ASTM001/MTH724U

SOLAR SYSTEM
Carl Murray

Lecture 8: Resonant
Perturbations
 Introduction
We have seen that there are more commensurabilities
between pairs of objects in the solar system than we would
expect by chance. We have an explanation of this in terms
of tidal evolution.
We can develop a theory for the secular evolution of
gravitationally interacting bodies.
However, we have not (yet) developed a theory to explain
the dynamics of resonant motion.
In this lecture we will see how the motion of an object in
resonance can be approximated by a pendulum equation
and how this allows us to determine a maximum width of a
given resonance.
We will also see how it is possible to incorporate the effects
of resonance in a secular theory.
A Numerical Experiment (1)

t
A Numerical Experiment (2)
1

2
a

3
time
2

e 1
3
time
 The Jupiter System

2:1
2:1

Io and Europa have a period ratio close to 2:1

Europa and Ganymede have a period ratio close
to 2:1
 The Saturn System

2:1

2:1

4:3
Mimas and Tethys have a period ratio close to 2:1
Enceladus and Dione have a period ratio close to 2:1
Titan and Hyperion have a period ratio close to 4:3
The Geometry of Resonance (1)
2:1 Resonance, Stable configuration:

2:1 Resonance, Unstable configuration:

The Geometry of Resonance (2)
Consider two satellites moving around a central
planet in circular, coplanar orbits such that:

If the satellites start at conjunction then the next

conjunction will occur when

The period between conjunctions is

But and hence

The Geometry of Resonance (3)
Now consider the case where the outer satellite is on
an elliptical orbit that is precessing. The resonant
relationship is now:

This can be re-written as:

where the two terms on the left-hand side can be

considered as the mean motions in a reference frame
rotating at the same rate as the pericentre of the
outer satellite. In this frame the orbit of the outer
satellite is stationary. The corresponding resonant
argument would be
The Geometry of Resonance (4)
Consider the geometry of a 2:1 resonance in the
non-rotating and rotating frames:

Therefore the path in the rotating frame (for small

eccentricity) is a centred ellipse.
The Geometry of Resonance (5)
We can extend the idea to plot paths in the rotating
frame at other internal resonances:
The Geometry of Resonance (6)
… and external resonances:

In all these cases there are no perturbations between

the satellites – we are just looking at the geometry of
paths.
 The Disturbing Function (1)

Consider the motion of two masses orbiting a central mass.

 The Disturbing Function (2)
The equations of motion of the three objects, with
respect to the origin are:

The equations of motion of the two masses, with

respect to the central mass are:
 The Disturbing Function (3)
Hence:

These can also be written as:

where
direct indirect
part part
 The Disturbing Function (4)
Now change notation so that the orbiting masses
are m and m’ with position vectors r and r’ with

The equation of motion for the inner mass is:

and its disturbing function is:

Similarly for the outer mass:

A Second Order Expansion
Zeroth order
arguments

First order arguments

Second order
arguments
Note the connection
between the order of the
argument and the lowest
powers of eccentricity
that occur.
 Lagrange’s Equations

These equations also have a lowest order form (see below)

Classification of Arguments (1)
For a given problem, arguments in the disturbing
function can be classified as secular, resonant or
short-period.
Secular terms:
These are terms which are independent of the mean
longitudes. These can only come from zero order
arguments with j=0.
Classification of Arguments (2)
Resonant terms:
Consider a general argument of the form

We have:
Hence:

Therefore, if the semi-major axes are such that:

then long-period effects will result. Therefore,

the associated terms in the disturbing function
are resonant terms.
Terms which are neither secular nor resonant are short-period
Variation of Orbital Elements (1)
Now we can use the disturbing function to explain
what it is meant by two objects being in resonance.
The starting point is the lowest order form of
Lagrange’s equations:

A general argument in the disturbing function has the

form:
Variation of Orbital Elements (2)
The relevant parts of the disturbing function(s) are:

The secular part is:

The direct and indirect resonant terms are given by:

Variation of Orbital Elements (3)
Variation of Orbital Elements (4)
The time derivative of the general angle is:

When this derivative is exactly zero for some

combination of angles the objects are said to be in
exact resonance.
In this case there is a particular combination of mean
motions, pericentre precession and nodal regression
rates such that their linear combination is zero.
If we just consider the mean motions then resonance
occurs when:

If we use the notation

where q is the order of
the resonance, then …
Variation of Orbital Elements (5)
We can define the nominal resonance location for an
internal resonance as:

However, the semi-major axis of the exact resonance is

determined from the value at which the particular
combination of mean motions and longitude rates is zero.
For example, at the 3:1 resonance the relevant parts of
the disturbing function have the form:
Sec

Res
Variation of Orbital Elements (6)
If we ignore the variation of the mean longitude at epoch
then the time derivative of the 6 possible resonant
arguments are given by:

Assuming that the pericentre and node rates are all

non-zero and different, these equations will be
satisfied for (slightly) different values of the semi-
major axis of the inner body.
In the case of satellites (or ring particles) orbiting a
planet, the pericentre and node rates are dominated by
the effect of the oblateness of the planet; this leads to
the phenomenon of resonance splitting.
 Resonance in the CRTBP (1)
Consider the case of the planar, circular restricted
three-body problem.

The time derivatives of the resonant angle are:

 Resonance in the CRTBP (2)
Hence, if we can neglect the second two terms in the
equation, we have:

Writing this as:

where

we recognise that we have a pendulum equation for

the behaviour of the resonant angle.
When the angle is small we have:
This is the simple pendulum and the motion is simple
harmonic.
 Resonance in the CRTBP (3)
The total energy (per unit mass) of the pendulum is the
sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy.

The types of motion of the resonant angle can be

characterised by the value of E.
Resonance in the CRTBP (4)

The motion is unbounded,

corresponding to circulation of the
resonant angle.
The motion is bounded, corresponding
to libration of the resonant angle.
The motion is on the separatrix, dividing
libration from circulation. On the separatrix
the libration period goes to infinity.
 Resonance in the CRTBP (5)
We can use knowledge of the pendulum to calculate
the maximum libration width of a given resonance.
The energy associated with maximum libration occurs
when at

But

Hence
Set E to its maximum value. This gives
Resonance in the CRTBP (6)
But

Hence

Integration gives:

Therefore, the maximum change is:

or
 Resonance in the CRTBP (7)
A more precise calculation that is valid for first
order resonances at low eccentricity gives:

First- and second-order resonances in the asteroid

belt:
 Resonance in the CRTBP (8)
Examples of motion at the 2:1 resonance:

Exact resonance Medium amplitude libration

 Resonance in the CRTBP (9)
Examples of motion at the 2:1 resonance:

Large amplitude libration Apocentric libration

Resonance in the CRTBP (10)
Examples of motion at the 2:1 resonance:

Inner circulation Outer circulation

 Resonance Splitting
We have seen how at a given commensurability there can
be a number of different resonant arguments and, in the
case of planetary satellites, these have different locations
in a. This gives rise to resonance splitting.

6 Mimas 6:4
resonances

6 Tethys 3:1
resonances
Known Resonances
 The Laplace Resonance (1)
Subscript 1: Io, 2: Europa, 3: Ganymede

This is an observed resonant relation.

It implies that if two of the three satellites are at
conjunction then the third cannot be closer than 60
degrees away.
The Laplace Resonance (2)
 LONGSTOP Uranus
A numerical integration of the five major satellites of Uranus
was compared to the results of a secular perturbation theory.
The comparison showed a large discrepancy in the g4
eigenfrequency with lesser errors in the others. It later
emerged that the averaging of numerical output had
neglected to account for the 3:2 Titania-Oberon and the 2:1
Umbriel-Titania near resonance. A suitably modified secular
theory reduced the errors.
 Pulsar Planets (1)
In January 1992 a paper was published in Nature reporting
the detection of a planetary system around a pulsar.
 Pulsar Planets (2)
A pulsar emits a “pulse” of radio waves at very
regular intervals, sometimes thousands of times per
second.
 Pulsar Planets (3)
This particular pulsar showed some signs of early or
delayed pulses when observed over more than a
year.
 Pulsar Planets (4)
The pulse seemed to be modulated by at least two separate
effects, deduced to be due to two planets orbiting the pulsar.
The two planets seemed to be close to a 3:2 resonance.
 Pulsar Planets (5)
In a subsequent paper Rasio et al. showed how the theory
could be verified because the mutual perturbations between
the two planets would change their orbits and hence the
modulation of the pulse signal.

They were
right! The
existence of
the pulsar
planets was
subsequently
confirmed.