is moved and
apply theory of interference of light to find wavelength of light. [Report data in tabular or systematic
manner]
Caution:
 Do not use the telescope.
 Do not see directly into the laser beam.
 Make sure that the distances of mirror M1 and M2 are almost equal from beam splitter G1.
 Make sure that centre of the circular fringes are properly adjusted.

Experiment 6

Title: To study the variation of magnetic field with the distance along the axis of circular coil carrying
current by plotting a graph.

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 17

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Equipment Required: Stewart and Gee’s apparatus with Tangents galvanometer, a battery, a
rheostat, an ammeter, a one way key, reversing key etc.

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1 Place the magnetometer compass box on the sliding bench. Set the coil in magnetic meridian by
rotating the whole apparatus., rotate the compass box so that pointer ends reads as 0 – 0 on the
circular scale.

2 Make the connection as shown in the figure. Allow the current in one direction with the help of
commutator and note the deflection of the needle. And also note the deflection by reversing the
current. If the direction is equal then the coil lies in the magnetic meridian.

3 adjust the current with the help of rheostat or resistance box so that the deflection in the needle is
about 60 to 70 degree. When the compass is placed at the centre of the coil, reverse the current and
again note the deflection. Read both the ends of the pointer. Take the mean of the four reading.
This is the deflection at X = 0.

4 Now displace the compass needle through two centimeter each time along the axis of the coil and
note the deflection each time.

5 Repeat the process till you get the at least ten observation on the east arm and on the west arm of
the apparatus.

6 Plot the graph between the x and deflection. .

7 Mark the point of inflection on the curve the distance between the two points is equal to the
radius of the coil.

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 18

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Scope of the results expected:

The variation of magnetic field around the circular current carrying coil is Gaussian and is able to
determine the radius of the coil. It will justify the Biot-Savart’s law and will help to make better
use the magnetic effect of current in day to day life.

Parameters and Plots:

 Magnetic field with the variation of distance
 Plot between distance and tanθ
Cautions:-
 There should be no magnetic substances and current carrying conductor near the
apparatus.
 The plane of the coil should be in the magnetic merdian.
 The deflection produced should in order of 60 to 70 degree.
 Both the ends of the pointer should be read a teach time.
 The current should remain constant and should be reversed for each observation.

Experiment 7

Title: To find the frequency of a.c. mains using electrical viberator.

Equipment Required: Electric vibrator, A.C supply source, a table clamp along with frictionless pulley,
weight pan, weight box

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 19

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Material required: a long uniform thread

Learning objectives:

(i) To find the frequency of a.c. mains

(ii) To verify the law of string

Diagram:

Outline of the procedure:

1. The current is switched on and the length of the steel rod is adjusted such that the free end of
the rod starts vibrating with maximum amplitude.
2. The current is then switched of and a string of about 2m length is tied to the free end of the
rod and the other end of the rod is passed over a frictionless pulley fixed on the table. To this
end a light weight pan is attached and some weights are added on it to make the string taut.
3. The current is again switched on and the string starts vibrating. The length of the string is
adjusted by moving the vibrator forward
or backward to get sharp loops and clearly marked nodes.
4. The positions of the extreme loops are marked leaving the first and and the last loop.
5. The distance between the two marks is measured and then divided by number of loops to get
the length of one loop.
6. The experiment is repeated three times by taking three different weights in the pan.

Scope of the results expected:

Actual frequency of a.c. mains is 50Hz.
Parameter and Plots:

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 20

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Frequency of a.c. mains(n) = frequency of the vibrator

Therefore,

where m is the mass per unit length of the string, l is the length of one loop and T is the tension
produced in the string which is given by
T = weight of pan + weight in pan
= (mass of pan + mass in pan)g
g = 980 cm/s2
Therefore, for different values of T, find the corresponding values of n.
Report data in tabular form.

Caution:
1) Make sure that the string should be of uniform thickness and free from knots
2) Nodes and antinodes should be sharply defined.
3) The pulley should be frictionless.

Experiment 8
Title: To find the energy band gap of the semiconductor material by using the four probe method.
Learning objective:
 To find the band gap of semiconductor.
 To study the variation of resistivity with temperature.

Equipment To Be Used: Probes arrangement, sample crystal (Germanium), oven, four probes setup with
digital voltmeter (range 0 to 200mV and 0 to 2V) and constant current generator (range is 0 to 20mA)

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 21

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Outline of procedure:

 Put the sample on the base plate of the four probe arrangement. Unscrew the pipe holding the four
probes and let the four probes rest in the middle of the sample. Apply a very general pressure on
the probes and tighten the pipe in this position. Check the continuity between the probes for
proper electrical contents.
 Place the four probe arrangement in the oven and fixed the thermometer in the oven through the
hole provided.
 Switch on the Ac main of four probe set up put the digital meter in the current measuring mode
through the selector switch. In this LED facing mA would glow. Adjust the current to a desire
value(say 5 mA)
 Note down the readings of milli voltmeter with the rise in temperature and corresponding value of
temperature.
 Plot the graph between 1/T along x-axis and ln ρ along y-axis. (T is absolute temp)
Scope of the results expected:
Slope = lnρ1 – lnρ2 / 1/ T1- 1/T2.
Band gap (EG) = 2K * slope of the graph between 1/ T and lnρ
Band gap (EG) …………………….Electron volt
Parameter:
 Voltage with rise in temperature
 Resistivity and conductivity.
Plots:
Plot between 1/T and lnρ
Caution:

 The Ge crystal is very brittle. Therefore apply minimum pressure for proper electrical contacts.
 Connect the outer pair of probes leads to the constant current power supply and the inner pair of
probes to the voltage terminals.
 The resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of measurement.
 Measurement should be made on surface which has high recombination, such as mechanical
lapped surfaces.
 The surface on which the probe rest is flat with no surface leakage.
 The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact the surface at points that lie in a straight
line.
 The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is hemispherical and
small in diameter.

Experiment 9
Title: To plot a graph between current and frequency in LCR series and parallel circuit and find resonant
frequency, quality factor and band width.
Equipment Required: An audio-frequency oscillator (range 10 Hz to 10 kHz), an electronic or vacuum
tube voltmeter or a cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O.), a millimeter.
Material required: connecting wires, an inductance coil, a capacitor, a non-inductive resistance box
etc.
Learning Objectives: 1. To study LCR series and parallel circuit.
2. To find the quality factor and resonant frequency.
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 22
 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

3. Also calculate bandwidth from the graph.

4. Be able to explain why LCR series circuit is called acceptor and LCR parallel circuit is called
rejector circuit.
Outline of the Procedure:

Series LCR circuit

 Connect the LCR (series/parallel) circuit as per circuit diagram. Join other components in the
circuit.

 With output voltage of the oscillator kept constant throughout the experiment vary the value of
A.F. in steps of 100 Hz and measure the corresponding value of current in milliameter for each
observation.
 Repeat the experiment for two more different values of R.
 Plot a graph between current and frequency.
Make analysis from the graph.

Parallel LCR circuit

 Connect the L, R and C in parallel.

 From the given values of L and C, calculate the natural frequency of the circuit and adjust the
oscillator to the frequency N for Parallel resonance.
 Adjust the output voltage of the oscillator and the resistance R to get minimum current within the
range of mA. The value of output voltage of the oscillator and R must be kept constant
throughout the experiment.
 Now decrease the frequency of the A.F. oscillator in steps of 100 Hz and measure the
corresponding value of current in milli-ammeter for each observation. Similarly increase
 The frequency above the resonance frequency in steps of 100 Hz and measure the value of current
in each case.
 Repeat the experiment for different values of R.

Scope of the results expected:

 Graph between current and frequency will be Gaussian.
 Resonant frequency, quality factor and band width can be calculated from the graph. And the
results calculated from the given values should be compared with the results from the graphs.
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 23
 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

Parameters:
Resistance R = ohm
Inductance L= H
Capacitance C= µF
Current at different value of frequency at a specific value of resistance (Also compare the result with
values from graph) to find resonant frequency, current at resonance, quality factor, band width for series
and parallel combination. [Report data in tabular or systematic manner]
Example: Quality Factor (For R1)
Maximum value of current at resonance I = mA
Corresponding frequency N = Hz
0.707 I = mA
Corresponding value of frequency
Below N = N1 = Hz
Above N = N1 = Hz
Band width β = N2 - N1= Hz
So, Quality factor Q= 2πN/ (N2-N1)
(i) Calculated value of Q from inductance L= Lω/R = 2πNL/R
(ii) Calculated value of Q from Capacitance C= 1/ωCR=1/2πNCR
Plots:
 Plot a graph between current and frequency at different values of resistance (Series).
 Plot a graph between current and frequency at different values of resistance (Parallel).

Cautions:
 The value of inductance L and capacitance C should be properly selected so that the natural
frequency of the circuit lies between 1000 and 2000 Hz.
 Adjust the frequency of AF oscillator when the milliammeter in the LCR gives maximum current.
 The value of output voltage of oscillator and resistance R must be kept constant throughout the
experiment.
 Resonance position must be obtained first by decreasing frequency and then by increasing the
frequency.
 The VTVM or the CRO must be used with its proper range.

Experiment 10

Title: To find the unknown capacitance of a capacitor using flashing and quenching of neon bulb.

Equipment Required: A condenser of unknown capacity, 3 condensers of known Capacity (say 32µF,
50 µF, and 100 µF), resistance of the order of few mega-ohm, a Neon flashing bulb, stabilized DC power
supply of 250V; one way keys.

Learning Objectives: Here we find the capacitance using quenching and flashing of neon.
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 24
 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

 A neon lamp consists of a small glass bulb filled with neon gas at low pressure with two
electrodes. When the electrodes connected to a D.C source stray electrons in the gas are attracted
towards the positive electrode. As voltage is increased, the speed of electrons also increases and
at particular voltage speed becomes high to ionize the gas so lamp begins to conduct and glows.
This voltage is known as flashing potential. When we place a capacitor in parallel with lamp, due
to conduction of lamp capacitor begins to discharge through it. It continues to do this until
quenching potential reached when neon lamp ceases to conduct. The capacitor then begins to
charge again and whole process goes on repeatedly. The flashing and quenching time can be
determined by noting time taken by lamp for ‘n’ consecutive flashes and quenches.
 If t1 is time taken by capacitor voltage to fall from V1 to V2 and t2 is time for voltage to rise from
V2 to V1, then V2 = V1 e(- t1/RC) or t1 = -CR loge V2/V1
(- t /RC)
And V2 = V1 (1- e 2 ) or t1 = -CR loge (1 - V2/V1)
T = t1 + t2 = C [-R loge V2/V1- R loge (1 - V2/V1)]
As R, V1 and V2 have constant fixed values, so we get T= k C where k is constant.
Circuit diagram:

Outline of the Procedure:

 Draw the diagram and make the connections as in the fig.
 Connect the condenser C1 in the circuit by inserting K1. Also insert the key K to connect power
supply and increase the voltage till neon lamp just begins to flash. As already explained, the bulb
starts flashing and quenching as it is connected in parallel with the condenser. Note the flashing
and quenching time for 20 flashes. Take out the key K so that the power supply is disconnected.
 Put in the key K4 for the circuit of unknown capacity C0.Since C1 and C0 are in parallel their
capacities get added up and total capacity in parallel with the lamp is (C1 + C0). Again insert the
key K and adjust the power supply voltage to previous value. Note the time for 20 flashes.
Remove the key K1 and K4.
 Now repeat the experiment with the capacity C2, C3 and with all the three known capacitor
connected together in parallel with Co.

Scope of result expected: By Connecting the condensers of known capacity in parallel with lamp and
with unknown condenser, time t for 20 flashes with and without unknown capacitance can be obtained.
Parameters and Plots:

 Quenching and Flashing Time without unknown capacitor: t0

 Quenching and Flashing Time with unknown capacitor: t1

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 25

 LMPHY121: Physics Lab-I

 Plot two graphs between values of capacitance along x-axis and flashing and quenching time t
(without and with unknown capacitance) y-axis For three different values of flashing and
quenching time draw three straight lines parallel to x-axis cutting the two graphs at A and B, C
and D, E and F respectively

 The unknown capacitance Co = AB = CB - CA

= CD = CD - CC

= EF = CF - CE Mean Co= ………µF

Cautions:

 Count the number of flashes very carefully.

 Connections should be tight.
 Capacitors should always be connected parallel to the lamp.
 The voltage from D.C power supply should remain constant throughout the experiment.

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 26

Filename: LMPHY121.doc
Directory: C:\Documents and Settings\user\Desktop\UPload\Passed
PHY LAB MANUALS
Template: C:\Documents and Settings\user\Application
Data\Microsoft\Templates\Normal.dot
Title:
Subject:
Author: Vikas
Keywords:
Comments:
Creation Date: 1/12/2010 12:13:00 PM
Change Number: 48
Last Saved On: 7/21/2010 2:28:00 PM
Last Saved By: India
Total Editing Time: 256 Minutes
Last Printed On: 7/30/2010 12:54:00 PM
As of Last Complete Printing
Number of Pages: 27
Number of Words: 6,050 (approx.)
Number of Characters: 34,490 (approx.)