Relational Database Management Systems

TVSN Murthy
Assistant Professor – DFT
NIFT Hyderabad

Disclaimer: These slides are just for the purpose of easy reading and are not comprehensive in
nature. Thus the slides have to be read together with the class lectures, reading material, and
statutes dealing with the subject

RDBMS/Slide 1

Introduction

Flat files - 1960s - 1980s

Hierarchical – 1970s - 1990s

Network – 1970s - 1990s

Relational – 1980s – present

Object-oriented – 1990s – present

Object-relational – 1990s – present

Data warehousing – 1980s – present

Web-enabled – 1990s - present

RDBMS/Slide 2

1
Introduction

Data Models Classification

Data models can be classified as:

1. File-based systems
2. Traditional Data Models
3. Semantic Data Models

File-based Systems:
Entities or objects of interest are represented by records that are stored together in
files. Relationships between objects are represented by using directories of various
kinds.

RDBMS/Slide 3

Introduction

Data Models Classification

Traditional Data Models:

Traditional data models are the Hierarchical, Network and Relational Models.
Hierarchical Model:- Evolved from the file based system
Network Model:- Is a superset of the Hierarchical model.
Relational Model:- Is based on the mathematical concept of relation.

Semantic Data Models:

This class of data models was influenced by the semantic networks developed
by artificial intelligence researchers. Semantic networks were developed to
organize and represent general knowledge. These models are able to express
greater interdependencies among entities.

RDBMS/Slide 4

2
Introduction
 Common characteristics required for data models:
 A data model must show some degree of conceptual simplicity without
compromising the semantic completeness.
 A data model must represent the real world as closely as possible.
 The representation of the real-world transformations (behavior) must be
in compliance with the consistency and integrity characteristics of any
data model.

RDBMS/Slide 5

Introduction

An organization must have accurate and reliable data for effective decision making.
To this end organization maintains records on the various facets of its operations.
These models capture the essential properties of the objects and record relationships
among them. Such related data is called a database.

A database system is an integrated collection of related files, along with details of

the interpretation of the data contained therein.

A database management system is a software system that allows access to data

contained in a database.

RDBMS/Slide 6

3
Introduction

 Three Level Architecture

 The architecture is divided into three levels: the external level, the
conceptual level and the internal level
 The view at each of these levels is described by a scheme.
 A scheme is an outline or a plan that describes the records and
relationships existing in the view.
 The word scheme, which means a systematic plan for attaining some goal
is used interchangeably in the database literature with the word schema.

RDBMS/Slide 7

Three levels of architecture of a DBMS

External Level VIEW A VIEW B VIEW C

Mapping supplied by DBMS Mapping supplied by DBMS

Conceptual Level CONCEPTUAL VIEW

Mapping supplied by Mapping supplied by

DBMS/OS DBMS/OS

INTERNAL VIEW
Internal Level

RDBMS/Slide 8

4
Three Level Architecture

 External View

 External view is at the highest level of abstraction where only those

portions of the database of concern to a user or application program are
included.

 Each view is described by means of scheme called an external schema.

 Schema consists of the definition of the logical records and the

relationships in the external view.

RDBMS/Slide 9

Three Level Architecture

 Conceptual View or Global View

 At this level of database abstraction all the database entries and the
relationships among them are included. One conceptual view represents
entire database.

 It is defined by the conceptual schema.

 Schema describes all the records and relationships included in the

conceptual view

 There is only one conceptual schema per database.

RDBMS/Slide 10

5
Three Level Architecture

 Internal View
 Internal view is at the lowest level of abstraction, closet to the physical
storage method used.
 It indicates how the data will be stored and describes the data structures
and access methods
 View is expressed by the internal schema.
 Schema contains the definition of stored record, the method of
representing the data fields, and access aids used.

RDBMS/Slide 11

Data Independence

 Data Independence
 Three levels of abstraction, along with the mappings from internal to
conceptual and from conceptual to external, provide two distinct levels of
data independence:
 Logical Data Independence
 Physical Data Independence

RDBMS/Slide 12

6
Data Independence

 Logical Data Independence:

 It indicates that the conceptual schema can be changed without affecting
the existing external schemas.
 The change would be absorbed by the mapping between the external and
conceptual levels.
 Logical data independence also insulates application programs from
operations such as combining two records into one or splitting an existing
record into two or more records.
 Is achieved by providing the external level or user view of the database.

RDBMS/Slide 13

Data Independence

 Physical Data Independence

 It indicates that the physical storage structures or devices used for
storing the data could be changed without necessitating a change in the
conceptual view or any of the external views.
 The changed would be absorbed by the mapping between the conceptual
and internal levels.
 It is achieved by the presence of the internal level of the database and
the mapping or transformation from the conceptual level of the database
to the internal level.

RDBMS/Slide 14

7
Database Users

 DBMS Users
 The users of the database system can be classified in the following groups
depending on their degree of expertise or mode of their interactions with
the DBMS
 Naïve Users
 Online Users
 Application Programmers
 Database Administrator

RDBMS/Slide 15

Database Users

 Naïve User
 User who need not be aware of the presence of the database system or
any other system supporting their usage are considered naïve users.
 User of the ATM falls in this category

RDBMS/Slide 16

8
Database Users

 Online Users
 These are users who may communicate with the database directly via
online terminal or indirectly via a user interface and application program.
 These users are aware of the presence of the database system and may
have acquired a certain amount of expertise in the limited interaction they
are permitted with the database through the intermediary of the
application program.
 Online users can also be naïve users requiring additional help, such as
menus.

RDBMS/Slide 17

Database Users

 Application Programmers
 Professional programmers who are responsible for developing application
program or user interfaces utilized by the naïve and online users fall into
this category.
 The application programs could be written in a general purpose
programming language such as C or VB and include the commands
required to manipulate the database.

RDBMS/Slide 18

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Database Users

 Database Administrator
 Centralized control of the database is exerted by a person under the
supervision of a high level administrator. This person or group is referred
to as the database administrator (DBA).
 The DBA administers the three levels of the database and in consultation
with the overall community sets up the definition of the global view or
conceptual level of the database.
 DBA specifies the external view of the various users and applications and
is responsible for the definition and implementation of the internal level
including the storage structure and access methods to be used for the
optimum performance of the DBMS.

RDBMS/Slide 19

Database Users

 Database Administrator (Contd.,)

 DBA is responsible for granting permission to the users of the database
and stores the profile of each user in the database.
 DBA is also responsible for defining the procedures to recover the
database from failures due to human, natural, or hardware causes with
minimal loss of data.

RDBMS/Slide 20

10
Data Models

Data Models
 Can be classified into two categories:
 Object-based logical model – focuses on describing the data, the
relationship among the data, and any constraints defined
 Record-based logical model – focuses on describing the data structure
and the access techniques in the Database Management System

RDBMS/Slide 21

Data Models

Object-based Logical Model

 There are various object-based models. The most widely used is the entity-
relationship model (E/R model)

RDBMS/Slide 22

11
Data Models

The Entity-relationship Model

 Introduced by Peter Chen
 Chen introduced not only the E/R model, but also a corresponding
diagramming technique

 It is one of the most widely accepted graphical data modeling tools.

 It graphically represents data as entities and their relationships in a

database structure.

 It complements the relational data model concepts.

 E-R models are normally represented in an entity relationship diagram

(ERD).

RDBMS/Slide 23

Entity Relationship Model

Entities
 Chen defined an entity as “a thing, which can be easily identified”
 An entity is any object, place, person, or activity about which data is recorded
 In the diagramming technique, entities are named and represented inside a box
 An entity type is a set of things that share common properties
 STUDENT, COURSE, and GRADE are examples of entity type
 An entity type is usually in uppercase

RDBMS/Slide 24

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Entity Relationship Model

Entities (Contd.)
 Types of Entities
 Dependent entity
 Is an entity whose existence depends on the existence of another
entity and are also called weak entities
 Independent entity
 Is an entity which does not depend on any other entity for existence
and are also called regular entities

RDBMS/Slide 25

Entity Relationship Model

Relationships
 Chen defines a relationship as “an association among entities”.
 For example, the relationship between students and instructors
represents the fact that an instructor teaches several students and a
student is taught by several instructors. This relationship could be named
TEACH.
 Relationships are depicted as a diamond with the name of the relationship
type.

RDBMS/Slide 26

13
Entity Relationship Model

Relationships (Contd.)
 A relationship type is an association of entity types (STUDENT-INSTRUCTOR).
 A relationship can associate an entity with itself.
 Multiple relationships can also exist between the same entities.

RDBMS/Slide 27

Entity Relationship Model

Just a Minute…
1. The following statement has been extracted from a case presented by a
manufacturer regarding the maintenance of their data: “A supplier ships
certain parts.” Identify the entities mentioned in this statement, and their
relationship. Draw a diagram depicting the relationship.

Supplier Ships Parts

Entities
Relationship

RDBMS/Slide 28

14
Types of Relationships

Types of Relationships
 There are three types of relationships:
 One-to-One
 One-to-Many (or Many-to-One)
 Many-to-Many

RDBMS/Slide 29

Types of Relationships

One-to-One Relationship
 Consider the example of a university. For one DEPARTMENT (like the
department of social sciences) there can be only one department head. This is
a one-to-one relationship.

RDBMS/Slide 30

15
Types of Relationships

Many-to-One Relationship
 A STUDENT can MAJOR in only one course, but
many STUDENTs would have registered for a given
MAJOR course. This is a many-to-one relationship.

RDBMS/Slide 31

Types of Relationships

Many-to-Many Relationship
 An employee might learn many job skills, and each job skill might be learned
by many employees.

m m
EMPLOYEE LEARNS SKILL

RDBMS/Slide 32

16
Types of Relationships

Just a Minute…
1. What do the following E/R diagrams represent?

RDBMS/Slide 33

Types of Relationships

Relationship Depiction: The ERD

RDBMS/Slide 34

17
 Types of Relationships

Relationship Depiction: The Crow’s Foot

RDBMS/Slide 35

Data Base Models

 Entity-Relationship Data Model
 Advantages
 Exceptional conceptual simplicity
 Visual representation
 Effective communication tool
 Integrated with the relational database model

 Disadvantages
 Limited constraint representation
 Limited relationship representation
 No data manipulation language
 Loss of information content

RDBMS/Slide 36

18
Data Base Models
Just a Minute… (Contd.)
2. Consider the following statement of a manufacturing company:
“A supplier ships certain parts. A particular part is not necessarily shipped by
only one supplier. No supplier ships only a single part.”
What type of relationship is this? Draw a diagram to depict the relationship.

RDBMS/Slide 37

Data Base Models

Attributes
 Attributes are a property of a given entity
 Attributes are depicted as ellipses, labeled with the name of the property

RDBMS/Slide 38

19
Data Base Models
Just a Minute…
1. A manufacturer needs to maintain the following details about the supplier:
a. Name
b. Address
c. Credit Status
d. Assigned code number
Draw a diagram to show this information.

RDBMS/Slide 39

Data Base Models

Just a Minute…
1. There are two types of suppliers. One type of supplier allows credit, while the
other type insists on payment in cash before delivery. The manufacturer
wishes to maintain separate information on these two types of suppliers. For
the credit supplier, “credit period” and “credit limit” have to be recorded. For
the cash supplier, “date of payment” has to be stored. Represent this
diagrammatically.

RDBMS/Slide 40

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Data Base Models
 Record-based Logical Model

 The three types of record-based models are:

 Hierarchical model
 In a hierarchical model, data is represented in the form of a tree
 Network model
 A network model is similar to a hierarchical model in the way that
data and the relationships among them are represented in the form of
records and links
 Relational model
 In the relational model, the database is structured in fixed-format
records of several types

RDBMS/Slide 41

Data Base Models

Hierarchical Database Model

Basic Structure

Collection of records logically organized to conform to the upside-

down tree (hierarchical) structure.

The top layer is perceived as the parent of the segment directly

beneath it.

The segments below other segments are the children of the segment
above them.

A tree structure is represented as a hierarchical path on the

computer’s storage media.

RDBMS/Slide 42

21
Data Base Models
A Hierarchical Structure

RDBMS/Slide 43

Data Base Models

 Hierarchical Database Model
 Advantages
 Conceptual simplicity
 Database security
 Data independence
 Database integrity
 Efficiency dealing with a large database
 Disadvantages
 Complex implementation
 Difficult to manage
 Lacks structural independence
 Applications programming and use complexity
 Implementation limitations
 Lack of standards

RDBMS/Slide 44

22
Data Base Models
Network Database Model

The popularity of the network data model coincided with the popularity of
the hierarchical data model. Some data were more naturally modeled with
more than one parent per child. The network model permitted the
modeling of many-to-many relationships in data.
Basic Structure

Set -- A relationship is called a set. Each set is composed of at least

two record types: an owner (parent) record and a member (child)
record.

A member record type can have that role in more than one set,
hence the multiparent concept is supported. An owner record type can
also be a member or owner in another set.

RDBMS/Slide 45

Data Base Models

RDBMS/Slide 46

23
Data Base Models
 Network Database Model
 Advantages
 Conceptual simplicity
 Handles more relationship types
 Data access flexibility
 Promotes database integrity
 Data independence
 Conformance to standards

 Disadvantages
 System complexity
 Lack of structural independence

RDBMS/Slide 47

Data Base Models

Relational Model
 Dr.E. F. Codd first described the relational model in 1970
 Relational model is an attempt to simplify the database structure
 It represents all data in the database as simple tables in the row-column
format

RDBMS/Slide 48

24
Data Base Models
RDBMS
 RDBMS can be defined as a database management system where all data
visible to the user is organized strictly as tables of data values and where all
database operations work on these tables

RDBMS/Slide 49

Data Base Models

Relational Data Structure
 The organizing principle in a relational database is the table, a tabular
arrangement of data values
 A table is called a relation
 The row (or record) in the table is called a tuple
 The column (or field) is called an attribute
 The number of tuples is called the cardinality, and the number of
attributes is called the degree of the table
 Rows are unordered and each row must have some columns or a
combination of columns that uniquely identifies each row, called the
primary key of the table

RDBMS/Slide 50

25
Data Base Models
Relational Data Structure (Contd.)
 A domain is a pool of values from which one or more attributes (columns)
draw their actual values

RDBMS/Slide 51

Data Base Models

Representing Missing Information
 Missing or unknown information is represented as NULL in a relational system
 NULL is not the same as space or zero

RDBMS/Slide 52

26
Data Base Models
Representing Relationships in an RDBMS
 At any given time, no two rows of the table contain the same values in a
column or column combination. This column (or columns) is called the
primary key of the table.
 A column in one table whose value matches the primary key in some other
table is called a foreign key
 Together, a primary key and a foreign key create a parent-child
relationship between the tables that connects them

RDBMS/Slide 53

Data Base Models

 Relational Database Model
 Advantages
 Structural independence
 Improved conceptual simplicity
 Easier database design, implementation, management,
and use
 Ad hoc query capability (SQL)
 Powerful database management system

 Disadvantages
 Substantial hardware and system software overhead
 Possibility of poor design and implementation
 Potential “islands of information” problems

RDBMS/Slide 54

27
Data Base Models
Just a Minute… Self Study
Collect the information on Serial and Sequential files
a. How are they created
b. How records are maintained and manipulated
c. Advantages and Disadvantages if any

RDBMS/Slide 55

Data Base Models

Subtypes and Supertypes
 Super type:
 Is connected to the relationship with a line containing a crossbar.
 Is described by attributes that belong to all subtypes. The subtype is
described by the attributes that are unique to it.
 Subtype:
 Is a subset of another entity. It is always dependent on the super type for
its existence.
 Is connected to the super type by an unnamed relationship.

RDBMS/Slide 56

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Data Base Models
Relational Operators
 The relational model is based on the principle of relational algebra
 It is a collection of operators operating on relations.
 Each operator takes one or two relations as its input and produces a new
relation as its output.
 Relational Operators are of the following types:
 RESTRICT: Extracts specified tuples or rows from a given relation, based
on a condition.
 PROJECT: Extracts specified attributes or columns from a given relation.

RDBMS/Slide 57

Data Base Models

 Relational Operators (Contd.,)

ID NAME NAME
101 Jones Jones
103 Smith Projection Smith
104 James James
107 Evan Evan
110 Drew Drew
112 Smith Smith
Relation P
Projection of P over attribute “Name”

RDBMS/Slide 58

29
Data Base Models
Relational Operators (Contd.)
 PRODUCT: Builds a relation from two specified relations. It consists of all
possible combinations of tuples, one from each of the two relations.
 UNION: Builds a relation from tuples appearing in either or both of the
specified relations. To be union compatible, the two tables should
have the same types of attributes.
 INTERSECT: Builds a relation consisting of tuples that appear in both
relations.
 DIFFERENCE: Builds a relation of tuples appearing in the first but not the
second of two specified relations.

Next
RDBMS/Slide 59

Data Base Models

 Relational Operators (Contd.,)

ID NAME S
ID NAME Software Packages Cartesian 101 Jones J1
101 Jones J1
Product 101 Jones J2
J2
103 Smith
103 Smith J1
104 James Relation Q
103 Smith J2
106 Byron
104 James J1
107 Evan
104 James J2
Relation P 106 Byron J1
106 Byron J2
107 Evan J1
107 Evan J2

Relation P x Q

Back RDBMS/Slide 60

30
Data Base Models
 Relational Operators (Contd.,)

ID NAME
ID NAME ID NAME
101 Jones
101 Jones 103 Smith
Union 103 Smith
103 Smith 104 James
104 James
104 James 106 Byron
106 Byron
107 Evan 110 Drew
107 Evan
110 Drew Relation Q
110 Drew
112 Smith
112 Smith
Relation P
Relation P U Q

Back RDBMS/Slide 61

Data Base Models

 Relational Operators (Contd.,)

ID NAME ID NAME
ID NAME
101 Jones 103 Smith
103 Smith
103 Smith 104 James Intersection
104 James
104 James 106 Byron
110 Drew
107 Evan 110 Drew
Relation P Q
110 Drew Relation Q
112 Smith

Relation P

Back RDBMS/Slide 62

31
Data Base Models
 Relational Operators (Contd.,)

ID NAME ID NAME
ID NAME
101 Jones 103 Smith
101 Jones
103 Smith 104 James Difference
107 Evan
104 James 106 Byron
112 Smith
107 Evan 110 Drew
Relation P - Q
110 Drew Relation Q
112 Smith

Relation P

Back
RDBMS/Slide 63

Data Base Models

Relational Operators (Contd.)
 JOIN: Join operator as the name suggests, allows the combining of two
relations to forma single new relation. The tuples from the operand
relations that participate in the operation and contribute to the result are
related.
 DIVIDE: The Divide operator takes two relations and builds another
relation consisting of values of an attribute of one relation that match all
the values in the other relation.

RDBMS/Slide 64

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Data Base Models
 Relational Operators (Contd.)

ID NAME ID SALARY ID NAME SALARY

101 Jones 101 67 101 Jones 67
Join
103 Smith 103 55 103 Smith 55
104 James 104 75 104 James 75
107 Evan 107 80 107 Evan 80
Relation P Relation Q

RDBMS/Slide 65

Data Base Models

Applications of an RDBMS
 Some typical applications of an RDBMS are:
 Airline and railway reservations
 Banking applications
 Manufacturing industry
 Order processing
 Hospital management systems
 Library management systems
 Hotel industry

RDBMS/Slide 66

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Data Base Models
Applications of an RDBMS (Contd.)
 Several RDBMS products are available today. Some popular products are:
 Sybase
 Oracle
 Microsoft SQL Server
 Ingress
 DB2

RDBMS/Slide 67

Summary
In this lesson, you learned that:
 Data models can be classified as:
 Object-based models
 Record-based models
 In the entity-relationship diagramming technique:
 Entities are represented as rectangles
 Relationships are represented as diamonds
 Attributes are represented as ellipses
 Relationships, whether many-to-many, one-to-many, or one-to-one, are
represented symbolically

RDBMS/Slide 68

34
Summary
(Contd.,)
 Weak entities are represented in double-lined boxes
 Subtypes are connected to the supertype by an unnamed relationship,
marked with a crossbar on top
 In the relational model, data is represented in tables (relations) of rows
(tuples) and columns (attributes)
 The number of tuples is called the cardinality of the relation, and the number
of attributes is called the degree of the relation
 An attribute (or set of attributes) that is unique in every tuple is called the
primary key

RDBMS/Slide 69

Summary
(Contd.,)
 Unknown or missing information is represented by a NULL in a table
 The foreign key is a column in one table that matches the primary key of
another table
 The relational model is based on the principle of relational algebra
 The eight operators that operate on relations are restrict, project, product,
union, intersect, difference, join, and divide

RDBMS/Slide 70

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 Relational Model

Keys are special fields that serve two main purposes:

Primary keys are unique identifiers of the relation in question. Examples

include employee numbers, social security numbers, etc. This is how we can
guarantee that all rows are unique

Foreign keys are identifiers that enable a dependent relation (on the many
side of a relationship) to refer to its parent relation (on the one side of the
relationship)

Keys can be simple (a single field) or composite (more than one field)

RDBMS/Slide 71

Relational Model

Primary Key
Foreign Key
(implements 1:N relationship
between customer and order)
Combined, these are a composite
primary key (uniquely identifies the
order line)…individually they are
foreign keys (implement M:N
relationship between order and
product)

RDBMS/Slide 72

36
 Relational Model

Integrity Constraints (Rules)

Integrity Rule 1:
ID NAME ID NAME Phone

101 Jones 101 Jones 123456

103 Smith 103 Smith @

104 James 104 James 635214

107 Evan 107 Evan @

110 Drew 110 Drew 568742

112 Smith 112 Smith 214796

A null value for an attribute is a value that is either not known at the time or doest not
apply to a given instance of the object. It may also be possible that a particular tuple
does not have a value for an attribute.

RDBMS/Slide 73

Relational Model

Integrity Rule 1 (Contd.,):

If any attribute of primary key were permitted to have null value, the key cannot be
used for identification of tuples. This contradicts the requirements for a primary key.
If null values were permitted then the two tuples <@, Smith> are indistinguishable
even though they may represent two different instances of entity type employee.

Integrity Rule 1 specifies that instances of the entities are distinguishable and thus
no prime attribute value may be null. This rule is also referred to as the Entity Rule.

RDBMS/Slide 74

37
 Relational Model

Integrity Rule 2:

Integrity rule 2 is concerned with foreign keys ie., with attributes of a relation having
domains that are those of the primary key of another relation.

A relation (R) may contain references to another relation (S). Relation R and S need
not be distinct. Suppose the reference in R is via a set of attributes that forms a
primary key of the relation S. This set of attributes in R is a foreign key. The
referencing attribute(s) in the relation R can have null value(s); in this case, it is not
referencing any tuple in the relation S. If the value is not null, it must exist as the
primary attribute of a tuple of the relation S.

Integrity Rule 2 specifies that, Given two relations R and S, suppose R refers to the
relation S via a set of attributes that forms the primary key of S and this set of
attributes forms a foreign key in R. Then the value of the foreign key in a tuple in R
must either be equal to the primary key of a tuple of S or be entirely null. This rule is
also referred to as the Referential Integrity Rule.

RDBMS/Slide 75

Relational Model

Relational Calculus:

Tuple and Domain calculus are collectively referred to as relational calculus.

Relational Calculus is a query system wherein queries are expressed as variables and
formulas on these variables. Such formulas the properties of the required result
without specifying the method of evaluating it.

Relational calculus which means calculating with relations, is based on predicate

calculus which is calculating with predicates. Predicate calculus is a formal language
used to symbolize logical arguments in mathematics.

Formal logic the main subject matter is propositions from which we can build other
propositions. In predicate calculus, propositions may be built not only out of other
propositions but also out of elements that are not themselves propositions.

Propositions specifying a property consist of an expression that means an individual

object and another expression called the predicate, that stands for the property that
the individual object possesses.

RDBMS/Slide 76

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